open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Respiratory syncytial virus

**Respiratory syncytial virus** (**RSV**), dem sanso call **human respiratory syncytial virus** (**hRSV**) den **human orthopneumovirus**, be a virus wey dey cause infections of de respiratory tract. E be a negative-sense, single-stranded RNA virus. Na dem derive ein name from de large, multinucleated cells dem know as *syncytia* wey dey form wen infected cells fuse.

RSV be a common cause of respiratory hospitalization insyd infants, wey reinfection remain common insyd later life, though often plus less severity. E be a notable pathogen insyd all age groups. Infection rates be typically higher during de cold winter months. Infections fi cause bronchiolitis insyd infants, common colds insyd adults, den more serious respiratory illnesses, such as pneumonia, insyd older individuals den those plus immunocompromise wey result from, e.g., cardiopulmonary disease.

RSV fi cause outbreaks insyd both community den hospital settings. Dey follow initial infection via de eyes anaa nasal passages, de virus dey infect de epithelial cells of de upper den lower airways, wey dey cause inflammation, cell damage, den airway obstruction. A variety of methods be available for detecting den diagnosing RSV, wey dey include antigen testing, molecular testing, den viral culture.

Oda dan vaccination, prevention measures dey include hand-washing den avoiding close contact plus infected individuals. De carriage of RSV insyd respiratory aerosols, along plus de production of fine den ultrafine aerosols during normal breathing, talking, den coughing, den de emerging scientific consensus around transmission of all respiratory infections, fi suggest airborne precautions be needed for reliable protection. Insyd May 2023, na de US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approve de first RSV vaccines, Arexvy (wey GSK plc develop) den Abrysvo (Pfizer). De prophylactic use of palivizumab anaa nirsevimab (both be monoclonal antibody treatments) fi prevent RSV infection among infants plus high-risk predispositions.

Treatment for severe illness be primarily supportive, wey dey include oxygen therapy den more advanced breathing support plus continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) anaa nasal high flow oxygen, as dem require. Insyd cases of severe respiratory failure, intubation den mechanical ventilation fi be required. Ribavirin be an antiviral medication dem license for de treatment of RSV infection insyd kiddies.

## References


## External links
Specific developmental disorder

Na **Specific developmental disorders** (**SDD**) be a classification of disorders wey be characterized by delayed development insyd one specific area or areas. Na specific developmental disorders be contrasted to pervasive developmental disorders wich na be characterized by delays insyd de development of multiple basic functions wey dey include socialization den communication.

## References
Cystic fibrosis

**Cystic fibrosis** (**CF**) be a genetic disorder wey be inherited insyd an autosomal recessive manner wey dey impair de normal clearance of mucus from de lungs, wich dey facilitate de colonization den infection of de lungs by bacteria, notably *Pseudomonas aeruginosa* den *Staphylococcus aureus*. CF be a rare genetic disorder wey dey affect mostly de lungs, buh sanso de pancreas, liver, kidneys, den intestine. De hallmark feature of CF be de accumulation of thick mucus insyd different organs. Long-term issues dey include difficulty breathing den coughing up mucus as a result of frequent lung infections. Oda signs den symptoms fi include sinus infections, poor growth, fatty stool, clubbing of de fingers den toes, den infertility insyd most males. Different people fi get different degrees of symptoms.

Cystic fibrosis be inherited insyd an autosomal recessive manner. E be caused by de presence of mutations insyd both copies (alleles) of de gene wey dey encode de cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) protein. Those plus a single working copy be carriers den otherwise mostly healthy. CFTR be involved insyd de production of sweat, digestive fluids, den mucus. Wen de CFTR no be functional, secretions wey be usually thin instead cam be thick. Na de condition be diagnosed by a sweat test den genetic testing. De sweat test dey measure sodium concentration, as people plus cystic fibrosis abnormally get salty sweat, wich fi often be tasted by parents wey dey kiss dema kiddies. Screening of infants at birth dey take place insyd sam areas of de world.

Der be no known cure for cystic fibrosis. Lung infections be treated plus antibiotics wich fi be given intravenously, inhaled, anaa by mouth. Sam times, dem dey use de antibiotic azithromycin long-term. Inhaled hypertonic saline den salbutamol sanso be useful. Lung transplantation fi be an option if lung function dey continue to worsen. Pancreatic enzyme replacement den fat-soluble vitamin supplementation be important, especially insyd de young. Airway clearance techniques such as chest physiotherapy fi get sam short-term benefit, buh long-term effects be unclear. De average life expectancy be between 42 den 50 years insyd de developed world, plus a median of 40.7 years, although na improving treatments contribute to a more optimistic recent assessment of de median insyd de United States as 59 years. Lung problems be responsible for death insyd 70% of people plus cystic fibrosis.

CF be most common among people of Northern European ancestry, for whom e dey affect about 1 out of 3,000 newborns, den among wich around 1 out of 25 people be a carrier. E be least common insyd Africa den Asia. Na dem first recognize am as a specific disease by Dorothy Andersen insyd 1938, plus descriptions wey dey fit de condition wey dey occur at least as far back as 1595. De name "cystic fibrosis" dey refer to de characteristic fibrosis den cysts wey dey form within de pancreas.

## References


## External links

* Search GeneCards for genes involved in cystic fibrosis
* Cystic Fibrosis Mutation Database
*
Amblyopia

**Amblyopia**, dem sanso call **lazy eye**, be a disorder of sight insyd wich de brain fail to fully process input from one eye den over time favor de oda eye. E dey result in decreased vision insyd an eye wey typically dey appear normal insyd oda aspects. Amblyopia be de most common cause of decreased vision insyd a single eye among kiddies den younger adults.

De cause of amblyopia fi be any condition wey dey interfere plus focusing during early kiddie time. Dis fi occur from poor alignment of de eyes (strabismic), an eye wey be irregularly shaped such dat ein focusing be difficult, one eye wey be more nearsighted anaa farsighted dan de oda (refractive), anaa clouding of de lens of an eye (deprivational). After de underlying cause be addressed, vision no be restored right away, as de mechanism sanso dey involve de brain.

Amblyopia fi be difficult to detect, so vision testing be recommended give all kiddies around de ages of four to five as early detection dey improve treatment success. Glasses fi be all de treatment dem need give sam kiddies. If dis no be sufficient, treatments wich encourage anaa force de kiddie to use de weaker eye be used. Dem dey do dis by either using a patch anaa putting atropine insyd de stronger eye. Widout treatment, amblyopia typically dey persist. Treatment insyd adulthood usually be much less effective.

Amblyopia dey begin by de age of five. Insyd adults, de disorder be estimated to affect 1–5% of de population. While treatment dey improve vision, e no typically dey restore am to normal insyd de affected eye. Na dem first describe amblyopia insyd de 1600s. De condition fi make people ineligible to be pilots anaa police officers. De word *amblyopia* be from Greek ἀμβλύς *amblys*, wey dey mean "blunt", den ὤψ *ōps*, wey dey mean "eye".

## References


## Read further
* 
* 
:* Chapter What is Amblyopia? pp.&nbsp;123–145, ,
:* Chapter Treatment of Amblyopia pp.&nbsp;167–180, .
* 
* 
* 

## External links

* National Eye Institute (NEI) Resource Guide
* Lazy Eye Site from the National Health Service, UK
* Look After Your Eyes - patient information on Amblyopia or 'lazy eye' by College of Optometrists
* ESCRS - A New "Ground-Breaking" Treatment for Amblyopia by Eurotimes
Infectious mononucleosis

**Infectious mononucleosis** (**IM**, **mono**), dem sanso know as **glandular fever**, be an infection usually wey be caused by de Epstein–Barr virus (EBV). Chaw people be infected by de virus as kiddies, wen de disease dey produce few anaa no symptoms. Insyd young adults, de disease often dey result in fever, sore throat, enlarged lymph nodes insyd de neck, den fatigue. Chaw people recover insyd two to four weeks; however, fatigue fi last months. De liver anaa spleen sanso fi cam be swollen, den insyd less dan one percent of cases splenic rupture fi occur.

While usually e be caused by de Epstein–Barr virus, dem sanso know am as human herpesvirus 4, wich be a member of de herpesvirus family, a few oda viruses den de protozoon *Toxoplasma gondii* sanso fi cause de disease. E primarily be spread thru saliva buh fi rarely be spread thru semen anaa blood. Spread fi occur by objects such as drinking glasses anaa toothbrushes, anaa thru a cough anaa sneeze. Those wey be infected fi spread de disease weeks before symptoms develop. Mono be primarily diagnosed based on de symptoms wey fi be confirmed plus blood tests for specific antibodies. Anoda typical finding be increased blood lymphocytes of wich more dan 10% be reactive. De monospot test no be recommended for general use secof poor accuracy.

Der be no vaccine for EBV; however, der be ongoing research. Infection fi be prevented by make dem no dey share personal items anaa saliva plus an infected person. Mono generally dey improve widout any specific treatment. Symptoms fi be reduced by make dem dey drink enough fluids, getting sufficient rest, den dey take pain medications such as paracetamol (acetaminophen) den ibuprofen.

Mononucleosis most commonly dey affect those between de ages of 15 den 24 years insyd de developed world. Insyd de developing world, people more often be infected insyd early kiddie time wen der be fewer symptoms. Insyd those between 16 den 20 e be de cause of about 8% of sore throats. About 45 out of 100,000 people dey develop infectious mono each year insyd de United States. Na nearly 95% of people get an EBV infection by de time dem be adults. De disease dey occur equally at all times of de year. Na dem first describe mononucleosis insyd de 1920s wey e be colloquially known as "the kissing disease".

## References


## External links
Bipolar I disorder

**Bipolar I disorder** (BD-I; dem pronounce "type one bipolar disorder") be a type of bipolar spectrum disorder wey be characterized by de occurrence of at least one manic episode, plus anaa widout mixed anaa psychotic features. Chaw people sanso, at oda times, get one anaa more depressive episodes. Typically, dese manic episodes fi last at least 7 days for chaw of each day to de extent dat de individual fi need medical attention, while de depressive episodes dey last at least 2 weeks.

E be a type of bipolar disorder den dey conform to de classic concept of manic-depressive illness, wich fi include psychosis during mood episodes.

### Diagnostic den Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition (DSM-IV-TR)

### ICD-10

* F31 Bipolar Affective Disorder
* F31.6 Bipolar Affective Disorder, Current Episode Mixed
* F30 Manic Episode
* F30.0 Hypomania
* F30.1 Mania Without Psychotic Symptoms
* F30.2 Mania With Psychotic Symptoms
* F32 Depressive Episode
* F32.0 Mild Depressive Episode
* F32.1 Moderate Depressive Episode
* F32.2 Severe Depressive Episode Without Psychotic Symptoms
* F32.3 Severe Depressive Episode With Psychotic Symptoms

## References
Dilated cardiomyopathy

**Dilated cardiomyopathy** (**DCM**) be a condition insyd wich de heart cam be enlarged den no fi pump blood effectively. Symptoms dey vary from none to feeling tired, leg swelling, den shortness of breath. E sanso fi result in chest pain anaa fainting. Complications fi include heart failure, heart valve disease, anaa an irregular heartbeat.

Causes dey include genetics, alcohol, cocaine, certain toxins, complications of pregnancy, den certain infections. Coronary artery disease den high blood pressure fi play a role, buh no be de primary cause. Insyd chaw cases de cause remain unclear. E be a type of cardiomyopathy, a group of diseases wey primarily dey affect de heart muscle. De diagnosis fi be supported by an electrocardiogram, chest X-ray, anaa echocardiogram.

Insyd those plus heart failure, treatment fi include medications insyd de ACE inhibitor, beta blocker, den diuretic families. A low salt diet sanso fi be helpful. Insyd those plus certain types of irregular heartbeat, blood thinners anaa an implantable cardioverter defibrillator fi be recommended. Cardiac resynchronization therapy (CRT) fi be necessary. If oda measures no be effective a heart transplant fi be an option in sam.

About 1 per 2,500 people be affected. E dey occur more frequently insyd men dan women. Onset most be often insyd middle age. Five-year survival rate be about 50%. E sanso fi occur insyd kiddies wey e be de most common type of cardiomyopathy insyd dis age group.

## References


## External links

* Dilated cardiomyopathy  information for parents.
Pleurisy

**Pleurisy**, dem sanso know as **pleuritis**, be inflammation of de membranes wey dey surround de lungs den line de chest cavity (pleurae). Dis fi result in a sharp chest pain while breathing. Occasionally de pain fi be a constant dull ache. Oda symptoms fi include shortness of breath, cough, fever, den weight loss, dey depend on de underlying cause.

Pleurisy fi be caused by a variety of conditions, wey dey include viral anaa bacterial infections, autoimmune disorders, den pulmonary embolism. De most common cause be a viral infection. Oda causes dey include bacterial infection, pneumonia, pulmonary embolism, autoimmune disorders, lung cancer, dey follow heart surgery, pancreatitis den asbestosis. Occasionally de cause remain unknown. De underlying mechanism dey involve de rubbing togeda of de pleurae instead of smooth gliding. Oda conditions wey fi produce similar symptoms dey include pericarditis, heart attack, cholecystitis, pulmonary embolism, den pneumothorax. Diagnostic testing fi include a chest X-ray, electrocardiogram (ECG), den blood tests.

Treatment dey depend on de underlying cause. Paracetamol (acetaminophen) den ibuprofen fi be used to decrease pain. Incentive spirometry fi be recommended to encourage larger breaths. About one million people be affected insyd de United States each year. Descriptions of de condition dey date from at least as early as 400 BC by Hippocrates.

## References


## External links

* 
* The Lung Association of Canada explanation of pleurisy (in French)
* Pleurisy by the American Academy of Family Physicians
Ivermectin

**Ivermectin** be an antiparasitic medication. After ein discovery insyd 1975, na ein first uses be insyd veterinary medicine to prevent den treat heartworm den acariasis. Na dem approve am for human use insyd 1987, dem dey use am to treat infestations wey dey include head lice, scabies, river blindness (onchocerciasis), strongyloidiasis, trichuriasis, ascariasis den lymphatic filariasis. E dey work thru chaw mechanisms to kill de targeted parasites, wey dem fi take am by mouth, anaa applied to de skin for external infestations. E dey belong to de avermectin family of medications.

Na dem award William Campbell den Satoshi Ōmura de 2015 Nobel Prize insyd Physiology anaa Medicine for ein discovery den applications. E dey on de World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. wey e be approved by de US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as an antiparasitic agent. Insyd 2023, na e be de 295th most commonly prescribed medication insyd de United States, plus more dan 400,000 prescriptions. E be available as a generic medicine. Ivermectin be available insyd a fixed-dose combination plus albendazole.

Na dem widely spread misinformation wey dey claim say ivermectin be beneficial for treating den preventing COVID-19. Such claims no be backed by credible scientific evidence. Multiple major health organizations, wey dey include de US Food and Drug Administration, de US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, de European Medicines Agency, den de World Health Organization advise against de use of ivermectin for de treatment of COVID-19.

## References


## External links

* 
*
Bipolar disorder not otherwise specified

**Bipolar disorder not otherwise specified** (**BD-NOS**) be a diagnosis for bipolar disorder (BD) wen e no dey fall within de oda established sub-types. Bipolar disorder NOS be sam times referred to as subthreshold bipolar disorder.

## Epidemiology
De prevalence of BD-NOS be 1.4%.

## References
Cyclothymia

**Cyclothymia** (/ˌsaɪkləˈθaɪmiə/, *siy-kluh-THIY-mee-uh*), dem sanso know as **cyclothymic disorder**, **psychothemia / psychothymia**, **bipolar III**, **affective personality disorder** den **cyclothymic personality disorder**, be a mental den behavioural disorder wey dey involve chaw periods of symptoms of depression den periods of symptoms of elevated mood. Dese symptoms, however, no be sufficient to indicate a major depressive episode anaa a manic episode. Symptoms for last for more dan one year insyd kiddies den two years insyd adults.

De cause of cyclothymia be unknown. Risk factors dey include a family history of bipolar disorder. Cyclothymia dey differ from bipolar disorder insyd de fact dat major depression den mania no be found.

Treatment be generally achieved plus counseling den mood stabilizers such as lithium. E be estimated dat 0.4–1% of people get cyclothymia at sam point insyd dema lives.De disorder ein onset typically dey occur insyd late kiddie time to early adulthood. Males den females be affected equally often.

## References


## External links
*
Metronidazole

**Metronidazole**, dem sell under de brand name **Flagyl** den **Metrogyl** among odas, be an antibiotic den antiprotozoal medication. E be used either alone anaa plus oda antibiotics to treat pelvic inflammatory disease, endocarditis, den bacterial vaginosis. E be effective for dracunculiasis, giardiasis, trichomoniasis, den amebiasis. E be an option for a first episode of mild-to-moderate *Clostridioides difficile* colitis if vancomycin anaa fidaxomicin be unavailable. Metronidazole be available orally (by mouth), as a cream anaa gel, den by slow intravenous infusion (injection into a vein).

Common side effects dey include nausea, a metallic taste, loss of appetite, den headaches. Occasionally seizures anaa allergies to de medication fi occur.

Na metronidazole begin to be commercially used insyd 1960 insyd France. E be on de World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. E be available insyd chaw areas of de world. Insyd 2023, na e be de 203rd most commonly prescribed medication insyd de United States, plus more dan 2million prescriptions.

## References


## External links

*
Human papillomavirus infection

**Human papillomavirus infection** (**HPV infection**) be an infection wey a DNA virus from de *Papillomaviridae* family cause. Chaw HPV infections dey cause no symptoms den 90% dey resolve spontaneously within two years. Sam times an HPV infection dey persist den result in warts anaa precancerous lesions. Chaw warts be caused by HPV. Dese lesions, wey dey depend on de site affected, increase de risk of cancer of de cervix, vulva, vagina, penis, anus, mouth, tonsils, anaa throat. Nearly all cervical cancer be secof HPV den two strains, **HPV16** den **HPV18,** account for 70% of all cases. **HPV16** be responsible for almost 90% of HPV-related cancers of de mouth, throat, anaa tonsils. Between 60% den 90% of de oda cancers dem list above sanso be linked to HPV. **HPV6** den **HPV11** be common causes of genital warts den laryngeal papillomatosis.

Na dem describe over 200 types of HPV. An individual fi cam be infected plus more dan one type of HPV wey na dem know de disease to affect humans per. More dan 40 types fi be spread thru sexual contact den infect de anus den genitals. Risk factors for persistent infection by sexually transmitted types dey include early age of first sexual intercourse, multiple sexual partners, smoking den poor immune function. Dese types typically be spread by direct skin-to-skin contact, plus vaginal den anal sex be de most common methods. HPV infection fi spread from a mommie to baby during pregnancy. Der be limited evidence say HPV fi spread indirectly, buh sam studies dey suggest e be theoretically possible to spread via contact plus contaminated surfaces. HPV no be killed by common hand sanitizers anaa disinfectants, wey dey increase de possibility of de virus be transferred via non-living infectious agents dem call fomites.

HPV vaccines fi prevent de most common types of infection. Chaw public health organisations now dey test directly for HPV. Screening dey allow for early treatment, wich dey result in better outcomes. Nearly every sexually active individual be infected plus HPV at sam point insyd dema lives. HPV be de most common sexually transmitted infection (STI), globally.

High-risk HPVs dey cause about 5% of all cancers worldwide den about 37,300 cases of cancer insyd de United States each year. Cervical cancer be among de most common cancers worldwide, wey dey cause an estimated 604,000 new cases den 342,000 deaths insyd 2020. Na about 90% of dese new cases den deaths of cervical cancer occur insyd low den middle income countries. Roughly 1% of sexually active adults get genital warts.

## References


## Read further
### HPV contribution to carcinogenesis
* 

### HPV E6 den E7 Oncogenes
* 

## External links

* Information Centre on HPV and Cancer – ICO
* HPV Fact sheets at the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
* "Human papillomavirus (HPV)" European Medicines Agency (EMA)
* "Human Papillomavirus (HPV) Vaccines", National Cancer Institute
Hepatitis

**Hepatitis** be inflammation of de liver tissue. Sam people anaa animals plus hepatitis get no symptoms, wer as odas dey develop yellow discoloration of de skin den whites of de eyes (jaundice), poor appetite, vomiting, tiredness, abdominal pain, den diarrhea. Hepatitis be *acute* if e dey resolve within six months, den *chronic* if e dey last longer dan six months. Acute hepatitis fi resolve on ein own, progress to chronic hepatitis, anaa (rarely) result in acute liver failure. Chronic hepatitis fi progress to scarring of de liver (cirrhosis), liver failure, den liver cancer.

Hepatitis be most commonly caused by de virus *hepatovirus A*, *B*, *C*, *D*, den *E*. Oda viruses sanso fi cause liver inflammation, wey dey include cytomegalovirus, Epstein–Barr virus, den yellow fever virus. Oda common causes of hepatitis dey include heavy alcohol use, certain medications, toxins, oda infections, autoimmune diseases, den non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). Hepatitis A den E mainly be spread by contaminated chow den water. Hepatitis B mainly be sexually transmitted, buh sanso fi be passed from mommie to baby during pregnancy anaa childbirth den spread thru infected blood. Hepatitis C commonly be spread thru infected blood; for example, during needle sharing by intravenous drug users. Hepatitis D fi infect people already infected per plus hepatitis B.

Hepatitis A, B, den D be preventable plus immunization. Medications fi be used to treat chronic viral hepatitis. Antiviral medications be recommended insyd all plus chronic hepatitis C, except those plus conditions wey dey limit dema life expectancy. Der be no specific treatment for NASH; physical activity, a healthy diet, den weight loss be recommended. Autoimmune hepatitis fi be treated plus medications to suppress de immune system. A liver transplant fi be an option insyd both acute den chronic liver failure.

Worldwide insyd 2015, na hepatitis A occur insyd about 114 million people, na chronic hepatitis B affect about 343 million people den chronic hepatitis C about 142 million people. Insyd de United States, NASH dey affect about 11 million people den alcoholic hepatitis dey affect about 5 million people. Hepatitis dey result in more dan a million deaths a year, chaw of wich dey occur indirectly from liver scarring anaa liver cancer. Insyd de United States, hepatitis A be estimated to occur insyd about 2,500 people a year den dey result in about 75 deaths. De word be derived from de Greek *hêpar* (), wey dey mean "liver", den ** (), wey dey mean "inflammation". 

## References


## External links

* Viral Hepatitis at the Centers for Disease Control
* WHO fact sheet of hepatitis
Depression (mood)

**Depression** be a mental state of low mood den aversion to activity. E dey affect about 3.5% of de global population, anaa about 280 million people worldwide, as of 2020. Depression dey affect a person ein thoughts, behavior, feelings, den sense of well-being. De pleasure anaa joy wey a person dey get from certain experiences be reduced, den de afflicted person often dey experience a loss of motivation anaa interest insyd those activities. People plus depression fi experience sadness, feelings of dejection anaa lack of hope, difficulty in thinking den concentration, hypersomnia anaa insomnia, overeating anaa anorexia, anaa suicidal thoughts.

Depression fi get chaw, sam times dey overlap, origins. Depression fi be a normal temporary reaction to life events, such as de loss of a loved one. Additionally, depression fi be a symptom of sam mood disorders, such as major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, den dysthymia. Depression sanso be a symptom of sam physical diseases den a side effect of sam drugs den medical treatments.

## References


## Read further
* 
* Jackson, S. (1986). *Melancholia and depression: From Hippocratic times to modern times*. Yale University Press.
* 
* Sadowsky, J. (2021). *The empire of depression: A new history*. Polity Press.
*Schonfeld, I.S., & Bianchi, R. (2025). *Breaking point: Job stress, occupational depression, and the myth of burnout*. John Wiley

## External links
Propranolol

**Propranolol** be a medication of de beta blocker class. E be used to treat high blood pressure, sam types of irregular heart rate, thyrotoxicosis, capillary hemangiomas, akathisia, performance anxiety, den essential tremors,  as well as to prevent migraine headaches, den to prevent further heart problems insyd those plus angina anaa previous heart attacks. Dem fi take am orally, rectally, anaa by intravenous injection. De formulation wey dem dey take orally dey cam in short-acting den long-acting versions. Propranolol dey appear insyd de blood after 30 minutes wey e get a maximum effect between 60 den 90 minutes wen dem take am orally.

Common side effects dey include nausea, abdominal pain, den constipation. E fi worsen de symptoms of asthma. Propranolol fi cause harmful effects for de baby if dem take am during pregnancy; however, ein use during breastfeeding generally be considered to be safe. E be a non-selective beta blocker wich dey work by blocking β-adrenergic receptors.

Na dem patent propranolol insyd 1962 wey na dem approve am for medical use insyd 1964. E dey on de World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Propranolol be available as a generic medication. Insyd 2023, na e be de 69th most commonly prescribed medication insyd de United States, plus more dan 9million prescriptions.

## References


## Read further
* 

## External links
Morphine

**Morphine**, dem formerly know as **morphium**, be an opiate dem find naturally insyd opium, a dark brown resin wey be produced by drying de latex of opium poppies (*Papaver somniferum*). Dem mainly dey use am as an analgesic (pain medication). Der be chaw methods dem used to administer morphine: oral; sublingual; via inhalation; injection into a muscle, injection under de skin, anaa injection into de spinal cord area; transdermal; intravenously; anaa via rectal suppository. E dey act directly on de central nervous system (CNS) to induce analgesia den alter perception den emotional response to pain. Physical den psychological dependence den tolerance fi develop plus repeated administration. Dem fi take am for both acute pain den chronic pain wey e frequently be used for pain from myocardial infarction, kidney stones, den during labor. Ein maximum effect be reached after about 20&nbsp;minutes wen dem administer am intravenously den 60&nbsp;minutes wen dem administer am by mouth, while de duration of ein effect be 3–7&nbsp;hours. Dem dey sell long-acting formulations of morphine under de brand names **MS Contin** den **Kadian**, among odas. Generic long-acting formulations sanso be available.

Common side effects of morphine dey include drowsiness, euphoria, nausea, dizziness, sweating, den constipation. Potentially serious side effects of morphine dey include decreased respiratory effort, vomiting, den low blood pressure. Morphine be highly addictive den prone to abuse. If one ein dose be reduced after long-term use, opioid withdrawal symptoms fi occur. Dem dey advise caution for de use of morphine during pregnancy anaa breastfeeding, as e fi affect de health of de baby.

Na dem first isolate morphine insyd 1804 by German pharmacist Friedrich Sertürner. Dem dey believe dis to be de first isolation of a medicinal alkaloid from a plant. Na Merck begin dey market am commercially insyd 1827. Na morphine be more widely used after de invention of de hypodermic syringe insyd 1853–1855. Na Sertürner originally name de substance *morphium*, after de Greek god of dreams, Morpheus, as e get a tendency to cause sleep.

De primary source of morphine be isolation from poppy straw of de opium poppy. Insyd 2013, na dem produce approximately 523 tons of morphine. Approximately na dem use 45 tons directly for pain, an increase of 400% over de last twenty years. Na chaw use for dis purpose be insyd de developed world. Dem use about 70% of morphine to make oda opioids such as hydromorphone, oxymorphone, den heroin. E be a Schedule II drug insyd de United States, Class A insyd de United Kingdom, den Schedule I insyd Canada. E dey on de World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Insyd 2023, na e be de 156th most commonly prescribed medication insyd de United States, plus more dan 3million prescriptions. E be available as a generic medication.

## References


## External links

* 
*
Leukemia

**Leukemia** (dem sanso spell **leukaemia**; dem pronounce /luːˈkiːmiːə/ *loo-KEE-mee-ə*) ) be a group of blood cancers wey dey usually begin insyd de bone marrow den dey produce high numbers of abnormal blood cells. Dese blood cells no be fully developed wey e be called *blasts* anaa *leukemia cells*. Symptoms fi include bleeding den bruising, bone pain, fatigue, fever, den an increased risk of infections. Dese symptoms dey occur secof a lack of normal blood cells. Dem typically dey make diagnosis by blood tests anaa bone marrow biopsy.

De exact cause of leukemia be unknown. Dem dey believe a combination of genetic factors den environmental (non-inherited) factors to play a role. Risk factors dey include smoking, ionizing radiation, petrochemicals (such as benzene), prior chemotherapy, den Down syndrome. People plus a family history of leukemia sanso be at higher risk. Der be four main types of leukemia—acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), acute myeloid leukemia (AML), chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) den chronic myeloid leukemia (CML)—den a number of less common types. Leukemias den lymphomas both dey belong to a broader group of tumors wey dey affect de blood, bone marrow, den lymphoid system, dem know as tumors of de hematopoietic den lymphoid tissues.

Treatment fi involve some combination of chemotherapy, radiation therapy, targeted therapy, den bone marrow transplant, plus dem provide supportive den palliative care as dem hia. Certain types of leukemia fi be managed plus watchful waiting. De success of treatment dey depend on de type of leukemia den de age of de person. Na outcomes improve insyd de developed world. Na five-year survival rate be 67% insyd de United States insyd de period from 2014 to 2020. Insyd kiddies under 15 insyd first-world countries, de five-year survival rate be greater dan 60% anaa even 90%, wey dey depend on de type of leukemia. For infants (those dem diagnose under de age of 1), de survival rate be around 40%. Insyd kiddies wey be cancer-free five years after diagnosis of acute leukemia, de cancer be unlikely to return.

Insyd 2015, na leukemia be present insyd 2.3 million people worldwide wey e cause 353,500 deaths. Insyd 2012, na e newly develop insyd 352,000 people. E be de most common type of cancer insyd kiddies, plus three-quarters of leukemia cases insyd kiddies e be de acute lymphoblastic type. However, na dem diagnose over 90% of all leukemias insyd adults, CLL den AML be most common. E dey occur more commonly insyd de developed world.

## References


## External links

* Leukaemia information from Cancer Research UK
Lymphoma

**Lymphoma** be a group of blood den lymph tumors wey dey develop from lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell). De name typically dey refer to just de cancerous versions rada dan all such tumors. Signs den symptoms fi include enlarged lymph nodes, fever, drenching sweats, unintended weight loss, itching, den constantly dey feel tired. De enlarged lymph nodes usually be painless. De sweats be most common at night.

Chaw subtypes of lymphomas be known. De two main categories of lymphomas be de non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) (90% of cases) den Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) (10%). Lymphomas, leukemias den myelomas be a part of de broader group of tumors of de hematopoietic den lymphoid tissues.

Risk factors for Hodgkin lymphoma dey include infection plus Epstein–Barr virus den a history of de disease insyd de family. Risk factors for common types of non-Hodgkin lymphomas dey include autoimmune diseases, HIV/AIDS, infection plus human T-lymphotropic virus, immunosuppressant medications, den sam pesticides. Eating large amounts of red meat den tobacco smoking sanso fi increase de risk. Diagnosis, if enlarged lymph nodes be present, usually be by lymph node biopsy. Blood, urine, den bone marrow testing sanso fi be useful insyd de diagnosis. Dem then fi do medical imaging to determine if den wer na de cancer spread. Lymphoma most often dey spread to de lungs, liver, den brain.

Treatment fi involve one anaa more of de following: chemotherapy, radiation therapy, proton therapy, targeted therapy, den surgery. Insyd sam non-Hodgkin lymphomas, an increased amount of protein wey be produced by de lymphoma cells dey cause de blood make e cam be so thick wey plasmapheresis dey perform to remove de protein. Watchful waiting fi be appropriate for certain types. De outcome dey depend on de subtype, plus sam be curable den treatment prolonging survival insyd chaw. De five-year survival rate insyd de United States for all Hodgkin lymphoma subtypes be 85%, while dat for non-Hodgkin lymphomas be 69%. Worldwide, na lymphomas develop insyd 566,000 people insyd 2012 wey e cause 305,000 deaths. Dem dey make up 3–4% of all cancers, wey dey make dem as a group de seventh-most-common form. Insyd kiddies, dem be de third-most-common cancer. Dem dey occur more often insyd de developed world dan insyd de developing world.

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Acute radiation syndrome

**Acute radiation syndrome** (**ARS**), dem sanso know as **radiation sickness** anaa **radiation poisoning**, be a collection of health effects wey be caused by being exposed to high amounts of ionizing radiation insyd a short period of time. Symptoms fi start within an hour of exposure, den fi last for several months. Early symptoms usually be nausea, vomiting den loss of appetite. Insyd de hours anaa weeks wey dey follow, initial symptoms fi appear to improve, before de development of additional symptoms, after wich either recovery anaa death go follow.

ARS dey involve a total dose of greater dan 0.7 Gy (70 rad), wey generally dey occur from a source outsyd de body, deliver within a few minutes. Sources of such radiation fi occur accidentally anaa intentionally. Dem fi involve nuclear reactors, cyclotrons, certain devices dem use insyd cancer therapy, nuclear weapons, anaa radiological weapons. Dem generally divide am into three types: bone marrow, gastrointestinal, den neurovascular syndrome, plus bone marrow syndrome wey dey occur at 0.7 to 10&nbsp;Gy, den neurovascular syndrome wey dey occur at doses wey exceed 50&nbsp;Gy. De cells wey be most affected generally be those wey be rapidly dividing. At high doses, dis dey cause DNA damage wey be irreparable. Diagnosis dey base on a history of exposure den symptoms. Repeated complete blood counts (CBCs) fi indicate de severity of exposure.

Treatment of ARS generally be supportive care. Dis fi include blood transfusions, antibiotics, colony-stimulating factors, anaa stem cell transplant. Radioactive material wey remain on de skin anaa insyd de stomach for be removed. If na dem inhale anaa ingest radioiodine, potassium iodide be recommended. Complications such as leukemia den oda cancers among those wey survive be managed as usual. Short-term outcomes dey depend on de dose exposure.

ARS be generally rare. A single event fi affect a large number of people. De vast majority of cases wey dey involve ARS, alongside blast effects, na e be inflicted by de atomic bombings of Hiroshima den Nagasaki, plus post-attack deaths insyd de tens of thousands. Nuclear den radiation accidents den incidents sam times dey cause ARS; de worst, na de Chernobyl nuclear power plant disaster, cause 134 cases den 28 deaths. ARS dey differ from chronic radiation syndrome, wich dey occur following prolonged exposures to relatively low doses of radiation, den from radiation-induced cancer.

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* 
* 
*  – A well documented account of the biological effects of a criticality accident.
* 
* More information on bone marrow shielding can be found in the *[https://journals.lww.com/health-physics/pages/default.aspx Health Physics Radiation Safety Journal]* article: , or in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA)'s 2015 report: "Occupational Radiation Protection in Severe Accident Management"
Atypical depression

**Atypical depression** be defined insyd de DSM-IV as depression wey dey share chaw of de typical symptoms of major depressive disorder anaa dysthymia, buh e be characterized by improved mood in response to positive events. In contrast to those plus atypical depression, people plus melancholic depression generally no dey experience an improved mood in response to normally pleasurable events. Atypical depression sanso often dey feature significant weight gain anaa an increased appetite, hypersomnia, a heavy sensation insyd de limbs, den interpersonal rejection sensitivity wey dey result in significant social anaa occupational impairment.

Despite ein name, "atypical" depression no dey mean e be uncommon anaa unusual. De reason for ein name be twofold: na e be identified plus ein "unique" symptoms subsequent to de identification of melancholic depression den ein responses to de two different classes of antidepressants wey na dem be available at de time wey be different from melancholic depression (i.e., na MAOIs get clinically significant benefits for atypical depression, while na tricyclic antidepressants no get).

Atypical depression be four times more common insyd females dan insyd males. Individuals plus features of atypical depression tend to report an earlier age of onset (e.g., while insyd high school) of dema depressive episodes. Dese episodes tend to be more chronic dan those of major depressive disorder wey e get partial remission per between episodes. Younger individuals fi be more likely to have atypical features, whereas older individuals fi more often get episodes plus melancholic features. Atypical depression get high comorbidity plus anxiety disorders, dey carry more risk of suicidal behavior, wey e get distinct personality psychopathology den biological traits. Atypical depression be more common insyd individuals plus bipolar I, bipolar II, cyclothymia, anaa seasonal affective disorder. Depressive episodes insyd bipolar disorder tend to have atypical features, as depression do plus seasonal patterns.

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Dysthymia

**Dysthymia** (/dɪsˈθaɪmiə/ *dihss-THY-mee-ə*), dem know as **persistent depressive disorder** (**PDD**) insyd de DSM-5-TR den **dysthymic disorder** insyd ICD-11, be a psychiatric condition wey be marked by symptoms wey be similar to those of major depressive disorder, buh wich dey persist for at least two years insyd adults den one year among pediatric populations. Na de term be introduced by Robert Spitzer insyd de late 1970s as a replacement for de concept of "depressive personality."

Plus de *DSM-5* ein publication insyd 2013, na de condition assume ein current name (i.e., PDD), wey na dem call am dysthymic disorder insyd de *DSM* ein previous edition (*DSM-IV*), wey na e remain so insyd ICD-11. PDD be defined by a 2-year history of symptoms of major depression no be better explained by anoda health condition, as well as significant distress anaa functional impairment.

Individuals plus PDD, dem define insyd part by ein chronicity, fi experience symptoms for years before receiving a diagnosis, if one be received at all. Consequently, dem fi perceive dema dysphoria as a character anaa personality trait rada dan a distinct medical condition den never discuss dema symptoms plus healthcare providers. Na PDD subsume prior *DSM* editions' diagnoses of chronic major depressive disorder den dysthymic disorder. Na de change arise from a continuing lack of evidence of a clinically meaningful distinction between chronic major depression den dysthymic disorder.

## References


## External links
* NIMH Depression Page
Alcoholism

**Alcoholism** be de continued drinking of alcohol despite e dey cause problems. Sam definitions dey require evidence of dependence den withdrawal. Na dem mention problematic alcohol use insyd de earliest historical records. Na de World Health Organization (WHO) estimate der be 283 million people plus alcohol use disorders worldwide . Na dem first coin de term *alcoholism* insyd 1852, buh na *alcoholism* den *alcoholic* be consider stigmatizing wey e likely discourage seeking treatment, so na dem often use diagnostic terms such as ***alcohol use disorder*** den *alcohol dependence* instead insyd a clinical context. Na dem use oda terms, sam slurs den sam informal, to refer to people wey be affected by alcoholism such as *tippler*, *sot*, *drunk*, *drunkard*, *dipsomaniac* den *souse*.

Alcohol be addictive, den heavy long-term use results insyd chaw negative health den social consequences. E fi damage all organ systems, buh especially dey affect de brain, heart, liver, pancreas, den immune system. Heavy usage fi result in trouble sleeping, den severe cognitive issues like dementia, brain damage, anaa Wernicke–Korsakoff syndrome. Physical effects dey include irregular heartbeat, impaired immune response, cirrhosis, increased cancer risk, den severe withdrawal symptoms if dem stop suddenly.

Dese effects fi reduce life expectancy by 10 years. Drinking during pregnancy fi harm de kiddie ein health, den drunk driving dey increase de risk of traffic accidents. Alcoholism be associated plus violent den non-violent crime. While alcoholism directly result in 139,000 deaths worldwide insyd 2013, insyd 2012 3.3 million deaths fi be attributable globally to alcohol.

De development of alcoholism be attributed to environment den genetics equally. Sam bro plus a parent anaa sibling plus an alcohol use disorder be 3-4 times more likely to develop alcohol use disorder, buh a minority per dey do. Environmental factors dey include social, cultural den behavioral influences. High stress levels den anxiety, as well as alcohol ein low cost den easy accessibility, dey increase de risk. Medically, alcoholism be considered both a physical den mental illness. Dem usually dey use questionnaires to detect possible alcoholism. Further information then be collected to confirm de diagnosis.

Treatment dey take several forms. Secof medical problems wey fi occur during withdrawal, alcohol cessation often for be controlled carefully. A common method dey involve de use of benzodiazepine medications. Dem sanso fi use de medications acamprosate anaa disulfiram  to help prevent further drinking. Mental illness anaa oda addictions fi complicate treatment. Dem dey use individual, group therapy, anaa support groups to attempt to keep a person from returning to alcoholism. Among dem be de abstinence-based mutual aid fellowship Alcoholics Anonymous (AA). Na a 2020 scientific review find clinical interventions wey dey encourage increased participation insyd AA (AA/twelve step facilitation (TSF))—wey result in higher abstinence rates over oda clinical interventions, wey na chaw studies find AA/TSF lead to lower health costs.

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Escitalopram

**Escitalopram** ( /ˌɛsəˈtæləˌpræm/  *eh-sə-TA-lə-pram*), dem sell under de brand names **Lexapro** den **Cipralex**, among odas, be an antidepressant medication of de selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) class. Dem mainly used am to treat major depressive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), den social anxiety disorder. Dem dey take escitalopram by mouth. For commercial use, e be formulated as an oxalate salt exclusively.

Common side effects dey include headache, nausea, sexual problems,  mild sedation, den trouble sleeping. More serious side effects fi include suicidal thoughts insyd people up to de age of 24 years. E be unclear if ein use during pregnancy anaa breastfeeding be safe. Escitalopram be de (*S*)-enantiomer of citalopram (wich dey exist as a racemate), hence de name *es-citalopram*.

Na dem approve escitalopram for medical use insyd de United States insyd 2002. Escitalopram rarely be replaced by twice de dose of citalopram; escitalopram be safer den more effective. E dey on de World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Insyd 2023, na e be de second most prescribed antidepressant den fourteenth most commonly prescribed medication insyd de United States, plus more dan 37million prescriptions. Insyd Australia, na e be one of de top 10 most prescribed medications between 2017 den 2023.

Oda first-line SSRIs wey get similar results dey include sertraline, paroxetine, den fluoxetine, among odas.

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*
Seasonal affective disorder

**Seasonal affective disorder** (**SAD**) be a mood disorder subset insyd wich people wey typically get normal mental health thru out most of de year dey exhibit depressive symptoms at de same time each year. E commonly be, buh no always be, associated plus de reductions anaa increases in total daily sunlight hours wey dey occur during de winter anaa summer.

Common symptoms dey include sleeping too much, dem get little to no energy, den overeating. De condition insyd de summer fi include heightened anxiety. However, der be significant differences insyd de duration, severity, den symptoms of each individual ein experience of SAD. For instance, insyd a fifth of patients, de disorder completely dey resolve insyd five to eleven years, whereas for 33–44% of patients, e dey progress into non-seasonal major depression.

Insyd de DSM-IV den DSM-5, na dem change ein status as a standalone condition: e no longer be classified as a unique mood disorder buh now e be a specifier (dem call "plus seasonal pattern") for recurrent major depressive disorder wey dey occur at a specific time of de year den fully dey remit otherwise. Although na experts initially be skeptical, de condition eventually cam be recognized as a common disorder. However, na dem call de validity of SAD into question by a 2016 analysis from de Centers for Disease Control, wen na dem find no links between depression, seasonality anaa sunlight exposure.

Insyd de United States, de percentage of de population wey be affected by SAD dey range from 1.4% of de population insyd Florida to 9.9% insyd Alaska.

## References


## External links
* Seasonal affective disorder at the US National Institute of Mental Health