open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Psychoactive drug

A **psychoactive drug**, **psychopharmaceutical**, **mind-altering drug**, **consciousness-altering drug**, **psychoactive substance**, anaa **psychotropic substance** be a chemical substance wey dey alter psychological functioning by modulating central nervous system (CNS) activity. Psychoactive den **psychotropic** **drugs** both dey affect de brain, wey psychotropics sam times dey refer to psychiatric drugs anaa high-abuse substances, while “drug” fi get negative connotations. Novel psychoactive substances be designer drugs dem make to mimic illegal ones den bypass laws.

Psychoactive drug use dey date back to prehistory for medicinal den consciousness-altering purposes, plus evidence of widespread cultural use. Chaw animals intentionally dey consume psychoactive substances, den sam traditional legends dey suggest animals first introduce humans to dema use. Dem dey use psychoactive substances across cultures for purposes wey dey range from medicinal den therapeutic treatment of mental disorders den pain, to performance enhancement. Dema effects be influenced by de drug einself, de environment, den individual factors. Psychoactive drugs be categorized by dema pharmacological effects into types such as anxiolytics (reduce anxiety), empathogen–entactogens (enhance empathy), stimulants (increase CNS activity), depressants (decrease CNS activity), den hallucinogens (alter perception den emotions). Psychoactive drugs be administered thru various routes—wey dey include oral ingestion, injection, rectal use, den inhalation—plus de method den efficiency dey differ by drug.

Psychoactive drugs dey alter brain function by interacting plus neurotransmitter systems—either enhancing anaa inhibiting activity—wich fi affect mood, perception, cognition, behavior, den potentially lead to dependence anaa long-term neural adaptations such as sensitization anaa tolerance. Addiction den dependence dey involve psychological den physical reliance on psychoactive substances, plus treatments wey dey range from psychotherapy den medication to emerging psychedelic therapies; global prevalence be highest for alcohol, cannabis, den opioid use disorders.

Na de legality of psychoactive drugs long be controversial, shaped by international treaties like de 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs den national laws such as de United States Controlled Substances Act. Dem dey make distinctions between recreational den medical use. Enforcement dey vary across countries. While na de 20th century see global criminalization, recent shifts dey favor harm reduction den regulation over prohibition. Widely used psychoactive drugs dey include legal substances like caffeine, alcohol, den nicotine; prescribed medications such as SSRIs, opioids, den benzodiazepines; den illegal recreational drugs like cocaine, LSD, den MDMA.

## References


## External links

* Neuroscience of Psychoactive Substance Use and Dependence by the WHO
Diphenhydramine

**Diphenhydramine**, dem sell under de brand name **Benadryl** among odas, be an antihistamine den sedative. Although dem generally consider am sedating, diphenhydramine fi cause paradoxical central nervous system stimulation insyd sam individuals, particularly at higher doses. Dis fi manifest as agitation, anxiety, anaa restlessness rather dan sedation. E be a first-generation H1-antihistamine wey e dey work by blocking certain effects of histamine, wich dey produce ein antihistamine den sedative effects. Diphenhydramine sanso be a potent anticholinergic. Dem mainly dey use am to treat allergies, insomnia, den symptoms of de common cold. E sanso be less commonly used for tremors insyd parkinsonism, den nausea. Dem dey take am by mouth, injected into a vein, injected into a muscle, anaa applied to de skin. Maximal effect typically be around two hours after a dose, wey effects fi last for up to seven hours.

Common side effects dey include sleepiness, poor coordination, den an upset stomach. Der be no clear risk of harm wen dem use during pregnancy; however, ein use during breastfeeding no be recommended.

Na e be developed by George Rieveschl wey dem put into commercial use insyd 1946. E be available as a generic medication. Insyd 2023, na e be de 294th most commonly prescribed medication insyd de United States, plus more dan 700,000 prescriptions.

Ein sedative den deliriant effects lead to sam cases of recreational use.

## References


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## External links
Polio

**Poliomyelitis** (/ˌpoʊlioʊˌmaɪəˈlaɪtɪs/ *POH-lee-oh-MY-ə-LY-tiss*), dem commonly shorten to **polio**, be an infectious disease wey be caused by de poliovirus. Approximately 75% of cases be asymptomatic; mild symptoms wich fi occur dey include sore throat den fever; insyd a proportion of cases more severe symptoms dey develop such as headache, neck stiffness, den paresthesia. Dese symptoms usually dey pass within one anaa two weeks. A less common symptom be permanent paralysis, den possible death insyd extreme cases. Years after recovery, post-polio syndrome fi occur, plus a slow development of muscle weakness similar to wat na de person get during de initial infection.

Polio dey occur naturally insyd humans per. E be highly infectious, wey e be spread from person to person either thru fecal–oral transmission (e.g. poor hygiene, anaa by ingestion of chow or water wey be contaminated by human feces), anaa via de oral–oral route. Those wey be infected fi spread de disease for up to six weeks even if no symptoms be present. Dem fi diagnose de disease by finding de virus insyd de feces anaa detecting antibodies against am insyd de blood.

Na poliomyelitis exist for thousands of years, plus depictions of de disease insyd ancient art. Na dem first recognize de disease as a distinct condition by de English physician Michael Underwood insyd 1789, wey na dem first identify de virus wey dey cause am insyd 1909 by de Austrian immunologist Karl Landsteiner. Na major outbreaks start to occur insyd de late 19th century insyd Europe den de United States, den insyd de 20th century, e cam be one of de most worrying childhood diseases. Following de introduction of polio vaccines insyd de 1950s, na polio incidence decline rapidly. As of October 2023, na Pakistan den Afghanistan per remain endemic for wild poliovirus (WPV).

Once infected, der be no specific treatment. De disease fi be prevented by de polio vaccine, plus dem require multiple doses for lifelong protection. Der be two broad types of polio vaccine; an injected polio vaccine (IPV) wey dey use inactivated poliovirus den an oral polio vaccine (OPV) wey dey contain attenuated (weakened) live virus. Thru de use of both types of vaccine, na incidence of wild polio decrease from an estimated 350,000 cases insyd 1988 to 30 confirmed cases insyd 2022, dem confine to just three countries. Insyd rare cases, na de traditional OPV be able to revert to a virulent form. Na dem develop den grant an improved oral vaccine plus greater genetic stability (nOPV2) full licensure den prequalification by de World Health Organization insyd December 2023.

## References


## External links
Substance abuse

**Substance misuse**, dem sanso know as **drug misuse** anaa, insyd older vernacular, **substance abuse**, be de use of a drug insyd amounts anaa by methods wey be harmful to de individual anaa odas. E be a form of substance-related disorder, wey dem use differing definitions of drug misuse insyd public health, medical, den criminal justice contexts. Insyd sam cases, criminal anaa anti-social behavior dey occur wen sam persons be under de influence of a drug, wey fi result in long-term personality changes insyd individuals. In addition to possible physical, social, den psychological harm, de use of sam drugs sanso fi lead to criminal penalties, although dese dey vary widely dey depend on de local jurisdiction.

Drugs dem most often associate plus dis term dey include alcohol, amphetamines, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, cannabis, cocaine, hallucinogens, methaqualone, den opioids. De exact cause of substance abuse sam times be clear, buh der be two predominant theories: either a genetic predisposition anaa most times a habit dem learn anaa dem pass down from odas, wich, if addiction develop, dey manifest einself as a possible chronic debilitating disease. E no be easy to determine why a person dey misuse drugs, as der be multiple environmental factors to consider. Dese factors dey include no be inherited biological influences (genes) per, buh der sanso be mental health stressors such as overall quality of life, physical anaa mental abuse, luck den circumstance insyd life den early exposure to drugs wey all dey play a huge factor in how people go respond to drug use.

Insyd 2010, na about 5% of adults (230 million) use an illicit substance. Of dese, na 27 million get high-risk drug use—odawise dem know as recurrent drug use—wey dey cause harm to dema health, wey dey cause psychological problems, den anaa e dey cause social problems wey put dem at risk of those dangers. Insyd 2015, na substance use disorders result in 307,400 deaths, up from 165,000 deaths insyd 1990. Of dese, de highest numbers be from alcohol use disorders at 137,500, opioid use disorders at 122,100 deaths, amphetamine use disorders at 12,200 deaths, den cocaine use disorders at 11,100.

## References



## External links

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*  Dr. Robert Anda of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control describes the relation between childhood adversity and later ill-health, including substance abuse (video)
Schizotypal personality disorder

**Schizotypal personality disorder** (**StPD** anaa **SPD**), dem sanso know as **schizotypal disorder**, is a mental disorder wey be characterized by thought disorder, paranoia, a characteristic form of social anxiety, derealization, transient psychosis, den unconventional beliefs. People plus dis disorder often dey feel pronounced discomfort in forming den dey maintain social connections plus oda people, primarily secof de belief wey oda people harbor negative thoughts den views about dem. People plus StPD fi react oddly insyd conversations, such as dem no dey respond as expected, anaa talking to demaselves. Dem frequently interpret situations as e be strange anaa e get unusual meanings give dem; paranormal den superstitious beliefs be common. Those plus de disorder often dey score high on measures give self-disorder.

De *Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition* (DSM-5) dey classify StPD as a personality disorder wey dey belong to cluster A, wich be a grouping of personality disorders wey dey exhibit traits such as odd den eccentric behavior. Insyd de International Classification of Diseases, de latest edition of wich be de ICD-11, dem no classify schizotypal disorder as a personality disorder, buh among psychotic disorders.

People plus StPD usually dey disagree plus de suggestion say dema thoughts den behaviors be a 'disorder' den seek medical attention for depression anaa anxiety instead. Schizotypal personality disorder dey occur insyd approximately 3% of de general population wey e be more commonly diagnosed insyd males.

## References


## External links

* Alternative DSM-5 Model for Personality Disorders (with AMPD definition of StPD)
Precipitated sulfur

**Sulfur** (American spelling den de preferred IUPAC name) anaa **sulphur** (Commonwealth spelling) be a chemical element; e get symbol **S** den atomic number 16. E be abundant, multivalent den nonmetallic. Under normal conditions, sulfur atoms dey form cyclic octatomic molecules plus de chemical formula S8. Elemental sulfur be a bright yellow, crystalline solid at room temperature. 

Sulfur be de tenth most abundant element by mass insyd de universe den de fifth most common on Earth. Though dem sam times find am insyd pure, native form, sulfur on Earth usually dey occur as sulfide den sulfate minerals. Na e be abundant insyd native form, na dem know sulfur insyd ancient times, na dem mention am for ein uses insyd ancient India, ancient Greece, China, den ancient Egypt. Historically den insyd literature sulfur sanso be called **brimstone**, wich dey mean "burning stone". Dem dey produce almost all elemental sulfur as a byproduct of removing sulfur-containing contaminants from natural gas den petroleum. De greatest commercial use of de element be de production of sulfuric acid for sulfate den phosphate fertilizers, den oda chemical processes. Dem dey use sulfur insyd matches, insecticides, den fungicides. Chaw sulfur compounds be odoriferous, den de smells of odorized natural gas, skunk scent, bad breath, grapefruit, den garlic be secof organosulfur compounds. Hydrogen sulfide dey give de characteristic odor to rotting eggs den oda biological processes. 

Sulfur be an essential element for all life, almost always insyd de form of organosulfur compounds anaa metal sulfides. Amino acids (two proteinogenic: cysteine den methionine, den chaw oda non-coded: cystine, taurine, etc.) den two vitamins (biotin den thiamine) be organosulfur compounds crucial for life. Chaw cofactors sanso dey contain sulfur, wey dey include glutathione, den iron–sulfur proteins. Disulfides, S–S bonds, confer mechanical strength den insolubility of de (among odas) protein keratin, dem find insyd outer skin, hair, den feathers. Sulfur be one of de core chemical elements den need for biochemical functioning wey e be an elemental macronutrient for all living organisms. 

## References


## Read further

## External links

*Sulfur at *The Periodic Table of Videos* (University of Nottingham)
*Atomic Data for Sulfur, NIST Physical Measurement Laboratory
*Sulfur phase diagram , Introduction to Chemistry for Ages 13–17
*Crystalline, liquid and polymerization of sulfur on Vulcano Island, Italy
*Sulfur and its use as a pesticide
*The Sulphur Institute
*Nutrient Stewardship and The Sulphur Institute
Aliu Mahama Sports Stadium

De **Aliu Mahama Sports Stadium**, formerly **Tamale Sports Stadium**, be a multipurpose stadium insyd Tamale, Ghana, dem mostly use am for football matches as well as a place for hosting events such as entertainment concerts den album shows wey e dey serve as de home stadium of Real Tamale United, Tamale City FC, Northern City FC den Steadfast FC.

Na dem plete de stadium insyd 2008 by de Shanghai Construction Group of China. De stadium dey look similar to de Sekondi-Takoradi Stadium. Na de stadium, wich host sam matches during de 2008 African Cup of Nations, get a capacity of about 20,000.

## Gallery

TamaleStadium.jpg|De exterior
ALIU MAHAMA SPORT STADIUM - TAMALE..jpg|De interior

## References


## External links

*Photos at cafe.daum.net/stade
*Ghana-pedia website - Tamale Stadium
Delusional disorder

**Delusional disorder** be a mental disorder insyd wich a person get delusions, buh plus no accompanying prominent hallucinations, thought disorder, mood disorder, anaa significant flattening of affect. Delusions fi be a specific symptom of psychosis. Delusions fi be bizarre anaa non-bizarre in content; non-bizarre delusions be fixed false beliefs wey dey involve situations wey fi occur insyd real life, such as e be harmed anaa poisoned. Apart from dema delusion anaa delusions, people plus delusional disorder fi continue to socialize den function insyd a normal manner den dema behavior no fi necessarily seem odd. However, de preoccupation plus delusional ideas fi be disruptive to dema overall lives.

For dem for make diagnosis, auditory den visual hallucinations no fi be prominent, though olfactory anaa tactile hallucinations dem relate to de content of de delusion fi be present. De delusions no fi be secof de effects of a drug, medication, anaa general medical condition, den delusional disorder no fi be diagnosed insyd an individual dem previously properly diagnose plus schizophrenia. A person plus delusional disorder fi be high-functioning insyd daily life as measured, for example, by de Global Assessment of Functioning. Recent den comprehensive meta-analyses of scientific studies dey point to an association plus a deterioration insyd aspects of IQ insyd psychotic patients, in particular, perceptual reasoning, although na de between-group differences be small.

According to German psychiatrist Emil Kraepelin, patients plus delusional disorder remain coherent, sensible, den reasonable. De *Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders* (DSM) dey define six subtypes of de disorder: erotomanic (belief wey sam bro dey in love plus one), grandiose (belief say one be de greatest, strongest, fastest, richest, anaa most intelligent person ever), jealous (belief say dem dey cheat on one), persecutory (delusions say one anaa sam bro be close to dem be malevolently treated insyd sam way), somatic (belief say one get a disease anaa medical condition), den mixed (i.e., dem get features of more dan one subtype). Delusions sanso dey occur as symptoms of chaw oda mental disorders, especially de oda psychotic disorders.

De DSM-IV den psychologists agree say dem for evaluate personal beliefs plus great respect to cultural den religious differences, as na sam cultures normalize beliefs wey fi be considered delusional insyd oda cultures.

Na an earlier, now-obsolete, nosological name for delusional disorder be "paranoia". Dem for no confuse dis plus de modern definition of paranoia (i.e., persecutory ideation specifically).

## References



## Read further
* 
* McDermott, Sarah (22 February 2018), "'The story of a weird world I was warned never to tell'", BBC News. [A related case study.]
* Munro, A. (1999) *Delusional Disorder: Paranoia and Related Illnesses*. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .
* Sims, A. (1995) *Symptoms in the mind: An introduction to descriptive psychopathology*. Edinburgh: Elsevier Science Ltd. .
## External links
Paa Kow

**Paa Kow** (he die 23 December 2025) na be Ghanaian highlife den Afro-fusion drummer, den composer.

## Ein Early life
Paa Kow grow insyd sam musical family wey dey sam small village of Enyan Denkyira, near Cape Coast, Ghana. Paa Kow start dey play den perform music for de tender age of five. Na ein uncle den mummy be singers insyd sam touring concert band wey be Enidado Professional Band. Na ebe dat band insyd wey Paa Kow first start dey perform, first he play cowbell den congas wey he move go drum set top by age seven. Secof de cost den lack of access to instruments, he do ein own drums out of metal cans, wire, den fertilizer bag as bass drum, wey na he dey take dey practice for hours every day. He sana build ein own drum pedal plus old sandal, door hinge den some string.

As na he dey tour de country plus ein uncle ein band, other band leaders start dey take notice of de prodigious young drummer wey Paa Kow start dey play plus other known groups  wey ecatch de eye of Highlife legend Amakye Dede. At age 14, dem Paa Kow invite cam Accra so say he go join Dede ein group.  After some years insyd Accra playing plus Amakye, dem widely recognize ein talent wey dem invite Paa Kow say make he cam play plus other major Highlife artists insyd de country wey dey include Kojo Antwi, George Darko den Nat Brew wey etake am go tours for Switzerland, Scotland, Belgium, Amsterdam, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Togo, Egypt, den Nigeria.

## Ein Career
Insyd 2007, dem invite Paa Kow go Boulder, Colorado as guest artist of de University of Colorado music school so say he go perform plus West African Highlife Ensemble wey na Dr. Kwasi Ampene be de director.  After, he return go Ghana for short time wey he later emigrate go US that year secof sam invitation from musicians he meet as na he dey university.

After say he move go United States, na Paa Kow no longer just be session drummer but he start dey compose ein own music. He release ein debut album *Hand Go Hand Come* insyd 2012 followed by *Ask* insyd 2014. He release ein third album *Cookpot* insyd October 2017. Notable artists he perform plus insyd US dey include Victor Wooten, Michael Kang, Brad Goode den John Gunther.

## Ein Personal life den death
Na Paa Kow get one son. He die for 23 December 2025.

## References


## External links

*
Hypertension

**Hypertension**, dem sanso know as **high blood pressure**, be a long-term medical condition insyd wich de blood pressure insyd de arteries dey persistently elevate. High blood pressure usually no dey cause symptoms einself. E, however, be a major risk factor for stroke, coronary artery disease, heart failure, atrial fibrillation, peripheral arterial disease, vision loss, chronic kidney disease, den dementia. Hypertension be a major cause of premature death worldwide.

High blood pressure be classified as primary (essential) hypertension anaa secondary hypertension. About 90–95% of cases be primary, dem define as high blood pressure secof non-specific lifestyle den genetic factors. Lifestyle factors wey dey increase de risk dey include excess salt insyd de diet, excess body weight, smoking, physical inactivity den alcohol use. De remaining 5–10% of cases be categorized as secondary hypertension, dem define as high blood pressure secof a clearly identifiable cause, such as chronic kidney disease, narrowing of de kidney arteries, an endocrine disorder, anaa de use of birth control pills.

Blood pressure be classified by two measurements, de systolic (first number) den diastolic (second number) pressures. For chaw adults, normal blood pressure at rest be within de range of 100–140 millimeters mercury (mmHg) systolic den 60–90 mmHg diastolic. For chaw adults, high blood pressure be present if de resting blood pressure be persistently at anaa above 130/80 anaa 140/90 mmHg. Different numbers apply to kiddies. Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring over a 24-hour period dey appear more accurate dan office-based blood pressure measurement.

Lifestyle changes den medications fi lower blood pressure den decrease de risk of health complications. Lifestyle changes dey include weight loss, physical exercise, decreased salt intake, reducing alcohol intake, den a healthy diet. If lifestyle changes no be sufficient, dem dey use blood pressure medications. Up to three medications dem take concurrently fi control blood pressure insyd 90% of people. De treatment of moderately high arterial blood pressure (dem define as >160/100 mmHg) plus medications be associated plus an improved life expectancy. De effect of treatment of blood pressure between 130/80&nbsp;mmHg den 160/100&nbsp;mmHg be less clear, plus sam reviews dey find benefit den odas dey find unclear anaa no benefit. High blood pressure dey affect 33% of de population globally. About half of all people plus high blood pressure no know say dem get am. Insyd 2019, na dem believe high blood pressure be a factor insyd 19% of all deaths (10.4 million globally).

## References



## Read further
* 2025 / guideline: 
* 2024  guideline: 
* 2023  guideline: 
* 2022  guideline:  Key recommendations.
* 2019  guideline: 

## External links
Intellectual disability

**Intellectual disability** (**ID**), dem sanso know am as **general learning disability** (insyd de United Kingdom), den formerly **mental retardation** (insyd de United States), be a generalized neurodevelopmental disorder wey be characterized by significant impairment insyd intellectual den adaptive functioning wey be first apparent during kiddie time. Kiddies plus intellectual disabilities typically get an intelligence quotient (IQ) below 70 den dey deficit insyd at least two adaptive behaviors wey dey affect everyday living. According to de DSM-5, intellectual functions dey include reasoning, problem solving, planning, abstract thinking, judgment, academic learning, den learning from experience. Deficits insyd dese functions for be confirmed by clinical evaluation den individualized standard IQ testing. On de oda hand, adaptive behaviors dey include de social, developmental, den practical skills people learn to perform tasks insyd dema everyday lives. Deficits insyd adaptive functioning often dey compromise an individual ein independence den ability to meet dema social responsibility.

Intellectual disability be subdivided into syndromic intellectual disability, insyd wich intellectual deficits dem associate plus oda medical den behavioral signs and symptoms be present, den non-syndromic intellectual disability, insyd wich intellectual deficits dey appear widout oda abnormalities. Down syndrome den fragile X syndrome be examples of syndromic intellectual disabilities.

Intellectual disability dey affect about 2–3% of de general population. Seventy-five to ninety percent of de affected people get mild intellectual disability. Non-syndromic, anaa idiopathic cases account for 30–50% of dese cases. About a quarter of cases be caused by a genetic disorder, den about 5% of cases be inherited. Cases of unknown cause dey affect about 95 million people .

## References



## External links

* Facts about intellectual disabilities from the US Centers for Disease Control's National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities
*Let's Work! A documentary about eight young people with IDD in California and their experiences with competitive integrated employment. Funded by the California State Council on Developmental Disabilities
Lujan–Fryns syndrome

**Lujan–Fryns syndrome** (**LFS**) be an X-linked genetic disorder wey dey cause mild to moderate intellectual disability den features dem describe as Marfanoid habitus, wey dey refer to a group of physical characteristics similar to those dem find insyd Marfan syndrome. Dese features dey include a tall, thin stature den long, slender limbs. LFS sanso associate plus psychopathology den behavioral abnormalities, wey e dey exhibit a number of malformations wey dey affect de brain den heart. De disorder be inherited insyd an X-linked dominant manner, wey e be attributed to a missense mutation insyd de *MED12* gene. Der be currently no treatment anaa therapy for de underlying *MED12* malfunction, den e exact cause of de disorder dey remain unclear.

## References


## Read further

* GeneReview/NIH/UW entry on ''MED12''-Related Disorders
* 

## External links
Acromegaly

**Acromegaly** be a disorder wey dey result in excess growth of certain parts of de human body. E be caused by excess growth hormone (GH) after na de growth plates close. De initial symptom be typically enlargement of de hands den feet. Der sanso be an enlargement of de forehead, jaw, den nose. Oda symptoms fi include joint pain, thickened skin, deepening of de voice, headaches, den problems plus vision. Complications of de disease fi include type 2 diabetes, sleep apnea, den high blood pressure.

## Notable people
* Salvatore Baccaro (1932–1984), Italian character actor. 
* Paul Benedict (1938–2008), American actor.

* Mary Ann Bevan (1874–1933), an English woman.
* Eddie Carmel, born Oded Ha-Carmeili (1936–1972), Mandatory Palestine-born entertainer
* Rondo Hatton (1894–1946), American journalist den actor.

* Irwin Keyes (1952–2015), American actor.

* Richard Kiel (1939–2014), actor
* Sultan Kösen
* Neil McCarthy (1932–85), British actor.

* The Great Khali (Dalip Singh Rana), Indian professional wrestler.
* André the Giant (André Roussimoff, 1946–1993), French professional wrestler den actor

* Maximinus Thrax, Roman emperor (, he reign 235–238)
* The French Angel (Maurice Tillet, 1903–1954), Russian-born French professional wrestler.
* Pío Pico, de last Mexican Governor of California (1801–1894)
* Leonel Edmundo Rivero, Argentine tango singer, composer den impresario
* Tony Robbins, motivational speaker
* Antônio "Bigfoot" Silva, Brazilian kickboxer den mixed martial artist.
* Carel Struycken, Dutch actor
* Nikolai Valuev, Russian politician den former professional boxer
* Big Show (Paul Wight), American professional wrestler den actor.
* Pianist den composer Sergei Rachmaninoff (1873–1943)
* Matthew McGrory, (1973–2005) American actor
* Marjon van Iwaarden, Dutch singer
* Gheorghe Mureșan, Romanian former basketball player dem nickname The Giant
* Jacob Grommer (1879–1933) Belarusian mathematician.

## References


## External links

* 2011 American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists Guideline 
* Endocrine and Metabolic Diseases Information Service
Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome

**Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome** (**CHS**) be recurrent nausea, vomiting, den cramping abdominal pain wey fi occur secof cannabis use.

CHS be associated plus frequent (weekly anaa more often), long-term (several months anaa longer) cannabis use; synthetic cannabinoids sanso fi cause CHS. De underlying mechanism be unclear, plus several possibilities dem propose. Diagnosis be based on de symptoms; a history of cannabis use, especially persistent, frequent use of high-dose cannabis products; den ruling out oda possible causes of hyperemesis (persistent vomiting). De condition typically be present for sam time before dem make de diagnosis.

De known curative treatment per give CHS be to stop using cannabis. Symptoms usually dey remit after two weeks of complete abstinence, although sam patients continue dey experience nausea, cyclic vomiting, anaa abdominal pain for up to 90 days. Treatments during an episode of vomiting generally be supportive insyd nature (one example be hydration). Der be tentative evidence for de use of capsaicin cream on de abdomen during an acute episode.

Frequent hot showers anaa baths both be a possible sign (diagnostic indicator) of CHS, den a short-term palliative treatment (dem often call *hot water hydrotherapy* insyd de medical literature).

Another condition wey dey present similarly be cyclic vomiting syndrome (CVS). De primary differentiation between CHS den CVS be dat cessation of cannabis use dey resolve CHS, buh no be CVS. Anoda key difference be say CVS symptoms typically dey begin during de early morning; predominant morning symptoms no be characteristic of CHS. Distinguishing de two fi be difficult since chaw people plus CVS dey use cannabis, possibly to relieve dema symptoms.

Na dem first describe de syndrome insyd 2004, wey na dem publish simplified diagnostic criteria insyd 2009.

## References


## Read further
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* 
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Developmental disability

**Developmental disability** be a diverse group of chronic conditions, wey dey comprise mental anaa physical impairments wey arise before adulthood. Developmental disabilities dey cause individuals wey dey live plus dem chaw difficulties insyd certain areas of life, especially insyd "language, mobility, learning, self-help, den independent living". Developmental disabilities fi be detected early on den persist thru out an individual ein lifespan. Developmental disability wey dey affect all areas of a kiddie ein development sam times be referred to as global developmental delay.

De most common developmental disabilities be:

* Motor disorders, den learning difficulties such as dyslexia, Tourette's syndrome, dyspraxia, dysgraphia, dyscalculia, den nonverbal learning disorder.
* Autism spectrum disorder (ASD, formerly de PDD umbrella wey dey cover Asperger syndrome den classic autism) dey cause difficulties insyd social communication as well as repetitive behaviors den restrictive interests. ASD dey affect speech, understanding body language den social interactions, as well as dey cause difficulty in understanding odas social cues (such as sarcasm den feelings). ASD sanso dey cause repetitive behaviors dem know as stimming, often as a result of hyper- anaa hypo-sensitivity to sensory input.
* Down syndrome be a genetic condition insyd wich people be born plus an extra copy of chromosome 21. Dis extra copy dey affect de development of de body den brain, dey cause a range of physical den mental impairments give de individual.

* Fragile X syndrome, most frequent among males, dem think e dey cause autism den intellectual disability.
* Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders be a group of conditions dem cause prior to birth wey fi occur insyd a person wey ein mommie drink alcohol during pregnancy.
* Cerebral palsy be a group of disorders wey affect a person ein ability to move den maintain balance den posture. Dem be de most common motor disability insyd kiddie time.

* Intellectual disability be defined as assessed to get an IQ below 70, along plus limitations in adaptive functioning den onset before de age of 18 years.
* Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) be a neurodevelopmental disorder wey be characterized by executive dysfunction. E dey interfere plus attention span, self-control, emotional regulation — key aspects of cognitive control.

## References


## External links
Freeman–Sheldon syndrome

**Freeman–Sheldon syndrome** (**FSS**) be a very rare form of multiple congenital contracture (MCC) syndromes (arthrogryposes) wey be de most severe form of distal arthrogryposis (DA). Na dem originally describe am by Ernest Arthur Freeman den Joseph Harold Sheldon insyd 1938.

As of 2007, na dem report about 100 cases per insyd medical literature.

## Notable individuals
Melissa Blake be a writer den disability advocate plus Freeman-Sheldon syndrome.

## References



## External links
Hypophosphatemia

**Hypophosphatemia** be an electrolyte disorder insyd wich der be a low level of phosphate insyd de blood. Symptoms fi include weakness, trouble breathing, den loss of appetite. Complications fi include seizures, coma, rhabdomyolysis, anaa softening of de bones.

Nutritional phosphate deficiency be exceedingly rare as phosphate be abundant insyd chaw types of chows wey e be readily passively absorbed from de gastrointestinal tract; hypophosphatemia thus be typically a result of diseases anaa an adverse effect of medical treatments. Causes dey include alcohol use disorder, refeeding insyd those plus malnutrition, recovery from diabetic ketoacidosis, burns, hyperventilation, den certain medications. E sanso fi occur insyd de setting of hyperparathyroidism, hypothyroidism, den Cushing syndrome.

E be diagnosed based on a blood phosphate concentration of less dan 0.81 mmol/L (2.5 mg/dL). Wen levels be below 0.32 mmol/L (1.0 mg/dL), e be deemed to be severe.

Treatment dey depend on de underlying cause. Dem fi give phosphate by mouth anaa by injection into a vein. Hypophosphatemia dey occur insyd about 2% of people within hospital den 70% of people insyd de intensive care unit (ICU).

## References


## External links
Pancreatitis

**Pancreatitis** be a condition wey be characterized by inflammation of de pancreas. De pancreas be a large organ behind de stomach wey dey produce digestive enzymes den a number of hormones. Der be two main types, acute pancreatitis den chronic pancreatitis. Signs den symptoms of pancreatitis dey include pain insyd de upper abdomen, nausea, den vomiting. De pain often dey go into de back wey e be usually severe. Insyd acute pancreatitis, a fever fi occur; symptoms typically dey resolve insyd a few days. Insyd chronic pancreatitis, weight loss, fatty stool, den diarrhea fi occur. Complications fi include infection, bleeding, diabetes mellitus, anaa problems plus oda organs.

De two most common causes of acute pancreatitis be a gallstone wey dey block de common bile duct after na de pancreatic duct join; den heavy alcohol use. Oda causes dey include direct trauma, certain medications, infections such as mumps, den tumors. Chronic pancreatitis fi develop as a result of acute pancreatitis. E be most commonly secof chaw years of heavy alcohol use. Oda causes dey include high levels of blood fats, high blood calcium, sam medications, den certain genetic disorders, such as cystic fibrosis, among odas. Smoking dey increase de risk of both acute den chronic pancreatitis. Diagnosis of acute pancreatitis dey base on a threefold increase insyd de blood of either amylase anaa lipase. Insyd chronic pancreatitis, dese tests fi be normal. Medical imaging such as ultrasound den CT scan sanso fi be useful.

Dem usually dey treat acute pancreatitis plus intravenous fluids, pain medication, den sam times antibiotics. For patients plus severe pancreatitis wey no fi tolerate normal oral food consumption, dem dey place a nasogastric tube insyd de stomach. Dem fi do a procedure dem know as an endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) to examine de distal common bile duct den remove a gallstone if e be present. Insyd those plus gallstones dem often sanso dey remove de gallbladder. Insyd chronic pancreatitis, in addition to de above, dem fi use temporary feeding thru a nasogastric tube to provide adequate nutrition. Long-term dietary changes den pancreatic enzyme replacement fi be required. Occasionally, dem dey do surgery to remove parts of de pancreas.

Globally, insyd 2015 na about 8.9 million cases of pancreatitis occur. Dis result in 132,700 deaths, up from 83,000 deaths insyd 1990. Acute pancreatitis dey occur insyd about 30 per 100,000 people a year. New cases of chronic pancreatitis dey develop insyd about 8 per 100,000 people a year den currently dey affect about 50 per 100,000 people insyd de United States. E be more common insyd men dan women. Often chronic pancreatitis dey start between de ages of 30 den 40 wey e be rare insyd kiddies. Na dem first describe acute pancreatitis on autopsy insyd 1882 while na dem first describe chronic pancreatitis insyd 1946.

## References


## External links

* GeneReviews/NCBI/NIH/UW entry on PRSS1-Related Hereditary Pancreatitis
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Sleep paralysis

**Sleep paralysis** be a state, during waking up anaa falling asleep, insyd wich a person be conscious buh insyd a complete state of full-body paralysis. During an episode, de person fi hallucinate (hear, feel, anaa see things wey no dey der), wich often dey result in fear. Episodes generally dey last no more dan a few minutes. E fi recur chaw times anaa occur as a single episode.

De condition fi occur insyd those wey be otherwise healthy anaa those plus narcolepsy, anaa e fi run insyd families as a result of specific genetic changes. De condition fi be triggered by sleep deprivation, psychological stress, naa abnormal sleep cycles. Dem dey believe de underlying mechanism to involve a dysfunction insyd REM sleep. Diagnosis be based on a person ein description. Oda conditions wey fi present similarly dey include narcolepsy, atonic seizure, den hypokalemic periodic paralysis.

Na treatment options give sleep paralysis be poorly studied. Dem dey recommend say people be reassured dat de condition be common den generally no be serious. Oda efforts wey dem fi be tried dey include sleep hygiene, cognitive behavioral therapy, and antidepressants.

Between 8% to 50% of people dey experience sleep paralysis at sam point during dema lifetime. About 5% of people get regular episodes. Males den females be affected equally. Na dem describe sleep paralysis thru out history. Dem dey believe e play a role insyd de creation of stories about alien abduction den oda paranormal events.

## References


## External links
* Sleep information and links  from Stanford University
* Sleep Paralysis and Associated Hypnagogic and Hypnopompic Experiences from University of Waterloo
Ondansetron

**Ondansetron**, dem sell under de brand name **Zofran** among odas, be a medication dem use to prevent nausea den vomiting wey be caused by chemotherapy, radiation therapy, migraines, anaa surgery. E sanso be effective for treating gastroenteritis. Dem fi give am orally (by mouth), intramuscularly (injection into a muscle), anaa intravenously (injection into a vein).

Common side effects dey include diarrhea, constipation, headache, sleepiness, den itchiness. Serious side effects dey include QT prolongation den severe allergic reaction. E dey appear to be safe during pregnancy buh e no be well studied insyd dis group. E be a serotonin 5-HT3 receptor antagonist. E no dey get any effect on dopamine receptors anaa muscarinic acetylcholine receptor den therefore no dey cause akathisia.

Na dem patent ondansetron insyd 1984 wey na dem approve am for medical use insyd 1990. E dey on de World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. E be available as a generic medication. Insyd 2023, na e be de 53rd most commonly prescribed medication insyd de United States, plus more dan 12million prescriptions.

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Movement disorders

**Movement disorders** be clinical syndromes plus either an excess of movement anaa a paucity of voluntary den involuntary movements, unrelated to weakness anaa spasticity. Movement disorders dey present plus extrapyramidal symptoms wey be caused by basal ganglia disease. Movement disorders be conventionally divided into two major categories- *hyperkinetic* den *hypokinetic*.

Hyperkinetic movement disorders dey refer to dyskinesia, anaa excessive, often repetitive, involuntary movements wey dey intrude upon de normal flow of motor activity.

Hypokinetic movement disorders dey fall into one of four subcategories: akinesia (lack of movement), hypokinesia (reduced amplitude of movements), bradykinesia (slow movement), den rigidity. Insyd primary movement disorders, de abnormal movement be de primary manifestation of de disorder. Insyd secondary movement disorders, de abnormal movement be a manifestation of another systemic anaa neurological disorder. Treatment dey depend upon de underlying disorder.

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Stereotypic movement disorder

**Stereotypic movement disorder** (**SMD**) be a motor disorder plus onset insyd kiddie time wey dey involve restrictive anaa repetitive, nonfunctional motor behavior (e.g., hand waving anaa head banging), wey markedly dey interfere plus normal activities anaa dey result in bodily injury. Unlike stimming insyd people on de autism spectrum, wey fi move insyd repetitive ways either consciously anaa subconsciously, chaw plus Stereotypic Movement Disorder mostly get anaa entirely involuntary movements wey be outsyd dema conscious control. While stereotypic movements be common insyd infancy den early childhood, dem dey make a diagnosis of SMD only wen such behaviors be prolonged, intense, den dey cause significant impairment. De diagnosis dey require dat de behavior in question for no be secof de direct effects of a substance, autism, anaa anoda medical condition.

De cause of dis disorder no be known. However, current research dey suggest say dysfunction insyd corticostriatal-thalamo-cortical (CSTC) circuits den imbalances between de direct den indirect pathways of de basal ganglia fi play a role insyd ein development. Na dem propose both environmental den genetic factors as potential risk factors. Environmental factors dey include limited social interaction, neglect, den psychological stress, while na dem dey suspect a genetic predisposition, although na dem identify no specific gene.

Der be no definitive treatments give SMD. However, na behavioral interventions, particularly habit reversal training, show promise insyd reducing symptoms. Na dem identify pharmacological treatments such as clonazepam den naltrexone as potential treatments, buh findings remain inconclusive.

## References
Electronic cigarette

An **electronic cigarette** (**e-cigarette**) anaa **vape** be a device wey dey simulate tobacco smoking. E dey consist of an atomizer, a power source such as a battery, den a container such as a cartridge anaa tank. Instead of smoke, de user inhale vapor, dem often call "vaping".

De atomizer be a heating element wey dey vaporize a liquid solution dem call e-liquid wey dey cool into an aerosol of tiny droplets, vapor den air. De vapor mainly dey comprise propylene glycol den/anaa glycerin, usually plus nicotine den flavoring. Ein exact composition dey vary, den dey depend on matters such as user behavior. E-cigarettes be activated by taking a puff anaa pressing a button. Sam dey look like traditional cigarettes, wey chaw kinds be reusable.

Vaping be less harmful dan smoking, buh still get health risks. Vaping dey affect asthma den chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Nicotine be highly addictive. Limited evidence dey indicate say e-cigarettes be less addictive dan smoking, plus slower nicotine absorption rates.

E-cigarettes wey dey contain nicotine be more effective dan nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) for smoking cessation, buh e no be subject to de same rigorous testing wey chaw nicotine replacement therapy products get.

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Oxycodone

**Oxycodone**, dem sell under de brand name **Roxicodone** den **OxyContin** (wich be de extended-release form) among odas, be a semi-synthetic opioid dem use medically for de treatment of moderate to severe pain. E be highly addictive wey e be a commonly abused drug. Dem usually dey take am by mouth, wey e be available insyd immediate-release den controlled-release formulations. Onset of pain relief typically dey begin within fifteen minutes den dey last for up to six hours plus de immediate-release formulation. Insyd de United Kingdom, e be available by injection. Combination products sanso be available plus paracetamol (acetaminophen), ibuprofen, naloxone, naltrexone, den aspirin.

Common side effects dey include euphoria, constipation, nausea, vomiting, loss of appetite, drowsiness, dizziness, itching, dry mouth, den sweating. Side effects sanso fi include addiction den dependence, substance abuse, irritability, depression anaa mania, delirium, hallucinations, hypoventilation, gastroparesis, bradycardia, den hypotension. Those allergic to codeine sanso fi be allergic to oxycodone. Use of oxycodone insyd early pregnancy dey appear relatively safe. Opioid withdrawal fi occur if dem rapidly stop. Oxycodone dey act by activating de μ-opioid receptor. Wen dem take am by mouth, e roughly get 1.5 times de effect of de equivalent amount of morphine.

Na dem originally produce oxycodone from de opium poppy opiate alkaloid thebaine insyd 1916 insyd Germany. One year later, na dem use am medically for de first time insyd Germany. Oxycodone be a therapeutic alternative on de World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. E be available as a generic medication. Insyd 2023, na e be de 49th most commonly prescribed medication insyd de United States, plus more dan 13million prescriptions. A number of abuse-deterrent formulations be available, such as in combination plus naloxone anaa naltrexone.

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## Read further
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Amlodipine

**Amlodipine**, dem sell under de brand name **Norvasc** among odas, be a calcium channel blocker medication dem use to treat high blood pressure, coronary artery disease (CAD) den variant angina (dem sanso call Prinzmetal angina anaa coronary artery vasospasm, among oda names). Dem dey take am orally (dem swallow by mouth).

Common side effects dey include swelling, feeling tired, abdominal pain, den nausea. Serious side effects fi include low blood pressure anaa heart attack. Whether ein use be safe during pregnancy anaa breastfeeding be unclear. Wen e be used by people plus liver problems, den insyd elderly individuals, doses for be reduced. Amlodipine dey work partly by vasodilation (relaxing de arteries den dey increase dema diameter). E be a long-acting calcium channel blocker of de dihydropyridine type.

Na dem patent amlodipine insyd 1982, wey na dem approve am for medical use insyd 1990. E be on de World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. E be available as a generic medication. Insyd 2023, na e be de fifth most commonly prescribed medication insyd de United States, plus more dan 68million prescriptions. Insyd Australia, na e be one of de top 10 most prescribed medications between 2017 den 2023.

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