open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
María Corina Machado

**María Corina Machado Parisca** (born 7 October 1967) be Venezuelan politician den industrial engineer. A prominent opposition leader, na she serve as a member of de National Assembly of Venezuela from 2011 to 2014. Machado begin ein political career in insyd 2002 as a founder of de vote-monitoring organization Súmate. She be de National Coordinator of de political party Vente Venezuela wey na she run insyd de 2012 opposition presidential primary, wey she loose to Henrique Capriles. During de 2014 Venezuelan protests, na she play a leading role insyd organizing demonstrations against de government of Presido Nicolás Maduro.

Insyd 2023, na Machado win de opposition primary wey she cam be de unity candidate for de 2024 Venezuelan presidential election. Na dem disqualify am from holding public office by de Comptroller General of Venezuela insyd June 2023, a ruling dem uphold by de Supreme Court of Justice insyd January 2024. Na she name Corina Yoris as a replacement candidate, wey later she be replaced by Edmundo González Urrutia. Insyd August 2024, na Machado announce say na she go into hiding, dey cite fears for ein life den freedom under de Maduro government.

Na Machado receive international recognition for ein activism. Insyd 2025, na dem award am de Nobel Peace Prize "for ein tireless work promoting democratic rights for de people of Venezuela den for ein struggle to achieve a just den peaceful transition from dictatorship to democracy." Na dem sanso name am one of BBC ein 100 Women insyd 2018 wey na dem list am among *Time* magazine ein 100 most influential people insyd 2025.

## References


## Read further

* 
* 
* 

## External links

*María Corina Machado on Nobelprize.org 
*Maria Corina Machado's Flickr photostream
*María Corina Machado on Facebook
Alhassan Abdul-Fatawu

**Abdul-Fatawu Alhassan** (born 25 November 1982) be a Ghanaian lawyer den politician. He be de Member of Parliament for de Yendi Constituency insyd de Northern Region of Ghana. Dem elect am for de ticket of de National Democratic Congress (NDC) during de 2024 general elections den assume office insyd January 2025. 
## Early life den education
Dem born Alhassan insyd Yendi insyd de Northern Region of Ghana. He attend Yendi Senior High School den complete ein Senior Secondary School Certificate Examination (SSSCE) insyd 2004. He pursue a Bachelor of Arts degree for de University of Ghana, graduating insyd 2009. He later obtain a Bachelor of Laws degree from de Ghana Institute of Management and Public Administration (GIMPA) insyd 2017 den an LL.B from de Ghana School of Law insyd 2019. He complete a Master of Laws (LL.M) degree for de University of Ghana, insyd 2024.
## Career
Before entering Parliament, Alhassan hold various legal den administrative roles. He serve as a Principal Administrative Assistant for de University for Development Studies den later becam de Managing Partner at Fatawu Jofa @ Law. He san work as a Regulatory Compliance Advisor for Scancom Plc. Alhassan contest den win de Yendi parliamentary seat insyd de 2024 general elections on de ticket of de National Democratic Congress den begin ein first term insyd Parliament insyd January 2025. Na he currently dey serves as a member of de Education Committee den de Backbenchers' Business Committee.

## References
Haruna Iddrisu

**Haruna Iddrisu** (born 8 September 1970) sanso dey bell insyd de northern part of Ghana as Gangdu, be a Ghanaian lawyer, politician, football enthusiast den owner of Karela United den Steadfast Football Club. He be a member of de ninth Parliament of the Fourth Republic of Ghana wey dey represent Tamale South. He serve as de Minority Leader for NDC insyd Ghana's Parliament from January 2017 den be succeed by Ato Forson. 

He be a Dagomba by tribe, an indigenous tribe from northern Ghana, wey dey belong to de larger Mole-Dagbon ethnic group.

Na he currently be de Minister of Education of de Republic of Ghana.
## Early life den education
Dem born Haruna Iddrisu insyd 1970 for Tamale, Ghana.He start ein early education for Kulikuli school. Iddrisu study for de University of Ghana between 1993 den 1997 wey he obtain B.A. (Hons) insyd Sociology. He be active insyd student politics den be de President of de National Union of Ghana Students during ein final year. Iddrisu sanso be a barrister wey he be a member of de Ghana Bar Association since 2002.
## Political career
After he be a student leader for years insyd ein tertiary education, na Iddrisu transition into mainstream national politics wey he rise to cam be de National Youth Organizer for de National Democratic Congress insyd 2002. He hold dat position for 8 years even whilst serving as Minister of Communications insyd de Atta Mills Government. Iddrisu step down from de position insyd 2010.
### As a Member of Parliament

## Ein life matter
He be a married Muslim, wey he get 3 kiddies.

## References


## External links

* Profile on Ghana government website 
* Profile on Parliament of Ghana website
Kofi Adu Domfeh

**Kofi Adu Domfeh** be Ghanaian journalist, media trainer, den environmental advocate. He dey serve as de News Editor for Multimedia Group Limited's Nhyira FM den Luv FM den he san dey head de Science den Technology Desk. Since 2025, he come make de Ghana Journalists Associtation's Ashanti Region Chairman

## Ein early life den education
Domfeh be native of Offinso insyd de Ashanti Region. He grow up for Kumasi, wey later he move go Naija, wey eventually he return come Ghana. He dey hold master's degree insyd Development Planning den Management, den degree insyd Social Work and Sociology all from de Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), wey he get am insyd 2014. He san dey moe Business Economics and Commerce for Cambridge International College insyd 2017, Journalism for de Nigerian Institute of Journalism insyd Ogba-Ikeja, den Advertising at the Institute of Business Management and Journalism. He be alumnus of T.I. Ahmadiyya Senior High School.

## Career
He start ein career as a business journalist at Luv FM den he go through demma ranks wey he come make assistant editor. He later go join Media General, where he serve as demma Northern Sector Bureau Chief, before returning to de Multimedia Group Limited as demma editor demma Kumasi branch (Nhyira FM den Luv FM).

Domfeh dey report on agriculture, climate change, den other matters. He come serve as Ghana Correspondent for WRENmedia before wey rydee he be Ghana Bureau Chief for AfricaClimateReports.com.

He work plus Amnesty International on media den human rights training before.

### CLAP Gh
He come found de Climate Livelihoods and Agriculture Platform (CLAP Gh) insyd March 2020 as ein collaborative initiative promoting community action on climate issues. De platform dey build synergy among science, environment, den agriculture to address climate change den support sustainable development. Edey contribute to efforts insyd climate mitigation den adaptation.

## Awards den recognition
Domfeh win several awards. some of dem dey include:

* He win de 2015 APO Energy Media Awards insyd Dubai, UAE
* He emerge Overall Winner insyd de 2015 IFEJ-Flamingo Awards for Business and Financial Journalism in Ghana
* Insyd 2014, he win de African Climate Change den Environment Reporting (ACCER) Awards in Kenya

## Ein life matter
Kofi Adu Domfeh marry Jennifer Asantewaa Domfeh, wey dem get two kiddies.

## References
Paracetamol

**Paracetamol**, anaa **acetaminophen**, be a non-opioid analgesic den antipyretic agent dem use to treat fever den mild to moderate pain. E be a widely available over-the-counter drug dem sell under chaw brand names, wey dey include Tylenol den **Panadol**.

Paracetamol dey relief pain insyd both acute mild migraine den episodic tension headache. At a standard dose, paracetamol slightly dey reduce fever, though e be inferior to ibuprofen in dat respect den de benefits of ein use give fever be unclear, particularly insyd de context of fever of viral origins. De aspirin/paracetamol/caffeine combination sanso dey help plus both conditions wen de pain be mild wey na e be recommended as a first-line treatment give dem. Paracetamol be effective for pain after wisdom tooth extraction, buh e be less effective dan ibuprofen. De combination of paracetamol den ibuprofen dey provide greater analgesic efficacy dan either drug alone. De pain relief paracetamol dey provide insyd osteoarthritis be small den clinically insignificant. Evidence wey dey support ein use insyd low back pain, cancer pain, den neuropathic pain be insufficient. Paracetamol be de first-line treatment give pain den fever insyd pregnancy; na dem no establish causal association plus neurodevelopmental disorders, while untreated pain den fever fi harm de mommie den fetus.

In de short term, paracetamol be safe den effective wen na dem use as directed. Short term adverse effects be uncommon den similar to ibuprofen. Paracetamol be typically safer dan nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) for long-term use. Dem sanso often dey use paracetamol insyd patients wey no fi tolerate NSAIDs like ibuprofen. Chronic consumption of paracetamol fi result insyd a drop in hemoglobin level, wey dey indicate possible gastrointestinal bleeding, den abnormal liver function tests. De recommended maximum daily dose give an adult be three to four grams. Higher doses fi lead to toxicity, wey dey include liver failure. Paracetamol poisoning be de foremost cause of acute liver failure insyd de Western world, den dey account for most drug overdoses insyd de United States, de United Kingdom, Australia, den New Zealand.

Na dem first make paracetamol insyd 1878 by Harmon Northrop Morse anaa possibly insyd 1852 by Charles Frédéric Gerhardt. E be de most commonly used medication for pain den fever insyd both de United States den Europe. E dey on de World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Paracetamol be available as a generic medication, plus brand names wey dey include Tylenol den Panadol among odas. Insyd 2023, na e be de 112th most commonly prescribed medication insyd de United States, plus more dan 5million prescriptions. 

## References


## External links
Ghana's Most Beautiful

**Ghana's Most Beautiful** be a beauty pageant TV program dat educate Ghanaian den de global community about de various cultural values den heritage insyd de sixteen(16) regions of Ghana. De program be organize by TV3 den its media partners. De aim of de pageant program be to promote development through culture den unity.  
## Awards
De list of awards wey dem give for winners of de beauty pageant.

### Region rankings

## References
Psychosis

Insyd psychopathology, **psychosis** be a condition in wich one be unable to distinguish, insyd one ein experience of life, between wat be real den wat no be real. Examples of psychotic symptoms be delusions, hallucinations, den disorganized anaa incoherent thoughts anaa speech. Psychosis be a description of a person ein state anaa symptoms, rather dan a particular mental illness, wey e no dey relate to psychopathy (a personality construct wey be characterized by impaired empathy den remorse, along plus bold, disinhibited, den egocentric traits).

Common causes of chronic (i.e. ongoing anaa repeating) psychosis dey include schizophrenia anaa schizoaffective disorder, bipolar disorder, den brain damage (usually as a result of alcoholism). Acute (temporary) psychosis sanso fi be caused by severe distress, sleep deprivation, sensory deprivation, some medications, den drug use (wey dey include alcohol, cannabis, hallucinogens, den stimulants). Dem dey term acute psychosis primary if e dey result from a psychiatric condition den secondary if e be caused by anoda medical condition anaa drugs. De diagnosis of a mental-health condition dey require excluding oda potential causes. Dem fi do tests to check whether psychosis be caused by central nervous system diseases, toxins, anaa oda health problems.

Treatment fi include antipsychotic medication, psychotherapy, den social support. Early treatment dey appear to improve outcomes. Medications dey appear e get a moderate effect. Outcomes dey depend on de underlying cause.

Dem no well-understand psychosis at de neurological level, buh dopamine (along plus oda neurotransmitters) be known to play an important role. Insyd de United States about 3% of people dey develop psychosis at some point insyd dema lives. Na dem describe psychosis as early as de 4th century BC by Hippocrates den possibly as early as 1500 BC insyd de Ebers Papyrus.

## References


## External links

* National Institute of Mental Health
Gynecomastia

**Gynecomastia** (dem sanso spell am **gynaecomastia**) be de non-cancerous enlargement of one anaa both breasts insyd men secof de growth of breast tissue as a result of a hormone imbalance between estrogens den androgens. Physically speaking, gynecomastia be completely benign, buh e dey associate plus significant psychological distress, social stigma, den dysphoria.

Gynecomastia fi be normal insyd newborn male babies secof exposure to estrogen from de mommie, insyd adolescent boys wey dey go thru puberty, in older men over de age of 50, den insyd obese men. Chaw occurrences of gynecomastia no dey require diagnostic tests. Gynecomastia fi be caused by abnormal hormone changes, any condition wey dey lead to an increase insyd de ratio of estrogens/androgens such as liver disease, kidney failure, thyroid disease den sam non-breast tumors. Alcohol den sam drugs sanso fi cause breast enlargement. Oda causes fi include Klinefelter syndrome, metabolic dysfunction, anaa a natural decline insyd testosterone production. Dis fi occur even if de levels of estrogens den androgens both be appropriate, buh dem alter de ratio.

Gynecomastia be de most common benign disorder of de male breast tissue wey dey affect 35% of men, wey e be most prevalent between de ages of 50 den 69. E be normal for up to 70% of adolescent boys make dem develop gynecomastia to sam degree. Of dese, 75% resolve within two years of onset widout treatment. If de condition no dey resolve within 2 years, anaa if e dey cause embarrassment, pain anaa tenderness, treatment be warranted. Medical treatment of gynecomastia wey na e persist beyond two years be often ineffective. Gynecomastia be different from "pseudogynecomastia", which be commonly present insyd men plus obesity.

Na dem find medications such as aromatase inhibitors e be effective den even insyd rare cases of gynecomastia from disorders such as aromatase excess syndrome anaa Peutz–Jeghers syndrome, buh surgical removal of de excess tissue fi be needed to correct de condition. Insyd 2019, na 24,123 male patients undergo de procedure insyd de United States, wey dey account for a 19% increase since 2000.

## References


## External links
Ehlers–Danlos syndromes

**Ehlers–Danlos syndromes** (**EDS**) be a group of 13 genetic connective tissue disorders. Symptoms often dey include loose joints, joint pain, stretchy, velvety skin, den abnormal scar formation. Dese fi be noticed at birth anaa insyd early childhood. Complications fi include aortic dissection, joint dislocations, scoliosis, chronic pain, anaa early osteoarthritis. Na dem last update existing classification insyd 2017, wen na dem add a number of rarer forms of EDS.

EDS dey occur secof mutations insyd one anaa more particular genes—der be 19 genes wey fi contribute to de condition. De specific gene affected dey determine de type of EDS, though de genetic causes of hypermobile Ehlers–Danlos syndrome (hEDS) be still unknown. Some cases dey result from a new variation wey dey occur during early development. In contrast, dem dey inherit odas insyd an autosomal dominant anaa recessive manner. Typically, dese variations dey result insyd defects insyd de structure anaa processing of de protein collagen anaa tenascin. 

Diagnosis often dey base on symptoms, particularly hEDS, buh people initially fi be misdiagnosed plus somatic symptom disorder, depression, anaa myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome. Dem fi use genetic testing to confirm all types of EDS except , for wich a genetic marker yet to be discovered.

A cure no yet be known, wey treatment be supportive in nature. Physical therapy den bracing fi help strengthen muscles den support joints. Chaw medications fi help alleviate symptoms of EDS, such as pain den blood pressure drugs, wich dey reduce joint pain den complications wey be caused by blood vessel weakness. Sam forms of EDS result insyd a normal life expectancy, buh those wey dey affect blood vessels generally decrease am. All forms of EDS fi result insyd fatal outcomes give sam patients.

While  dey affect at least one insyd 5,000 people globally, oda types fi occur at lower frequencies. De prognosis dey depend on de specific disorder. Na dem first describe excess mobility by Hippocrates insyd 400 BC. Na dem name de syndromes after two physicians, Edvard Ehlers den Henri-Alexandre Danlos, wey describe dem at de turn of de 20th century. 

## References


## External links

* 
* 
* The Ehlers-Danlos Society
Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease

**Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease** (**CMT**) be an inherited neurological disorder wey dey affect de peripheral nerves responsible for transmitting signals between de brain, spinal cord, den de rest of de body.

Dis be de most common inherited neuropathy wey dey cause sensory den motor symptoms of numbness, tingling, weakness den muscle atrophy, pain, den progressive foot deformities over time. Insyd sam cases, CMT sanso dey affect nerves wey dey control automatic bodily functions like sweating den balance. Symptoms typically dey start insyd de feet den legs before spreading to de hands den arms. While sam individuals dey experience minimal symptoms, odas fi face significant physical limitations. Der be no cure give CMT; however, treatments such as physical therapy, orthopedic devices, surgery, den medications fi help manage symptoms den improve quality of life.

CMT be caused by mutations insyd over 100 different genes, wich dey disrupt de function of nerve cells dema axons (responsible for transmitting signals) den dema myelin sheaths (wich dey insulate den accelerate signal transmission). Wen dese components be damaged, nerve signal transmission dey slow down anaa cam be impaired, wey dey lead to problems plus muscle control den sensory feedback. Na dem discover de condition insyd 1886 by Doctors Jean-Martin Charcot den Pierre Marie of France den Howard Henry Tooth of de United Kingdom.

Dis disease be de most commonly inherited neurological disorder, wey dey affect approximately one insyd 2,500 people.
## Public figures plus CMT

* US country music singer Alan Jackson. Na dem definitively diagnose Jackson insyd ein early 50s.
*US actor Julie Newmar. She play de original Catwoman insyd de 1960s *Batman* television series.
*US Paralympic cyclist Anthony Zahn. He win a bronze medal at de 2008 Beijing Paralympic Games.
* UK cultural den disability studies academic Professor George McKay. Ein books dey include ''Shakin' All Over: Popular Music and Disability'' (2014).
* US actress Isabelle Tate die of de disease insyd 2025. 

## References

## External links
Hand, foot, and mouth disease

**Hand, foot, and mouth disease** (**HFMD**) be a common infection wey be caused by a group of enteroviruses. E typically dey begin plus a fever den feeling generally unwell. Dis be followed a day anaa two later by flat discolored spots anaa bumps wey fi blister, on de hands, feet den mouth den occasionally buttocks den groin. Signs den symptoms fi normally appear 3–6 days after exposure to de virus. De rash generally dey resolve on ein own insyd about a week.

De viruses wey dey cause HFMD be spread thru close personal contact, thru de air from coughing, den via de feces of an infected person. Contaminated objects sanso fi spread de disease. Coxsackievirus A16 be de most common cause, den enterovirus 71 be de second-most common cause. Oda strains of coxsackievirus den enterovirus sanso fi be responsible. Sam people fi carry den pass on de virus despite dem get no symptoms of disease. No animals be involved insyd transmission. Dem often fi make diagnosis fi base on symptoms. Occasionally, a throat anaa stool sample fi be tested for de virus.

Chaw people plus hand, foot, den mouth disease get better on dema own insyd 7 to 10 days. Chaw cases dey require no specific treatment. No antiviral medication anaa vaccine be available, buh development efforts be underway. For fever den for painful mouth sores, dem fi use over-the-counter pain medications such as ibuprofen, though make dem avoid aspirin insyd kiddies. De illness usually no be serious. Occasionally, dem dey give intravenous fluids to kiddies wey be dehydrated. Very rarely, viral meningitis anaa encephalitis fi complicate de disease.

HFMD dey occur insyd all areas of de world. It often dey occur insyd small outbreaks insyd nursery schools anaa kindergartens. Na large outbreaks dey occur insyd Asia since 1997. E usually dey occur during de spring, summer, den fall months. Typically e dey occur insyd kiddies less dan five years old buh occasionally fi occur insyd adults. Make dem no conf HFMD plus foot-and-mouth disease (dem sanso know as hoof-and-mouth disease), wich mostly dey affect livestock.

## Signs den symptoms

File:Characteristic_rash_of_hand,_foot,_and_mouth_disease,_on_human_hands.jpg|Rash on palms of de hands
File:Hand_Foot_Mouth_Disease_Adult_36Years.jpg|Rash on hands den feet of a 36-year-old man
File:Hand_foot_and_mouth_disease_on_child_feet.jpg|Rash on de soles of a kiddie ein feet


## References


## External links
Mmamabula

**Mmamabula** be a planned coal mine den coal-fired power station to de east of de main road den rail corridor insyd Botswana between Gaborone den Francistown den south of de Serorome River. Na de power station go be near to de village of Mmaphashalala. E be about  north of de capital city of Gaborone.

## Coalfield
Dem dey consider de Mmamabula coalfield e be a western extension of de Waterberg Coalfield insyd de Ellisras Basin insyd South Africa, to de east, wich dey contain about 40% of South Africa ein coal resources. CIC Energy of Canada own two prospecting licences insyd de coal field wey na dem conduct extensive exploratory drilling between 2005 den 2012. De portions of de coalfield for wich na CIC Energy hold licences dem estimate e get 2.4 billion tonnes of thermal coal of a quality suitable for export, for local power generation den for coal gasification. Na deposits be roughly 360 million tonnes insyd de Central block, 643 million tonnes insyd de Western block, den 1,392 million tonnes insyd de Eastern block. De South block, wich dey lie on both sides of de road den rail corridor, be estimated to hold anoda 311 million tonnes of coal.

## Initial mining den power plan
De planned Serorome coal mine go be insyd de Central Block, wey dey supply 4.7 million metric sales tonnes annually for at least thirty years to de planned 1,200&nbsp;MW Mmamabula power station. Dem go use open cast mining for 30% of de area, den underground bord and pillar mining for de remainder. Water from de Dikgatlhong Dam, dem plete insyd 2012, na dem expect am to supply de coalfield den power station via de North-South Carrier pipeline. Insyd March 2009, na CIC Energy announce say e sign a contract plus Shanghai Electric as contractor for engineering, procurement den construction of de Mmamabula Energy Project (MEP), plus commercial operations dem expect to start four years after na dem arrange financing. De same month na CIC Energy submit bids to Eskom of South Africa den Botswana Power Corporation to supply electricity.

South Africa get a target date to gazette dema Integrated Resource Plan (IRP) by September 2010. Dis go lay out South Africa ein strategy for meeting new energy needs from 2013 dey go, dem assume to include new government-owned facilities den contracts plus private suppliers such as CIC Energy. Na South Africa say dem no fi commit to any Power Purchasing Agreement (PPA) plus CIC before na dem approve de IRP. De delay go affect Botswana, wich dem need a portion of de plant ein output to meet projected demand. Na dem eventually plete de IRP insyd May 2011. Na e no include any window for purchase of power from Mmamabula before 2019, wey then na de amounts dem purchase go be less dan 1200&nbsp;MW. Na dem force CIC Energy to put de project on hold after dem invest over C$100 million.

## References

### Citations

**Sources**

* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
*
Chronic traumatic encephalopathy

**Chronic traumatic encephalopathy** (**CTE**) be a neurodegenerative disease dem link to repeated trauma to de head. De encephalopathy symptoms fi include behavioral problems, mood problems, den problems plus thinking. De disease dey often get worse over time wey fi be result insyd dementia.

Na chaw documented cases occur insyd athletes involve insyd striking-based combat sports, such as boxing, kickboxing, mixed martial arts, den contact sports such as rugby union, rugby league, gridiron football, Australian rules football, professional wrestling, den ice hockey. E sanso be an issue insyd association football, buh largely as a result of heading de ball rada dan player contact. Oda risk factors dey include being insyd de military (combat arms), prior domestic violence, den repeated banging of de head. De exact amount of trauma require for de condition to occur be unknown, den as of 2025 definitive diagnosis fi only occur at autopsy. Dem classify de disease as a tauopathy.

Der be no specific treatment for de disease. Na dem find rates of CTE to be about 30% among those plus a history of multiple head injuries; however, population rates be unclear. Research insyd brain damage as a result of repeated head injuries begin insyd de 1920s, at wich time na de condition be known as *dementia pugilistica* anaa "boxer's dementia", "boxer's madness", anaa "punch drunk syndrome". Na dem sanso propose say make dem change de rules of sam sports as a means of prevention.

## References


## External links
Gabapentin

**Gabapentin**, dem sell under de brand name **Neurontin** among odas, be an anticonvulsant medication dem use to treat neuropathic pain (postherpetic neuralgia) den partial seizures of epilepsy. Gabapentin be a central nervous system depressant. Dem dey use am for de treatment of neuropathic pain wey be caused by diabetic neuropathy, postherpetic neuralgia, den central pain. E be moderately effective: about 30–40% of those wey dem dey give gabapentin for diabetic neuropathy anaa postherpetic neuralgia get a meaningful benefit.

Gabapentin dey act by decreasing activity of de α2δ-1 protein, wey de CACNA2D1 gene code, dem first know as an auxiliary subunit of voltage-gated calcium channels. By binding to α2δ-1, gabapentin dey reduce de release of excitatory neurotransmitters (primarily glutamate) den as a result, dey reduce excess excitation of neuronal networks insyd de spinal cord den brain. Sleepiness den dizziness be de most common side effects. Serious side effects dey include respiratory depression den allergic reactions. Na dem label gabapentin for an increased risk of suicide.

Na dem first approve gabapentin for use insyd de United Kingdom insyd 1993. Na e be available as a generic medication insyd de United States since 2004. E be de first of chaw oda drugs wey be similar insyd structure den mechanism, dem call gabapentinoids. Insyd 2023, na e be de ninth most commonly prescribed medication insyd de United States, plus more dan 45million prescriptions. During de 1990s, na Parke-Davis, a subsidiary of Pfizer, use chaw illegal techniques to encourage physicians insyd de United States to prescribe gabapentin for unapproved uses. Na dem pay out millions of dollars to settle lawsuits wey dey regard dese activities.

## References


## External links
Bupropion

**Bupropion**, dem formerly call **amfebutamone**, wey na dem sell am under de brand name **Wellbutrin** among odas, be an atypical antidepressant wey na dem indicate am insyd de treatment of major depressive disorder den seasonal affective disorder den to support smoking cessation. A norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitor (NDRI), e sanso be popular as an add-on medication insyd de cases of "incomplete response" to de first-line selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) antidepressant. Bupropion get chaw features wey dey distinguish am from oda antidepressants: E usually no dey cause sexual dysfunction, e no be associated plus weight gain den sleepiness, wey e be more effective dan SSRIs at improving symptoms of hypersomnia den fatigue. Bupropion, particularly de immediate-release formulation, dey carry a higher risk of seizure dan chaw oda antidepressants; hence, caution be recommended insyd patients plus a history of seizure disorder. Dem dey take de medication by mouth.

Common adverse effects of bupropion plus de greatest difference from placebo be dry mouth, nausea, constipation, insomnia, anxiety, tremor, den excessive sweating. Raised blood pressure be notable. Rare buh serious side effects dey include seizures, liver toxicity, psychosis, den risk of overdose. Bupropion use during pregnancy fi be associated plus increased likelihood of congenital heart defects.

Bupropion dey act as a norepinephrine–dopamine reuptake inhibitor (NDRI) den a nicotinic receptor antagonist. However, ein effects on dopamine be weak den clinical significance be contentious. Chemically, bupropion be an aminoketone wey dey belong to de class of substituted cathinones den more generally dat of substituted amphetamines den substituted phenethylamines.

Na Nariman Mehta, wey work at Burroughs Wellcome, insyd 1969 invent bupropion. Na dem first approve am for medical use insyd de United States insyd 1985. Na dem originally call Bupropion by de generic name amfebutamone, before na dem rename am insyd 2000. Insyd 2023, na e be de seventeenth most commonly prescribed medication insyd de United States den de third most common antidepressant, plus more dan 30million prescriptions. E be on de World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Insyd 2022, na de US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approve de combination dextromethorphan/bupropion to serve as a rapid-acting antidepressant insyd patients plus major depressive disorder.

## References


## External links
Postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome

**Postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome** (**POTS**) be a condition wey be characterized by an abnormally large increase in heart rate upon sitting up anaa standing. POTS insyd adults be characterized by a heart rate increase of 30 beats per minute within ten minutes of standing up, wey be accompanied by oda symptoms. Na dis increased heart rate for occur insyd de absence of orthostatic hypotension (>20&nbsp;mm Hg drop insyd systolic blood pressure) to be considered POTS. POTS be a disorder of de autonomic nervous system wey fi lead to a variety of symptoms, wey dey include lightheadedness, brain fog, blurred vision, weakness, fatigue, headaches, heart palpitations, exercise intolerance, nausea, difficulty concentrating, tremulousness (shaking), syncope (fainting), coldness, pain anaa numbness insyd de extremities, chest pain, den shortness of breath. Chaw symptoms be worsened plus postural changes, especially standing up. Dem fi treat POTS symptoms olus lifestyle changes such as increasing fluid, electrolyte, den salt intake, wearing compression stockings, slowing down postural changes, exercise, medication, den physical therapy.

De causes of POTS be varied. Insyd sam cases, e dey develop after a viral infection, surgery, trauma, autoimmune disease, anaa pregnancy. E sanso be shown to emerge insyd previously healthy patients after contracting COVID-19, insyd people plus Long COVID (post-COVID-19 condition), anaa possibly insyd rare cases after COVID-19 vaccination, though causative evidence be limited wey na further study be needed. POTS be more common among people wey dem get infected plus SARS-CoV-2 dan among those wey dem get vaccinated against COVID-19. About 30% of severely infected patients plus long COVID get POTS. Risk factors dey include a family history of de condition.

Treatment fi include:

* avoiding factors wey dey bring on symptoms,
* increasing dietary salt den water,

* small den frequent meals,
* avoidance of immobilization,
* wearing compression stockings, den
* medication.

Medications dem use fi include:

* beta blockers,
* pyridostigmine,
* midodrine,
* fludrocortisone, anaa
* Ivabradine.
Na more dan 50% of patients wey dema condition be triggered by a viral infection get better within five years. About 80% of patients get symptomatic improvement plus treatment, while 25% be so disabled wey dem be unable to work. Na a retrospective study on patients plus adolescent-onset show say five years after diagnosis, na 19% of patients get full resolution of symptoms.

Na dem estimat say 1–3 million people insyd de United States get POTS. De average age for POTS onset be 20, wey na e dey occur about five times more frequently insyd females dan insyd males.

## References


## External links

* 
* 
*
Bubonic plague

**Bubonic plague** be one of three types of plague wey de bacterium *Yersinia pestis* cause. One to seven days after exposure to de bacteria, flu-like symptoms develop. Dese symptoms dey include fever, headaches, den vomiting, as well as swollen den painful lymph nodes dey occur insyd de area closest to wer na de bacteria enter de skin. Acral necrosis, de dark discoloration of skin, be anoda symptom. Occasionally, swollen lymph nodes, dem know as "buboes", fi break open.

De three types of plague be de result of de route of infection: bubonic plague, septicemic plague, den pneumonic plague. Bubonic plague mainly be spread by infected fleas from small animals. E sanso fi be result from exposure to de body fluids from a dead plague-infected animal. Mammals such as rabbits, hares, den sam cat species be susceptible to bubonic plague, den typically die upon contraction. Insyd de bubonic form of plague, de bacteria enter thru de skin thru a flea bite den travel via de lymphatic vessels to a lymph node, wey dey cause am to swell. Dem dey make diagnosis by finding de bacteria insyd de blood, sputum, anaa fluid from lymph nodes.

Prevention be thru public health measures such as no dey handle dead animals insyd areas wer plague be common. While na vaccines against de plague be developed, de World Health Organization dey recommend say only high-risk groups, such as certain laboratory personnel den health care workers, get inoculated. Chaw antibiotics be effective for treatment, wey dey include streptomycin, gentamicin, den doxycycline.

Widout treatment, plague dey result in de death of 30% to 90% of those infected. Death, if e occur, typically be within 10 days. Plus treatment, de risk of death be around 10%. Globally between 2010 den 2015 na der be 3,248 documented cases, wich result insyd 584 deaths. De countries plus de greatest number of cases be de Democratic Republic of the Congo, Madagascar, den Peru.

De plague be considered de likely cause of de Black Death wey sweep thru Asia, Europe, den Africa insyd de 14th century wey e kill an estimated 50 million people, wey dey include about 25% to 60% of de European population. Secof na de plague kill chaw of de working population, na wages rise secof de demand for labor. Sam historians see dis as a turning point insyd European economic development. Dem sanso consider de disease e be responsible for de Plague of Justinian, wey dey originate insyd de Eastern Roman Empire insyd de 6th century CE, as well as de third epidemic, wey dey affect China, Mongolia, den India, wey dey originate insyd de Yunnan Province insyd 1855. Na dem derive de term *bubonic* from de Greek word , wey dey mean 'groin'. 

## References


## External links
Lisdexamfetamine

**Lisdexamfetamine**, dem sell under de brand names **Vyvanse** den **Elvanse** among odas, be a stimulant medication wey dem dey use as a treatment for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) insyd kiddies den adults den for moderate-to-severe binge eating disorder insyd adults.  A prodrug of dextroamphetamine, dem dey take lisdexamfetamine by mouth. Ein effects generally dey begin within 90 minutes den dey last for up to 14 hours.

Common side effects of lisdexamfetamine dey include loss of appetite, anxiety, diarrhea, trouble sleeping, irritability, den nausea. Rare buh serious side effects dey include mania, sudden cardiac death insyd those plus underlying heart problems, den psychosis. E get a high potential for substance abuse. Serotonin syndrome fi occur if dem use am plus certain oda medications. Ein use during pregnancy fi result in harm to de baby wey na ein use during breastfeeding no be recommended by de manufacturer.

Lisdexamfetamine be an inactive prodrug wey be formed by de condensation of L-lysine, a naturally wey dey occur amino acid, den dextroamphetamine. Insyd de body, metabolic action dey reverse dis process to release de active agent, de central nervous system (CNS) stimulant dextroamphetamine.

Na dem approve lisdexamfetamine for medical use insyd de United States insyd 2007 den insyd de European Union insyd 2012. Insyd 2023, na e be de 76th most commonly prescribed medication insyd de United States, plus more dan 9million prescriptions. E be a Class B controlled substance insyd de United Kingdom, a Schedule 8 controlled drug insyd Australia, den a Schedule II controlled substance insyd de United States.

## References


## External links
Syphilis

**Syphilis** be a sexually transmitted infection wey be caused by de bacterium *Treponema pallidum* subspecies *pallidum*. De signs den symptoms dey depend on de stage e dey present: primary, secondary, latent anaa tertiary. De primary stage classically dey present plus a single chancre (a firm, painless, non-itchy skin ulceration usually between 1&nbsp;cm den 2&nbsp;cm in diameter), though der fi be chaw sores. Insyd secondary syphilis, a diffuse rash dey occur, wich frequently dey involve de palms of de hands den soles of de feet. Der sanso fi be sores insyd de mouth anaa vagina. Latent syphilis get no symptoms wey fi last years. Insyd tertiary syphilis, der be gummas (soft, non-cancerous growths), neurological problems, anaa heart symptoms. Dem know syphilis as "the great imitator", secof e fi cause symptoms similar to chaw oda diseases.

Syphilis be most commonly spread thru sexual activity. E sanso fi be transmitted from mommie to baby during pregnancy anaa at birth, wey dey result insyd congenital syphilis. Oda diseases wey be caused by *Treponema* bacteria dey include yaws (*T. pallidum* subspecies *pertenue*), pinta (*T. carateum*), den nonvenereal endemic syphilis (*T. pallidum* subspecies *endemicum*). Dese three diseases no be typically sexually transmitted. Dem usually dey make diagnosis by using blood tests; de bacteria sanso fi be detected using dark field microscopy. De Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (U.S.) dey recommend for all women dem preg to be tested.

Dem fi reduce de risk of sexual transmission of syphilis by using a latex anaa polyurethane condom. Dem effectively treat fi treat syphilis plus antibiotics. De preferred antibiotic for most cases be benzathine benzylpenicillin dem inject into a muscle. Insyd those wey get a severe penicillin allergy, dem fi use doxycycline anaa tetracycline. Insyd those plus neurosyphilis, dem dey recommend intravenous benzylpenicillin anaa ceftriaxone. During treatment, people fi develop fever, headache, den muscle pains, a reaction dem know as Jarisch–Herxheimer.

Insyd 2015, about 45.4&nbsp;million people get syphilis infections, of wich na six million be new cases. During 2015, na e cause about 107,000 deaths, down from 202,000 insyd 1990. After decreasing dramatically plus de availability of penicillin insyd de 1940s, na rates of infection increase since de turn of de millennium insyd chaw countries, often in combination plus human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Dem dey believe dis be partly secof unsafe drug use, increased prostitution, den decreased use of condoms.

## References


## Read further
* 
* 
* 
## External links

* "Syphilis - CDC Fact Sheet"—Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
* UCSF HIV InSite Knowledge Base Chapter: Syphilis and HIV; 
* Recommendations for Public Health Surveillance of Syphilis in the United States
Guillain–Barré syndrome

**Guillain–Barré syndrome** (**GBS**) be a rapid-onset muscle weakness wey be caused by de immune system wey dey damage de peripheral nervous system. Typically, both sides of de body be involved, den de initial symptoms be changes in sensation anaa pain often insyd de back along plus muscle weakness, wey dey begin insyd de feet den hands, often dey spread to de arms den upper body. De symptoms fi develop over hours to a few weeks. During de acute phase, de disorder fi be life-threatening, plus about 15% of people dey develop respiratory muscle weakness wey dey require mechanical ventilation. Sam be affected by changes insyd de function of de autonomic nervous system, wich fi lead to dangerous abnormalities in heart rate den blood pressure.

Although de cause be unknown, de underlying mechanism dey involve an autoimmune disorder insyd wich de body ein immune system mistakenly dey attack de peripheral nerves den dey damage dema myelin insulation. Sam time dis immune dysfunction be triggered by an infection anaa, less commonly, by surgery, den by vaccination. De diagnosis be usually based on de signs den symptoms thru de exclusion of alternative causes wey be supported by tests such as nerve conduction studies den examination of de cerebrospinal fluid. Der be chaw subtypes based on de areas of weakness, results of nerve conduction studies, den de presence of certain antibodies. Dem classify am as an acute polyneuropathy.

Insyd those plus severe weakness, prompt treatment plus intravenous immunoglobulins anaa plasmapheresis, togeda plus supportive care, dey lead to good recovery insyd de majority of cases. Recovery fi take weeks to years, plus about a third dey get sam permanent weakness. Globally, death dey occur in approximately 7.5% of patients. Guillain–Barré syndrome be rare, at 1 anaa 2 cases per 100,000 people every year.

Na dem name de syndrome after de French neurologists Georges Guillain den Jean Alexandre Barré, wey, togeda plus French physician André Strohl, describe de condition insyd 1916.

## References


## External links

* Information on GBS from UK Charity GAIN (Guillain–Barré and Associated Inflammatory Neuropathies)
* Information on GBS from NGO GBS/CIDP Foundation International
* Information on GBS from NGO EPODIN (European Patient Organization for Disimmune & Inflammatory Neuropathies)
Multiple myeloma

**Multiple myeloma** (**MM**), dem sanso know as **plasma cell myeloma** den simply **myeloma**, be a cancer of plasma cells, a type of white blood cell wey normally dey produce antibodies. Often, dem initially no notice symptoms. As e dey progress, bone pain, anemia, renal insufficiency, den infections fi occur. Complications fi include hypercalcemia den amyloidosis.

De cause of multiple myeloma be unknown. Risk factors dey include obesity, radiation exposure, family history, age den certain chemicals. Der be an increased risk of multiple myeloma insyd certain occupations. Dis be secof de occupational exposure to aromatic hydrocarbon solvents wey get a role in causation of multiple myeloma. Multiple myeloma be de result of a multi-step malignant transformation, den almost universally wey dey originate from de pre-malignant stage monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance (MGUS). As MGUS dey evolve into MM, dem reach anoda pre-stage of de disease, dem know as smoldering myeloma (SMM).

Insyd MM, de abnormal plasma cells dey produce abnormal antibodies, wich fi cause kidney problems den overly thick blood. De plasma cells sanso fi form a mass insyd de bone marrow anaa soft tissue. Wen one tumor be present, dem dey call am a plasmacytoma; more dan one dem dey call multiple myeloma. Dem dey diagnose multiple myeloma base on blood anaa urine tests wey dey find abnormal antibody proteins (often dey use electrophoretic techniques wey dey reveal de presence of a monoclonal spike insyd de results, dem term an m-spike), bone marrow biopsy dey find cancerous plasma cells, den medical imaging dey find bone lesions. Anoda common finding be high blood calcium levels.

Dem dey consider multiple myeloma treatable, buh generally incurable. Remissions fi bring about plus steroids, chemotherapy, targeted therapy, den stem cell transplant. Dem sam times use bisphosphonates den radiation therapy make dem reduce pain from bone lesions. Na dem inclde new approaches wey dey utilize CAR-T cell therapy insyd de treatment regimens.

Globally, na dem diagnose about 175,000 people plus de disease insyd 2020, while na about 117,000 people die from de disease dat year. Insyd de U.S., forecasts dey suggest about 35,000 people go be diagnosed plus de disease insyd 2023, wey about 12,000 people go die from de disease dat year. Insyd 2020, na an estimated 170,405 people dey live plus myeloma insyd de U.S.

E be difficult to judge mortality statistics secof treatments give de disease dey advance rapidly. Based on data wey dey concern people dem diagnose plus de disease between 2013 den 2019, na about 60% live five years anaa more post-diagnosis, plus about 34% dey live ten years anaa more. People na dem newly diagnose plus de disease now get a better outlook, secof improved treatments.

De disease usually dey occur around de age of 60 wey e be more common insyd men dan women. E be uncommon before de age of 40. De word *myeloma* be from Greek *myelo-* 'marrow' den *-oma* 'tumor'.

## References


## External links
Methylphenidate

**Methylphenidate**, dem sell under de brand name **Ritalin** den **Concerta**, among odas, be a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant dem use insyd de treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) den narcolepsy. Dem fi take am by mouth anaa e fi be applied to de skin, wey na different formulationsget varying durations of effect. For ADHD, de effectiveness of methylphenidate be comparable to atomoxetine but modestly e be lower dan amphetamines, wey dey alleviate de executive functioning deficits of sustained attention, inhibition, working memory, reaction time, den emotional self-regulation.

Common adverse reactions of methylphenidate dey include: euphoria, dilated pupils, tachycardia, palpitations, headache, insomnia, anxiety, hyperhidrosis, weight loss, decreased appetite, dry mouth, nausea, den abdominal pain. Withdrawal symptoms fi include: chills, depression, drowsiness, dysphoria, exhaustion, headache, irritability, lethargy, nightmares, restlessness, suicidal thoughts, den weakness.

Dem dey believe methylphenidate to work by blocking de reuptake of dopamine den norepinephrine by neurons. E be a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant of de phenethylamine den piperidine classes. E be available as a generic medication. Insyd 2023, na e be de 50th most commonly medication dem prescribe insyd de United States, plus more dan 13million prescriptions. 

## References


## External links
Xerostomia

**Xerostomia**, dem sanso know as **dry mouth**, be a subjective complaint of dryness insyd de mouth, wich fi be associated plus a change insyd de composition of saliva, reduced salivary flow, anaa e get no identifiable cause.

Dis symptom be very common wey na dem often dey see am as a side effect of chaw types of medication. E be more common insyd older people (mostly secof individuals insyd dis group be more likely to take several medications) den insyd people wey dey breathe thru dema mouths. Dehydration, radiotherapy wey dey involve de salivary glands, chemotherapy den chaw diseases fi cause reduced salivation (hyposalivation), anaa a change insyd saliva consistency den hence a complaint of xerostomia. Sam times der be no identifiable cause, wey der sometimes fi be a psychogenic reason for de complaint.
## References


## External links

* University of Illinois at Chicago
* NIH
* MedlinePlus Encyclopedia
* Drymouth Drymouth Drug Database