open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Pregabalin

**Pregabalin**, dem sell under de brand name **Lyrica** among odas, be an anticonvulsant, analgesic, den anxiolytic amino acid medication dem use to treat epilepsy, neuropathic pain, fibromyalgia, restless legs syndrome, opioid withdrawal, generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), den shingles. Pregabalin sanso get antiallodynic properties. Ein use insyd epilepsy be as an add-on therapy give partial seizures. Wen dem use before surgery, e dey reduce pain buh dey result in greater sedation den visual disturbances. Dem dey take am by mouth.

Common side effects fi include headache, dizziness, sleepiness, euphoria, confusion, trouble plus memory, poor coordination, dry mouth, problems plus vision, den weight gain. Serious side effects fi include angioedema, kidney damage, den seizures.

As plus all oda drugs dem approve by de FDA for treating epilepsy, de pregabalin labeling dey warn of an increased suicide risk wen dem combine plus oda drugs. Wen dem take pregabalin at high doses over a long period of time, addiction fi occur, buh if dem take am at usual doses de risk be low. Ein use during pregnancy anaa breastfeeding be of unclear safety.

E be a gabapentinoid medication wich be a class of drugs within de derivatives of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA analogues), an inhibitory neurotransmitter. Although pregabalin be inactive at GABA receptors den GABA synapses, e dey act by binding specifically to de α2δ-1 protein wey na dem first describe as an auxiliary subunit of voltage-gated calcium channels.

Na dem approve pregabalin for medical use insyd de United States insyd 2004. Insyd de US, pregabalin be a Schedule V controlled substance under de Controlled Substances Act of 1970, wich dey mean say de drug get low abuse potential compared to substances insyd Schedules I-IV, however, der still be a potential for misuse. E be available as a generic medication. Insyd 2023, na e be de 78th most commonly prescribed medication insyd de United States, plus more dan 8million prescriptions.

## References


## External links
Myasthenia gravis

**Myasthenia gravis** (**MG**) be a long-term neuromuscular junction disease wey dey lead to varying degrees of skeletal muscle weakness. De most commonly affected muscles be those of de eyes, face, den swallowing. E fi result in double vision, drooping eyelids, den difficulties in talking den walking. Onset fi be sudden. Those wey be affected often get a large thymus anaa develop a thymoma.

Myasthenia gravis be an autoimmune disease of de neuromuscular junction wich dey result from antibodies wey dey block anaa destroy nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (AChR) at de junction between de nerve den muscle. Dis dey prevent nerve impulses from triggering muscle contractions. Chaw cases be secof immunoglobulin G1 (IgG1) den IgG3 antibodies wey dey attack AChR insyd de postsynaptic membrane, wey dey cause complement-mediated damage den muscle weakness. Rarely, an inherited genetic defect insyd de neuromuscular junction dey result in a similar condition dem know as congenital myasthenia. Babies of mommies plus myasthenia fi get symptoms during dema first few months of life, dem know as neonatal myasthenia anaa more specifically transient neonatal myasthenia gravis. Diagnosis fi be supported by blood tests for specific antibodies, de edrophonium test, electromyography (EMG), anaa a nerve conduction study.

Mild forms of myasthenia gravis fi be treated plus medications dem know as acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, such as neostigmine den pyridostigmine. Immunosuppressants, such as prednisone anaa azathioprine, sanso fi be required for more severe symptoms wey acetylcholinesterase inhibitors be insufficient to treat. De surgical removal of de thymus fi improve symptoms insyd certain cases. Plasmapheresis den high-dose intravenous immunoglobulin fi be used wen oral medications be insufficient to treat severe symptoms, wey dey include during sudden flares of de condition. If de breathing muscles cam be significantly weak, mechanical ventilation fi be required. Once intubated acetylcholinesterase inhibitors fi be temporarily held make e reduce airway secretions.

Myasthenia gravis dey affect 50 to 200 people per million. E be newly diagnosed insyd 3 to 30 people per million each year. Diagnosis cam be more common secof increased awareness. Myasthenia gravis most commonly dey occur insyd women under de age of 40 den insyd men over de age of 60. E be uncommon insyd kiddies. Plus treatment, chaw dey live to an average life expectancy. De word be from de Greek *mys*, "muscle" den *asthenia* "weakness", den de Latin *gravis*, "serious".

## References


## Read further
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## External links

* Myasthenia Gravis Foundation of America (MGFA)
* Myasthenia Gravis News
* myaware.org
* Conquer MG
Disinhibited attachment disorder

**Disinhibited social engagement disorder** (**DSED**), anaa **disinhibited attachment disorder**, be an attachment disorder insyd wich a kiddie get little to no fear of unfamiliar adults wey dem fi actively approach dem. E significantly fi impair a young kiddie ein ability to relate plus adults den peers, according to de *Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,* as well as put dem insyd dangerous den potentially unsafe conditions, as dem fi, for example, walk off plus a complete stranger insyd a public place.

DSED exclusively be a childhood disorder. E usually be diagnosed after nine months, buh before age 6. Sam signs of DSED fi be present into adolescence den young adulthood. Infants den young kiddies be at risk of developing DSED if dem receive inconsistent anaa insufficient care from a primary caregiver. Like reactive attachment disorder, e be commonly diagnosed insyd kiddies dem raise insyd foster care anaa institutional environments.

## References
Reactive attachment disorder

**Reactive attachment disorder** (**RAD**) be a mental disorder dem see insyd kiddies wey na dem experience social neglect anaa abuse. E be characterized by difficulty wey dey form emotional attachments to oda people den a decreased ability to display positive emotion. Kiddies plus RAD no dey accept anaa seek closeness anaa comfort, wey dem fi react violently to attempts at comfort from a caregiver.

## References
Selective mutism

**Selective mutism** (**SM**) be an anxiety disorder insyd wich a person wey otherwise be capable of speech cam be unable to speak wen dem expose to specific situations, specific places, anaa to specific people, one anaa multiple of wich serve as triggers. Selective mutism usually dey co-exist plus social anxiety disorder. People plus selective mutism dey stay silent even wen de consequences of dema silence dey include shame, social ostracism, anaa punishment. Insyd sam cases, de person dey wan talk buh dem dey feel like dem no fi get de words out.

## References


## Read further
* McHolm, Angela E., Cunningham, Charles E., & Vanier, Melanie K. (2005). *Helping Your Child with Selective Mutism*. Oakland, Calif.: New Harbinger Publications. .
## External links
Speech disorder

**Speech disorders**, **impairments**, anaa **impediments**, be a type of communication disorder insyd wich normal speech be disrupted. Dis fi mean fluency disorders like stuttering den cluttering. Sam bro wey be unable to speak secof a speech disorder dem consider mute. Speech skills be vital to social relationships den learning, den delays anaa disorders insyd developing dese skills fi impact individuals ein function. For chaw kiddies den adolescents, dis fi present as issues plus academics. Speech disorders dey affect roughly 11.5% of de US population, den 5% of de primary school population. Speech be a complex process wey dey require precise timing, nerve den muscle control, den as a result be susceptible to impairments. A person wey get a stroke, an accident anaa birth defect fi get speech den language problems.

## References



## External links
Cluttering

**Cluttering** be a speech den communication disorder wey be characterized by a rapid rate of speech, erratic rhythm, den poor syntax anaa grammar, wey dey make speech difficult to understand.

## Classification
Cluttering be a speech den communication disorder wey na dem sanso describe am as a fluency disorder.

## References


## Sources
* Studies in Tachyphemia, An Investigation of Cluttering and General Language Disability. Speech Rehabilitation Institute.  New York, 1963.
* Myers, F. and K. St. Louis, (1992) Cluttering: A Clinical Perspective, Leicester, England: Far Communications
## External links
*Too fast for words: Easy explanations and tips for treatment and coping
*Cluttering: Some Guidelines
*Overview of Cluttering
*International Cluttering Association page
*ASHA Cluttering Updated Article
*ISAD presentation on cluttering experience
*Computer Aided Assessment of Cluttering Severity
Hypersensitivity

**Hypersensitivity** (dem sanso call **hypersensitivity reaction**) be an immune response wey be characterized by mechanisms wey dey cause significant tissue damage anaa physiological dysfunction, whether dem direct against pathogens, harmless environmental antigens, anaa self-antigens wey be reproducible upon re-exposure to de antigen. While hypersensitivity mechanisms sam times fi serve protective functions (such as control of infectious diseases), dem be distinguished by dema capacity to cause collateral tissue damage wey fi exceed any protective benefit. Collectively, hypersensitivities be extremely common: hay fever dey affect about 1 insyd 10 people worldwide, asthma dey affect hundreds of millions, den about 1 insyd 12 people get an autoimmune disease.

Insyd 1963, na Philip George Houthem Gell den Robin Coombs introduce a systematic classification of de different types of hypersensitivity based on de types of antigens den immune responses involve. According to dis system, dem know as de Gell and Coombs classification anaa Gell-Coombs's classification, der be four types of hypersensitivity:

# Type I, wich be an Immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated immediate reaction.
# Type II, an antibody-mediated reaction canonically wey dey involve IgG, IgM, anaa both.
# Type III, an immune complex-mediated reaction wey dey involve IgG, complement system den phagocytes.
# Type IV, a T cell-mediated, delayed hypersensitivity reaction.

## References


## External links
Bed bug

**Bed bugs** be parasitic insects from de genus *Cimex*, wich be micropredators wey dey feed on blood, usually for nightie. Dema bites fi result in a number of health issues, wey dey include skin rashes, psychological effects, den allergic symptoms. Bed bug bites fi lead to skin changes wey dey range from small areas of redness to prominent blisters. Symptoms fi take between minutes to days to appear den itchiness be generally present. Sam individuals fi feel tired anaa get a fever. Typically, uncovered areas of be body be affected. Dema bites no be known to transmit any infectious disease. Complications fi rarely include areas of dead skin anaa vasculitis.

Bed bug bites be caused primarily by two species of insects: *Cimex lectularius* (de common bed bug) den *Cimex hemipterus*, dem find primarily insyd de tropics. Dema size dey range between 1 den 7&nbsp;mm. Dem dey spread by crawling between nearby locations anaa dem be carried within personal items. Infestation be rarely secof a lack of hygiene buh e be more common insyd high-density areas. Diagnosis dey involve both finding de bugs den de occurrence of compatible symptoms. Bed bugs dey spend chaw of dema time insyd dark, hidden locations like mattress seams, anaa cracks insyd a wall.

Treatment be directed towards de symptoms. Eliminating bed bugs from de home often be difficult, partly secof bed bugs fi survive up to approximately 300 days widout feeding. Repeated treatments of a home fi be required. Dese treatments fi include heating de room to  for more dan 90 minutes, frequent vacuuming, washing clothing at high temperatures, den de use of various pesticides.

Fossils dem find insyd Egypt dey show na dem show bed bugs as human parasites for at least 3,500 years. Despite dem be nearly eradicated insyd developed countries after World War II, na infestations increase since de 1990s wey bed bugs now be relatively common insyd all regions of de globe. Experts dey point to chaw factors wey contribute to de explosion insyd infestations over de last three decades: increased immigration den international travel; expanded markets for second-hand goods; a greater focus on control of oda pests; de banning of certain pesticides den increased resistance to pesticides still in use.

## References


## Read further

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## External links

* Bed bug on the University of Florida/IFAS Featured Creatures Web site
* ''Bed bugs''  – University of Sydney and Westmead Hospital Department of Medical Entomology
Addison's disease

**Addison's disease**, dem sanso know as **primary adrenal insufficiency**, be a rare long-term endocrine disorder wey be characterized by inadequate production of de steroid hormones cortisol den aldosterone by de two outer layers of de cells of de adrenal glands (adrenal cortex), wey dey cause adrenal insufficiency. Symptoms generally dey develop slowly den insidiously wey fi include abdominal pain den gastrointestinal abnormalities, weakness, den weight loss. Darkening of de skin insyd certain areas sanso fi occur. Under certain circumstances, an adrenal crisis fi occur plus low blood pressure, vomiting, lower back pain, den loss of consciousness. Mood changes sanso fi occur. Rapid onset of symptoms dey indicate acute adrenal failure, wich be a clinical emergency. An adrenal crisis fi be triggered by stress, such as from an injury, surgery, anaa infection.

Addison's disease dey arise wen de adrenal gland no dey produce sufficient amounts of de steroid hormones cortisol den (sam times) aldosterone. E be an autoimmune disease wich dey affect sam genetically predisposed people insyd whom na de body ein own immune system start to target de adrenal glands. Insyd chaw adult cases e be unclear wat na trigger de onset of dis disease, though e sam times dey follow tuberculosis. Causes fi include certain medications, sepsis, den bleeding into both adrenal glands. Addison's disease generally be diagnosed by blood tests, urine tests, den medical imaging.

Treatment dey involve replacing de absent anaa low hormones. Dis dey involve taking a synthetic corticosteroid, such as hydrocortisone anaa fludrocortisone. Dem typically dey take dese medications orally. Lifelong, continuous steroid replacement therapy be required, plus regular follow-up treatment den monitoring for oda health problems wich fi occur. A high-salt diet sanso be useful insyd sam people. If symptoms worsen, an injection of corticosteroid be recommended (people dey hia make dem carry a dose plus dem at all times). Often, large amounts of intravenous fluids plus de sugar dextrose sanso be required. Plus appropriate treatment, de overall outcome generally be favorable, wey chaw people be able to lead a reasonably normal life. Widout treatment, an adrenal crisis fi result in death.

Addison's disease dey affect about 9 to 14 per 100,000 people insyd de developed world. E dey occur most frequently insyd middle-aged females. Dem name de disease after Thomas Addison, a graduate of de University of Edinburgh Medical School, wey first describe de condition insyd 1855.

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Omeprazole

**Omeprazole**, dem sell under de brand names **Prilosec** den **Losec** among odas, be a medication dem use insyd de treatment of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), peptic ulcer disease, den Zollinger–Ellison syndrome. Dem sanso dey use am to prevent upper gastrointestinal bleeding insyd people wey be at high risk. Omeprazole be a proton-pump inhibitor (PPI) den ein effectiveness be similar to dat of oda PPIs. Dem fi take am by mouth anaa by injection into a vein. E sanso be available insyd de fixed-dose combination medication omeprazole/sodium bicarbonate as Zegerid den as Konvomep.

Common side effects dey include nausea, vomiting, headaches, abdominal pain, den increased intestinal gas. Serious side effects fi include *Clostridioides difficile* colitis, an increased risk of pneumonia, an increased risk of bone fractures, den de potential of masking stomach cancer. Whether e be safe for use insyd pregnancy be unclear. E dey work by blocking de release of stomach acid.

Na dem patent omeprazole insyd 1978 wey na dem approve am for medical use insyd 1988. E dey on de World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. E be available as a generic medication. Insyd 2023, na e be de tenth most commonly prescribed medication insyd de United States, plus more dan 45million prescriptions. E sanso be available widout a prescription insyd de United States.

## References


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## External links
Colorectal cancer

**Colorectal cancer**, dem sanso know as **bowel cancer**, **colon cancer**, anaa **rectal cancer**, be de development of cancer from de colon anaa rectum (parts of de large intestine). E be de consequence of uncontrolled growth of colon cells wey fi invade/spread to oda parts of de body. Signs den symptoms fi include blood insyd de stool, a change insyd bowel movements, weight loss, abdominal pain den fatigue. Chaw colorectal cancers be secof lifestyle factors den genetic disorders. Risk factors dey include diet, obesity, smoking, den lack of physical activity. Dietary factors wey dey increase de risk include red meat, processed meat, den alcohol. Anoda risk factor be inflammatory bowel disease, wich dey include Crohn's disease den ulcerative colitis. Sam of de inherited genetic disorders wey fi cause colorectal cancer dey include familial adenomatous polyposis den hereditary non-polyposis colon cancer; however, dese dey represent less dan 5% of cases. E typically dey start as a benign tumor, often insyd de form of a polyp, wich over time cam be cancerous.

Colorectal cancer fi be diagnosed by obtaining a sample of de colon during a sigmoidoscopy anaa colonoscopy. Dis be then followed by medical imaging to determine whether na de cancer spread beyond de colon anaa e dey insyd situ. Screening be effective for preventing den decreasing deaths from colorectal cancer. Screening, by one of chaw methods, be recommended dey start from ages 45 to 75. Na dem recommend say starting at age 50 buh na dem change am to 45 secof increasing numbers of colon cancers. During colonoscopy, small polyps fi be removed if dem find. If dem find a large polyp anaa tumor, a biopsy fi be performed to check if e be cancerous. Aspirin den oda non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs dey decrease de risk of pain during polyp excision. Dema general use no be recommended for dis purpose, however, secof side effects.

Treatments dem use for colorectal cancer fi include sam combination of surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, den targeted therapy. Cancers wey be confined within de wall of de colon fi be curable plus surgery, while cancer wey spread widely usually no be curable, plus na dem direct management towards improving quality of life den symptoms. Na de five-year survival rate insyd de United States be around 65% insyd 2014. De chances of survival dey depend on how advanced de cancer be, whether dem fi remove all of de cancer plus surgery, den de person ein overall health. Globally, colorectal cancer be de third-most common type of cancer, wey dey make up about 10% of all cases. Insyd 2022, na der be 1.93 million new cases den 903,859 deaths from de disease. E be more common insyd developed countries, wer na dem find more dan 65% of cases.

## References


## External links

* WHO fact sheet on colorectal cancer
Oseltamivir

**Oseltamivir**, dem sell under de brand name **Tamiflu** among odas, be an antiviral medication dem use to treat den prevent influenza A den influenza B, viruses wey dey cause de flu. Chaw medical organizations dey recommend am insyd people wey get complications anaa dem be at high risk of complications within 48 hours of first symptoms of infection. Dem dey recommend am to prevent infection insyd those at high risk, buh no be de general population. De Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) dey recommend say clinicians use dema discretion to treat those at lower risk wey present within 48 hours of first symptoms of infection. Dem dey take am by mouth, either as a pill anaa liquid.

Recommendations wey dey regard oseltamivir be controversial as be criticisms of de recommendations. Na a 2014 Cochrane Review conclude say oseltamivir no dey reduce hospitalizations, den dat der be no evidence of reduction insyd complications of influenza. Na two meta-analyses conclude say benefits insyd those wey be oda wise healthy no dey outweigh ein risks. Dem sanso find little evidence wey dey regard whether treatment dey change de risk of hospitalization anaa death insyd high risk populations. However, na anoda meta-analysis find say na oseltamivir be effective for prevention of influenza at de individual den household levels.

Common side effects dey include vomiting, diarrhea, headache, den trouble sleeping. Oda side effects fi include psychiatric symptoms den seizures. Insyd de United States, e be recommended for influenza infections during pregnancy. Na a small number of pregnant women take am widout signs of problems. Dose adjustment fi be needed insyd those plus kidney problems.

Na dem approve oseltamivir for medical use insyd de US insyd 1999. Na e be de first neuraminidase inhibitor available by mouth. E dey on de World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines buh na dem downgrade am to "complementary" status insyd 2017. Na dem approve a generic version insyd de US insyd 2016. Insyd 2023, na e be de 250th most commonly prescribed medication insyd de United States, plus more dan 1million prescriptions.

## References


## External links
Dextromethorphan

**Dextromethorphan**, dem sell am under de brand name **Robitussin** among odas, be a cough suppressant dem use insyd chaw cough den cold medicines. Insyd 2022, na de US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approve de combination dextromethorphan/bupropion to serve as a rapid-acting antidepressant insyd people plus major depressive disorder.

E dey insyd de morphinan class of medications plus dissociative den stimulant properties (at lower doses). Dextromethorphan no get a significant affinity for de mu-opioid receptor activity typical of morphinan compounds den exert ein therapeutic effects thru chaw oda receptors. Insyd ein pure form, dextromethorphan dey occur as a white powder.

When exceeding dosages dem approve, dextromethorphan dey act as a dissociative hallucinogen. E get multiple mechanisms of action, wey dey include actions as a nonselective Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor den a sigma-1 receptor agonist. Dextromethorphan den ein major metabolite dextrorphan sanso block de NMDA receptor at high doses, wey dey produce effects similar to those of oda dissociative anesthetics such as ketamine, nitrous oxide, den phencyclidine.

Na dem patent am insyd 1949 wey na dem approve am for medical use insyd 1953. Insyd 2023, na de combination plus promethazine be de 252nd most commonly prescribed medication insyd de United States, plus more dan 1million prescriptions; wey na de combination plus brompheniramine den pseudoephedrine be de 281st most commonly prescribed medication insyd de United States, plus more dan 700,000 prescriptions.

## References


## External links

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Stuttering

**Stuttering**, dem sanso know am as **stammering**, be a speech disorder wey be characterized externally by involuntary repetitions den prolongations of sounds, syllables, words, anaa phrases as well as involuntary silent pauses dem call blocks insyd wich de person wey dey stutter be unable to produce sounds. Almost 80 million people worldwide dey stutter, about 1% of de world ein population, plus a prevalence among males at least twice dat of females. Persistent stuttering into adulthood often dey lead to outcomes detrimental to overall mental health, such as social isolation den suicidal thoughts.

Stuttering no be connected to de physical ability to produce phonemes (i.e. e be unrelated to de structure anaa function of de vocal cords). E sanso be unconnected to de structuring of thoughts into coherent sentences insyd sufferers dema brains, wey dey mean say people plus a stutter know precisely wat dem dey try to say (in contrast plus alternative disorders like aphasia). Stuttering purely be a neurological disconnect between intent den outcome during de task of expressing each individual sound. While der be rarer neurogenic (e.g. dem acquire during physical insult) den psychogenic (e.g. dem acquire after adult-onset mental illness anaa trauma) variants, de typical etiology, development, den presentation be dat of idiopathic stuttering insyd kiddie time wey then cam be persistent into adulthood.

Acute nervousness den stress no dey cause stuttering buh fi trigger increased stuttering insyd people wey get de disorder. Der be a significant correlation between anxiety, particularly social anxiety, den stuttering, buh stuttering be a distinct, engrained neurobiological phenomenon den thus exacerbated per, no dey cause, by anxiety. Anxiety consistently dey worsen stuttering symptoms insyd acute settings insyd those plus comorbid anxiety disorders.

Living plus a stutter fi create chronic stress wey dey harm de body over time. However, stress einself no dey cause people to develop a stutter.

## References

## Sources
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## Read further
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## External links
Tic disorder

**Tic disorders** be defined insyd de *Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders* (DSM) wey base on type (motor anaa phonic) den duration of tics (sudden, rapid, nonrhythmic movements). Tic disorders be defined similarly by de World Health Organization (ICD-10 codes).

## Classification

### DSM-5
De fifth revision of de *Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders* (DSM-5), dem publish insyd May 2013, dey classify Tourette syndrome den tic disorders as motor disorders dem list insyd de neurodevelopmental disorder category.

Tic disorders, insyd ascending order of severity, be:

* 307.20 Oda specified tic disorder (specify reason)
* 307.20 Unspecified tic disorder
* 307.21 Provisional tic disorder
* 307.22 Persistent (chronic) motor anaa vocal tic disorder (specify motor anaa vocal)
* 307.23 Tourette's disorder
Developmental coordination disorder den stereotypic movement disorder sanso be classified as motor disorders.

### ICD-10
ICD10 diagnosis codes be:

* F95.0  Transient tic disorder
* F95.1  Chronic motor anaa vocal tic disorder
* F95.2  Combined vocal den multiple motor tic disorder [Gilles de la Tourette]
* F95.8  Oda tic disorders
* F95.9  Tic disorder, unspecified

## References


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## External links
Scarlet fever

**Scarlet fever**, dem sanso know as **scarlatina** den **scarlatiniform rash**, be an infectious disease wey *Streptococcus pyogenes* cause, a Group A streptococcus (GAS). E most commonly dey affect kiddies den young adolescents between five den 15 years of age. De signs den symptoms dey include a sore throat, fever, headache, swollen lymph nodes, den a characteristic rash. De face be flushed wey de rash be red den blanching. E typically dey feel like sandpaper wey de tongue fi be red den bumpy. De rash dey occur as a result of capillary damage by exotoxins wey be produced by *S. pyogenes*. On darker-pigmented skin de rash fi be hard to discern.

Scarlet fever dey develop insyd a small number of people wey get strep throat anaa streptococcal skin infections. De bacteria usually be spread by people wey dey cough anaa dey sneeze. E sanso be spread wen na a person touch an object wey get de bacteria for ein top den then touch dema mouth anaa nose. Dem typically confirm de diagnosis by culturing swabs of de throat.

Der be no vaccine for scarlet fever. Prevention be by frequent handwashing, no dey share personal items, den dey stay away from oda people wen sick. De disease be treatable plus antibiotics, wich dey reduce symptoms den spread, den prevent chaw complications. Outcomes plus scarlet fever typically be good if dem treat. Long-term complications as a result of scarlet fever dey include kidney disease, rheumatic fever, den arthritis.

Insyd de early 20th century, na scarlet fever be a leading cause of death insyd kiddies, buh even before World War II den de introduction of antibiotics, na ein severity already dey decline. Na dem suggest dis decline be secof better living conditions, de introduction of better control measures, anaa a decline insyd de virulence of de bacteria. Insyd recent years, na der be signs of antibiotic resistance; na der be an outbreak insyd Hong Kong insyd 2011 den insyd de UK insyd 2014, wey na de occurrence of de disease rise by 68% insyd de UK between 2014 den 2018. Na research dem publish insyd October 2020 show say na infection of de bacterium by three viruses lead to more virulent strains of de bacterium. 

## References


## External links
Kawasaki disease

**Kawasaki disease** (dem sanso know as **mucocutaneous lymph node syndrome**) be a syndrome of unknown cause wey dey result insyd a fever den mainly dey affect kiddies under 5 years of age. E be a form of vasculitis, insyd wich medium-sized blood vessels cam be inflamed thru out de body. De fever typically dey last for more dan five days wey e no be affected by usual medications. Oda common symptoms dey include large lymph nodes insyd de neck, a rash insyd de genital area, lips, palms, anaa soles of de feet, den red eyes. Within three weeks of de onset, de skin from de hands den feet fi peel, after wich recovery typically dey occur. De disease be de leading cause of acquired heart disease insyd kiddies insyd developed countries, wich dey include de formation of coronary artery aneurysms den myocarditis.

While de specific cause be unknown, dem dey think e result from an excessive immune response to particular infections insyd kiddies wey be genetically predisposed to those infections. E no be an infectious disease, wey be, e no dey spread between people. Diagnosis usually be based on a person ein signs den symptoms. Oda tests such as an ultrasound of de heart den blood tests fi support de diagnosis. Diagnosis for take into account chaw oda conditions wey fi present similar features, wey dey include scarlet fever den juvenile rheumatoid arthritis. Multisystem inflammatory syndrome insyd kiddies, a "Kawasaki-like" disease dem associate plus COVID-19, dey appear e get distinct features. Anoda disease wey originally fi be presented plus de same symptoms be measles. Dis be secof similar symptoms such as red eyes, persistent fever, den swollen hands/feet. However, Kawasaki disease no be spread de way measles fi be spread from person to person.

Typically, initial treatment of Kawasaki disease dey consist of high doses of aspirin den immunoglobulin. Usually, plus treatment, fever dey resolve within 24 hours den full recovery dey occur. If de coronary arteries be involved, ongoing treatment anaa surgery occasionally fi be required. Widout treatment, coronary artery aneurysms dey occur insyd up to 25% wey about 1% die. Plus treatment, de risk of death be reduced to 0.17%. People wey na dem get coronary artery aneurysms after Kawasaki disease dey require lifelong cardiological monitoring by specialized teams.

Kawasaki disease be rare. E dey affect between 8 den 67 per 100,000 people under de age of five except insyd Japan, wer e dey affect 124 per 100,000. Boys be more commonly affected dan girlies. Dem name de disorder after Japanese pediatrician Tomisaku Kawasaki, wey first describe am insyd 1967.

## References


## External links
Bronchitis

**Bronchitis** be inflammation of de bronchi (large den medium-sized airways) insyd de lungs wey dey cause coughing. Bronchitis usually dey begin as an infection insyd de nose, ears, throat, anaa sinuses. De infection then dey make ein way down to de bronchi. Symptoms dey include coughing up sputum, wheezing, shortness of breath, den chest pain. Bronchitis fi be acute anaa chronic.

Acute bronchitis usually get a cough wey dey last around three weeks, wey dem sanso know as a chest cold. Insyd more dan 90% of cases, de cause be a viral infection. Dese viruses fi be spread thru de air wen people cough anaa by direct contact. A small number of cases be caused by a bacterial infection such as *Mycoplasma pneumoniae* anaa *Bordetella pertussis*. Risk factors dey include exposure to tobacco smoke, dust, den oda air pollution. Treatment of acute bronchitis typically dey involve rest, paracetamol (acetaminophen), den nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to help plus de fever.

Chronic bronchitis be defined as a productive cough – one wey dey produce sputum – wey dey last for three months anaa more per year for at least two years. Chaw people plus chronic bronchitis sanso get chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Tobacco smoking be de most common cause, plus a number of oda factors such as air pollution den genetics dey play a smaller role. Treatments dey include quitting smoking, vaccinations, rehabilitation, den often inhaled bronchodilators den steroids. Sam people fi benefit from long-term oxygen therapy.

Acute bronchitis be one of de more common diseases. About 5% of adults den 6% of kiddies get at least one episode a year. Acute bronchitis be de most common type of bronchitis. By contrast insyd de United States, insyd 2018, na dem diagnose 9.3&nbsp;million people plus de less common chronic bronchitis. 

## References


## External links

* NIH entry on Bronchitis
* MedlinePlus entries on Acute bronchitis and Chronic bronchitis
* Mayo Clinic factsheet on bronchitis
Typhus

**Typhus**, dem sanso know as **typhus fever**, be a group of infectious diseases wey dey include epidemic typhus, scrub typhus, den murine typhus. Common symptoms such as fever, headache, den a rash typically dey begin one to two weeks after exposure.

De diseases be caused by specific types of bacterial infection. Epidemic typhus be caused by *Rickettsia prowazekii* wey be spread by body lice, scrub typhus be caused by *Orientia tsutsugamushi* wey be spread by chiggers, den murine typhus be caused by *Rickettsia typhi* wey be spread by fleas.

Na dem develop vaccines, buh none be commercially available. Prevention be achieved by reducing exposure to de organisms wey dey spread de disease. Treatment be plus de antibiotic doxycycline. Epidemic typhus generally dey occur insyd outbreaks wen poor sanitary conditions den crowding be present. While once common, e now be rare. Scrub typhus dey occur insyd Southeast Asia, Japan, den northern Australia. Murine typhus dey occur insyd tropical den subtropical areas of de world.

Na dem describe typhus since at least 1528. De name dey cam from de Greek  (τῦφος), wey dey mean 'hazy' anaa 'smoky' wey na dem commonly use am as a word for delusion, wey dey describe de state of mind of those wey be infected. While *typhoid* dey mean 'typhus-like', typhus den typhoid fever be distinct diseases wey different types of bacteria cause, de latter by specific strains of *Salmonella typhi*. However, insyd sam languages such as German, de term  dey mean 'typhoid fever', den de here-described typhus be called by anoda name, such as de language ein equivalent of 'lice fever'.

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Betel nut chewing

**Betel nut chewing**, dem sanso call **betel quid chewing** anaa **areca nut chewing**, be a practice insyd wich areca nuts (dem sanso call "betel nuts") be chewed togeda plus slaked lime den betel leaves for dema stimulant den narcotic effects, de primary psychoactive compound be arecoline. De practice be widespread insyd Southeast Asia, Micronesia, Island Melanesia, den South Asia. E sanso be found among both Han Chinese immigrants den indigenous peoples of Taiwan, Madagascar, den parts of southern China. Na dem introduce am to de Caribbean insyd colonial times.

De preparation dey combine de areca nut, slaked lime, den betel (Piper betle) leaves be known as a **betel quid** (dem sanso call ***paan*** anaa *pan* insyd South Asia), buh de exact composition of de mixture dey vary geographically. E sam times fi include oda substances for flavoring den to freshen de breath, like coconut, dates, sugar, menthol, saffron, cloves, aniseed, cardamom, den chaw odas. De areca nut fi be replaced plus tobacco anaa dem chew de two togeda, wey de betel leaves fi be excluded. Insyd West Papua, de leaf fi be replaced plus stem den inflorescence of de *Piper betle* plant. Dem no dey swallow de preparation buh dem dey spit am out after chewing. Chewing dey result in permanent red stains on de teeth after prolonged use. De spit from chewing betel nuts, wich sanso dey result in red stains, often be regarded as unhygienic den an eyesore insyd public facilities insyd certain countries.

Betel nut chewing be addictive den dey cause adverse health effects, mainly oral den esophageal cancers, den cardiovascular disease. Wen na dem chew am plus additional tobacco insyd ein preparation (like insyd gutka), der be an even higher risk, especially for oral den oropharyngeal cancers. Plus tobacco e sanso dey raise de risk of fatal coronary artery disease, fatal stroke, den adverse reproductive effects wey dey include stillbirth, premature birth den low birth weight.

De practice of betel nut chewing dey originate from Southeast Asia wer de plant ingredients be native. Na dem find de oldest evidence of betel nut chewing insyd a burial pit insyd de Duyong Cave site of de Philippines, an area wer na areca palms be native, dem date to around 4,630±250 BP. Ein diffusion closely be tied to de Neolithic expansion of de Austronesian peoples. Na dem spread am to de Indo-Pacific during prehistoric times, wey e reach Micronesia at 3,500 to 3,000 BP, Near Oceania at 3,400 to 3,000 BP; South India den Sri Lanka by 3,500 BP; Mainland Southeast Asia by 3,000 to 2,500 BP; Northern India by 1500 BP; den Madagascar by 600 BP. From India na e spread westwards to Persia den de Mediterranean. Na e be present insyd de Lapita culture, based on archaeological remains dem date from 3,600 to 2,500 BP, buh na dem no carry am into Polynesia. 

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* Nutritional composition of paan (archived 1 April 2011)
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Tourette syndrome

**Tourette syndrome** (**TS**), anaa simply **Tourette's**, be a common neurodevelopmental disorder wey dey begin insyd kiddie time anaa adolescence. E be characterized by chaw movement (motor) tics den at least one vocal (phonic) tic. Common tics be blinking, coughing, throat clearing, sniffing, den facial movements. Tics typically be preceded by an unwanted urge anaa sensation insyd de affected area dem know as a premonitory urge, sam times fi be suppressed temporarily, den characteristically change insyd location, strength, den frequency. Tourette's be at de more severe end of de spectrum of tic disorders. De tics often go unnoticed by casual observers.

Na dem once regard Tourette's as a rare de bizarre syndrome wey na e popularly be associate plus coprolalia (de utterance of obscene words anaa socially inappropriate den derogatory remarks). E no longer be considered rare; about 1% of school-age kiddies den adolescents be estimated to have Tourette's, Der be no specific tests give diagnosing Tourette's; e no always be correctly identified, secof chaw cases be mild, den de severity of tics dey decrease give chaw kiddies as dem dey pass thru adolescence. Therefore, chaw go undiagnosed anaa fi never seek medical attention. Extreme Tourette's insyd adulthood, often sensationalized insyd de media, be rare, buh for a small minority, severely debilitating tics fi persist into adulthood.

Der be no cure for Tourette's den no single most effective medication. Insyd chaw cases, medication for tics no be necessary, den behavioral therapies be de first-line treatment. Education be an important part of any treatment plan, den explanation alone often dey provide sufficient reassurance dat no oda treatment be necessary. Oda conditions, such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) den obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), be more likely to be present among those wey dem refer to specialty clinics dan dem be among de broader population of persons plus Tourette's. Dese co-occurring conditions often dey cause more impairment to de individual dan de tics; hence e be important to correctly distinguish co-occurring conditions den treat dem.

Na dem name Tourette syndrome by French neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot give ein intern, Georges Gilles de la Tourette, wey publish am insyd 1885 an account of nine patients plus a "convulsive tic disorder". While de exact cause be unknown, dem dey believe e dey involve a combination of genetic den environmental factors. De mechanism dey appear to involve dysfunction insyd neural circuits between de basal ganglia den related structures insyd de brain.

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Meloxicam

**Meloxicam**, dem sell under de brand name **Mobic** among odas, be a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) dem use to treat pain den inflammation insyd rheumatic diseases den osteoarthritis. Dem dey take am by mouth anaa e be given by injection into a vein. Dem dey recommend say e be used for as short a period as possible den at a low dose.

Common side effects dey include abdominal pain, dizziness, swelling, headache, den a rash. Serious side effects fi include heart disease, stroke, kidney problems, den stomach ulcers. Ein use no be recommended insyd de third trimester of pregnancy. E dey block cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) more dan e dey block cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1). E dey insyd de oxicam family of chemicals wey be closely related to piroxicam.

E be available as a generic medication. Insyd 2023, na e be de 27th most commonly prescribed medication insyd de United States, plus more dan 20million prescriptions. Na dem approve an intravenous version of meloxicam (Anjeso) for medical use insyd de United States insyd February 2020. Meloxicam be available in combination plus bupivacaine as bupivacaine/meloxicam den in combination plus rizatriptan as meloxicam/rizatriptan.

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Cyanide poisoning

**Cyanide poisoning** be poisoning wey dey result from exposure to any of a number of forms of cyanide. Early symptoms dey include headache, dizziness, fast heart rate, shortness of breath, den vomiting. Dis phase then fi be followed by seizures, slow heart rate, low blood pressure, loss of consciousness, den cardiac arrest. Onset of symptoms usually dey occur within a few minutes. Sam survivors get long-term neurological problems.

Toxic cyanide-containing compounds dey include hydrogen cyanide gas den cyanide salts, such as potassium cyanide. Poisoning relatively be common dey follow breathing in smoke from a house fire. Oda potential routes of exposure dey include workplaces involved insyd metal polishing, certain insecticides, de medication sodium nitroprusside, den certain seeds such as those of apples den apricots. Liquid forms of cyanide fi be absorbed thru de skin. Cyanide ions interfere plus cellular respiration, wey dey result in de body ein tissues be unable to use oxygen.

Diagnosis often be difficult. E fi be suspected insyd a person following a house fire wey na e get a decreased level of consciousness, low blood pressure, anaa high lactic acid. Blood levels of cyanide fi be measured buh take time. Levels of 0.5–1&nbsp;mg/L be mild, 1–2&nbsp;mg/L be moderate, 2–3&nbsp;mg/L be severe, den greater dan 3&nbsp;mg/L generally result in death.

If exposure be suspected, dem for remove de person from de source of de exposure den decontaminated. Treatment dey involve supportive care den giving de person 100% oxygen. Hydroxocobalamin (vitamin B12a) dey appear to be useful as an antidote wey be generally first-line. Dem sanso fi give sodium thiosulfate. Historically, na dem dey use cyanide for mass suicide wey na dem use am for genocide by de Nazis.

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X-linked intellectual disability

**X-linked intellectual disability** dey refer to medical disorders wey be associated plus X-linked recessive inheritance wey result in intellectual disability.

As plus chaw X-linked disorders, males be more heavily affected dan females. Females plus one affected X chromosome den one normal X chromosome tend to get milder symptoms.

Unlike chaw oda types of intellectual disability, de genetics of dese conditions relatively be well understood. Na dem estimate der be ~200 genes involved insyd dis syndrome; of dese ~na 100 be identified. Chaw of dese genes be found on de short 'p' arm of de chromosome, den duplications at Xp11.2 be associated plus de syndromic form of de condition.

X-linked intellectual disability dey account for ~16% of all cases of intellectual disability insyd males.

## Syndromes
Several X-linked syndromes dey include intellectual disability as part of de presentation. Dese include:

* Coffin–Lowry syndrome
* DDX3X syndrome
* MASA syndrome
* MECP2 duplication syndrome
* Mental retardation den microcephaly plus pontine den cerebellar hypoplasia
* X-linked alpha thalassemia mental retardation syndrome

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Pervasive developmental disorder

De diagnostic category **pervasive developmental disorders** (**PDD**), as opposed to specific developmental disorders (SDD), na e be a group of disorders wey be characterized by delays insyd de development of multiple basic functions wey dey include socialization den communication. Na e be defined by de Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) (from 1980 to 2013), den de International Classification of Diseases (ICD) (until 2022).

Na de pervasive developmental disorders include autism, Asperger syndrome, pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS), childhood disintegrative disorder (CDD), overactive disorder associated plus intellectual disability den stereotyped movements, den Rett syndrome. As of de publication of de DSM-5 insyd 2013, de first four of dese disorders now be known collectively as autism spectrum disorder; de last disorder be much rarer, wey na dem sam times place am on de autism spectrum den sam times not.

De onset of pervasive developmental disorders dey occur during infancy, buh a specific condition usually no be identified til de kiddie be around three years old. Parents fi begin to question de health of dema kiddie wen na dem no meet developmental milestones, wey dey include age appropriate motor movement den speech production.

Der be a division among doctors on de use of de term PDD. Chaw dey use de term PDD as a short way of saying PDD-NOS. Odas diagnose de general category label of PDD secof dem be hesitant to diagnose very young kiddies plus a specific type of PDD, such as autism. Both approaches contribute to confusion about de term, secof de term PDD be intended by ein coiners den major bodies to refer to a category of disorders wey e no be used as a diagnostic label. Na de fifth edition of de DSM remove PDD as a category of diagnoses, den largely replaced am plus ASD den a measure of de relative severity of de condition. De eleventh edition of de ICD sanso remove de category.

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* CDC's "Learn the Signs. Act Early." campaign - Information for parents on early childhood development and developmental disabilities
* NINFS Pervasive Developmental Disorders Information Page
Pentobarbital

**Pentobarbital** (US) anaa **pentobarbitone** (British den Australian) be a short-acting barbiturate dem typically use as a sedative, a preanesthetic, den to control convulsions insyd emergencies. E sanso fi be used for short-term treatment of insomnia buh na e largely be replaced by de benzodiazepine family of drugs.

Insyd high doses, pentobarbital dey cause death by respiratory arrest. Dem frequently dey use am for veterinary euthanasia, wey e be used by sam US states den de United States federal government for executions of convicted criminals by lethal injection. Insyd sam countries den states, e sanso be used for physician-assisted suicide.

Na Ernest H. Volwiler den Donalee L. Tabern develop pentobarbital at Abbott Laboratories insyd 1930. Na dem widely abuse de drug dey begin insyd de late 1930s, wey e be sam times known as "yellow jackets" secof de yellow color of Nembutal-branded capsules.

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