Atlantic slave trade

Na de **Atlantic slave trade** anaa **transatlantic slave trade** involve de transportation by slave traders of enslaved African people to de Americas. Na European slave ships regularly use de triangular trade route den ein Middle Passage. Na Europeans establish a coastal slave trade insyd de 15th century den trade to de Americas begin insyd de 16th century, wey dey last thru de 19th century. Na de vast majority of those wey be transported insyd de transatlantic slave trade komot Central Africa den West Africa wey na dem be sold by West African slave traders to European slave traders, while na dem capture odas directly by de slave traders insyd coastal raids. Na European slave traders gather den imprison de enslaved at forts for de African coast wey dem bring dem to de Americas. Na sam Portuguese den Europeans participate insyd slave raids. As de National Museums Liverpool dey explain: "Na European traders capture sam Africans insyd raids along de coast, buh dem buy chaw of dem from local African anaa African-European dealers." Na chaw European slave traders generally no participate insyd slave raids secof na life expectancy give Europeans insyd sub-Saharan Africa be less dan one year during de period of de slave trade secof malaria wey na e be endemic insyd de African continent. Na Portuguese coastal raiders find say na slave raiding be too costly den often ineffective wey dem opt for established commercial relations.

Na de colonial South Atlantic den Caribbean economies be particularly dependent for slave labour top for de production of sugarcane den oda commodities. Na dis be viewed as crucial by those Western European states wich na dem dey vie plus one anoda make dem create overseas empires. Na de Portuguese, insyd de 16th century, be de first make dem transport slaves across de Atlantic. Insyd 1526, na dem plete de first transatlantic slave voyage to Brazil, den oda Europeans soon follow. Na shipowners regard de slaves as cargo make dem be transported to de Americas as quickly den cheaply as possible, for der make dem sell dem make work for coffee, tobacco, cocoa, sugar, den cotton plantations, gold den silver mines, rice fields, de construction industry, cutting timber for ships, as skilled labour, den as domestic servants. Na dem classify de first enslaved Africans dem send to de English colonies as indentured servants, plus legal standing similar to dat of contract-based workers wey dey cam from Britain den Ireland. By de middle of de 17th century, na slavery harden as a racial caste, plus African slaves den dema future offspring be legally de property of dema owners, as na kiddies wey be born to slave mommies sanso be slaves (*partus sequitur ventrem*). As property, na dem consider de people merchandise anaa units of labour, wey na dem be sold for markets plus oda goods den services.

### Atlantic travel
De Atlantic slave trade business start after people for de "Old World" (that place wey we dey call Afro-Eurasia) and the "New World" (the Americas) start dey do trade. For hundreds of years, de way de sea water dey move (the tidal currents) make am very hard and risky for de ships wey dem get that time to travel on top de ocean. So, because of this thing, de people wey dey live for these different continents no get plenty contact through sea travel, some sef no get contact at all. But for de 15th century inside, Europe people come get new technology for sea travel, like de new ship wey dem invent call caravel. This thing make dem build better ships wey fit stand the sea current, so dem start dey fit cross the Atlantic Ocean. De Portugal people start one school wey dem call Navigator's School, but till today, people still dey argue whether this school dey true true, and even if e dey, dem no really know wetin e be. Between the year 1600 and 1800, like 300,000 sailors wey dey the slave trade business inside come West Africa. As dem dey do so, dem come meet different people for West Africa coast and for the Americas wey dem never see before in their life. One history man, Pierre Chaunu, call the result of this Europe people their sea travel "disenclavement". E mean say, some people wey bin dey their one corner come stop dey lonely, and for most of the other people, the contact wey dem get with other people come plenty pass before.

One history man, John Thornton, talk say, "Plenty technical and geographical things join body make am be like say na Europe people pɛ go fit explore de Atlantic and start trade for there". He talk say de things wey push dem be say, dem dey find new ways to make money through trade wey no dey Europe inside. Plus, dem want make their own trade routes wey de Muslim Ottoman Empire for Middle East no go control. Dem see this Ottoman Empire people as threat to their business, their power, and their Christian religion for Europe. Especially, de Europe traders want trade gold wey dem fit get for West Africa, and dem want find sea route go "de Indies" (India), where dem fit trade fine fine things like spices without say dem go buy am from de Middle East Islamic traders. De Portugal sea-men use caravel ships travel go south for de West African coast, and for 1462, dem go colonize Cape Verde. For de first time wey de Europe people start dey colonize places, even though na de Iberian conquistadors (wey be people from Spain and Portugal side) dey lead de first travels for de Atlantic sea top, people from plenty other Europe countries join body. Sailors from Spain, Portugal, France, England, de Italian states, and Netherlands all dey inside. Because plenty different people dey inside, e make Thornton talk say de first "exploration of de Atlantic" be like "international work true true, even if na de Iberian kings and queens sponsor de money for de big big discoveries wey dem make". But because dem lead, e later make people start dey talk lie lie say "na only de Iberia people lead de exploration". De way de Europe people spread go other countries make de Old and New Worlds come meet, and dis thing born de Columbian Exchange, wey dem name am after de Italian explorer, Christopher Columbus. E start de world silver trade from de 16th go reach de 18th century, and e make de Europe people go involve demself direct for de Chinese porcelain trade. E involve say dem carry goods wey dey one side of de world go de other side. De Europe people carry cattle, horses, and sheep go de New World, and from de New World, de Europe people get tobacco, potatoes, tomatoes, and maize. Other things wey come get value for de world trade be de tobacco, sugarcane, and cotton wey dem dey grow for de Americas, plus de gold and silver wey dem carry from de American continent no be only go Europe, but other places for de Old World inside.

### European colonization and slavery in West-Central Africa
Di Atlantic slave trade begin for 1441 when two Portuguese explorers, Nuno Tristão and António Gonçalves, waka go Mauritania for West Africa, kidnap twelve Africans come back give Portugal, present dem as gifts to Prince Henry di Navigator. By 1460, every year, dem dey carry seven hundred to eight hundred Africans enter Portugal. For Portugal, di Africans na dem house servants. From 1460 to 1500, as Portugal and Spain dey build forts for West Africa coast, di removal of Africans increase. By 1500, about 50,000 West Africans don enter Portugal and Spain. Di Africans dey work as house servants, artisans, and farmers. Some also dey work for sugar plantations for di Azores, Madeira, Canary, and Cape Verde islands. Di Europeans dey participate for African enslavement because dem need labor, profit, and religious reasons..As dem dey discover new lands through dem naval explorations, di European colonisers start to migrate and settle for lands wey no be dem own. Off di coast of Africa, under di Kingdom of Castile guidance, European migrants invade and colonise di Canary Islands for di 15th century, turn plenty land to produce wine and sugar. Dem also capture native Canary Islanders, di Guanches, use dem as slaves for di Islands and across di Christian Mediterranean.
After Portugal and Spain dey chop well for slave trade, more European countries waka follow. For 1530, one English merchant wey dey from Plymouth, William Hawkins, go Guinea Coast come back with small slaves. For 1564, im pikin John Hawkins, waka go Guinea Coast too, and Queen Elizabeth I support im journey. But John later turn pirate, steal 300 Africans from one Spanish slave ship after e try grab Africans for Guinea but plenty of im men die after wahala with the local people.

As historian John Thornton talk, "the real reason for European expansion and navigation improvement be just to catch quick money by raiding and taking trade goods". Using Canary Islands as dem base, Europeans, wey mostly be Portuguese traders, start to move their business down the western coast of Africa, dey raid wey them go capture slaves to sell later for Mediterranean. Although dem dey do well at first, "it no take time before African naval forces sabi say danger don dey show, and Portuguese [raiding] ships start to face strong wahala", lots of their crews die by African sailors wey get better boats to handle west-central African waters and rivers.

By 1494, di Portuguese king don enter deal with plenty West African rulers wey go fit make trade dey happen between dem peoples, make di Portuguese fit chop from di commercial economy wey African get... without wahala. "Peaceful trade be di norm for di African coast", although sometimes e go dey gree small wahala wey fit lead to palava. For example, di Portuguese traders try conquer Bissagos Islands for 1535. For 1571, Portugal, wey Kongo dey support, take over di south-west region of Angola to secure dem economic interest wey dey suffer small. Even though Kongo later join force for 1591 to push di Portuguese commot, dem don already secure ground for di continent wey dem dey hold till 20th century. Although dem get small fight between African and European forces sometimes, plenty African states make sure say any trade dey happen on dem own terms, for example, dem dey collect custom duties from foreign ships. For 1525, di Kongolese King Afonso I seize one French boat and di crew wey dey trade illegal for him coast. Afonso even complain to di king of Portugal say Portuguese slave traders dey carry him people run away, wey dey spoil him kingdom population. Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba, wey be queen of di Ambundu Kingdoms of Ndongo (1624–1663) and Matamba (1631–1663) for di Angola wey dey today, fight long war against di Portuguese Empire wey dey expand. At first, Nzinga gree make di Portuguese come. She convert to Christianity and change di Ndongo Kingdom to be middleman for slave trade, instead of di place wey dem go take slaves. Dis one even help her get powerful ally against hostile African Kingdoms, but di Portuguese no gree leave her kingdom, dey wan expand di slave trade and set settlements..

Nzinga talk say make dem stop the raids, but the Portuguese still declare war on Ndongo for 1626. Nzinga welcome runaway slaves wey run from Portuguese side and gather military wey dem call kilombo to fight the Portuguese. Within two years, Nzinga army lose and she run go exile. Later, she conquer Matamba Kingdom and join forces with Dutch West India Company and some rival African states. With their help, Nzinga fit take back plenty part of Ndongo from 1641 to 1647. Nzinga no stop to fight the Portuguese until dem sign peace treaty for 1656. Historians dey argue plenty about how these African kingdoms and European traders relate. Guyanese historian Walter Rodney talk say the relationship no balance, as Africans dey forced enter 'colonial' trade with Europeans wey dey better economically, exchanging raw materials and people (like slaves) for goods wey dem make. He argue say this economic trade matter wey start from 16th century make Africa dey underdeveloped for him time. Other historians like Ralph Austen back am too. But John Thornton come challenge this unequal relationship talk for 1998, him argue say 'the Atlantic slave trade no be as important to African economy like dem scholars think' and 'African manufacturing for that time fit handle competition from preindustrial Europe.' Anne Bailey, when she dey comment on Thornton’s talk say Africans and Europeans be equal partners for the Atlantic slave trade, she write:

### European slavery in Portugal and Spain
By 15th century finish, this *slavery matter* no be new thing for dat *Iberian Peninsula* place (wey be Portugal and Spain) for Western Europe. E dey dere since way dem write history come. Dat *Roman Empire* people, dem don already set dem own *slavery system* for long time ago.One historian, ein name be *Benjamin Isaac*, ein talk say some *proto-racism* dey already for dem *Greco-Roman people* for olden days. Dem dey hate pipo based on dem skin color or tribe wey no be dem own, dem dey make dem look like animals wey dem go catch for war.

Since *Western Roman Empire* fall, many many *slavery systems* continue for inside dem new Islamic and Christian kingdoms for dat place, right into de early modern time wey de *Atlantic slave trade* start. For 1441 to 1444, some Portuguese traders, dem go catch Africans for de Atlantic coast of Africa, for where we dey call Mauritania today. Dem carry dem pipo go sell as slaves for Europe, and dem build one fort for de slave trade for *Bay of Arguin*.*Map of Spanish Empire (red) and Portuguese Empires (blue) when dem join forces (1581–1640)*For *Middle Ages* time, religion wey be pesin own God wey dem dey serve, no be pesin skin color, wey dey decide who dem fit catch for slave. If you be Christian, you no fit sell Christian as slave. If you be Muslim, you no fit sell Muslim as slave. But if you be like say you no believe dem God or your religion no dey correct, den dem fit catch you. Like how Catholic Christians fit sell Orthodox Christians as slave, and Sunni Muslims fit sell Shia Muslims as slave.

Both Christians and Muslims, dem all agree say dem fit catch *pagans* (pipo wey no follow dem religion) as slave. Dem pagans come be de best and profitable pipo to catch for slave trade for de Middle Ages: Dem give Spain and Portugal non-Catholic slaves from Eastern Europe, through de *Balkan slave trade* and de *Black Sea slave trade*.For 15th century, when *Ottoman Empire* take over de Balkan slave trade, and de *Crimean slave trade* come replace de Black Sea slave trade and close am from Europe, Spain and Portugal, dem come find new source for slaves. First, dem go carry slaves from de *Canary Islands* wey dem conquer, then later from mainland Africa. Dis one, initially, e come from *Arab slave traders*, through de *Trans-Saharan slave trade* from Libya. After that, e come straight from de African West coast through Portuguese small small camps, wey later turn to de big *Atlantic slave trade*. Dis one come blow pass all when dem go establish colonies for Americas for 1492.

Long, long time ago, around de 15th century, Spain make one serious law dem call am *limpieza de sangre*. Dat one mean say "blood clean" or "pure blood" like dat. E be some kind early racism law. Dis law no make pipo wey get Jewish or Muslim family go stay for the New World (America dem side).Even if you be Jew or Muslim wey you say you don turn Catholic, dis *limpieza de sangre* law no go guarantee say you go get your rights. Pipo wey be Jew wey turn Catholic dem call dem *conversos*, and pipo wey be Muslim wey turn Catholic dem call dem *moriscos*. Some of dem just turn Christian den dey hope say e go make dem get rights under Spain laws.After dem find new lands for across the big ocean (Atlantic), Spain no want say Jews and Muslims go come America because the Spain King dem dey fear say Muslims and pipo wey no be Christian fit go teach Islam and other religions give the Native Americans (the pipo wey dey there already). Dis law too make dem carry Jews and Muslims go be slaves, e no make Jews enter Spain at all, and e stop dem from join army, go university or do other government work.

Even though Jewish *conversos* den Muslims dey suffer bad bad from dis church and race discrimination, some of dem too dey take part for de slave trade of Africans. For Lisbon (some city for Portugal) around de 1500s and 1600s, Muslims wey Jewish *conversos* give dem money, dem dey trade Africans across the big desert (Sahara Desert) and dey make Africans slaves. Dem do am before and during de Atlantic slave trade both for Europe and for Africa. For New Spain (America dem side), the Spaniards (pipo from Spain) dem apply that same *limpieza de sangre* law give Africans and Native Americans. Dem come create some kind race system for pipo, because dem believe say Africans and Native Americans no be pure since dem no be Christian.

Europe pipo dem dey make Muslims and pipo wey dey do other religions turn slaves, just because dem want say dem go become Christian. For 1452, Pope Nicholas V come release one church order dem call am *papal bull Dum Diversas*. Dat one give de King of Portugal de power to make pipo wey no be Christian turn slaves for life. Dis order include de Muslims wey dey West Africa, and e make de Catholic church say de slave trade dey alright. Den for 1454, Pope Nicholas come release another one dem call am *Romanus Pontifex*. Dem write am after *Dum Diversas*, and *Romanus Pontifex* allow de Europe Catholic nations dem to go take more land wey dem 'discover'. Dem go say dem get right to hold de non-Christian lands, and to make de native, non-Christian 'pagans' for Africa and de 'New World' turn slaves. Dem talk say *Dum Diversas* and *Romanus Pontifex* fit don get hand for de way dem create ideas wey support nations dem building big big empires.

For 1493, de *Doctrine of Discovery* wey Pope Alexander VI release, dem use am say dat be de reason why Spain go take lands from pipo wey no be Christian for de West side of de Azores. De *Doctrine of Discovery* talk say pipo wey be Christian nations dem for go take de non-Christian lands and rule dem. And de Indigenous pipo (Africans and Native Americans) wey dey live for deir own lands, dem for turn Christian. For 1493, Pope Alexander VI come release one church order dem call am *Inter Caetera*. Dat one give Spain and Portugal de power to say dem get right to claim and colonize all de non-Christian lands wey dey de Americas, and to make Native Americans and Africans turn slaves. *Inter Caetera* too, e settle one problem wey dey between Portugal and Spain about those lands. De declaration talk say dem go divide de lands from north to south, 100 leagues (be like some distance measurement) for de West side of de Cape Verde Islands. And e give de Spain King de sole power to travel and trade for de West side of dat line.

For Portugal and Spain, pipo dem bin dey make dem slaves because of deir religion, not because of deir skin color or race like dat; but by de 1400s, Europe pipo come dey use both race and religion to justify say dem for make Africans from de south of Sahara Desert turn slaves. De number of African pipo wey dem make slaves from Senegal come increase for de Iberian Peninsula (dat be Spain and Portugal side) for de 1400s. As de number of Senegalese slaves come grow plenty, Europe pipo come create new names wey dey connect slavery with skin color. De Spanish city of Seville get de most African pipo. And ¨de 'Treaty of Alcáçovas' for 1479 give de traders de right to supply de Spaniards with Africans¨.

For de 1400s too, one big church man dem call am Annius of Viterbo, he be like a Dominican friar. He come talk about de 'curse of Ham' from de Bible story of pipo wey dem make slaves. He use am to try explain de difference between Europe pipo and Africans for his books. Annius, de man wey dey always write about say Christians dem be better pass de 'Saracens' (dat be like Muslims back then), he claim say because of de curse wey dey on de Black pipo, dem go forever dey under Arabs and other Muslims. He write say de fact say plenty Africans dem bin turn slaves even by those Muslims wey dem say deir religion no straight, e be like proof say Black pipo no be good like dat. Through these writings and other ones, Europe writers come make some connection wey nobody bin hear before, between some cursed pipo, Africa, and slavery. Dat one come be de main idea to justify why de transatlantic slave trade go continue. De word 'race' de English pipo start to use am from de 1500s, and e dey refer to family, lineage, or breed. De idea of race continue to grow through de centuries and dem use am as a reason to continue de slave trade and make pipo suffer because of deir skin color.

### African slavery
Slavery dey common for plenty places inside Africa for many centuries, long before de Atlantic slave trade even come start.Slavery be very important for de way Africa pipo dey do deir economy, but how much e matter and how dem dey treat de slaves, dat one bin dey different plenty for different different societies. 

Millions of Africans wey dem make slaves, dem carry dem go other parts of Africa, or dem export dem go Europe and Asia, long before de Atlantic slave trade and de time Europe pipo come colonize de Americas. De Trans-Saharan slave trade, dat be de one across de big Sahara desert, e bin dey work since de olden days, and e continue like dat until de 1900s. For de year 652, de Rashidun Caliphate wey dey Egypt, dem make one law say de Christian Kingdom of Makuria for dey pay tribute of 400 slaves every year. Dat one be part of de Baqt treaty, and e bin dey for many centuries. Dat trade bin dey supply Africans for slavery inside de Rashidun Caliphate (from 632 to 661), de Umayyad Caliphate (from 661 to 750), de Abbasid Caliphate (from 750 to 1258), and de Mamluk Sultanate (from 1258 to 1517).

De Atlantic slave trade no be de only slave trade wey come from Africa; as Elikia M'bokolo write inside *Le Monde diplomatique* newspaper, he talk say:

De African continent, pipo just dey take all de human resources from inside, through all de ways dem fit find. From across de Sahara desert, through de Red Sea, from de Indian Ocean ports, den across de Atlantic Ocean. At least one thousand years of slavery for de benefit of de Muslim countries (from de 800s to de 1800s)... Four million slaves dem carry go out through de Red Sea, another four million through de Swahili ports for de Indian Ocean side. Maybe as many as nine million pipo dem carry along de trans-Saharan caravan road, and then between eleven to twenty million (e depend on who write de book) dem carry across de Atlantic Ocean.

Dem dey march slaves, with chains for deir hands and legs, go reach de coasts of Sudan, Ethiopia, and Somali. From there, dem go put dem inside 'dhows' (be like small small boats) and dey carry dem pass across de Indian Ocean go reach de Gulf of Aden.Other ones, dem go carry dem across de Red Sea go Arabia and Aden. If any slave get sick, dem go just throw am inside de water. Or dem go march dem across de big Sahara desert, through de Trans-Saharan slave trade road go reach de Nile. Plenty of dem dey die because of de hot sun or deir feet go swell up along de road.

De number dem dey guess, e no too accurate, so e fit affect how dem compare de different different slave trades. Two rough guesses wey scholars dem give about de number of African slaves dem hold for over one thousand two hundred years inside de Muslim countries, be like 11.5 million and 14 million. Other guesses too dey show say de number be between 12 and 15 million African slaves before de 1900s.

According to John K. Thornton, Europe pipo dem dey always buy slaves wey dem catch dem from de endless wars wey dey between African countries. Some African pipo dem make business out of catching pipo from wars or pipo from deir neighbor tribes, and dem dey sell dem. Dem get record of dis matter for one debate wey happen for de British Parliament for 1806: 'All de old writers dem... all dey agree say wars no be only for making slaves, but Europe pipo dey cause de wars to happen, just because dem want slaves.' Pipo wey dey live around de Niger River, dem go carry dem from these markets go de coast and sell dem for Europe trading places. Dem dey exchange de pipo for guns and other things wey dem manufacture, like cloth or alcohol. De fact say Europe pipo dey want slaves plenty, e give de existing slave trade a new and bigger market. While pipo wey dem make slaves inside deir own part of Africa fit hope to run away, those wey dem ship go far away get small chance to come back to deir homeland.

### European colonization and slavery in West-Central Africa
De Atlantic slave trading of Africans, e start for 1441. Two Portugal pipo wey dey explore, dem be Nuno Tristão den António Gonçalves, dem be de ones wey start am. Tristão and Gonçalves dem sail go Mauritania inside West Africa. Dem go there go kidnap twelve Africans and dem come back to Portugal. Dem give de Africans wey dem catch as gifts to Prince Henry de Navigator. By 1460, seven hundred to eight hundred African pipo dem dey take dem every year den dey bring dem inside Portugal. For Portugal, de Africans wey dem take, dem dey use dem as house workers. From 1460 to 1500, de taking of Africans increase as Portugal and Spain dem build forts (be like strong strong buildings) along de coast of West Africa. By 1500, Portugal and Spain dem bin don take about 50,000 West Africans. De Africans dem dey work as house workers, artisans (like skilled pipo wey dey make things with deir hands), and farmers. Other Africans dem take dem go work for de sugar plantations (be like big farms for sugar cane) for de Azores, Madeira, Canary, and Cape Verde islands. Europe pipo dem dey take part for making Africans slaves because dem need pipo to work, dem want money, and dem get deir religious reasons too.

As Europe pipo dem dey discover new new lands through deir sea travels, de colonizers dem no waste time; dem start to move go stay for lands outside deir own continent. For de coast of Africa, Europe pipo dem, under de orders of de Kingdom of Castile, dem go invade and colonize de Canary Islands for de 1400s. There, dem change plenty of de land go for de production of wine and sugar. Alongside dat, dem too catch de native Canary Islanders, de Guanches, to use dem as slaves both for de Islands and across de Christian Mediterranean side.

After Portugal and Spain pipo dem get success for de slave trade, other Europe nations come follow dem. For 1530, one English merchant from Plymouth, de name be William Hawkins, he go visit de Guinea Coast. He come back with small small slaves. For 1564, Hawkin's son, John Hawkins, he sail go de Guinea Coast and Queen Elizabeth I support his journey. Later, John turn to piracy (be like thief for sea). He go steal 300 Africans from one Spanish slave ship after he no get success for Guinea when he dey try to catch Africans. Dis be sake of plenty of ein men die after dem fight with de local Africans.

As de historian John Thornton talk, he say, 'de main reason why Europe pipo dem dey expand and find new ways to sail, be just to get money sharp sharp. Dem go attack and take or buy trade things.' So, dem dey use de Canary Islands as deir naval base (be like army station for sea), Europe pipo dem, especially Portugal traders back then, dem start to carry deir business go down de western coast of Africa. Dem dey go do raids (be like sudden attacks) wey dem go catch slaves to go sell dem for de Mediterranean side later. Even though de thing bin dey work for dem at first, 'e no take long before African navy pipo dem know about de new danger, and de Portugal [raiding] ships dem start to meet strong and good resistance.' De pipo wey dey inside some of deir ships, African sailors kill dem. Dis be because African boats dem be better for traveling for de west-central African coasts and de river systems.

By 1494, de King of Portugal don make agreements with de rulers of some West African countries. Dat one go allow deir pipo dem to trade with each other, and e make de Portugal pipo fit 'enter inside' de 'good good business economy wey don dey for Africa'... without dem needing to fight at all. 'Peaceful trade come be de normal thing all along de African coast,' even though small small times, some bad bad acts come cause violence. For example, Portugal traders dem try to conquer de Bissagos Islands for 1535. 

For 1571, Portugal pipo dem, with de help of de Kingdom of Kongo, dem go take control of de south-western side of Angola. Dem do am because dem want to protect deir business wey dey suffer for dat area. Even though Kongo later come join other pipo for 1591 to fight and force de Portugal pipo to comot, Portugal dem don get foothold for de continent. Dat be why dem continue to stay there until de 1900s. Despite all these small small fights wey dey happen between African forces and Europe forces, plenty African countries make sure say any trade wey dem dey do go be on deir own terms. For example, dem dey collect money from foreign ships as custom duties. For 1525, de Kongolese King Afonso I go seize one French ship and de pipo wey dey inside, just because dem dey do illegal trade on his coast. On top of dat, Afonso go complain to de king of Portugal say Portugal slave traders dem dey continue to kidnap his pipo, and dat one dey make de pipo for his kingdom reduce.

Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba, de woman wey rule as queen for de Ambundu Kingdoms of Ndongo (from 1624 to 1663) and Matamba (from 1631 to 1663) for where Angola dey now, she fight one long war against de way de Portugal Empire dey try to expand deir power. At first, Nzinga try to settle with de Portugal pipo. She turn Christian and she change de Ndongo Kingdom to be like de pipo wey dey help with de slave trade, instead of de place where dem dey take slaves from. Dis one too give her one strong ally (be like friend) to fight de neighbor African Kingdoms wey no be good to her. But de Portugal pipo dem continue to enter inside her Kingdom to expand de slave trade and build deir own settlements (be like towns).

Nzinga talk say make de raids stop, but de Portugal pipo declare war on Ndongo for 1626. Nzinga allow runaway slaves from de Portugal controlled place to hide for her side. And she organize one army dem call am 'kilombo' to fight against de Portugal pipo. Inside two years, Nzinga's army lose and she go hide for another place (exile). Later, she go conquer de Kingdom of Matamba and come make alliance (be like friendship deal) with de Dutch West India Company and other African countries wey dem bin dey fight before. With deir help, Nzinga fit take back plenty parts of Ndongo between 1641 and 1647. Nzinga continue to fight de Portugal pipo until dem sign one peace treaty for 1656.

Historians dem don argue plenty plenty about how de relationship between these African kingdoms and de Europe traders dem bin be. De Guyanese historian, Walter Rodney (for 1972), he talk say de relationship no be equal at all. He say African pipo dem bin dey forced to do some 'colonial' trade with de Europe pipo wey dem get more money and deir economy be well developed. He talk say dem dey exchange raw materials and human beings (dat be slaves) for manufactured goods (things wey dem don make). He argue say dis economic trade agreement wey start from de 1500s, e be de one wey make Africa no develop for ein time. Other historians too, like Ralph Austen (for 1987), dem support these ideas. But John Thornton (for 1998) no agree with dis idea of unequal relationship. He talk say 'de Atlantic slave trade no be as important to de African economy as these scholars believe' and say 'African manufacturing [for dis time] fit handle competition from Europe wey dem never start big industries yet.' However, Anne Bailey, when she dey comment on Thornton's talk say Africans and Europeans be equal partners for de Atlantic slave trade, she write say: To see Africans as partners, e mean say dem dey on equal terms and dem get equal power for how de trade dey go for de whole world and between de continents. Africans bin get plenty power for de continent itself, but dem no get direct power over de pipo wey dey control de trade. Dem no control de big big money companies, de shipping and insurance companies for Europe and America, or de big farms dem for de Americas. Dem no get any power over de factories wey dem dey build for de West.

## 16th, 17th, den 18th centuries

### Slave market regions den participation

Na Europeans go buy den ship slaves to de Western Hemisphere from markets across West Africa. Na de number of enslaved people dem sell to de New World vary thru out de slave trade. As for de distribution of slaves from regions of activity, na certain areas produce far more enslaved people dan odas. Between 1650 den 1900, na 10.2&nbsp;million enslaved Africans arrive insyd de Americas from de following regions insyd de following proportions:
* Senegambia (Senegal den the Gambia): 4.8%
* Upper Guinea (Guinea-Bissau, Guinea den Sierra Leone): 4.1%
* Windward Coast (Liberia den Ivory Coast): 1.8%
* Gold Coast (Ghana den east of Ivory Coast): 10.4%
* Bight of Benin (Togo, Benin den Nigeria west of de Niger Delta): 20.2%
* Bight of Biafra (Nigeria east of de Niger Delta, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea den Gabon): 14.6%
* West Central Africa (Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo den Angola): 39.4%
* Southeastern Africa (Mozambique den Madagascar): 4.7%

Although na de slave trade be largely global, na der be considerable intracontinental slave trade insyd wich na dem enslave 8 million people within de African continent. Of those na wey no move out of Africa, na dem force out 8 million of Eastern Africa make dem send dem to Asia.

For de time wey de first Atlantic slave trade bin dey go, most of de pipo wey dey carry slaves bin be Portugal pipo. Dat one make dem be like de only ones wey dey do de business. De 1494 'Treaty of Tordesillas' be very important, because e no allow Spanish ships to enter African ports. So Spain bin get to depend on Portugal ships and deir sailors to carry de slaves across de Atlantic. From 1525, dem start to carry slaves direct from de Portugal colony for Sao Tomé, across de Atlantic, go reach Hispaniola.

Some burial place for Campeche, Mexico, e dey show say dem bring African slaves there not too long after Hernán Cortés finish conquering de Aztec and Mayan pipo for Mexico in 1519. De graveyard, pipo dey use am from around 1550 reach de late 17th century.

For 1562, John Hawkins go catch Africans for where Sierra Leone dey now, and he take 300 pipo go sell for de Caribbean side.For 1564, he come do de same thing again, dis time he use Queen Elizabeth de first her own ship, 'Jesus of Lübeck'. After dat, plenty English pipo deir journeys follow.

Around 1560, de Portugal pipo dem start to do regular slave trade go Brazil. From 1580 reach 1640, Portugal and Spain dem join together for a small time, dem call am de Iberian Union. Most of de Portugal pipo wey dey do contract and get de 'asiento' (be like license for slave trade) between 1580 and 1640, dem all be 'conversos' (dat be pipo wey be Jews but turn Christian). For Portugal merchants, plenty of dem be 'New Christians' or deir grand-pikin dem. De joining of de two countries give dem business opportunities for de slave trade go Spanish America.

Until de middle of de 1600s, Mexico bin be de biggest single market for slaves inside Spanish America. While de Portugal pipo dem bin dey direct involved in trading slaves to Brazil, de Spanish Empire dem bin dey rely on de 'Asiento de Negros' system. Dat one be like dem dey give license to (Catholic) Genoese merchant bankers to trade slaves from Africa go deir colonies inside Spanish America. Cartagena, Veracruz, Buenos Aires, and Hispaniola dem bin dey receive de most slaves wey dey arrive, mainly from Angola. Dis sharing of de slave trade between Spain and Portugal no make de British and de Dutch pipo dem happy, because dem too don invest plenty for de British West Indies and Dutch Brazil wey dey produce sugar. After de Iberian Union scatter, Spain stop Portugal from direct engaging in de slave trade as a carrier. According to de Treaty of Münster, de slave trade open up for de pipo wey dey always be enemies to Spain. So Spain lose plenty of de trade to de Dutch, de French, and de English. For 150 years, Spanish transatlantic traffic bin dey operate at very small levels. For many years, not even one Spanish slave journey start from Africa. Unlike all de other pipo wey dey compete with dem for empire, de Spanish pipo almost never deliver slaves to other countries' territories. But for de British, and before them de Dutch, dem dey sell slaves everywhere inside de Americas.

De second Atlantic system, dat one be de trade of African slaves wey mostly English, French, and Dutch traders and pipo wey get money bin dey do. De main places wey de slaves bin dey go for dis time be de Caribbean islands dem like Curaçao, Jamaica, and Martinique. Dis be as Europe nations dem bin dey build colonies for de New World wey deir money bin dey depend on slaves. For 1672, dem come form de Royal Africa Company. And for 1674, de New West India Company come enter de slave trade deep inside. From 1677, de Compagnie du Sénégal, dem use Gorée to keep de slaves inside. De Spanish pipo dem propose say dem go get de slaves from Cape Verde, wey e dey close to de line wey divide de Spanish and Portugal empire, but dat one go against de WIC-charter (be like deir rules and regulations). De Royal African Company dem bin dey always refuse to deliver slaves to Spanish colonies, even though dem bin dey sell dem to anybody wey go come buy from deir factories for Kingston, Jamaica, and Bridgetown, Barbados. For 1682, Spain allow governors from Havana, Porto Bello, Panama, and Cartagena, Colombia, to go get slaves from Jamaica.

By de 1690s, de English pipo dem bin dey ship de most slaves from West Africa. By de 1700s, Portugal deir Angola side come be one of de main places wey de Atlantic slave trade dey come from again. After de 'War of de Spanish Succession' finish, as part of de agreements for de 'Treaty of Utrecht' (for 1713), dem give de 'Asiento' (dat be de license for slave trade) to de South Sea Company. Even though de 'South Sea Bubble' happen (be like some big money problem), de British pipo dem hold deir position for de 1700s. Dem come be de biggest pipo wey dey ship slaves across de Atlantic. Dem dey estimate say pass half of de whole slave trade happen inside de 1700s. De Portugal, British, and French pipo dem be de main pipo wey dey carry nine out of ten slaves wey dem kidnap from Africa. For dat time, pipo bin dey see slave trading as very important for Europe's sea economy. As one English slave trader talk, he say: 'Ah, dis trade! E get plenty glory and advantage... E be de main thing wey all de trade for dis whole world dey move on.'

Meanwhile, de thing come turn business for private companies dem, so e reduce de international problems. After 1790, de captains dem bin dey usually check slave prices for at least two of de big markets like Kingston, Havana, and Charleston, South Carolina (where de prices bin be de same by den). Dem go do dat before dem decide where to sell de slaves. For de last sixteen years of de transatlantic slave trade, Spain be de only empire wey dey do transatlantic slave trading.

After de British dem pass deir 'Slave Trade Act' for 1807, and de U.S. too ban de African slave trade for de same year, de thing come slow down. But de time after dat still count for 28.5% of all de Atlantic slave trade wey dem do. Between 1810 and 1860, pass 3.5 million slaves dem transport, with 850,000 of dem for de 1820s.

### Triangular trade
De first side of de triangle be de way dem dey export goods from Europe to Africa. Plenty African kings and merchants dem take part in de trading of slaves from 1440 reach around 1833. For each person wey dem catch, de African rulers dem go receive different different goods from Europe. These things include guns, bullets, alcohol, Indian cloths wey dem dye with indigo, and other factory-made things. De second leg of de triangle export de African slaves across de Atlantic Ocean go de Americas and de Caribbean Islands. De third and final part of de triangle be de return of goods to Europe from de Americas. De goods dem be de products from de slave farms (plantations), and e include cotton, sugar, tobacco, molasses (be like thick sugar syrup) and rum. Sir John Hawkins, de pipo dem see am as de pioneer (de first person to start) de English slave trade. He be de first person to run de triangular trade, and he dey make profit for every stop.

### Labour den slavery
De Atlantic slave trade, e happen because of different different reasons. One of de main ones be say pipo to work no dey enough. Dis shortage of pipo to work, e come happen because Europe colonizers dem want to take advantage of de New World land and de things inside to make plenty money. At first, dem dey use de native pipo (dem wey dey de land already) as slave workers until plenty of dem die because of too much work and sicknesses wey come from Europe. For de mid-16th century, de Spanish pipo deir 'New Laws' come stop de enslavement of de native pipo. So, pipo to work come reduce. Other ways to get pipo to work, like 'indentured servitude' (be like pipo wey dey work for some years to pay debt), dem no fit provide enough workers. Plenty crops dem no fit sell for profit, or even grow am for Europe. Carrying crops and goods from de New World go Europe, dey always prove to be more profitable pass making dem for Europe mainland. Plenty plenty pipo to work dey needed to create and keep de big farms (plantations) wey need plenty hard work to grow, harvest, and process de tropical crops wey dem value. So, West Africa (part of am come be known as 'de Slave Coast'), Angola and de kingdoms wey dey close, and later Central Africa, dem come be de source for slaves to meet de demand for pipo to work.

De main reason why workers no dey always enough be say, because plenty cheap land dey available and plenty land owners dey search for pipo to work, de Europe pipo wey dem come free, dem go fit become land owners demselves fast fast. Dat one come make de need for workers increase. So, de English, French, and Portugal pipo dem, dem use African slave labour to meet de shortage of workers.

Thomas Jefferson talk say de reason why dem dey use slave labour be partly because of de climate. And because of dat, pipo wey get slaves just dey get idle time to relax. He talk say: 'For some warm place, no man go work for himself if he fit make another person work for him. Dis one be so true, say from all de pipo wey get slaves, very few of dem you go ever see dem dey work.' For 2015, one economist dem call her Elena Esposito, she argue say de reason why dem make Africans slaves for colonial America be say de American south side be warm and wet enough for malaria to grow well. De sickness dey make de Europe settlers dem weak too much. But for de Africans wey dem make slaves, plenty of dem come from parts of Africa wey get strong strong malaria sickness, so de Africans dem don develop natural power to fight de malaria already. Esposito argue say, dis one make de Africans wey dem make slaves get higher chance to survive malaria for de American south pass de Europe workers. So, e make dem be more profitable source of labour and e encourage dem to use dem plenty.

De historian David Eltis, he talk say dem make Africans slaves because of de cultural beliefs for Europe. De beliefs no allow dem to make pipo from deir own culture slaves, even if dem get pipo wey dem fit make slaves (like pipo from prison, pipo wey dem catch for war, and pipo wey no get place to stay). Eltis talk say old old beliefs bin dey for Europe wey say dem no for make Christians slaves (for dat time, few Europe pipo no be Christian). And de few slaves wey dey Europe dem bin be non-Christians and deir direct grand-pikins (because if a slave turn Christian, e no guarantee say dem go free am). So, by de 15th century, Europe pipo as a whole come be seen as 'insiders' (be like pipo from deir own group wey dem no go make slaves).

Eltis talk say, even though all de places wey dem dey use slaves get deir 'insiders' and 'outsiders', Europe pipo dem carry dis matter go further. Dem make de whole Europe continent be like 'insider'. So, e no fit happen for dem to make any Europe person slave, because dat one go mean say dem dey make one 'insider' slave. But for de other side, dem dey see Africans as 'outsiders', so dat be why dem qualify to be slaves. Even though Europe pipo fit treat some kind of workers, like pipo from prison, with conditions wey be similar to slaves, dem no go see these workers as 'chattel' (be like property or animal). And deir children no go inherit deir low status. So, for de eyes of Europe pipo, dat one no make dem slaves. De status of 'chattel slavery' (be like pipo as property) come dey only for pipo wey no be Europe pipo, like Africans.

For de British pipo, slaves no be different from animals at all, and dem go fit treat dem like things dem dey sell and buy. So, bad bad things like de 'Zong massacre' happen and nobody get justice for de pipo wey suffer.

### African participation in the slave trade
African pipo wey dem be partners, including deir rulers, traders, and de rich military pipo dem, dem all play direct part for de slave trade. Dem dey sell slaves wey dem get from wars or through kidnapping to Europe pipo or deir agents. De pipo wey dem sell as slaves, dem usually dey come from different ethnic group (be like different tribe) from de pipo wey catch dem, whether dem be enemies or just neighbors. These slaves wey dem catch, dem dey see dem as 'other' pipo, dem no be part of de ethnic group or 'tribe' wey dey catch them. African kings dem dey only interested in protecting deir own ethnic group, but sometimes dem go sell criminals to comot dem from de place.

Most of de other slaves dem, pipo dey get dem from kidnappings, or through raids (be like sudden attacks) wey dem dey do with guns, all through joint business with de Europe pipo dem. De kingdom of Dahomey bin dey give war captives to de Europe slave traders dem. Dahomey King Agaja, de one wey rule from 1718 reach 1740, he go take control of de main main trade roads for de Atlantic slave trade. He do am by conquering de neighbour kingdoms like Allada for 1724 and Whydah for 1727. Dem see say de slave trade for dat area reduce small after dis conquering, but King Agaja he still build plenty important things for de slave trade and he actively take part inside until he finish ein reign (be like until he no dey rule again)

According to Pernille Ipsen, de woman wey write de book 'Daughters of the Trade: Atlantic Slavers and Interracial Marriage on ´The Gold Coast', she talk say African pipo from de Gold Coast (wey be Ghana now) dem too take part for de slave trade through marriage between different races, or 'cassare' (dis word dem take am from Italian, Spanish, or Portuguese), wey e mean say 'to set up house'. E come from de Portuguese word 'casar', wey e mean 'to marry'. Dis 'cassare' thing, e form political and money connections between Europe and African slave traders. 'Cassare' be some practice wey dey already before Europe pipo come, dem dey use am to bring pipo wey dem see as 'other' from different African tribes inside deir own pipo. Early for de Atlantic slave trade, e be common for de strong strong West African families wey get power to give deir women for marriage to de Europe traders, as alliance (be like friendship for business). Dat one go make deir business strong. De marriages dem, dem even dey do am with African customs, wey Europe pipo no object to am, because dem see how important de connections be.

### African awareness of the conditions of slavery in the Americas
E hard to fit put together and just talk generally how African pipo wey dey stay for Africa understand de Atlantic slave trade. But some evidence dey show for some societies say, African big men and slave traders dem know de conditions of de slaves wey dem dey carry go de Americas. According to Robin Law, de royal big men of de kingdom of Dahomey must get 'informed understanding' (be like dem know plenty) about de bad things wey dey happen to de Africans wey dem sell as slaves. Dahomey send deir diplomats (be like pipo wey dey represent deir country) go Brazil and Portugal, and dem come back with information about deir journeys. On top of dat, some few royal big men of Dahomey dem even experience slavery demselves for de Americas before dem come back to de ma homeland. De only clear moral problem wey de kingdom get with slavery be de way dem dey make fellow Dahomeyans slaves. Dat one be offense wey if dem catch you, dem go kill you. But de kingdom no get problem with de whole slavery business itself.

For de Gold Coast, e be common for African rulers wey dey do slave trade to encourage deir children to learn about Europe pipo. Dem dey send dem to sail on Europe ships, go live inside Europe forts (be like strong strong buildings), or travel go Europe or America to go get education. Diplomats (be like pipo wey dey represent deir country) too dey travel go Europe capital cities. De big men dem even rescue deir fellow big men wey pipo trick dem into slavery for de Americas. Dem dey do am by sending demands to de Dutch and de British governments. De governments dem go agree because dem fear say trade go reduce and de hostages dem go get physical harm. One example be de case of William Ansah Sessarakoo, de man wey dem rescue from slavery for Barbados after one slave trader from de same Fante tribe recognize him when he visit. Later, de man himself come be slave trader.

Fenda Lawrence be one slave trader from The Gambia. She live and dey do her trade for Georgia and South Carolina as a free person.

Some pipo for Africa, dem no know de real reason for de 'Atlantic slave trade'. So, dem dey think say de 'Europe' pipo be cannibals, wey mean say dem go cook and chop de pipo dem catch. Dis rumour make de 'African' slaves dem suffer plenty for deir mind.

### African opposition to the slave trade
Sometimes trading between Europe pipo den African leaders no be equal. For example, Europe pipo influence Africans to give more slaves by forming army alliances with African societies wey dey fight. Dem do am to cause more fighting so e go provide more war captives to de African rulers to trade as slaves for Europe pipo deir goods. Also, Europe pipo change de place where dem dey collect trade things along de African coast to follow where de army fights dey for West-Central Africa. For areas of Africa where slavery no be common, Europe slave traders work den negotiate with African rulers on deir own terms for trade, den African rulers refuse say dem no go give Europe pipo de ma demands. Africans den Europe pipo make profit from de slave trade. However, African pipo dem, de social, political, den army changes to African societies, dem suffer plenty. For example, Mossi Kingdoms dem resist de Atlantic slave trade and refuse to take part in selling African pipo. However, as time go on, more Europe slave traders enter inside West Africa and dem dey get more influence for African nations. So de Mossi pipo come involve for slave trading for de 1800s inside.

Although plenty African nations take part den make profit from de Atlantic slave trade, plenty African nations too resist am, like de Djola and Balanta pipo dem. Some African nations organize demselves into army resistance movements and fight African slave raiders and Europe slave traders wey dey enter deir villages. For example, de Akan, Etsi, Fetu, Eguafo, Agona, and Asebu pipo dem organize demselves into de Fante coalition and dem fight African and Europe slave raiders. Dem protect demselves from capture and enslavement. Chief Tomba, dem born him for 1700, and his adopted father be one general from de Jalonke-speaking pipo wey fight against de slave trade. Tomba come be ruler of de Baga pipo for where Guinea Bissau dey now for West Africa. He make alliances with nearby African villages against African and Europe slave traders. But his efforts no work: African traders catch Tomba and sell him into slavery.

Donna Beatriz Kimpa Vita for Kongo and Senegalese leader Abd al-Qadir, dem all talk say pipo for resist de way dem dey force Africans go outside. For de 1770s, leader Abdul Kader Khan oppose de Atlantic slave trade through Futa Toro, wey be Senegal now. Abdul Kader Khan and Futa Toro nation resist French slave traders and colonizers wey want to make Africans and Muslims from Futa Toro slaves. Other ways wey African nations resist de Atlantic slave trade be say, dem dey move go different different places for West Africa, like swampy areas and lake regions, just to escape slave raids. For West Africa, Efik slave dealers take part for slave dealing as a way to protect demselves from being made slaves. African resistance movements dem happen for every part of de slave trade. From resisting de marches to de places where dem dey hold slaves, to resisting at de slave coast, and resisting on top of de slave ships.

For example, for inside de slave ship dem call am Clare, de African slaves dem revolt and dem chase de crew from de ship. Dem take control of de ship and free demselves. Dem land near Cape Coast Castle for where Ghana dey now, for 1729. For other slave ships, African slaves dem sink ships, kill de crew, and dem light fire to ships with bombs. Slave traders and white crewmembers dem prepare and stop possible rebellions by loading women, men, and children separately inside de slave ships. Dis be because slave children dem dey use small small wood, tools, and any object dem find and dem pass am to de men to free demselves and fight de crew. According to historical research from de records of slave ship captains, between 1698 and 1807, pipo revolt 353 times on top of slave ships. De majority of de rebellions by de Africans, dem defeat am. Igbo slaves on ships dey kill demselves by jumping overboard as a way to resist being made slaves. As dem dey want comot more suicides, white crewmen put nets around slave ships to catch slaves wey jump overboard. White captains and crewmen dem invest in guns, 'swivel guns' (be like small cannons), and dem order ship crews to watch slaves to prevent or prepare for possible slave revolts.

John Newton, de man wey be captain for slave ships, he write for his personal book how Africans dey revolt on top of ships. And some of dem even successful for taking over de crew. For example, in 1730, de slave ship 'Little George' leave from de 'Guinea Coast' go 'Rhode Island' with ninety-six African slaves inside. Some of de slaves dem manage to comot from deir iron chains. Dem kill three of de watchmen on top of de deck and dem lock de captain and de rest of de crew inside. De Africans receive promise of freedom for some deal dem make with de captain and his crew. Africans take de ship back and sail am go back to Africa deir shore. De captain and de crew no fit re-enslave de Africans.

According to research by one historian dem call her Jane Landers, she talk say more rebellions (be like pipo fighting back) on top of slave ships happen when plenty African women dey inside.

**European participation in the slave trade**

Europe pipo dem provide de market for slaves. Dem rarely dey travel pass de coast or enter inside Africa, because dem fear sickness and de pipo wey dey de land deir resistance. Dem usually dey stay for fortresses on top of de coasts, where dem dey wait for Africans to give dem slaves wey dem catch from inside de land. Dem dey exchange am for goods. When Europe merchants dem kidnap free Africans into slavery, e often cause serious fight back from Africans. Dem go fit stop trade for some time and even catch or kill Europe pipo. Europe pipo wey want safe and steady trade, dem aim to stop kidnapping incidents. So de British dem pass de 'Acts of Parliament for Regulating the Slave Trade' for 1750, wey e make it illegal to kidnap free Africans by 'fraud, force, or violence'. According to one source from de Lowcountry Digital Library for de 'College of Charleston', dem talk say: 'When Portuguese, and later deir Europe competitors, dem find out say peaceful business alone no dey bring enough African slaves to full de growing demands of de trans-Atlantic slave trade, dem form army alliances with certain African groups against deir enemies. Dis one encourage more big fighting to produce captives for trading.'

For 1778, Thomas Kitchin estimate say Europe pipo dem dey bring around 52,000 slaves to de Caribbean every year. From dis number, de French pipo dem dey bring de most Africans to de French West Indies (13,000 from de yearly estimate). De Atlantic slave trade reach its peak for de last twenty years of de 1700s, during and after de Kongo Civil War. Wars between small small states along de Niger River deir Igbo area, and de banditry (be like thief-man activities) wey follow am, dem too increase for dis time. Another reason why plenty slaves dey available be de big wars wey expanding states dem dey fight, like de kingdom of Dahomey, de Oyo Empire, and de Ashanti Empire.

**Slavery in Africa and the New World contrasted**

De way dem dey do slavery for Africa and for de New World, e be different different. Generally, slavery for Africa no be like say if your mama or papa be slave then you too go be slave (be like heritable) – de children of slaves dem be free. But for de Americas, children wey slave mothers born, dem dey consider dem say dem born into slavery. Dis one connect to another difference: slavery for West Africa no be only for pipo from different races or different religions, like how e be for Europe colonies. But some places too, like Somalia, e be different. For dere, dem dey take Bantus as slaves for de ethnic Somalis.

De way dem dey treat slaves for Africa, e be different different pass how dem dey treat dem for de Americas. For one side, de kings of Dahomey dem dey always kill slaves plenty plenty, like hundreds or thousands, for dem deir sacrifice rituals. And pipo know say dem dey use slaves as human sacrifice for Cameroon too. For de other side, slaves for other places, dem dey often treat dem like dem be part of de family, 'adopted children'. Dem get important rights, including de right to marry without deir masters deir permission. One Scottish explorer dem call am Mungo Park, he write say:De slaves for Africa, I think say dem plenty pass de free pipo, be like three slaves for every one free person. Dem no ask for any pay for deir work except food and clothes. And pipo dey treat dem with kindness or dem dey treat dem harsh, depending on whether deir masters get good heart or bad heart... De slaves wey dem dey bring from inside de land, we fit divide dem into two main groups—first, de ones wey be slaves from de day dem born, because deir mothers be slaves. Second, de ones wey dem born free, but later, no matter how, dem come be slaves. De first group of slaves dem be de most plenty by far...For de Americas, slaves dem no get de right to marry anyhow dem want, and masters dem no generally accept dem as equal pipo for de family. New World slaves dem dey consider dem as deir owners deir property. And slaves wey dem catch for revolt or killing pipo, dem dey execute dem (be like dem dey kill dem).

### Slave market regions and participation
Europe pipo dem go dey buy and ship slaves go de Western Hemisphere (be like de Americas side) from markets wey dey all over West Africa. De number of slaves wey dem sell go de New World, e dey change change throughout de slave trade time. As for how dem share de slaves from de places wey dem dey operate, some areas produce far more slaves pass other places. Between 1650 and 1900, 10.2 million African slaves arrive for de Americas from de areas below, with these proportions (be like how dem share de numbers).

* Senegambia (wey be Senegal and The Gambia): 4.8% 

* Upper Guinea (wey be Guinea-Bissau, Guinea and Sierra Leone): 4.1% 

* Windward Coast (wey be Liberia and Ivory Coast): 1.8% 

* Gold Coast (wey be Ghana and east of Ivory Coast): 10.4% 

* Bight of Benin (wey be Togo, Benin and Nigeria wey dey west of de Niger Delta): 20.2%

* Bight of Biafra (wey be Nigeria wey dey east of de Niger Delta, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea and Gabon): 14.6% 

* West Central Africa (Republic of de Congo, Democratic Republic of de Congo and Angola): 39.4% 

* Southeastern Africa (Mozambique and Madagascar): 4.7%

Even though de slave trade largely spread all over de world, plenty plenty slave trade dey also happen inside Africa itself. 8 million pipo dem make slaves inside de African continent. From de pipo wey comot from Africa go outside, 8 million of dem, dem force dem comot from Eastern Africa go send dem to Asia.

### African kingdoms of the era
Over 173 city-states den kingdoms dey for de African areas wey de slave trade affect dem, between 1502 and 1853, wey be de time Brazil come be de last country for de Atlantic side to say dem no want slave trade again. From dat 173, no less than 68 of dem, you go fit call dem proper nation-states. Dem get political and army structures wey make dem fit control deir neighbours. Almost every country wey dey now, get some previous kingdom or empire before colonial masters come. Sometimes dem be big African empires wey Europe traders dem go fit exchange goods with them.

#### Ethnic groups
Na de different ethnic groups dem bring to de Americas closely dey correspond to de regions of heaviest activity insyd de slave trade. Na dem take over 45 distinct ethnic groups to de Americas during de trade. Of de 45, na de ten most prominent, according to slave documentation of de era den modern genealogical studies be listed below.

# De BaKongo of de Democratic Republic of Congo, de Republic of the Congo den Angola
# De Mandé of Upper Guinea
# De Gbe speakers of Togo, Ghana, and Benin (Fon, Ewe, Adja, Mina)
# De Akan of Ghana den Ivory Coast
# De Wolof of Senegal den the Gambia
# De Igbo of southeastern Nigeria
# De Ambundu of Angola
# De Yoruba of southwestern Nigeria den Benin
# De Tikar and Bamileke of Cameroon
# De Makua of Mozambique

= Human toll =
De transatlantic slave trade cause plenty, plenty pipo to die, wey nobody even know de real number. Dis happen to African pipo wey dem catch, both for inside Africa and outside for de Americas. Pipo dey estimate de number of pipo wey die, some dey talk say e fit be as small as 2 million, and some dey talk say e fit reach 60 million. 'More than a million pipo dem think say dem die' during de time dem dey carry dem go de New World, according to one BBC report. Plenty more pipo die just after dem reach deir destination. De number of lives wey loss during de process of getting de slaves still be mystery. But de number fit be equal to or even pass de number of pipo wey survive to be made slaves.

De trade cause plenty pipo and cultures to spoil completely. One historian dem call her Ana Lucia Araujo, she talk say de way dem dey make pipo slaves no finish when dem reach de Western Hemisphere shores. De different ways wey de pipo and groups wey de Atlantic slave trade affect, deir paths be different different. Things like where dem land, whether dem fit sell dem for market, de kind of work dem do, whether dem be man or woman, deir age, deir religion, and deir language, all dis affect deir different paths.

Patrick Manning dey estimate say about 12 million slaves enter de Atlantic trade between de 16th and 19th centuries. But about 1.5 million of dem die on top of de ship. About 10.5 million slaves arrive for de Americas. Apart from de slaves wey die for de Middle Passage (be like de journey on de sea), plenty more Africans likely die during de slave raids and wars for Africa, and de way dem dey force dem march to de ports. Manning estimate say 4 million die inside Africa after dem catch them, and plenty more die when dem be small. Manning de man deir estimate cover de 12 million wey dem originally plan for de Atlantic, as well as de 6 million wey dem plan for Arabian slave markets and de 8 million wey dem plan for African markets. From de slaves wey dem ship go de Americas, de biggest share go to Brazil and de Caribbean.

One Canadian scholar dem call am Adam Jones, he talk say de millions of Africans wey die during de Atlantic slave trade be like 'genocide'. He call am 'one of de worst holocausts in human history', and he talk say arguments wey go against dis, like say 'e be for slave owners deir benefit to keep slaves alive, no be to finish dem', he call all dat 'mostly sophistry' (be like sweet talk to deceive). He say: 'De killing and destruction be intentional, no matter what dem go gain by keeping pipo wey survive de Atlantic passage for work. To talk about de intention matter again: If pipo deliberately dey maintain and expand some system, even though dem all know say e dey cause plenty, plenty pipo to die from a specific group, then why dat one no fit be called genocide?

Saidiya Hartman talk say de way slaves dey die no be de main aim, e just happen because pipo want profit and because capitalism (be like de system of making money) come up. She talk say: 'Death no be de aim itself but e just be something wey happen because of business. Dis one make say de millions of lives wey loss, e no dey count for anything. Incidental death happen when pipo dema lives no get any real value, when no humans dey involved, when de pipo dem dey see dem say dem already dead.' Hartman highlight say de Atlantic slave trade create millions of dead bodies. But unlike de concentration camp or de gulag, finishing pipo no be de final goal. E just be something wey follow because dem want to make pipo commodities (be like goods to sell).

### Destinations den flags of carriers
Most of de Atlantic slave trade, seven nations carry am out, and dem carry most of de slaves go deir own colonies for de New World. But other significant trading too happen, wey dem show am for de table below. De records no complete, and some of de information no too sure. De last rows show say small numbers of slaves too dem carry go Europe and other parts of Africa. And at least 1.8 million pipo no survive de journey; dem bury dem for sea, with no proper ceremony.

De timeline chart wen na de different nations transport chaw of dema slaves.

## Effects

### African conflicts
According to Kimani Nehusi, de way Europe pipo wey dey do slave business affect how de laws for African societies dey deal with pipo wey offend. Crimes wey dem usually dey punish pipo with other ways, now dem go punish am by making dem slaves and selling dem to slave traders. According to David Stannard de man deir book 'American Holocaust', 50% of African pipo deir deaths happen for Africa because of wars between de local kingdoms. And these wars be de ones wey produce most of de slaves. Dis one include not only de pipo wey die for de battles but also de pipo wey die because dem force them march from inside de land to de slave ports on de different coasts. De practice of making enemy fighters and deir villages slaves be very common all over Western and West Central Africa. De slave trade mostly be some by-product of tribal and state wars. E be like a way to comot pipo wey fit cause trouble after dem win war, or to find money for future wars.

On top of dat, Europe nations dem instigate war (be like dey cause war) between African nations. Dem increase de number of war captives by making alliances with nations wey dey fight. And dem shift trade locations for coastal areas to follow how African army conflicts dey move, all to get more slaves. Some African groups dem prove say dem be very good and very wicked for de practice of making pipo slaves. Examples be like Bono State, Oyo, Benin, Igala, Kaabu, Ashanti, Dahomey, de Aro Confederacy and de Imbangala war bands.

For letters wey de Manikongo, Nzinga Mbemba Afonso, write give King João III of Portugal, he talk say de Portuguese goods wey dey come plenty be de thing wey dey boost de trade for Africans. He beg de King of Portugal to stop sending goods but only send missionaries (be like pipo wey dey come preach God dema word). For one of his letters, he write say:Every day de traders dem dey kidnap our pipo—children from dis country, children of our big men and de ones wey dey serve us, even pipo from our own family. Dis bad bad thing and spoiling dey spread so much reach say our land don empty finish. We need for dis kingdom only pastors and teachers for school, and no goods, unless e be wine and flour for Mass (be like church service). Our wish be say dis Kingdom no go be a place for dem to trade or carry slaves... Plenty of our pipo dey eagerly want de Portuguese goods wey your pipo bring inside our land. To satisfy dis too much hunger, dem dey catch plenty of our black pipo wey be free subjects... Dem dey sell dem. After dem take these pipo wey dem catch [to de coast] secretly or for night... As soon as de pipo dem catch reach de white men dema hands, dem dey brand dem with hot hot iron.Before de Portuguese pipo come, slavery already dey for de Kingdom of Kongo. Afonso I of Kongo believe say de slave trade suppose to follow Kongo law. When he suspect say de Portuguese pipo dey get pipo wey dem make slaves illegally to go sell, he write to King João III for 1526, dey beg him to stop de whole thing.

De kings of Dahomey dey sell pipo wey dem catch for war go transatlantic slavery (be like across de sea). If dem no sell dem, dem go kill dem for some ceremony dem call am de Annual Customs. As one of West Africa dema main slave states, Dahomey no be popular at all with de neighbouring pipo dem. Just like de Bambara Empire wey dey de east, de Khasso kingdoms too depend plenty on de slave trade for deir money business. How popular one family be, e dey show by de number of slaves dem get. Dis one make say dem dey fight wars just to catch more pipo. Dis trade make de Khasso pipo dey meet de Europe settlements for Africa dema west coast more and more, especially de French pipo dem. Benin come dey get rich plenty during de 16th and 17th centuries from de slave trade with Europe. Slaves from enemy states wey dey inside de land, dem dey sell them and carry them go de Americas inside Dutch and Portuguese ships. De Bight of Benin dema shore no take long come be known as de 'Slave Coast'.

King Gezo of Dahomey talk for de 1840s say:De slave trade be de main thing wey dey rule my pipo. E be de source and de glory for deir money... de mama dey lull de pikin to sleep with songs of victory over an enemy wey dem reduce to slavery...For 1807, de UK Parliament pass some law say dem no go do slave trading again. De King of Bonny (wey dey Nigeria now) no happy at all when de whole thing finish:We think say dis trade must go on. Dat be wetin our 'oracle' and de 'priests' dem talk. Dem say your country, no matter how great e be, e no fit stop a trade wey God Himself ordain am.

### Port factories
After dem march de slaves go de coast for sale, dem go hold them for big big forts wey dem call 'factories'. How long dem dey stay for de factories, e dey vary (be like e dey change). But Milton Meltzer talk for his book 'Slavery: A World History' say around 4.5% of de deaths wey dem link to de transatlantic slave trade happen during dis time. In other words, dem believe say over 820,000 pipo die for African ports like Benguela, Elmina, and Bonny. Dis one reduce de number of pipo wey dem ship to 17.5 million.

### Atlantic shipment
After dem catch de slaves and hold them for de factories, dem go put them inside de bad bad place dem call am de 'Middle Passage'. Meltzer de man deir research talk say for dis part of de slave trade, about 12.5% of de pipo die. Deir death happen because of wicked treatment and no good care from de time dem catch them until de whole journey finish. Around 2.2 million Africans die during these journeys. Dem dey pack them inside tight, dirty places on top of ships for months. Dem try to stop pipo from dying on board by forcing them to 'dance' (as exercise) on top of de deck. Dem also force-feed slaves wey dey try to starve demselves. De conditions on de ship also make plenty deadly sicknesses spread. Other pipo wey die be de ones wey kill demselves, slaves wey escape by jumping overboard. De slave traders go try to fit anywhere from 350 reach 600 slaves on one ship. Before de African slave trade completely stop by de nations wey dey do am in 1853, 15.3 million slaves don arrive for de Americas.

Raymond L. Cohn, one economics professor wey his research focus on 'economic history' and 'international migration', don research de number of pipo wey dey die among Africans during de Atlantic slave trade journeys. He find out say de number of pipo wey dey die reduce over de years of de slave trade. De main reason be say de time wey de journey take don dey reduce. 'For de eighteenth century, plenty slave journeys dey take at least 2 and a half months. For de nineteenth century, 2 months seem like de longest de journey go take, and plenty journeys be far shorter. Fewer slaves die for de Middle Passage over time mainly because de passage be shorter.'

Even though slavery bring plenty, plenty money, de ordinary sailors dem on top of slave ships no dey get good pay and dem dey suffer serious discipline. Dem dey expect say about 20% of de ship dema crew go die during one journey. Dis number be like, and sometimes even pass, de number of slaves wey dey die. Dis happen because of sickness, flogging (be like serious beating), too much work, or slave uprisings (be like slaves fighting back). Sickness (malaria or yellow fever) be de main thing wey dey cause sailors to die. If plenty crew pipo die on de return journey, e be good for de captain because e go reduce de number of sailors wey he suppose to pay when dem reach deir home port.

Plenty sailors hate de slave trade, and de pipo wey join slave ships dema crews often do am because dem force them, or because dem no fit find any other work.

### Seasoning camps
Meltzer also talk say 33% of Africans go die for de first year inside de 'seasoning camps' wey dey all over de Caribbean. Jamaica get one of de most wicked of these camps. 'Dysentery' (be like serious running stomach sickness) be de main thing wey dey cause death. Captives wey dem no fit sell, dem go destroy them for sure. Around 5 million Africans die for these camps, wey reduce de number of pipo wey survive to about 10 million. De reason for de seasoning camps be to wipe out de Africans dema identity and culture and prepare them for slavery. Inside seasoning camps, African slaves dey learn new language and dem adopt new customs. Dis 'seasoning' process dey take about two or three years.

= Conditions of slavery on plantations before and after abolition of the transatlantic slave trade =

### Caribbean
For de colony dema hundred-year time, about one million slaves die because sake of how slavery dey for Haiti. If dem bring one slave come Haiti, dem dey expect say de person go die, on average, within 3 years after dem reach. And slaves wey dem born for de island, dem dey expect say dem go live only 15 years.

For de Caribbean, Dutch Guiana, and Brazil, plenty slaves dey die, and de number of children dem dey born be low. So slaveholders dem dey bring more Africans to keep de slave pipo plenty. De rate wey de slave population dey reduce naturally dey reach as high as 5 percent every year. But for de United States, de number of slaves wey dey die be de same as for Jamaican plantations. For de Danish West Indies, and for most of de Caribbean, plenty pipo dey die because of de too much hard work of sugar farming. Sugar be big cash crop, and as de Caribbean plantations dey export sugar go Europe and North America, dem need slave workers to make de production get money. So dem dey bring slaves from Africa. African slaves dey live for very bad conditions, and de number of slave children wey dey die under five years old be forty percent. Plenty slaves die from 'smallpox' and worms for de stomach, wey dem catch from bad food and water.

De Atlantic slave trade wey dey carry slaves go Cuba, e become illegal by 1820. But still, Cuba continue to bring African slaves from Africa until dem abolish slavery finish for 1886. After dem stop de slave trade go de United States and British colonies in 1807, Florida bring African slaves from Cuba, plenty of dem land for Amelia Island. Some secret slave boat dey operate between Havana, Cuba, and Pensacola, Florida. Florida stay under Spanish control until 1821, wey make am hard for de United States to stop de smuggling of African slaves from Cuba. For 1821, dem give Florida to de United States. Still, de smuggling of African slaves continue, and from 1821 to 1841, Cuba become de main place wey dey supply African slaves for de United States. Between 1859 and 1862, slave traders make 40 illegal journeys between Cuba and de United States.

De money dem dey spend to carry pipo like cargo from Africa and de cost to operate de slave trade from Africa go inside Cuba, e increase for de middle of de 19th century. Historian Laird Bergad write about de Cuban slave trade and slave prices. He talk say: 'Three things come together wey cause de plenty demand for slaves. Dis one push prices to high levels... De first thing be say nobody sure about de future of de slave trade itself. De long and persistent campaign by de British to force an end to de Cuban trade, dem always manage to bypass am because Spanish colonial officials and Cuban slave traders dey conspire together. Another problem for British efforts be say de United States no willing to allow dem search US-flag vessels wey dem suspect say dey involve for slave trade.' By de middle of de 1860s, prices of old Africans reduce, while prices of younger Africans increase because dem consider dem to be for de best working age. According to research, for 1860 in Matanzas, about 39.6 percent of slaves wey dem sell be young, prime-aged Africans, whether man or woman. For 1870, de percentage be 74.3 percent. On top of dat, as de cost of sugar increase, de price of slaves too increase.

### South America
For Brazil dema slave plantations, African slaves dem life expectancy (be like how long dem go live) be around 23 years. Dem outlaw de trans-Atlantic slave trade go Brazil for 1831. To make up for de slaves wey dem need, slaveholders for Brazil turn to making slaves born more pikin. Dem dey force slave women to born eight or more slave children. Some slaveholders promise slave women say dem go free them if dem born eight children. For 1873, inside de village of Santa Ana, for Ceará province, some slave woman dem call her Macária, dem promise her freedom after she born eight children. One slave woman, Delfina, kill her pikin because she no want her enslaver, Manoel Bento da Costa, to own her pikin and make her child slave. Brazil practice 'partus sequitur ventrem' (be like de pikin go follow de mother deir status) to increase de slave pipo through slave women born pikin. Dis be because for de 19th century, Brazil need plenty slave workers to work for de sugar plantations for Bahia and de farming and mining industries for Minas Gerais, São Paulo, and Rio de Janeiro.

After dem abolish de Atlantic slave trade wey dey go Brazil, de trade between de provinces (be like states) increase. So slaveholders dem dey force and depend on slave women to born pikin plenty plenty, as many as dem fit, just to make sure say dem get enough slaves. 'Abolitionists' (be like pipo wey want slavery to stop) for Brazil, dem want to abolish slavery by removing 'partus sequitur ventrem' (be like de pikin go follow de mother deir status) because dem dey use am to keep slavery going. For example, historian Martha Santos write about de slave trade, women born pikin, and abolition for Brazil. She talk say: 'Some proposal wey focus on de 'emancipation of de womb' (be like freeing de womb), wey some important lawyer and politician dem call am Agostinho Marques Perdigão Malheiro write am, Pedro II officially agree to am as de most practical way to end slavery small small and with peace. Dis conservative proposal, some modified version of am wey come be de 'free womb' law wey Parliament pass for 1871, e really make de children wey slave women born later free. But e force those children to serve deir mothers dema masters until dem reach twenty-one years, and e push de complete freedom go later date'.

### United States
De number of pikin wey dem dey born for de United States be more than 80 percent higher because de slave population dey grow naturally, and because of 'slave breeding farms' (be like farms wey dem dey make slaves born pikin). How many pikin de first set of slaves wey dem bring from Africa born be low. But, for de US, e fit don increase for de 19th century to about 55 for every thousand pipo. Dis one dey reach de highest number of pikin human pipo fit born.

After dem ban de 'trans-Atlantic slave trade' for 1807, slaveholders for de 'Deep South' of de United States need more slaves to work for de cotton and sugar farms. To full de demand for more slaves, dem dey practice 'slave breeding' for Richmond, Virginia. Richmond sell thousands of slaves go slaveholders for de 'Deep South' to go work de cotton, rice, and sugar plantations. Virginia dem know am as a 'breeder state'. One slaveholder for Virginia brag say his slaves born 6,000 slave children for sale. About 300,000 to 350,000 slaves dem sell from Richmond dema slave breeding farms. Slave breeding farms and forcing young slave girls and women to born pikin, e cause problems for deir 'reproductive health'. Slave women find ways to resist de forcing to born pikin by causing 'miscarriages' and 'abortions' by taking plants and medicines.

Slaveholders dem try to control how slave women dey born pikin by encouraging dem to get relationships with slave men. 'Some slaveholders take matters into deir own hands, though, and dem pair slave men and women together with de aim say dem go born pikin plenty.' Slave teenage girls dey born pikin when dem be fifteen or sixteen years old. Slave women dey born pikin for deir early twenties. To meet de slaveholders dema needs to born more slaves, slave girls and women dey get seven or nine children. Slave girls and women dem force them to born as many slaves as possible. De number of slave mothers and children wey dey die be plenty because of no good food, bad sanitation (be like dirty environment), no medical care, and too much work. For de United States, one slave deir life expectancy (be like how long dem go live) be 21 to 22 years. Den a black child from age 1 to 14 get double de risk of dying pass a white child of de same age.

Making slaves born pikin replace de demand for slave workers after de Atlantic slave trade to de United States reduce. Dis one cause de 'domestic slave trade' (be like slave trade inside de same country) to increase. De way dem dey sail slaves for de domestic slave trade, dem call am 'sold down de river'. Dis mean say dem dey sell slaves from Louisville, Kentucky, wey be some city wey dem dey trade slaves and supply them. Louisville, Kentucky, Virginia, and other states for de 'Upper South' dey supply slaves go de 'Deep South'. Dem dey carry dem on boats wey dey go down de Mississippi River to Southern slave markets. New Orleans, Louisiana, come be some major slave market for de United States domestic slave trade after dem ban de Atlantic slave trade for 1807. Between 1819 and 1860, dem transport 71,000 slaves go de New Orleans slave market on top of slave ships. These ships dey comot from ports for de United States along de Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico go New Orleans, all to supply de demand for slaves for de Deep South.

Texas too, dem take part for de illegal slave trade. Dem dey bring slaves from Cuba go Galveston Island, wey be de main illegal slave port for Texas. Texas be part of Mexico from 1821 until 1836, den Cuba continue to supply African slaves go plenty Latin American countries. After 1821, de smuggling of slaves go inside Texas increase because slaveholders dem need more slave workers. Galveston Island dey for de Gulf of Mexico, and e be 800 miles away from de slave ports for Cuba, and between 60 and 70 miles away from de Louisiana border. Smugglers dem use these places to deir advantage. Dem illegally bring African slaves from Cuba and make money by selling Africans to slaveholders for Texas and Louisiana. For example, some French pirate and privateer dem call am Jean Lafitte, he set up some colony on Galveston Island for 1817. He dey do privateering (be like some legal piracy) for four years and make profit by smuggling in slaves. He sell over 200 Africans to slaveholders for de United States. Lafitte use middlemen like de Bowie brothers, John, Resin, den James. Dem dey contract with slave traders and farm owners from de United States wey get interest to buy slaves. From 1818 to 1820, Lafitte and de Bowie brothers make $65,000 from smuggling Africans into de Southern states and selling them to farm owners for Louisiana and Mississippi.

Historian Ernest Obadele-Starks estimate say after 1807, de number of African slaves wey dem smuggle go inside de United States every year, e average around 3,500, wey be small. New Orleans, Louisiana, and Florida be de main places for de illegal bringing in of slaves for de United States. Dis be because dem dey very close to Cuba and de other Caribbean islands wey dey supply slave workers for de Southern states.

= Diseases =
Plenty sicknesses, each one fit kill plenty pipo or even most of some new pipo, arrive for de Americas after 1492. Dem include 'smallpox', 'malaria', 'bubonic plague', 'typhus', 'influenza' (be like bad cold), 'measles', 'diphtheria', 'yellow fever', and 'whooping cough'. During de Atlantic slave trade after dem discover de New World, dem record say sicknesses like these cause plenty, plenty pipo to die. Because of de plenty sicknesses for de African continent, Europe pipo give Sierra Leone for West Africa de nickname 'white man's grave' because of de number of Europe pipo wey die from sicknesses.

From 1819 to 1836, de parts of Africa wey plenty Europe pipo die from malaria be Sierra Leone and Senegal. Out of every 1,000 Europe pipo wey die, 164.66 white pipo die from malaria for Senegal. And for Sierra Leone, 483 white pipo die from malaria. Sierra Leone get de highest number of white pipo dying from malaria, accounting for 40 percent of deaths every year. Because of dis, dem give am de nickname 'white man's grave'. De phrase 'white man's grave' dem coin am for de 1830s. However, Europe pipo, even before dem create de phrase, dem dey already see Africa as a dangerous place because of de hot weather and de plenty pipo wey dey die from sicknesses. Dat be why dem create de phrase for de 19th century.

Malaria like warm and wet places plenty. For North America, malaria no spread too much because some areas deir weather no good for de sickness to survive. Europe American slaveholders prefer say Africans wey get immunity (be like body strong against sickness) to malaria, dem go carry dem go de slave ports. De price for Africans wey dem born for areas wey malaria dey plenty be higher. Historian Elena Esposito explain say: 'By looking at de prices of African slaves for de United States in de past, we find proof of some extra money dem dey give because de person fit fight malaria. In fact, we show say for Louisiana plantations, pipo wey fit resist malaria more – de ones wey dem born for Africa dema areas wey malaria dey plenty – dem dey get significantly higher prices.'

How pipo dema body change over time (evolutionary history) too fit play part for how African pipo dema body dey resist sicknesses for de continent, and how 'Indigenous peoples'/'Native Americans' dema body no fit resist sicknesses wey come from Africa. If you compare them to Africans and Europeans, New World pipo dema body no get history of meeting sicknesses like malaria before. Because of dat, dem no get any body strength (genetic resistance) wey deir body produce because deir body no adapt through 'natural selection' (be like how pipo dema body dey change to fit de environment).

How strong de body dema immunity be, e dey change from one sickness to another. For 'smallpox' and 'measles' for example, de pipo wey survive, deir body go get de power to fight de sickness for de rest of deir life. Like say dem no fit catch de sickness again. Then other sicknesses too dey, like malaria, wey dem no give effective lasting immunity (be like body strong forever).

### Smallpox
Plenty 'smallpox' sicknesses dem know say dem cause plenty decrease for de number of 'Indigenous' pipo for de New World. De effects on de pipo wey survive include 'pockmarks' (be like holes) on de skin wey leave deep scars, wey common dey cause serious disfigurement (be like making de face or body look bad). Some Europe pipo, wey dem believe say de bad sickness 'syphilis' for Europe come from de Americas, dem see smallpox as Europe dema revenge against de Natives. Africans and Europeans, unlike de local pipo, often get immunity for deir whole life. Dis be because dem often meet small small forms of de sickness like 'cowpox' or 'variola minor' disease when dem be pikin. By de late 16th century, some ways of 'inoculation' (be like giving small sickness to make body strong) and 'variolation' dey for Africa and de Middle East. One practice be say Arab traders for Africa 'buying-off' de disease. Dem go tie some cloth wey don touch de sickness before to another pikin deir arm to increase deir immunity. Another practice involve taking 'pus' (be like watery substance) from some smallpox 'scab' (be like dry wound) and putting am inside de cut of some healthy person. Dis be to make sure say dem get small sickness later instead of de sickness becoming deadly.

= European competition =
De trade of African slaves for de Atlantic, e start from when Portuguese sailors dem begin explore down de coast of West Africa for de 15th century. Before dat, dem first meet African slave markets to buy back Portuguese pipo wey 'Barbary pirates' from North Africa catch dem. These pirates dem dey attack Portuguese ships and villages for de coast plenty, wey make de places empty finish. De first Europe pipo to use African slaves for de New World be de Spaniards. Dem want pipo to help dem for deir conquering journeys and workers for islands like Cuba and Hispaniola. De way de native pipo dema population dey reduce fast fast make dem bring de first royal laws to protect them ('Laws of Burgos', 1512–13). De first African slaves arrive for Hispaniola for 1501. After Portugal succeed in setting up sugar plantations ('engenhos') for northern Brazil around 1545, Portuguese merchants for de West African coast begin to supply African slaves to de sugar farmers. At first, these farmers depend almost completely on de native 'Tupani' pipo for slave work. But after 1570, dem begin bring Africans, because plenty sicknesses ('epidemics') don finish de Tupani communities wey already no stable. By 1630, Africans don replace de Tupani as de biggest group of workers on Brazilian sugar plantations. Dis one end de Europe medieval house slavery tradition, make Brazil receive de most African slaves, and show say sugar farming and processing be de reason why about 84% of these Africans dem ship them to de New World.

On November 7, 1693, Charles II issue some 'royal decree' (be like some order from de King), wey e say Spanish Florida go give safe place for slaves wey run away from de British colony of South Carolina.

As Britain grow strong for navy power (be like dem get plenty war ships) and dem settle pipo for continental North America and some islands for de West Indies, dem come be de main slave traders. At one point, de trade be only for de 'Royal African Company' deir hand, wey dem dey operate from London. But, after de company lose deir monopoly (be like say only dem fit do de business) for 1689, Bristol and Liverpool merchants come dey involve plenty for de trade. By de late 18th century, out of every four ships wey comot from Liverpool harbour, one be slave trading ship. Plenty of de money wey dem use build de city of Manchester, and de towns around am, for de late 18th century and most of de 19th century, e come from processing cotton wey slaves pick, and making cloth. Other British cities too make money from de slave trade. Birmingham, de biggest 'gun-producing' town for Britain for dat time, dey supply guns to go exchange for slaves. 75% of all de sugar wey dem produce for de plantations dem dey send am go London, and plenty of am dem dey chop for de 'coffee houses' dem, wey dey make plenty money there.

= New World destinations =

### Caribbean
De first slaves wey arrive as workers for de New World reach de island of Hispaniola (wey be Haiti and de Dominican Republic now) for 1502. Cuba receive deir first four slaves for 1513. Jamaica receive deir first shipment of 4,000 slaves for 1518. 'Between de 1490s and de 1850s, Latin America, including de Spanish-speaking Caribbean and Brazil, bring de largest number of African slaves to de New World. Dis one create de single biggest concentration of black pipo outside de African continent.' About 4 million African slaves dem transport them to de Caribbean through de transatlantic slave trade. Cuba, de biggest slave colony for Hispanic America, bring 800,000 African slaves and dem take part for de illegal slave trade pass any other place. African slaves dey work about 16 hours a day for de sugarcane plantations. Dem bring deir 'traditional religions' from West Africa. These ones develop for de New World as religions wey scholars dem call 'African diaspora religions'.

### Central America
Dem start to export slaves go Honduras and Guatemala for 1526. Historian Nigel Bolland write about de slave trade for Central America. He talk say: 'De need for workers for de early Spanish settlements for Hispaniola, Cuba, Panama, and Peru, e cause plenty 'Indian (Indigenous people)' slave trade for Central America for de second quarter of de 16th century. In fact, de first economy for de region under de colonial masters be based on slave trading.'

For de 16th century, most of de Africans wey dem bring come Central America, dem come from today's Senegambia and other West African areas. Between 1607 and 1640, Portuguese slave traders bring Africans from Angola go Honduras, and dem sell them for Santiago de Guatemala to go work for de sugar and indigo plantations. Most of de Africans wey dey work for de plantations come from de Luanda area for Central Africa.

### United States
De first African slaves wey reach wetin go come be de United States arrive for July 1526. Dem come as part of some Spanish pipo dema try to settle San Miguel de Gualdape. By November, de 300 Spanish pipo wey come settle don reduce to 100, and deir slaves too, from 100 to 70. De slaves fight back for 1526 and dem join some Native American tribe nearby. Meanwhile, de Spanish pipo abandon de settlement completely for 1527. De area of de future Colombia receive deir first slaves for 1533. El Salvador, Costa Rica, and Florida start deir time for de slave trade for 1541, 1563, and 1581 respectively. According to research, about 40 percent of African slaves arrive for Gadsden's Wharf, wey be de biggest slave port for de United States.

For de 17th century, for 'colonial Boston' inside Massachusetts, about 166 transatlantic journeys comot from Boston. Boston dey bring slaves from Africa and dem dey export 'rum' (be like local drink). Peter Faneuil organize and make money from de transatlantic journeys wey comot from Boston. He dey bring 'manufactured goods' from Europe, and he dey bring slaves, rum, and sugar from de Caribbean. Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island be de three New England states wey get de most slave pipo. De slave population for South Kingston, Rhode Island, be thirty percent. For Boston, de slave population be ten percent, for New London e be nine percent, and for New York e be 7.2 percent. De first time dem write about slaves for New England be 1638. For Northern American British colonies, 'Massachusetts Bay colonies' be de center for slave trading, and 'colonial Boston' be a major slave port for de North, dey bring slaves direct from Africa.

De 17th century see plenty increase in slave shipments. Africans dem bring them go Point Comfort – some miles down de river from de English colony of Jamestown, Virginia – for 1619. De first kidnapped Africans for English North America, dem classify them as 'indentured servants' (be like pipo wey dey work to pay debt) and dem free them after seven years. Virginia law make 'chattel slavery' (be like treating pipo as property) official for 1656. And for 1662, de colony adopt de principle of 'partus sequitur ventrem' (be like de pikin go follow de mother deir status), wey classify children of slave mothers as slaves, no matter who de father be. Under British law, children wey white male slave owners and black female slaves born go fit inherit de father deir status and rights. De change to maternal inheritance for slaves make sure say anybody wey born with any slave ancestors be slave, no matter how de relationship between de white father and de black mother be, whether dem agree or no.

On top of African pipo, de 'Indigenous peoples of de Americas' (be like de real pipo wey dey de land) too, dem dey traffic them through de Atlantic trade routes. De book dem call am 'The Doings and Sufferings of the Christian Indians', wey dem write am for 1677 for example, e dey document say 'English colonial' pipo wey dem catch for war (wey dem no be enemies, but dem be pipo from forces wey dey side with English), dem dey make them slaves and send them go Caribbean places. Indigenous opponents wey dem catch, including women and children, too dem dey sell them as slaves for plenty profit. Dem dey transport them go 'West Indies' colonies.

### South America
De Spanish den Portuguese pipo dem go settle South America and dem make de 'Indigenous people' (be like de real pipo wey dey de land) slaves. Later, dem make Africans wey dem bring from West and Central Africa inside ships through de Atlantic slave trade, dem make them slaves too. Brazil bring 4.8 million African slaves. Africans wey escape slavery there, dem form 'quilombos' (be like settlements), dem be 'maroon communities' (be like pipo wey escape slavery and form deir own towns) wey get some level of deir own rule. 'Palmares', some quilombo community, e last for 100 years. Meanwhile, other communities dem, de Dutch and Portuguese pipo quickly comot them. De Africans wey dem bring come Brazil be 'Yoruba', 'Fon', 'Bantu', and other pipo. Deir religions from Africa develop into new world religions for Brazil dem call them 'Candomblé', 'Umbanda', Xango, and 'Macumba'.

Historian Erika Edwards write about de slave trade for Argentina. She talk say: 'For 1587, de first slaves arrive for Buenos Aires from Brazil. From 1580 to 1640, de main business wey Buenos Aires dey do be de slave trade. More than 70 percent of de value of all de things wey dem bring come Buenos Aires be African slaves. Slaves come mostly from Brazil through de Portuguese slave trade from Angola and other western states for Africa. Once dem arrive for Buenos Aires, dem fit send them go far as Lima, Peru. Dem dey provide slaves give Mendoza, Tucuman, and Salta Jujuy, as well as to Chile, Paraguay, den  the place dem dey call Bolivia and southern Peru today.

### Russia
By 1802, Russian pipo wey come settle de place (colonists) notice say 'Boston' (be like pipo from U.S.) skippers dem (be like ship captains) dey trade African slaves for otter animal dema furs ('pelts') with de 'Tlingit people' for Southeast Alaska.

= Economics of slavery =
For France inside de 18th century, de money wey investors for plantations dey get back, e average around 6%. If you compare am to 5% for most businesses inside de country, dis one show say dem dey get 20% extra profit. Risks – wey be for sea and for business – dem be important for individual journeys. Investors dem reduce am by buying small small shares for plenty ships at de same time. Dat way, dem fit spread de risk so e no too affect one person. Between journeys, dem fit sell den buy ship shares freely.

By far, de 'West Indian' colonies wey make plenty, plenty money for 1800, dem belong to de United Kingdom. After dem enter de sugar colony business late, British dema strong navy power and deir control over important islands like Jamaica, Trinidad, de Leeward Islands, and Barbados, plus de land of British Guiana, give them big advantage over all de pipo wey dey compete with them. While plenty British pipo no make money, some few pipo make small small fortunes. Dem get dis advantage more when France lose deir most important colony, St. Domingue (western Hispaniola, wey be Haiti now), to some slave revolt for 1791. And dem support revolts against deir rival Britain, for de name of freedom after de 1793 French revolution. Before 1791, British sugar dem for protect am to fit compete against French sugar wey be cheaper.

After 1791, de British islands produce de most sugar, and de British pipo quickly come be de ones wey dey chop am plenty pass everybody. West Indian sugar come dey everywhere, like dem dey add am to Indian tea. Dem don estimate say de money wey dem make from de slave trade and from West Indian plantations create up to one out of every twenty pounds (money) wey dey circulate for de British economy during de 'Industrial Revolution' (be like big change for how dem dey make things) for de latter half of de 18th century.

After de 'Slavery Abolition Act 1833' wey small small end slavery for de British Empire, de UK government take loan of £15 million (wey be $4.25 billion for 2023) to pay de pipo wey get slaves before, because dem lose deir 'property' after dem free deir slaves. Dem no give any compensation to de pipo wey dem free from slavery.

= Effects =
Historian Walter Rodney talk say, for de start of de slave trade inside de 16th century, even though de way Europe and Africa dema technology be, e no be de same, de difference no be too big. Both continents dey use 'Iron Age technology' (be like dem dey use iron tools and weapons). De main thing wey Europe get advantage for be how dem dey build ships. During de time of slavery, de number of pipo for Europe and de Americas grow plenty, plenty, like say dem just shoot up, but de pipo for Africa demma number stay de same. Rodney argue say de money wey dem make from slavery, dem use am to bring money growth and make technology advance for Europe and de Americas. Based on earlier theories from Eric Williams, he talk say de 'industrial revolution' (be like de big change for how dem dey make things) for some part, de money come from farming profits from de Americas. He give examples like de 'invention' of de steam engine by James Watt, wey plantation owners from de Caribbean fund am.

Other historians dem don attack both Rodney and de way he do ein things and whether wetin he talk be correct. Joseph C. Miller don talk say de social change and de pipo dema number no dey grow (wey he research am with de example of West Central Africa) happen mainly because of things inside de country. Joseph Inikori give some new way of arguing. He dey estimate how de pipo dema number go fit develop if de Atlantic slave trade no happen. Patrick Manning don show say de slave trade really get big effect on African pipo dema numbers and deir social rules. But he criticize Inikori his approach say e no take other things (like hunger and no rain) into account. Because of dat, he say e be too much guessing.

### Effect on de economy of West Africa
De effect of de trade on African societies, pipo dey argue about am plenty, sake of de plenty goods wey enter Africa. Pipo wey dey support de slave trade, like Archibald Dalzel, dem talk say African societies be strong and de trade no affect them too much. For de 19th century, Europe 'abolitionists' (be like pipo wey want slavery to stop), especially David Livingstone, dem take de opposite view. Dem talk say de local economy and societies wey be fragile, de trade dey harm them seriously. According to research from historian Nathan Nunn, de way Africa dema infrastructure and economy no develop well be because of colonization and de slave trade. Nunn write say: '...Africa dema bad economic performance be result of countries failing after colonial rule. De root of dis one dey for de underdevelopment and instability of de political systems before colonial rule... because dem no get significant political development during colonial rule, de small political structures wey dey before continue to dey after independence. As a result, Africa dema leaders after independence inherit countries wey no get de necessary infrastructure to extend deir authority and control over de whole country. Plenty countries no fit, and still no fit, collect taxes from deir citizens. And as a result, dem no fit provide even small small public goods and services.

Some African rulers dem see say dem go make money from trading deir pipo with Europe slave traders. Apart from Angola wey Portuguese dey control, African leaders wey dey de coast 'generally control how pipo dey enter deir coasts. And dem fit prevent pipo from making deir subjects and citizens direct slaves'. So, as African scholar John Thornton talk, African leaders wey allow de slave trade to continue probably make money from selling deir pipo to Europe pipo. De Kingdom of Benin, for example, dem take part for de African slave trade, anytime dem want, from 1715 to 1735. Dis one surprise Dutch traders, who no expect to buy slaves for Benin.

De money wey dem make from trading slaves for Europe goods be enough to make de Kingdom of Benin rejoin de trans-Atlantic slave trade after plenty centuries wey dem no participate. Such benefits include military weapons (especially guns and gunpowder), gold, or just to keep good good trade relationships with Europe nations. De slave trade be de way some African big men (elites) use to get money advantage. Historian Walter Rodney estimate say by around 1770, de King of Dahomey dey earn about £250,000 every year by selling captive African soldiers and slaves to de Europe slave-traders. Plenty West African countries too, dem already get tradition of holding slaves, wey dem expand am into trade with Europe pipo.

De Atlantic trade bring new new crops come Africa and better money wey de West African merchants dem come dey use am. Dem fit see dis one as some kind of new way of doing things wey make de cost of doing business small. But de good good things wey e bring for development no be plenty, as long as de business including making pipo slaves.

Both Thornton and Fage dem talk say, even though African big men for politics (elite) fit don make money from de slave trade for de end, deir decision to take part fit be because of wetin dem go lose if dem no participate. For Fage de man his article wey dem call am 'Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History', he note say for West Africans '... dem no really get plenty good ways to get workers for de state dema money and politics dema needs' without de slave trade.

### Effects on the British economy
Historian Eric Williams for 1994 talk say de money wey Britain get from deir sugar colonies, or from de slave trade between Africa and de Caribbean, e help to bring money for Britain dema 'industrial revolution'. However, he say by de time dem abolish de slave trade for 1807, and dem free de slaves for 1833, de sugar plantations for de British West Indies don lose deir profit. So, e be good for Britain dema money to free de slaves.

Other researchers and historians dem don argue plenty against wetin dem come call de 'Williams thesis' for school. David Richardson don conclude say de money wey dem make from de slave trade no even reach 1% of de money wey dem invest inside Britain dema country. Economic historian Stanley Engerman find say, even if you no remove de costs wey come with de slave trade (like money for shipping, slaves wey die, British pipo wey die for Africa, money for defense) or putting de profits back into de slave trade, de total money from de slave trade and from West Indian plantations no even reach 5% of de British economy for any year of de Industrial Revolution.

Engerman de man his 5% figure, e dey give plenty 'benefit of de doubt' to Williams de man his argument. No be only because e no take into account de costs wey come with de slave trade for Britain, but also because e dey carry de full-employment assumption from economics. And e dey hold de total money from slave trade profits as direct contribution to Britain dema national income. Historian Richard Pares, for some article wey he write before Williams de man his book, he dismiss de influence of de money wey dem make from de West Indian plantations on de financing of de Industrial Revolution. He talk say any big flow of investment from West Indian profits go inside industry happen after dem free de slaves, no be before. However, each of these works dem focus mainly on de slave trade or de Industrial Revolution. Dem no focus on de main part of Williams de man his thesis, wey be about sugar and slavery itself. Therefore, dem no fit argue against de main part of Williams de man his thesis.

Seymour Drescher and Robert Anstey dem talk say de slave trade remain dey make money reach de end. And say na pipo dema good heart to change things (moralistic reform), no be money profit, be de main reason why dem stop slavery. Dem talk say slavery remain dey make money for de 1830s because of new ways dem find for farming. However, Drescher de man his book 'Econocide' e finish de study for 1823. So, e no talk about most of Williams de man his thesis, wey cover how de sugar plantations reduce after 1823, de freeing of slaves for de 1830s, and how dem later remove sugar taxes for de 1840s. These arguments no fit argue against de main part of Williams de man his thesis. Dat one dey bring economic data (be like money figures) to show say de slave trade be small compared to de money wey sugar and slavery itself make for de British Caribbean.

Karl Marx, for his strong book on how money business (capitalism) start, wey dem call am 'Das Kapital', he write say '...de turning of Africa into some place wey dem dey hunt black pipo for business, e show de nice beginning of de time for 'capitalist production' (be like pipo dey make plenty money).' He talk say de slave trade be part of wetin he call de 'primitive accumulation' of 'capital' (be like gathering money for de start). Dis be de way dem gather money wey no follow 'capitalist' rules, wey e happen before and e create de money conditions for Britain dema 'industrialisation' (be like when dem start to do plenty factory work and machines).

### Demographics
How de slave trade affect de number of pipo (demographic effects), e be some matter wey pipo dey argue about plenty, plenty. Even though scholars dem like Paul Adams and Erick D. Langer don estimate say 'sub-Saharan Africa' get about 18 percent of de whole world dema pipo for 1600, and only 6 percent for 1900, de reasons why dis change happen be some big argument. On top of de pipo wey finish for Africa because of de slave trade, African countries dem be left with plenty 'imbalanced gender ratios' (be like say women too many pass men). Women fit reach up to 65 percent of de pipo for areas wey de trade hit hard, like Angola. On top of dat, plenty scholars (like Barbara N. Ramusack) don talk say dem see connection between de way pipo dey do 'prostitution' for Africa today and de temporary marriages wey dem force pipo to do during de time of de slave trade.

Walter Rodney talk say de way dem export plenty, plenty pipo be like some big disaster for de number of pipo for Africa. He say dis one make Africa dey suffer forever when you compare am to other parts of de world, and e explain plenty why de continent still dey suffer. He show figures wey dey prove say Africa dema pipo demma number no grow at all during dis time, meanwhile for Europe and Asia, deir pipo grow plenty, plenty. According to Rodney, all other parts of de economy dem suffer because of de slave trade. De big big merchants dem abandon deir normal businesses to go pursue slaving, and de pipo for de lower levels of de population too dem suffer because of de slaving itself.

Other pipo dem don challenge dis view. J. D. Fage compare de effect on de number of pipo for de whole continent. David Eltis don compare de numbers to de rate of pipo wey comot from Europe during dis time. For de 19th century alone, over 50 million pipo comot from Europe go de Americas. Dis rate be far higher than de pipo wey dem ever take from Africa.

Other scholars dem accuse Walter Rodney say he no talk de correct thing about de trade between Africans and Europeans. Dem talk say Africans, or better still, African big men (elites), dem purposely allow Europe traders to join some already big trade in slaves. And say dem no dey treat them like small pikin.

As Joseph E. Inikori talk, de history of de area dey show say de effects still be very bad. He talk say de way Africa dema money business be for dat time, e be very different from Europe dema own. And e no fit hold up with plenty pipo dying like dat. Pipo wey reduce plenty for some areas too, e cause plenty problems. Inikori also note say after dem stop de slave trade, Africa dema pipo begin increase fast fast almost immediately, even before dem bring new new medicines.

### Cultural effects
De way de transatlantic slave trade affect African culture be say, de number of traditional African religious practices reduce plenty. According to research for a 2021 census of religions for Ghana, wey de Office of International Religious Freedom publish am, for that year, de Ghana Embassy report say: 71 percent of de pipo be Christian, 20 percent be Muslim, 3 percent dey follow deir own native or animistic religious beliefs, and 6 percent belong to other religious groups or dem no get any religious beliefs. Historian Nana Osei Bonsu argue say de transatlantic slave trade no be say e just carry millions of Africans comot from de continent. He say e also cause de decline of traditional African religions and Ghanaian native culture. This be because Europe pipo believe say African pipo dema culture and religions be useless and no good. De slave trade come cause de colonization of Africa and her pipo. This one force plenty Africans to change and become Christian.

De transatlantic slave trade come spoil de normal trade roads for West-Central Africa. Before, Africans dey trade goods and slaves using trade roads inside Africa. Dem roads dey connect to de Sahara Desert and de Mediterranean coast, where dem dey trade other things and slaves too. Africans don dey use dem trade roads for many, many centuries, and because of dem, societies and kingdoms come grow well well. Europe pipo choose to trade mostly along de Atlantic coast because dem no get body strong to fight malaria, wey be sickness wey plenty for dat area. And also, dem "no fit rule pass where deir guns fit shoot, from ship or from fort (strong building)". De slave trade also make warlords (be like leaders for war) dey control African societies. Dem warlords want to trade with Europe pipo so dem fit get guns to scatter deir enemies and sell dem to Europe pipo.

De Europe pipo dema way of using money, wey dem bring am with de slave trade, e come replace cowrie shells, wey be de money Africans dey use before. According to research from de National Park Service: "Europe pipo dema trade goods come replace how Africans before dey depend on deir own local things, natural resources and products as de main way deir society dey do business. At de same time, Europe pipo dey ask for pipo more and more in exchange for trade goods. Once e reach dis stage, some African society no get much choice but to trade human lives for Europe pipo dema goods and guns; guns wey don become necessary to fight wars for more pipo to catch so dem fit trade for goods wey some African society don dey depend on now.

As de Europe pipo dema slave trade dey make plenty, plenty money, de demand for slaves just shoot up. This one affect African coastal societies for some ways: "Business with de world outside Africa change from going overland (through de bush) to going by sea. And coastal villages wey deir main work be fishing and making salt, dem come turn into ports and trading posts". De trans-Atlantic slave trade eventually bring about de colonization of Africa. Colonization in Africa still dey cause plenty problems as some of Africa dema old, old cultures dey disappear, plus traditional languages and African religions too. After dem stop de trans-Atlantic slave trade finish, Europe colonial powers just start to fight among themselves over Africa dema land and resources. De way dem develop de medicine for malaria, quinine, for 1820, e help Europe pipo to enter inside Africa and colonize even de interior parts.

By de end of de 19th century, Europe powers dem come say dem own 90 percent of land for Sub-Saharan Africa during wetin dem call de "Scramble for Africa".Inside dis invasion and de way dem come control de land, de seven Europe powers (wey be Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, and Italy) dem remove African kingdoms from power. Dem create country borders wey no follow de tribe borders wey dey already for Africa. Dem force different different tribes to stay together and allow one colonial power to control them. This one cause some unnatural way of dividing pipo, and e be de foundation for de trouble wey start for African continent from de 20th century reach today.

De slave forts wey dem build along de Gold Coast for Ghana during de slave trade years, de British colonial administration get dem and dey use dem as deir main office enter de 20th century. British forts for Ghana, dem comot from there after Ghana get deir freedom for 1957. Where dem put dem forts for de coast, e scatter African societies wey dey live and fish along de coast. British pipo wey come settle de land, dem use de forts to lock up African leaders wey dey organize pipo to fight against colonization. For 1900, Yaa Asantewaa (wey be Queen mother and war leader for de Ashanti people), dem lock her for Elmina Castle because she lead war against de British for de Golden Stool, wey be de Ashanti royal throne.

### Legacy of racism
Walter Rodney talk say:De way slavery help to push bad thinking and ideas about race, pipo don study am well well for some places, especially for USA. De simple truth be say, no pipo fit make another pipo slave for four hundred years and no come out with de idea say dem better pass. And when de color and other body features of those pipo be very different, e for happen say de bad thinking go take de form of racism.Eric Williams talk say "Dem come give racism twist to something wey be mainly about money business. Slavery no come from racism: instead, na slavery bring racism.

Similarly, John Darwin write say, "De way dem quick quick change from white pipo wey dey work as 'indentured labour' (be like dem sign agreement to work for some time) to black pipo as slaves... e make de English Caribbean some place where dem no too care about pipo. Over there, English (wey later turn to British) dema ideas about race and slave work, dem change am bad bad to fit deir own self-interest for de area... In fact, de main reason why dem dey justify de slave system and de wicked way dem dey force pipo to obey to keep am, be say de slave pipo dem be too wild and uncivilized, wey dem talk say e come from deir African origin.

Even though dem dey do slavery for old old times for different different cultures, e no get big effect for de whole world like de transatlantic slave trade and slavery for de Americas wey Europe pipo create. De transatlantic slave trade dema legacy (be like wetin e leave behind) be institutional racism on a worldwide level. Dis one cause pipo to suffer racial discrimination for schools and public places. On top of dat, dem dey teach scientific racism for schools and some colleges for United States and Europe for de 19th century and early 20th centuries. Dem use am as reason to make Africans slave.

De Canadian Museum for Human Rights explain say how Europe pipo dema slavery be different from de slavery wey Africans and Native Americans dey do. "Europeans bring different kind of slavery come North America, anyway. Plenty Europe pipo see slaves as just property to buy and sell. Dis 'chattel slavery' (be like pipo as property) be some wicked way dem dey abuse and control pipo, wey e no see dem as human. Importantly, Europe pipo see slavery with racism for mind. Indigenous pipo and African pipo, dem see dem as dem no reach human. Dis white supremacy (be like white pipo believe say dem be de best) justify de wickedness of slavery for hundreds of years." Another example from some article for The Wall Street Journal explain, "New World slavery be some system wey racism dey inside am. For dere, slaves be black and pipo wey get slaves be white. But for de Old World, pipo wey get slaves and de slaves dem be generally from de same race. Dem dey see de difference between slaves and pipo wey dem born free, no be by race, but by de language dem dey speak, deir culture and deir religion." Scientific racism and de history of making sub-Saharan Africans slave lead to anti-black racism wey pipo dey see for de whole world.

= End of the Atlantic slave trade =
Pipo wey want make dem stop slavery (abolitionists), from Africa, Europe, and America dem all fight against de Atlantic slave trade. Black pipo wey want make dem stop slavery, dem take serious approach pass de white pipo dema own. Dem dey encourage pipo to strike, dem dey make slaves rebel inside slave ships and for de plantations. Dem dey share papers wey pipo go sign, dem dey tell deir own stories about how slavery be bad, bad, and dem dey fight for freedom and equal rights for Black pipo for de African diaspora (be like black pipo wey scatter for de world).

### African abolitionists
According to one sociologist wey dem dey call am José Lingna Nafafé, de first time people start dey fight against slavery and de Atlantic slave trade, e start for the 17th century among Africans wey dey under the Portuguese people demma rule. One royal man from Angola en Ndongo Kingdom, dem dey call am Lourenço da Silva de Mendouça, e campaign against the slave trade as e dey travel through Italy, Spain, and the Vatican for Rome inside. For 1684, Mendonça go petition the Vatican, Portugal, Italy, and Spain say make dem stop dey enslave Africans. E carry en case go give Pope Innocent XI, and e demand say make dem free Africans, the New Christians (wey be Jews wey turn Christians) and the American Indians. All this thing happen like hundred years before de abolitionist people like William Wilberforce and Thomas Buxton even show up.

De people wey dey support slavery dey talk say Africans dey enslave demselfs, and dem use am as proof say African people demma nature no good. The common story wey people dey tell about how dem stop the Atlantic slave trade be say the European Christians get good character pass everybody, and say na dem save Africans from slavery. On top of dat, some Christian stories too talk say de slave trade no be bad thing, and e support the colonialism wey come after de British people say dem abolish slavery.

Historian plus author Benedetta Rossi say some African societies make laws wey dem no want slave trade plus slavery before white people come. Rossi write say: "...the way African people wey no like slavery do things, ein be say ein come from their culture plus their normal ways wey vary from one society to another. Two, as individual, wetin people think plus do about slavery plus stopping am depend on their position for society: rich people wey get slaves, leaders for politics, leaders for church, plus people wey dem make dem slaves, dem all get different different things wey dem want plus different ways to do am, wey dem develop for the political plus economic situation for their time." African leaders wey pass anti-slavery laws, dem only stop some kind of slavery. African nations wey no want slave trade do am for different different reasons including cultural, religious, political, plus money matters.

Plus dat one too, African people wey no gree say dem go make dem slaves for de slave ships plus de different different wahala for America make dem start to talk about say dem for stop de slave trade and slavery. Olaudah Equiano wey be like say ein be freedom fighter, ein be former slave wey dem thief am from Nigeria wey we dey see now, plus ein write ein own story about ein life wey dem publish for 1789. Dat book talk about de bad bad things about slavery, plus ein go teach people for Britain say dem for stop de Atlantic slave trade plus de kind of slavery wey dem dey buy and sell people like property. For 1788, Equiano join de House of Commons demma discussion about slavery plus say dem for stop de slave trade, ein write letters give de government, plus ein talk to de people for parliament.

Author plus historian Bronwen Everill say de British dem no be de first to stop de slave trade, and African leaders for Sierra Leone get hand for ending de transatlantic slave trade. Black Britons wey dem free dem before go start Sierra Leone for West Africa for 1787, for land wey de Temne people dey stay. As de years dey go, Black Loyalists from North America come move go de colony. De Temne, Susu, plus de freedmen dem no like de slave trade. De Sierra Leone Company for London dey manage de colony, and de Africans plus de freedmen dem want to do business with de Sierra Leone Company without selling people. Sierra Leone ein story show say de British navy depend on African people wey no like de slave trade to fit stop am. Britain go take control of de Sierra Leone colony from de Sierra Leone Company, dem go set up court plus navy patrol to fight de slave trade by catching ships.

### American den European abolitionists
For Britain, America, Portugal, plus some parts of Europe, people start to vex against de slave trade. David Brion Davis talk say de people wey want make dem stop slavery assume say if dem stop to bring slaves in, ein go automatically make things better plus gradually stop slavery finish. For Britain plus America, de Quakers, Thomas Clarkson, plus some church leaders like William Wilberforce inside Parliament, dem be de main people wey dey lead de fight against de trade. Plenty people join de movement plus dem start to protest against de trade, but de people wey get de colonies dem no gree. After Lord Mansfield ein decision for 1772, plenty abolitionists plus slave-owners believe say if slaves enter de British Isles, dem go be free. But de truth be say, small small cases of slavery still dey happen for Britain even till dem stop am for de 1830s. De Mansfield ruling on Somerset v Stewart only talk say dem no fit carry slave comot England against ein will.

Under Thomas Jefferson ein leadership, de new U.S. state of Virginia for 1778 go be de first state wey get slaves plus ein be one of de first places anywhere to stop de bringing in of new slaves for sale; ein make ein be crime for traders to bring in slaves from outside de state or from overseas for sale; people wey come from inside de United States dem allow dem to bring their own slaves. De new law go free all de slaves wey dem bring in illegally after dem pass am plus dem go give heavy fines to de people wey break de law. All de other states inside de United States follow de same thing, even though South Carolina reopen ein slave trade for 1803.

Denmark, wey ein don dey do plenty for de slave trade, ein be de first country to stop de trade through law for 1792, wey start to work for 1803. Britain stop de slave trade for 1807, dem put heavy heavy fine for any slave wey dem find for British ship (go check Slave Trade Act 1807). De Royal Navy go move to stop other nations from continuing de slave trade and dem talk say making people slaves be like piracy and de punishment be death. De United States Congress pass de Slave Trade Act of 1794, wey no allow dem to build or prepare ships for de U.S. to use for de slave trade. De U.S. Constitution (Article I, section 9, clause 1) no allow federal government to ban importing slaves for 20 years; for dat time de Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves stop imports for de first day de Constitution allow: January 1, 1808. People for general think say de transatlantic slave trade end for 1867, but later dem find proof of voyages till 1873.

### British abolitionism
Quakers dem start to fight against de British Empire ein slave trade for de 1780s, and from 1789 William Wilberforce ein be de strong man for de British Parliament for de fight against de trade. De people wey want stop slavery talk say de trade no be necessary for de sugar business to go well for de British West Indian colonies. De politicians wey dem dey think two ways, dem gree for dis argument, because dem no want destroy de sugar colonies for de British Caribbean wey dem be important and get plenty value. Parliament still dey worry about how de Haitian Revolution go, and dem believe say dem for stop de trade to prevent de same kind of big wahala from happening for a British Caribbean colony.

For 22 February 1807, de House of Commons pass one motion by 283 votes to 16 to stop de Atlantic slave trade. So, dem stop de slave trade, but dem no stop de slavery itself, wey still dey make money dat time, and ein be de thing wey Britain dey import pass, dat be sugar. De people wey want stop slavery dem no do anything against sugar and slavery itself until after de sugar business start to spoil finish for 1823.

De United States dem pass their own Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves de next week (March 2, 1807), even though probably dem no talk to each other. De law only start to work for de first day of 1808; because one compromise clause for de US Constitution (Article 1, Section 9, Clause 1) no allow federal government, but allow state government, to restrict de slave trade before 1808. But de United States, dem no stop their internal slave trade, wey go be de main way dem dey trade slaves for US until de 1860s. For 1805 de British Order-in-Council don stop de bringing in of slaves into colonies wey dem capture from France and de Netherlands. Britain still dey force other nations to end their trade; for 1810 one Anglo-Portuguese treaty dem sign, wey Portugal gree to restrict their trade into their colonies; one 1813 Anglo-Swedish treaty wey Sweden make their slave trade illegal; de Treaty of Paris 1814 wey France gree with Britain say de trade be "bad for de principles of natural justice" and gree to stop de slave trade for five years; de 1814 Anglo-Dutch treaty wey de Dutch make their slave trade illegal.

### Castlereagh den Palmerston's diplomacy
Abolitionist opinion for Britain be strong enough for 1807 to stop de slave trade for all British lands dem get, even though slavery itself still dey for de colonies until 1833. After 1807, de people wey want stop slavery focus on international agreements to stop de slave trade. Foreign Minister Castlereagh change ein mind and become strong supporter of de movement. Britain arrange treaties with Portugal, Sweden, and Denmark for de time between 1810 and 1814, wey dem all gree to end or reduce their trading. These be like preparation for de Congress of Vienna talks wey Castlereagh control, and wey dem come out with one general statement condemning de slave trade.

De problem be say de treaties plus de declarations demma enforcement be hard, because de private people dem dey make plenty money. As Foreign Minister, Castlereagh cooperate with de senior officials to use de Royal Navy to find and catch slave ships. Ein use diplomacy to make search-and-seize agreements with all de governments wey their ships dey trade. Plenty wahala dey with de United States, where de Southern slave people demma power for politics be strong. Washington no like how de British dem dey police de high seas. Spain, France and Portugal still depend on de international slave trade to give slaves to their colonial farms.

As Castlereagh dey make more and more diplomatic arrangements, de people wey get slave ships start to fly false flags of nations wey dem no gree, especially de United States. Ein no good under American law for American ships to do slave trade, but de idea of Britain enforcing American laws no be something Washington go gree for. Lord Palmerston plus other British foreign ministers continue de Castlereagh ein policies. Later, for 1842 for 1845, London and Washington reach agreement. As de anti-slavery government wey dem no like slavery at all come for Washington for 1861, de Atlantic slave trade ein end come. For de long run, Castlereagh ein plan on how to stop de slave trade prove say ein work.

Prime Minister Palmerston, ein no like slavery at all. So for Nigeria for 1851, ein take advantage of how de local politics dey divided, de Christian missionaries demma presence, plus de British consul John Beecroft ein smart moves to make dem overthrow King Kosoko. De new King Akitoye, ein be like say ein be puppet wey ein dey gree for everything and ein no dey do slave trade.

### British Royal Navy
De Royal Navy ein West Africa Squadron, wey dem start for 1808, ein grow by 1850 reach like 25 ships, wey dem give dem work to fight slavery along de African coast. Between 1807 and 1860, de Royal Navy ein Squadron catch around 1,600 ships wey dey do slave trade and dem free 150,000 Africans wey dey inside these ships. Some hundreds of slaves every year dem carry them go de British colony of Sierra Leone by de navy, where dem make dem serve as "apprentices" for de colonial economy until de Slavery Abolition Act 1833.

### Last slave ship to the United States
Even though dem say no, because de North no want or no gree to enforce de Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, de Atlantic slave trade dem "re-open am ... as a way to vex dem". For 1859, "de trade in slaves from Africa to de Southern coast of de United States dey happen now, wey dem no fear de Federal law and de Federal Government.

De last slave ship wey dem know say ein land for U.S. soil be de **Clotilda**. For 1859, dem illegally smuggle some Africans go Mobile, Alabama inside that ship. De Africans wey dey inside dem sell dem as slaves; but slavery for de U.S. dem stop am five years after, when de American Civil War end for 1865. Dem long long time believe say Cudjoe Lewis, wey die for 1935, be de last person wey survive from Clotilda and de last slave wey dem bring from Africa go de United States. But new research don find out say two other people wey survive from Clotilda outlive am. Dem be Redoshi, wey die for 1937, and Matilda McCrear, wey die for 1940.

But, according to Senator Stephen Douglas, de man wey Lincoln fight for de Lincoln–Douglas debates, ein say:For de matter of de slave trade, Mr. Douglas talk say ein no get any doubt at all say dem don dey do am plenty plenty for long time now. And ein say more slaves dem don bring enter de Southern States last year [1858] pass any other year before, even when de slave trade be legal. Ein believe for true say over 15,000 slaves dem bring enter dis country last year. Ein see with ein own eye, three hundred of these new new slaves, wey dem be miserable, inside one slave-pen for Vicksburg, Mississippi, and plenty plenty too for Memphis, Tennessee.Abraham Lincoln face big big wahala for constitution matter for ein fight to stop slavery, as de U.S. Constitution don give some kind protection for slavery. Even with all these challenges, Lincoln ein leadership and how dem create strong federal government make am possible for dem to finally stop slavery through de Emancipation Proclamation and de passing of de 13th Amendment.

### Brazil ends the Atlantic slave trade
De last country to stop de Atlantic slave trade be Brazil; one first law dem gree for 1831, but dem only enforce am for 1850 through de new Eusébio de Queirós Law. Even though dem say no, ein take another three years for de trade to truly stop. Between de first law for 1831 and de actual stopping of transatlantic trade for 1850, dem believe say around 500,000 Africans dem make dem slaves and illegally carry dem go Brazil. And until 1856, de year wey dem last record say Brazilian authorities catch slave ship, around 38,000 Africans still enter de country as slaves.

Historians João José Reis, Sidney Chalhoub, Robert W. Slenes, and Flávio dos Santos Gomes talk say one other reason why dem stop de Atlantic slave trade to Brazil be de **Malê Revolt** for 1835. For January 25, 1835, around 600 Africans, some be free and some be slaves, wey get guns, dem run through de streets of Salvador dey kill white people and slave owners. De people wey want stop slavery talk say if de slave trade and slavery continue, de slave resistance movements go increase, wey go make more deaths happen. Seventy-three percent of de Africans for de Malê revolt be Yoruba men wey dem turn to Islam; some white Brazilians believe say dem get spirit of resistance against slavery.

### Economic motivation to end the slave trade
Historian Walter Rodney talk say ein be because de triangular trade no dey make plenty money again, wey make am possible for some basic human feelings to come out for de people dem wey dey make decisions for some European countries. Britain be de most important because dem carry de most African captives across de Atlantic. Rodney talk say changes for how dem dey produce things, de technology dem dey use, and how dem dey exchange things for Europe and de Americas inform de British demma decision to end their part for de trade for 1807.

But still, Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri talk say ein no be just about money or say ein be about right and wrong. First, because slavery still dey help capitalism (in practice), ein no just bring money but ein still teach workers how to suffer and obey (like say dem dey "train" dem for de capitalist factory). De new new talk about "moral shift" (wey de previous parts of dis writing dey base on) Hardt and Negri say ein be like one "ideological" way to remove de feeling of guilt for Western society. Even though moral arguments play small small role, dem usually get big impact when dem use am to reduce demma competitors profits. Dis argument say Eurocentric history no dey see de most important thing for dis fight for freedom, wey be de constant rebellion and de fight from de slaves demma revolts. De most important of those be de Haitian Revolution.

De shock of dis 1804 revolution bring one important political argument come inside de matter of ending de slave trade. Dis be because slaveholders for North America fear say de same kind of thing fit happen for de United States, where de enslaved people for de Southern states fit free demma self through armed resistance and free all de enslaved people. De way de enslaved and free black people for Haiti succeed for freeing demma self through revolt make plenty white people for North America fear. St. George Tucker, one Virginian judge, talk dis about de Haitian Revolution: "ein reach to make person shudder for fear of de same kind of bad things for dis country." Some white Americans and white people for de Caribbean suggest say dem for end de slave trade and slavery to stop any uprising like de one for Haiti. One Jamaican planter, Bryan Edwards, observe de Haitian revolution and argue say de enslaved people wey revolt be new slaves wey dem just bring them from Africa. Edwards and other planters believe say de slave revolts for de Caribbean be these new slaves wey instigate them, and some abolitionists suggest say dem for end de slave trade to prevent more slave insurrections. For Charleston, South Carolina, for 1822, Denmark Vesey and Gullah Jack plan one slave insurrection wey de Haitian Revolution inspire them.

De Haitian Revolution affect France ein colonial economy. Saint Domingue (Haiti) be France ein richest colony and de number one for de whole world for producing sugar and coffee. Ein still be top top for cacao and indigo. Na slave work make Saint Domingue de richest colony for de world and ein provide two-thirds of France ein trade from overseas. Because of Saint Domingue ein wealth, dem give am de nickname "Pearl of de Antilles." After de free people and de enslaved people for Haiti get their freedom from France, France and de French slaveholders dem want money from Haiti. Dem ask for **1**50 million francs to compensate for de wealth wey dem lose. Dem call am "Independence Debt" because France lose ein richest colony when Haiti get ein independence.

Haitians beat de French, British, and Spanish for de revolution. Before de revolution, de United States be big trade partner with Saint Domingue. After de revolution, de United States no gree to recognise Haiti as independent Black nation. Haiti no be de main exporter of sugar again after de revolution. Cuba become de main place wey dey supply sugar to foreign nations, and Louisiana become de center for sugar production for de United States. Slave revolts affect de economy of de slave trade as slaveholders lose their property for enslaved people through death, people running away, and a decrease for de production of cash crops. Dis one make dem shift trade go other nations.

But, James Stephen and Henry Brougham, 1st Baron Brougham and Vaux, dem two write say dem fit stop de slave trade for de British colonies demma good. And de pamphlet wey de second person write, dem often use am for parliamentary talks to support stopping de trade. William Pitt de Younger argue, based on these writings, say de British colonies go dey better, for their money matter and for their security too, if dem stop de trade. So, according to historian Christer Petley, de people wey want stop slavery argue, and even some plantation owners wey no dey their farms accept, say dem fit stop de trade "without plenty damage to de plantation economy." William Grenville, 1st Baron Grenville, argue say "de slave population for de colonies fit still dey without am." Petley point out say de government take de decision to stop de trade "with de clear intention to make better, no be to destroy, de plantation economy for de British West Indies wey still dey make money."

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## External links

* Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database Archived 2019-07-05 at the Wayback Machine
* Quick guide: The slave trade&nbsp;– BBC News
* Slave Trade and Abolition of slavery&nbsp;– Teaching resources at Black History 4 Schools
* British documents on slave holding and the slave trade, 1788–1793