Slavery in Egypt

**Slavery in Egypt** dey go on till early 20th century. E no be like de slavery wey dey happen for ancient Egypt. From de time wey de Caliphate conquer Egypt for 7th century, dem dey manage slavery based on Islamic law. Dis system continue till slavery end for early 20th century. Dem gradually stop am after dem ban de slave trade for late 19th century.

During de Islamic history insyd Egypt, slaves dey mainly fall insyd three categories: male slaves wey dem use as soldiers den bureaucrats, female slaves wey dem use for sexual slavery as concubines, den female slaves plus eunuchs wey dem use for domestic service insyd harems den private households. Toward de end of dat period, agricultural slavery too start grow. De people wey dem enslave insyd Egypt during Islamic times mostly come from Europe den Caucasus, wey dem dey call “white”, or from Sudan den Africa wey dey south of de Sahara, through de Trans-Saharan slave trade—wey dem dey call “black”. British pressure make dem stop de slave trade between 1877 den 1884. Slavery itself no get abolished straight, but e gradually die out after dem cancel de slave trade, since nobody fit legally get new slaves again, den de ones wey dey already get right to apply for freedom. Even up to de 1930s, some people still dey as slaves.

Up till now, Egypt still be source, transit, plus destination country for human trafficking—especially forced labor den forced prostitution—even though de government dey take steps for 21st century to suppress such activities.

## Abbasid Egypt: 750–935
Egypt dey under de Abbasid Caliphate from 750 go 935. So de slavery wey dem dey practice for there, follow de same pattern as de one wey dey inside de Abbasid Caliphate. But still, e get ein own local style wey make am different small from de main one.

### Slave trade
One slave route come from people wey Egypt get treaty plus dem. Egypt den Nubia keep peace based on de popular Baqt treaty. For dis agreement, Nubia dey supply slaves to Egypt every year, den Egypt too dey give textiles plus wheat to Nubia. De Baqt no allow make Egypt go do direct slave raids to Nubia, but Egypt dey buy Nubian slaves wey de Buja tribes—wey dey live for de Eastern Desert of Nubia—capture. Dem too dey buy Buja slaves wey Nubians capture. Anytime Nubia or Buja break de treaty rules, Egypt dey enter dem area go do slave raids. Some private Egyptian slave traders too dey go Egypt ein African hinterland go do slave raids, dem dey use small-small breach of peace agreement as reason. For de slave market, dem Egyptian traders plenty times dey give fake origin of de people dem carry, so e hard to know if dem people come from place wey Egypt get peace agreement plus dem.

Anoda slave route come from areas wey Egypt no get any treaty plus dem. Based on Islamic law, dis make slave raids for such places legal. Slave merchants too dey trade people wey dem capture from nations wey Muslim authorities no get peace agreement plus dem. De *History of de Patriarchs* talk say slave raids dey happen against de coasts of Byzantine Asia Minor plus Europe, wey Muslims carry Byzantines from demma lands come Egypt (or Fusṭāṭ [Miṣr]) plenty times. De 10th-century *Ḥudūd al-ʿālam* talk say Egyptian merchants dey kidnap children from de “Blacks” wey dey south of Nubia, dem dey castrate de boys before dem traffic dem enter Egypt.

De third route be when slave merchant illegally capture other Egyptians, wey de law no dey allow. Mostly de captured Egyptians be either non-Muslim Egyptians—like Coptic Christians—or children of black people wey dem be former slaves.

### Slave market
Insyd dis period, de biggest slave market place insyd Egypt be Fusṭāṭ. Slave merchants from de Near East, Byzantium, Europe, North Africa plus de Mediterranean islands dey traffic den sell slaves insyd Egypt. According to one Egyptian jurist, Aṣbagh b. al-Faraj (wey die for 839), “people dey desire imported slaves pass any other.” Among de slaves wey dem traffic be people from Slavic, European or Anatolian, Berber, plus Sudanic African background. De merchants dey sell eunuchs, “slave women (jawārī)” plus “female servants (waṣāʾif)”. De slaves dey do work wey dey go beyond house matter—dem dey run errands, deliver or collect messages or goods, assist demma masters for business journeys, manage demma masters ein affairs when dem no dey, plus dem too be used as sex slaves (concubines).

During dis period, slaves insyd Egypt be either people wey dem born insyd slavery, or captives wey slavers carry come from outside de Realm of Islam. De preserved documents show say na de imported slaves wey dominate Egypt ein slave market. Islam dey encourage make people free slaves, den children wey slave plus ein master born normally dey get free status—especially as most of dem children dey get free poppie. Dis mean say Egypt need steady supply of new slaves to keep de slave population up, because few slaves born to slaves turn slaves themselves—unless dem born from two slaves, not from slave woman plus free man.

## Fatimid Caliphate: 909–1171
During de Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171), slaves dey trafficked enter Egypt through plenty routes wey come from non-Islamic lands for South, North, West plus East. For dis period, de system of military slavery expand well, wey increase de demand for male slaves to serve for de military. Female slaves too dey used for sexual slavery as concubines, or dem dey work as domestic servants.

### Slave trade
De Trans-Saharan slave trade still dey go on during de Mamluk Sultanate. Egypt dey receive Black African slaves from Sudan through demma Baqt treaty wey dey last for centuries, till around de 14th century. De closest relationship happen during de Fatimid period for Egypt. De Shi'ite Fatimids no get plenty allies for de Sunni-dominated Islamic world, so Nubia turn strong ally. De slaves wey Nubia send form de main backbone of de Fatimid army.

European saqaliba slaves too reach Egypt through different routes. De Venetian Balkan slave trade grow well during dis period. De al-Andalus slave trade too dey bring European slaves, wey originally pass through de Prague slave trade before dem reach Egypt.

### Slave market

#### Female slaves
Female slaves be primarily used as either domestic servants, or as concubines (sex slaves).

De slave market classify slaves based on racial stereotypes. Dem see Berber slave women as best for housework, sexual services plus childbearing. Black slave women dem see as humble, strong, den good wet nurses. Byzantine (Greek) slaves be ones dem trust to keep valuables. Persian women be known as good caretakers for children. Arab slave women dem praise as skilled singers. But Indian plus Armenian girls dem describe as hard to handle or control. For de market, de younger de girl, de more attractive she be.

**Male slaves**

Male slaves dey used for both hard labor, eunuch service, plus military slavery. During dis time, de military slave system grow more important.

Insyd de Isma'ili Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171 CE), eunuchs play big roles for de politics insyd de caliphate ein court under de slavery system wey dey run there. Normally, dem dey buy dis eunuchs from slave auctions, den dem dey come from different Arab plus non-Arab minority ethnic groups. Sometimes, dem buy dem from noble families inside de empire, wey make those families connect close to de caliph. But most times, dem prefer foreign slaves, wey dem describe as “ideal servants.”

After dem enslave dem, de eunuchs dey placed for top positions inside four main areas: service to de male members of de court; service to de Fatimid harem or female court members; administrative plus clerical work; den military service. For example, during de Fatimid occupation of Cairo, some Egyptian eunuchs dey control military garrisons (shurta) plus marketplaces (hisba)—two positions wey na just de city magistrate dey higher. But de most powerful eunuchs na de ones wey serve de caliph den ein household direct—like chamberlains, treasurers, governors, den attendants. Because dem dey close to de caliph, dem get plenty political power. One eunuch, Jawdhar, turn hujja to Imam-Caliph al-Qa'im—a sacred position for Shia Islam wey de imam dey use choose who go succeed am after ein death.

For Fatimid history, some other eunuchs wey people hold in high esteem be Abu'l-Fadi Rifq al-Khadim plus Abu'l-Futuh Barjawan al-Ustadh. Rifq be African eunuch general wey serve as governor of Damascus until he lead army of 30,000 men go campaign to expand Fatimid control reach northeast side, go de city of Aleppo, Syria. People recognize am say he fit unite different people—Africans, Arabs, Bedouins, Berbers, plus Turks—into one strong fight force wey fit face de Mirdasids, Bedouins, plus Byzantines successfully.

Barjawan be European eunuch wey rise during late Fatimid time. E take ein military sense plus political sharpness bring peace between dem plus de Byzantine Empire. E still crush rebellions for Libya plus de Levant. Because of de respect den power wey he get for court plus military, he take over control of de caliphate from ein student, al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, then rule as de de facto Regent for 997 CE. But as he take de power from de caliph, dem kill am for 1000 CE under de orders of al-Hakim.

#### Fatimid harem
De Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171) build upon de established model of de Abbasid harem. De Abbasid harem system later turn example for harems of future Islamic rulers, den de same model appear for other Islamic nations during de Middle Ages—including de harem of de Fatimid Caliphate for Egypt. De Fatimid harem follow de same pattern as de Abbasid harem, arranged in a way where de mother hold first rank, followed by slave concubines wey turn umm walad after dem born, enslaved female entertainers wey dem dey call Jawaris, enslaved female stewardesses wey dem call qahramana, plus eunuchs.

De woman wey get highest rank inside de Fatimid harem mostly be de caliph ein mommie, or de heir ein mommie, or sometimes anoda female relative. Dis woman dey called *sayyida* anaa *al-sayyida al-malika* (“queen”). De Caliph ein consorts originally be slave-girls wey he either marry or use as concubines (sex slaves). For both cases, de consort dey called *jiha* anaa *al-jiha al-aliya* (“Her Highness”). Most of de Fatimid Caliphs ein concubines be Christian by origin. People describe dem as beautiful singers, dancers, plus musicians. Plenty love poems dey about dem, but dem too get accused plenty times of manipulating de Caliph. De third rank harem women be slave-girls wey dem train in singing, dancing, plus playing music—dem dey perform as entertainers. Sometimes, male leaders dey dash dem as diplomatic gifts. De lowest rank of harem women be de slave-girls wey dem choose to be servants. Dem dey do different tasks inside de harem plus de royal house. Dem call dis women shadadat, den dem get small connection to de outside world, as dem dey move goods from outside enter de harem through underground tunnels wey dem dey call saradib.

All de slave women wey dem employ for court be called *mustakhdimat* or *qusuriyyat*. Women wey work for inside de royal household be *muqimat*, and those wey dem employ for de royal workshops wey dey Fustat or Qarafa be *munqaqitat*. Slave women dey work for royal workshops called *arbab al-san'i min al-qusuriyyat*, wey dey produce clothes plus food. If dem dey work for public workshops, dem dey called *zahir*; but if dem dey work for workshops wey dey produce only for de royal household, dem be called *khassa*. Normally, each workshop get about thirty slave women, wey dey work under one female slave supervisor called *zayn al-khuzzan*, a role wey dem mostly give Greek slave women.

De enslaved eunuchs dey manage de women for de harem—dem dey guard dem, pass information to dem, report back to de Caliph, plus serve as demma link to de outside world.

Both de Caliph ein harem den de harems of other male high-class people fit get thousands of slaves. For example, de vizier Ibn get household wey include 800 concubines plus 4,000 male bodyguards.

## Ayyubid Sultanate: 1171–1250
De Ayyubid Sultanate (1171–1250) include both Egypt plus Syria, so de institution of slavery for dis places get shared history during de time of de Ayyubid dynasty.

### Slave trade
African slaves dey transported enter Egypt through de slave trade wey come from Sudan. During dis time, de Baqt treaty still dey function well-known. But de relationship between Egypt plus Nubia no good under de Ayyubids, so e start affect how dem dey enforce de Baqt agreement.

De Trans-Saharan slave trade bring African slaves from de West enter Egypt.

De Red Sea slave trade provide slaves to de East coast of Egypt. Majority of dem be Africans. But e get records wey show say some Indians too dey wey dem transport enter Egypt through de Red Sea slave trade.

De Venetian slave trade export slaves to Egypt mainly through de Balkan slave trade during dis time.

Turkish plus other Asian slaves dey come enter Egypt from Central Asia through de Bukhara slave trade. Dem value Turkish men high as slave soldiers.

### War captives
Christian captives from de Crusader states dey known say dem get enslaved during de two hundred years of Christian Crusader rule. Dis one include not only male warriors but civilians too—like women plus children.

One popular example be de Siege of Jerusalem (1187). For dat time, 15,000 people wey no fit pay ransom dem sell into slavery. According to Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani, 7,000 be men plus 8,000 be women den children.

Some Muslim sources wey dey dat time describe how non-Muslim women plus girls dey raped den enslaved after Jerusalem fall:

Women plus children reach 8,000, den dem share dem quickly among dem, wey bring smile for Muslim faces as dem cry. Plenty of de well-guarded women lose demma dignity, hidden women lose demma modesty, virgins get dishonoured, proud ones deflowered, red lips of lovely women kissed, den happy ones begin cry. Noblemen take some as concubines, passionate men desire some, celibates find satisfaction, thirsty men quench dem thirst, den turbulent men release dem passion.

**Slave market**

Female slaves pass male slaves in number for Egypt.

Most of de female slaves dem dey use either as domestic maids or as concubines (sex slaves). One of de most popular former slave concubines of de Royal Ayyubid harem be Shajar al-Durr.

For male slaves, one of de main markets be de institution of mamluk military slavery, wey get big importance inside de Ayyubid Sultanate. Plenty of de slave soldiers come from Turkish or Circassian background.

**Ayyubid harem**

De Royal harem insyd de Ayyubid dynasty for Egypt plus de Levant (1171–1250) be similar to demma predecessor, de Fatimid harem.

De wives, mommies, female relatives plus poppies of de Ayyubid sultans no really get more detail insyd record. For some cases, de Ayyubid sultans marry free Muslim women: Sultan Saladin dey married to several wives, de most known one be Ismat ad-Din Khatun, den Sultan dey married to Sitti Sawda. But for plenty cases, e show say de Sultans prefer to use slave concubines for procreation.

Non-Muslim female slaves dey come insyd as kafirs (infidels) from dar al-harb (de non-Muslim world), den dem dey force dem to convert to Islam once dem reach. For de harem, female slaves dey work as servants or dem dey choose some for sexual slavery as concubines. Some slave-girls dem train dem for de arts wey dem go use perform as qiyan-entertainers. Some of de most favored royal Ayyubid concubines be qiyan-artists, like Surur (qiyan) plus Adschība (qiyan).

Sultan no dey need marry, den some of dem no dey marry. Instead, dem dey procreate through concubines. Any concubine wey give birth to pikin wey Sultan acknowledge say na ein pikin, dey get status of Umm Walad, den as de mommie of royal pikin, people dey see am as full member of de royal dynasty. Sultan fit free den marry ein concubine, but no be by force say e go do am, because Islamic law no dey call pikin from concubine illegitimate if ein poppie recognize am. De most popular person insyd de Ayyubid harem be Shajar al-Durr, wey come insyd as slave concubine, later get free after she born acknowledged pikin, den in one rare case, she take over de throne after de death of de man wey enslave am before.

De wife or concubine wey born de chosen heir to de throne, get de highest rank for de harem. Apart from female slaves, de women wey dey harem get help from eunuchs.

## Mamluk Sultanate: 1250–1517
During de era of de Mamluk Sultanate (1250–1517), society insyd Egypt dey rest on top system of military slavery. Male slaves wey dem traffic for military service as mamluk, turn dominant social class insyd Egypt. At first, demma origin mostly be Turks from Central Asia, but around 1400, e shift go Circassian plus European side. Female slaves dey used for sexual slavery plus housemaid work.

Dem dey import slaves from different directions. Turkic plus Circassian slaves from Central Asia plus de Black Sea dey come for military duty plus concubinage. African slaves dey come from de South for labor; Europeans dey come from de North. Greek slaves dey come from religious border zone insyd Anatolia.

### Slave trade
De Trans-Saharan slave trade dey continue during de Mamluk Sultanate era. Egypt dey receive Black African slaves through demma Baqt treaty wey dey exist for centuries until de 14th century. Na during de Mamluk Sultanate time wey de supply of slaves under de Baqt treaty dey end. Relations insyd dat period be worse under de Ayyubids plus very poor under de Mamluks, wey later lead to full-scale war. Even after Makuria collapse insyd de thirteenth century, Egyptians still dey insist make de Muslim successor kingdoms for dat region pay de Baqt. De Baqt finally dey end insyd de middle of de fourteenth century, as de organized government insyd de region collapse complete.

Greek slaves dey come from de Genoese plus Muslim Turks insyd Anatolia, wey be one religious border zone between Dar al-islam plus Dar al-harb. According to Islamic law, dat place be legit source for slave supply. Greek slaves mostly dey sold as luxury slaves for household work plus sophisticated tasks. Sultan al-Malik al-Nasir (r. 1299–1340), dey expand de import of Greek slaves from Rum (Anatolia) plus Turkish slaves from Central Asia.

Two main routes from Europe dey provide Egypt plus European slaves. De Balkan slave trade plus de Black Sea slave trade, managed through de Venetian slave traders plus de Genoese slave traders, dey supply Egypt with plenty male slaves wey dem use as mamluk slave soldiers.

Until late insyd de 14th-century, future Turkish Mamluks dey regularly get imported from Central Asia. But dis matter change around 1400. De Balkan slave trade, plus de Black Sea slave trade, be de two main sources wey dem dey use supply future Mamluk soldiers to de Mamluk Sultanate insyd Egypt. While de majority of slaves wey dem traffic through de Black Sea slave trade to South Europe (Italy plus Spain) be girls, since dem dey destined to become ancillae maid servants, de majority of de slaves wey dem send to Egypt—about 2,000 every year—be boys, since de Mamluk Sultanate always need fresh supply of slave soldiers. From at least 1382 go forward, majority of de mamluks wey dey Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate plus slave origin dey come from de Black Sea slave trade. Around hundred Circassian males wey dem plan make mamluks, dey traffic through de Black Sea slave trade up until de 19th century.

During de 13th-century, Indian boys, women plus girls wey dem plan for sexual slavery, dey traffic from India go Arabia plus Egypt across de Red Sea slave trade through Aden.

**Slave market**

De slave market dey famously dominated by de most significant plus influential category, wey be military slavery. Other categories be de common type for slavery insyd Muslim lands, where dem dey use women as sex slaves (harem concubines) plus domestic slave maids.

Slavery die out insyd Western Europe after de 12th century, but de demand for laborers after de Black Death cause revival of slavery insyd Southern Europe, insyd Italy plus Spain, plus increase de demand for slaves insyd Egypt. De Italian (Genoese plus Venetian) slave trade from de Black Sea get two main routes; from de Crimea go Byzantine Constantinople, plus via Crete plus de Balearic Islands go Italy plus Spain; or go de Mamluk Sultanate insyd Egypt, wey receive majority of de slaves.

For late insyd de 14th century, de normal price for one African slave-girl from Ethiopia be 300 dirham, while de highest-valued slave-girls (normally Greek) dey sell for 550 dirham.

#### Female slaves
As dem dey import slave boys for military slavery, dem dey import slave girls too for usage as concubines (sex slaves) or domestic servants. But de information wey dey about dem no plenty. De normal sex segregation wey dey insyd society make am hard for free Muslim women to work as domestic maidservants, so e make de Muslim world rely on slaves for dem kind house work. Even though female slaves no get plenty documentation like male Mamluk slaves insyd de Mamluk Sultanate, truth be say female slaves always plenty pass male ones. Especially insyd elite household, female slaves always dey outnumber male, den slavery insyd de Mamluk Sultanate dey get name as female phenomenon.

If enslaver wey be man choose to acknowledge de pikin wey ein get plus female slave—which be voluntary—then de pikin go turn free den de mommie go become Umm Walad. Dat mean say dem no go fit sell am again den she go get freedom after ein enslaver die. But as long as de man still dey alive, she go still dey as slave den he fit still sexually exploit am, rent am out for work, or free am plus marry am.

**Harem slavery**

De harem of de Mamluk sultans dey insyd de Cairo Citadel al-Hawsh insyd de capital of Cairo (1250–1517).

De Mamluk Sultanate build upon de system wey de Abbasid harem lay down already, just like de predecessor wey be de Fatimid harem. De mommie of de sultan be de highest ranked woman for de harem. De consorts of de Sultans for de Bahri dynasty (1250–1382) start originally as slave girls. Dem dey supply female slaves to de harem through slave trade as children; dem fit train dem to perform as singers den dancers insyd de harem, plus some of dem dey selected to serve as concubines (sex slaves) of de Sultan, wey sometimes dey choose to marry dem. Other slave girls dey serve de consorts of de Sultan for domestic tasks as harem servants, wey dem dey call qahramana or qahramaniyya. De harem dey guarded by enslaved eunuchs, wey until de 15th-century dey come from de Balkan slave trade, then later from de Black Sea slave trade, serve as officials for de harem.

De harem of de Bahri Mamluk sultans start as small plus moderate, but Sultan Al-Nasir Muhammad (r. 1293–1341) expand de harem to major institution, wey come dey use as much luxury plus slaves like de heavily luxurious harem of de Fatimid dynasty wey come before. De harem of Sultan Al-Nasir Muhammad expand pass any harem wey any Mamluk sultan before am get, den when he die, he lef harem wey get 1,200 female slaves, 505 out of dem be qiyan singing girls. He free plus marry ein slave Tughay (d. 1348), wey when she die, she lef 1,000 slave girls plus 80 eunuchs.

De harem play influential role: de emir Arghun Al-alai, regent for Sultan Al-Salih Ismail, marry de sultan ein mommie to secure ein power. Sultan As-Salih Salih (wey die insyd 1354) give ein mommie big influence: he arrange royal banquet insyd de royal harem, where he serve am by ein own self den organize royal procession, mawkib sultani, wey be ceremony wey normally dem dey give only sultans. Sultan Abu Bakr free plus marry two of ein slave girls, plus Sultan Al-Salih Ismail free plus marry ein slave concubine Ittifaq, wey later turn wife of ein brother den successor Al-Kamil Sha'ban, then finally marry Sultan Al-Muzaffar.

During de Burji dynasty (1382–1517), de Mamluk Sultanate no dey as inherited monarchy again, den de Burji Mamluk sultans dey succeeded by demma emirs. But still, one kind dynastic continuity dey exist, where de Sultans dey marry de widow, concubine or female relative of ein predecessor. De Burji Mamluk often dey marry free Muslim women from de Mamluk nobility. But de Burji harem, just like de one before am, continue de custom of slave concubinage, with Circassian slave girls popular as concubines—some of dem turn favorites den even wives of de Sultan. Sultan Qaitbay (r. 1468–1496) get one favorite Circassian slave concubine, Aṣalbāy, wey become de mommie of Sultan Al-Nasir Muhammad (r. 1496–1498) den later marry Sultan Al-Ashraf Janbalat (r. 1500–1501). Ein daughter-in-law, Miṣirbāy (wey die insyd 1522), wey be former Circassian slave concubine, marry Sultan Al-Nasir Muhammad (r. 1496–1498), Sultan Abu Sa'id Qansuh (r. 1498–1500), den in 1517 marry de Ottoman Governor Khā’ir Bek.

**Male slaves**

De most famous category of male slaves wey dey under de Mamluk Sultanate be de mamluk slave soldiers. But de mamluk soldiers be elite slaves. No be all male slaves wey be mamluk soldiers, den de condition of non-Mamluk male slaves dey very different.

African male slaves no dey used as slave soldiers, because people dey consider dem only suitable for low-level domestic tasks. Turkish plus Circassian mamluk slave soldiers dey use African male slaves to take care of demma horses plus do menial duties for dem, like carry demma food plus serve am.

De condition of male slave fit change under certain conditions. If some terms dey met, de male slave fit get permission to enter manumission contract. For dat case, he go fit work plus keep de money wey he earn from ein labor. But still, he no go fit do things like testify or marry without de permission of ein owner.

#### Military slavery
From 935 go 1250, Egypt dey under dynastic rulers, especially de Ikhshidids, Fatimids plus Ayyubids. Throughout demma rule, thousands of Mamluk servants plus guards still dey used, den some even climb reach high offices. De Mamluks be enslaved mercenaries. Originally, dem be slaves wey come from Turkic origin insyd de Eurasian Steppe, but de system of military slavery later spread go include Circassians, Abkhazians, Georgians, Armenians, Russians, plus people wey come from de Balkans like Albanians, Greeks plus South Slavs (check Saqaliba, Balkan slave trade plus Black Sea slave trade).

De level of influence wey de Mamluk dey gather come dey worry de Ayyubids particularly. Because Egyptian Mamluks be enslaved Christians, Islamic rulers no dey believe say dem be true Muslims—even though dem dey fight wars for Islam as slave soldiers.

Insyd 1250, one Mamluk rise take become Sultan. De Mamluk Sultanate survive insyd Egypt from 1250 till 1517, wey Selim capture Cairo on 20 January. Even though e no be de same structure like under de Sultanate, de Ottoman Empire still retain de Mamluks as Egyptian ruling class, den de Mamluks plus de Burji family succeed get back much of demma influence—but now as vassals under de Ottomans.

De ruling Mamluks no be slaves, but ex-slaves. Dem be sons of kafir (non-Muslim) parents wey come from Dar al-harb (non-Muslim lands); dem buy dem as children, convert dem to Islam plus raise dem inside military barracks where dem train dem to become Muslim soldiers. As slave children wey no get families, dem dey grow to see de Sultan as demma poppie den de other Mamluks as demma brothers. Demma education end with de kharj ceremony, where dem free dem plus give dem post insyd either courtly administration or de army, wey allow dem start life as free ex-slave Mamluk. Mamluk slave soldiers dey preferred pass freeborn soldiers because dem dey raised to see de army plus de Sultan as demma family, so people believe say dem loyal pass freeborn soldiers wey get biological family wey dem go put first.

Insyd late 14th century, de ethnicity of de Mamluks change from Turkish go Circassian. As de Golden Horde believe say de Islamization of Turkish Central Asia don reach, Jani Beg ban de import of Turkish slaves to Egypt because dem no dey defined again as kafir, so Islamic law no fit allow Muslims enslave dem. From around 1400, Mamluks mostly come from Circassian origin instead of Turkish, since Circassians wey be Pagans plus Christians dey recognized as kafirs, so dem fit enslave dem under Islamic law.

#### Racial dimension of slavery
According to slavery under Islamic law, non-Muslim people wey come from non-Muslim lands dey legit for Muslims to enslave. So e no target any particular ethnicity, but e involve slaves from different ethnic backgrounds. Still, dat no mean say racism no dey. Slaves dey regarded to get different abilities based on demma ethnicity, plus people dey see dem fit for certain tasks because of de stereotypes, wey manuals plus handbooks for slave traders den slave buyers describe during dat time.

Skin color dey linked to specific abilities, plus people classify races through one system wey dey attribute different traits based on de color of demma skin. For de Arab world, skin color wey middle dey preferred, since e close to Arab skin tone, but both darker plus lighter colors dey seen negative. Slaves wey get very light skin dey described as vicious, evil, disloyal den untruthful. Dem wey get reddish-white skin color dey praised as clever, intelligent, knowledgeable, plus wise. People wey get brownish skin tone dey seen as brave, determined plus fearless. But people wey get full Black African skin color dey seen as fearful, coward, rash, plus more inclined toward evil than good.

De author al-Amshati describe racial stereotypes based on race deeply for ein work. De most appreciated slave races for de market be Turkic people plus Circassians—dem be de top two races wey dem dey acquire for Mamluk soldiers. al-Amshati describe Turks as people wey get moderate temperament, strong body, nice balanced physique plus gloomy look. Turkish children dey considered clean, healthy, clever, skillful plus attractive. Among dem, Turks from Khurasan be de best for de market. De next best race be Circassians, wey people stereotype as braver pass Turks—“always ready strike first blow”—plus get strong group unity, suitable for soldier work. But if dem no train dem well, dem dey haughty, dem no get strong work ethic, den dem lack patience plus perseverance for long military campaigns. Still, if dem receive tough training, dem fit become top-class soldiers plus even religious scholars.

Black Africans dey considered excellent slaves, suitable for lowly domestic labor. al-Amshati describe “Abyssinians” (Africans) as physically weak slaves wey dey fall sick often; still, dem get plenty traits wey make dem fit for slavery—like strong character, righteousness, patience, obedience, intelligence, shrewdness den prudence. African women dey seen as especially calm plus obedient. But Black children dey described as sly, deceitful, malicious plus thief-minded. African slaves no dey considered fit for arts like singing den dancing, plus dem no dey used for Mamluk elite slavery, but mainly for low-level work den domestic duties. By de 14th century, big number of slaves dey come from sub-Saharan Africa, den racist attitudes begin show—for example, Egyptian historian Al-Abshibi (1388–1446) write say “[i]t is said dat when de [black] slave chop well, he go fornicate; when he dey hungry, he go steal.”

Greek (rumi) male slaves dey seen as obedient, serious, loyal, trustworthy, intelligent plus careful with money. Dem get good manners plus excellent understanding of de sciences. Greek female slaves dey described as bold plus troublesome, but still fit for housework.

De least popular slave races be Armenians plus Europeans. Dem no dey regarded as loyal plus obedient slaves, but rather as people wey dey unwilling, defiant plus get plenty traits wey make dem hard to control for slavery use. Armenian slaves dey described as strong plus get good health den fine body, but dem dey also seen as dishonest, lazy, greedy, unreliable, moody plus dey neglect demma personal hygiene. People talk say dem no good for anytin except hard physical labor, plus dem need constant punishment before dem go obey. Light-skinned Franks (we mean Europeans) wey be men dey described as rough, courageous, stingy, stupid plus uneducated. Dem dey strongly religious, dem get skills for manual work, but people no trust dem as slaves. Female Frankish (European) slaves dey referred to as harsh, cruel plus heartless if dem dey under slavery. But Frankish (European) children dey popular den people dey describe dem as excellent slaves: courageous, slim den rosy-cheeked.

## Ottoman Egypt: 1517–1805
De Mamluk Sultanate dey conquered by de Ottoman Empire insyd 1517. Ottoman Egypt dey ruled directly by de Ottoman Empire through Ottoman governors until 1805. Slavery insyd Ottoman Egypt mainly continue de same system wey dem establish during de Mamluk Sultanate. White slaves turn Mamluk soldiers plus demma concubines plus wives, while Black African slaves dey used for domestic service plus hard labor.

### Slave trade
De slave trade wey reach Ottoman Egypt follow de established routes wey already dey ground. African slaves dey come through de old slave trade from Sudan plus de Trans-Saharan slave trade.

De Balkan slave trade dey shut down, but de Black Sea slave trade continue. E no dey managed by Italian slave merchants again, but now dey under de Crimean Khanate plus de Ottoman Empire, wey people dey call de Crimean slave trade. Slaves wey dem traffic through de Crimean slave trade fit even reach far places inside de Mediterranean plus de Middle East. For example, one Convent insyd Sinai for Egypt record say dem buy male slave wey come from Kozlov insyd Russia.

### Slave market
Egypt during de Ottoman period still dey under heavy control of Mamluk military slavery. Mamluk soldiers for dis time still be mostly white slaves. Although de old supply route of de Balkan slave trade dey shut down, male Mamluk slaves often come from Circassia or Georgia, trafficked through de Crimean slave trade.

De Mamluk aristocrats, wey themselves dey come from Circassia or Georgia (through de Black Sea slave trade), like to marry women wey be from similar ethnic background. Black slave women mostly dey used as domestic maids, den majority of de Mamluk ein wives plus concubines dey referred to as “white slaves”. De white slave women wey dem buy to become concubines plus wives of de Mamluks dey mostly come from de Caucasus (Circassians or Georgians), wey poor parents sell to slave traders.

E be common practice among de Egyptian Mamluk upper class men to marry woman wey before be slave concubine of either themselves or anoda Mamluk. Dis tradition of marrying de concubine or widow of anoda Mamluk be part of regular Mamluk alliance arrangement. De marriage between Murad Bey plus Nafisa al-Bayda, widow of Ali Bey al-Kabir, be one example of dis alliance style, same as Shawikar Qadin, concubine of Uthman Katkhuda (wey die insyd 1736), wey Abd al-Rahman Jawish give in marriage to Ibrahum Katkhuda (wey die insyd 1754) after Uthman Katkhuda ein death.

People dey give common excuse say slavery be act of kindness, especially when e concern women wey dem buy as slaves for sexual reasons—like concubines den wives inside de sex-segregated harems of rich men. Dis excuse dey base on say de women come from poverty den dem dey exploited by rich men wey dey live inside wealth. One lawyer for Ottoman Egypt insyd de 17th-century talk something about de sexual slavery of women: 

“Wetin be de guilt of de man wey carry person wey dem kidnap from misery go happiness, from hunger go better life, change demma torn clothes to fine robes, support dem plus money, treat dem based on wetin ein religion plus ein humanity show am? He no buy dem for trade or profit.”

Racial hierarchy dey among slaves. Male laborers, eunuchs plus female domestic maids dey provided through de Trans-Saharan slave trade plus de Sudanese slave trade reach Egypt.

## Muhammad Ali dynasty: 1805–1953
Egypt turn de facto independent insyd de Muhammad Ali dynasty (1805–1914). Slavery still get strong presence insyd Egypt throughout de 19th century.

Dem estimate say de number of slaves insyd Egypt during dat period reach at least 30,000 at any given time. For Egypt, de slave concubines wey dey insyd de harems of rich Egyptian men mostly be Circassian women, while for middle-class Egyptians, demma concubines mostly be Abyssinians. Male plus female domestic slaves wey serve almost all social classes insyd Egyptian society mostly consist of Black Africans. Black Africans dey used too as slave soldiers den for enslaved agricultural labor.

De slave trade wey dey reach Egypt dey abolished in two stages between 1877 plus 1884. Slavery itself no get formal abolition, but after dem ban de slave trade, e start dey phase out gradually. By de 1930s, slavery appear say e dey completely die out.

#### Slave trade
De slave dealers wey dey operate insyd Egypt mostly come from de Oases plus Upper Egypt. Dem dey organized inside one guild wey get one shaykh, den de dealers divide into two groups—one for black slaves, de other for white slaves. Cairo be de main center for slaves plus serve as de base of de slave trade, but de yearly mawlid festival for Ṭanṭā also be one key moment where slave trading dey happen.

African slaves dey traffic go Egypt through several routes: from Darfur go Asyūṭ; from Sennar go Isnā; from de White Nile area; from Bornu plus Wadāy through Libya; and finally, from Abyssinia den East Africa through de Red Sea. Johann Burckhardt, wey be Swiss explorer, describe de slave trade wey move from Sudan go Egypt plus de Arabian Peninsula during ein travel go Egypt plus Nubia insyd 1814:

“E no true say de caravan traders for Egypt dey respect de chastity of de finest female slaves; instead, dem no dey observe any small respect for de way dem dey relate plus de slave girls. During our journey go Souakin, where de caravan dey camp plenty times because of fear of danger, dem dey arrange dem tent inside big circle, I witness plenty scenes of shameless indecency, wey de traders—wey be main actors—just laugh over. I fit talk boldly, no matter wetin people think for Cairo, say very few female slaves wey dey pass demma tenth year dey reach Egypt or Arabia still dey virgin.”

White slaves dey traffic go Egypt from de Black Sea area through Istanbul, as de old Circassian slave trade still continue from dat side. De Islamic custom wey dey allow Muslims enslave war prisoners wey be kafirs (non-Muslims) from Dar al-Harb still dey practiced. After de Alexandria expedition insyd 1807, 400 British war prisoners wey Egyptian forces under Muhammad Ali Pasha capture, dey marched go Cairo. From there, some dey condemned to hard labor, while others dey sold into slavery. Colonel Dravetti, wey dey advise Muhammad Ali for Cairo, persuade de ruler make he release de British war prisoners as gesture of goodwill, wey spare dem from de usual Islamic cultural practice wey make captured prisoners turn slaves to demma captors.

#### Slave market
Military slavery, wey for centuries be major use for male slaves, still remain one key category for de Egyptian slave market until mid-19th century. De domestic or harem sector still dey serve as main destination for female slaves plus eunuchs. One market for agricultural slaves grow significantly during de 19th century.

During de 19th century, de supply sources for slaves wey dey reach Egypt begin reduce, so de ethnicity of slaves mostly turn African slaves, except small luxury import of Circassian slave girls.

**Agricultural slavery**

De use of Sudanese people for agriculture turn fairly common under Muhammad Ali of Egypt plus ein successors. Before dat time, agricultural slavery no dey really exist insyd Egypt, but de sharp expansion of large-scale farming under Muhammad Ali—and later, de global increase for cotton price wey de American Civil War cause—come create better condition for using unfree labour. De slaves dey mainly work for estates wey belong to Muhammad Ali plus members of ein family. By 1869, people estimate say Khedive Isma'il plus ein family get around 2,000 to 3,000 slaves on demma main estates, plus hundreds more for demma sugar plantations insyd Upper Egypt.

**Harem slavery**

De royal harem of de Muhammad Ali dynasty insyd de Khedivate of Egypt (1805–1914) dey follow de Ottoman example, as de khedives be Egyptian viceroys wey dey represent de Ottoman sultans.

Muhammad Ali get appointment as vice roy of Egypt insyd 1805, den based on de Imperial Ottoman tradition, he build harem of slave concubines insyd de Palace Citadel of Cairo. According to one traditional story, when ein legal wife Amina Hanim come join am insyd Egypt insyd 1808 and see de sex slaves, she declare say from dat moment, she go be wife only by name.

Just like de Ottoman Imperial harem, de harem of de khedive use system of polygyny wey base on slave concubinage, where every wife or concubine fit born only one son. De women wey dem dey use as harem slaves mostly come from de Caucasus through de Circassian slave trade, den people dey refer to dem as “white”.

De harem of de khedive consist of between several hundreds to over one thousand enslaved women, wey de khedive ein mommie, walida pasha, dey supervise—plus ein four official wives (hanim) den recognized concubines (qadin). But majority of de slave women dey serve as house workers for ein mommie den ein wives, plus dem fit hold servant positions like bash qalfa, wey be chief servant slave woman for walida pasha. De female slave servants inside de khedivate harem dey freed den married with full wedding gifts inside strategic marriage plan to male freedmen or slaves (kul or mamluk), wey dem dey train to become officers den civil servants after dem gain freedom. Dis setup be meant to make sure say de husbands dey loyal to de khedive as dem start demma military or government work. Small number of de slave women dey selected to become personal servants (concubines) of de khedive, mostly picked by ein mommie. Dem fit later turn ein wives, plus if dem born pikin with de enslaver, dem go turn umm walad (or mustawlada)—we mean say dem go free, but only if de enslaver die. Muhammad Ali of Egypt reportedly get at least 25 consorts (wives plus concubines), plus Khedive Ismail get fourteen consorts wey be of slave origin, out of which four be ein wives.

De Egyptian elite bureaucrat families wey dey follow de khedive ein example also get similar harem customs. E be noted say e dey common for upper-class Egyptian families to get slave women inside demma harems, wey dem go free later den marry off to male protégés.

Dis system start dey slowly change after 1873, wey Tewfik Pasha marry Emina Ilhamy as ein only consort, wey come make monogamy turn fashionable lifestyle among de elite, after dem change throne succession go primogeniture, wey support monogamy. De wedding between Tewfik Pasha den Emina Ilhamy be de first time wey prince ein wedding dey celebrated, since before dat time de princes just dey take slave concubines, wey dem dey sometimes marry afterward. De end of de Circassian slave trade plus de stop of slave concubinage after de Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention also help stop de practice of polygyny among Egyptian plus Ottoman upper classes from de 1870s. Insyd mid-19th century, de Ottoman Tanzimat reforms abolish de tradition wey make male slaves train to become military men den civil servants, plus dem replace dem with free students.

#### Military slavery
To prepare for de training of ein Sudanese slave army, Muhammad Ali send one corps of Mamluks go Aswan, wey for 1820, he build new barracks make dem house dem. De head wey dey in charge of de military academy for Aswan be one French officer wey serve under Napoleon, Colonel Octave-Joseph Anthelme Sève, wey later become Muslim den for Egyptian history dem dey call am Sulayman Pasha al-Faransawi. When dem Sudanese reach Aswan, every one of dem dey vaccinated, receive one calico vest, plus dem dey instructed in Islam. De exact number of Sudanese wey dem bring go Aswan plus Muhammad Ali ein other military training centre for Manfalut no dey clearly known, but e dey confirmed say plenty die on de road. Out of estimated 30,000 Sudanese wey dem bring come Aswan for 1822 den 1823, only 3,000 survive. Plenty of dem die from fever, chills, plus dryness of de weather.

After 1823, Muhammad Ali ein main priority be to reduce de cost for garrison wey dey hold Sudan, where dem commit 10,000 Egyptian infantry plus 9,000 cavalry. Egyptians start rely heavily on enslaved Sudanese soldiers to maintain demma rule. One kind official ratio come up: Sudan suppose provide 3,000 slaves for every 1,000 soldiers wey Egypt send to subjugate am. But dem no fit reach dat ratio because de death rate of slaves wey dem deliver go Aswan too high. Muhammad Ali ein Turkish plus Albanian troops wey follow go de Sudan campaign no get used to de weather for dat area, so plenty of dem catch fever den dysentery, wey cause tensions make dem dey demand return to Egypt. Plus, de challenges of capturing den training Sudanese male slaves during de campaign be some of de reasons wey make Muhammad Ali start recruit local Egyptians for ein armed forces.

### Abolition den aftermath
De Ottoman Empire grant Egypt autonomous vassal status as Khedivate insyd 1867. Isma'il Pasha (Khedive from 1863 to 1879) plus Tewfik Pasha (Khedive from 1879 to 1892) govern Egypt as semi-independent state under Ottoman control until de British occupation wey happen insyd 1882, wey then Egypt come under British influence. De British people start anti-slavery campaign plus push policy changes about slavery inside Egypt. 

De Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention or Anglo-Egyptian Convention for de Abolition of Slavery wey happen insyd 1877 officially ban slave trade from Sudan, wey be main source of male slaves for Egypt by dat time. After dat, insyd 1884 dem ban de import of white women—especially Circassians from Caucasus through de Circassian slave trade—wey Egyptian upper-class people dey prefer for demma harems. De import of male slaves from Sudan for soldier, civil servant plus eunuch roles, plus de import of female slaves from Caucasus for harem service be de two major sources of slave supply reach Egypt, so dis two bans deal heavy blow to slavery, at least on paper. Slavery itself no get full ban, but dem stop new import of slaves. Side by side, dem introduce ban on sale of existing slaves plus new law wey allow slaves apply for freedom (manumission) at de British Consulate or four Manumission Bureaus inside different parts of de country—plenty slaves grab dat chance. British abolitionists wey dey Egypt open home for former female slaves to support dem plus save dem from prostitution, and dis home operate from 1884 go 1908.

De abolition of slave trade enter Egypt help spark de Mahdist war for Sudan (1881–1899), because slave trade go Egypt be one of de biggest income source wey Sudan dey rely on dat time.

Even though slavery itself no ban proper, de reforms wey dem introduce gradually phase slavery out over de next decades. By early 20th century, slavery for Egypt no dey common reach make e visible or even attract Western criticism. For 1901, one French observer talk say slavery for Egypt don end “in fact and in law”; de Egyptian census wey dem do insyd 1907 no list any slaves again, plus by 1911 dem close down de Repression of Slave Trade Departments wey dem transfer go Sudan.

De anti-slavery reforms slowly reduce de size of de Khedive ein harem. But de harem of de Khedive plus elite families still keep small number of male eunuchs and slave women until at least World War I. Khedive Abbas II of Egypt reportedly buy six “white female slaves” for ein harem insyd 1894, ten years after dem formally ban dat practice, plus ein mommie still hold sixty slaves as late as 1931.

Insyd 1922, Rashid Rida, editor of de progressive Egyptian newspaper *al-Manar*, condemn de purchase of Chinese slave girls for concubinage den talk say people no for see am as legit.

Insyd de 1930s, Egypt respond de Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery (ACE) wey dey under de League of Nations, as dem conduct global investigation about slavery from 1934 go 1939. Egypt talk say slavery no dey again for de country, plus say new slaves no fit enter through de Red Sea slave trade wey still dey happen elsewhere, because dem dey guard de Red Sea waters outside Egypt to stop any slave import from de Red Sea coast.

## Gallery

File:Map_of_the_route_of_the_Soudan_Caravan_from_Assiut_to_Darfur.jpg|Englishman William George Browne ride plus de Darb Al Arbain caravan insyd de 1790s; na e deliver "Slaves, male den female" to Egypt
File:A long line of men are marching with their hands thrust thro Wellcome V0041263.jpg|A depiction of slaves dem dey transport across de Sahara Desert
File:Modern_Slave_Boat_on_the_Nile_(1884)_-_TIMEA.jpg|Modern Slave Boat on de Nile (1884)
File:The_slave_market_in_Cairo._Wellcome_V0050649.jpg|De slave market insyd Cairo. Wellcome V0050649
File:Slave_Market._(c.1830)_-_TIMEA_cropped.jpg|Slave Market (c.1830) - TIMEA cropped
File:A_slave_market_in_Cairo-David_Roberts.jpg|A slave market insyd Cairo. Drawing by David Roberts, circa 1848.
File:Group_of_Soudanese_slave-girls,_recently_captured_at_Cairo.jpg|Group of Soudanese slave-girls, dem recently capture at Cairo
File:Gérôme_-_the_life_and_works_of_Jean_Léon_Gérôme_(1892)_(14740175136).jpg|Gérôme - de life den works of Jean Léon Gérôme (1892) (14740175136)
File:Negress_waiting_to_be_sold_in_the_Slave_Bazaar,_Cairo_-_Curzon_Robert_-_1849.jpg|Negress waiting to be sold insyd de Slave Bazaar, Cairo - Curzon Robert - 1849
File:Abu_Nabut_and_Negro_Slaves_in_Cairo_MET_DP138840.jpg|Abu Nabut den Negro Slaves insyd Cairo
File:Abyssinian_Female_Slave_(1878)_-_TIMEA.jpg|Abyssinian Female Slave (1878) - TIMEA


## References


## Sources
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