open-index/open-wikipedia-markdown huggingface dataset:
Glaucoma

**Glaucoma** be a group of eye diseases wey fi lead to damage of de optic nerve. De optic nerve dey transmit visual information from de eye to de brain. Glaucoma fi cause vision loss if dem lef am untreated. Na dem dey bell am de "silent thief of sight" secof de loss of vision usually dey occur slowly over a long period of time. A major risk factor give glaucoma be increased pressure within de eye, dem know as intraocular pressure (IOP). E be associated plus old age, a family history of glaucoma, den certain medical conditions anaa de use of sam medications. De word *glaucoma* dey cam from de Ancient Greek word  (*glaukós*), wey dey mean 'gleaming, blue-green, gray'.

Of de different types of glaucoma, dem dey bell de most common **open-angle glaucoma** den **closed-angle glaucoma**. Insyd de eye, a liquid dem call aqueous humor, wich be produced by de ciliary body, dey help to maintain shape den dey provide nutrients. De aqueous humor normally dey drain thru de trabecular meshwork. Insyd open-angle glaucoma, de drainage be impeded, wey dey cause de build up of aqueous to accumulate insyd de anterior chamber wey dey cause de pressure insyd de eye to increase. Dis elevated pressure fi reduce vascular perfusion insyd de vitreous chamber den fi damage de optic nerve den peripheral glial tissues. Insyd closed-angle glaucoma, de drainage of de eye cam be suddenly blocked, wey dey lead to a rapid increase insyd intraocular pressure. Dis fi lead to intense eye pain, blurred vision, den nausea. Closed-angle glaucoma be an emergency wey dey require immediate attention.

If dem treat am early, de progression of glaucoma fi be slowed anaa even stopped. Regular eye examinations, especially if de person be over 40 anaa dem get a family history of glaucoma, be essential for early detection. Treatment typically dey include prescription of eye drops, medication, laser treatment anaa surgery. De goal of dese treatments be to decrease eye pressure.

Glaucoma be a leading cause of blindness insyd African Americans, Hispanic Americans, den Asians. Ein incidence dey rise plus age, to more dan eight percent of Americans over de age of eighty, den closed-angle glaucoma be more common insyd women.
## References

## External links

* Role of ocular blood flow in normal tension glaucoma, Advances in Ophthalmology Practice and Research, Volume 2, Issue 1, May–June 2022.
*  GeneReview/NCBI/NIH/UW entry on Primary Congenital Glaucoma
Adjustment disorder

**Adjustment disorder** be a mental disorder dem define by a maladaptive response to a psychosocial stressor. De maladaptive response usually dey involve otherwise normal emotional den behavioral reactions wey dey manifest more intensely dan usual (wey dey consider contextual den cultural factors), wey dey cause marked distress, preoccupation plus de stressor den ein consequences, den functional impairment.

Diagnosis of adjustment disorder be common, plus lifetime prevalence estimates for adults dey range from 5 to 21%. Adult women be diagnosed twice as often as men. Among kiddies den adolescents, girlies den boys be equally likely to be diagnosed plus an adjustment disorder.

Na dem introduce adjustment disorder into de *Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Third Edition* (DSM-III) insyd 1980.

Anoda name for adjustment disorder be **stress response syndrome**, as well as **situational depression**, since depression be one of de most common symptoms.

## References


## External links

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Anxiety disorder

**Anxiety disorders** be a group of mental disorders wey be characterized by significant den uncontrollable feelings of anxiety den fear such dat a person ein social, occupational, den personal functions be significantly impaired. Anxiety fi cause physical den cognitive symptoms, such as a sense of impending doom, restlessness, irritability, easy fatigue, difficulty concentrating, increased heart rate, chest pain, abdominal pain, den a variety of oda symptoms wey dey vary based on de individual.

Insyd casual discourse, dem often dey use de words *anxiety* den *fear* interchangeably. Insyd clinical usage, dem get distinct meanings; anxiety be clinically defined as an unpleasant emotional state for wich de cause be either no be readily identified anaa perceived to be uncontrollable anaa unavoidable, whereas fear be clinically defined as an emotional den physiological response to a recognized external threat. De umbrella term 'anxiety disorder' dey refer to a number of specific disorders wey dey include fears (phobias) den/anaa anxiety symptoms.

Der be chaw types of anxiety disorders, wey dey include generalized anxiety disorder, hypochondriasis, specific phobia, social anxiety disorder, separation anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, panic disorder, den selective mutism. Individual disorders fi be diagnosed using de specific den unique symptoms, triggering events, den timing. A medical professional for evaluate a person before diagnosing dem plus an anxiety disorder to ensure say dema anxiety no fi be attributed to anoda medical illness anaa mental disorder. E be possible for an individual make dem get more dan one anxiety disorder during dema life anaa make de, get more dan one anxiety disorder at de same time. Comorbid mental disorders anaa substance use disorders be common insyd those plus anxiety. Dem dey see comorbid depression (lifetime prevalence) insyd 20–70% of those plus social anxiety disorder, 50% of those plus panic disorder den 43% of those plus general anxiety disorder. De 12 month prevalence of alcohol anaa substance use disorders insyd those plus anxiety disorders be 16.5%.

Worldwide, anxiety disorders be de second most common type of mental disorders after depressive disorders. Anxiety disorders dey affect nearly 30% of adults at sam point insyd dema lives, plus an estimated 4% of de global population currently wey dey experience an anxiety disorder. However, anxiety disorders be treatable, den a number of effective treatments be available. Chaw people be able to lead normal, productive lives plus sam form of treatment.
## References


## External links

* WHO fact sheet on anxiety disorders
Phobia

A **phobia** be an anxiety disorder, wey be defined by an irrational, unrealistic, persistent den excessive fear of an object anaa situation. Phobias typically dey result in a rapid onset of fear wey e be usually present for more dan six months. Those wey be affected go to great lengths to avoid de situation anaa object, to a degree greater dan de actual danger posed. If de object anaa situation no fi be avoided, dem dey experience significant distress. Oda symptoms fi include fainting, wich fi occur insyd blood anaa injury phobia, den panic attacks, dem often find insyd agoraphobia den emetophobia. Around 75% of those plus phobias get multiple phobias.

Dem fi divide phobias into specific phobias, social anxiety disorder, den agoraphobia. Specific phobias be further divided to include certain animals, natural environment, blood anaa injury, den particular situations. De most common be fear of spiders, fear of snakes, den fear of heights. Specific phobias fi be caused by a negative experience plus de object anaa situation insyd early kiddie time to early adulthood. Social phobia be wen a person dey fear a situation secof worries about odas dey judge dem. Agoraphobia be a fear of a situation secof perceived difficulty anaa inability to escape.

E be recommended say specific phobias be treated plus exposure therapy, insyd wich dem dey introduce de person to de situation anaa object in question til de fear resolve. Medications no be helpful for specific phobias. Social phobia den agoraphobia fi be treated plus counseling, medications, anaa a combination of both. Medications dem use dey include antidepressants, benzodiazepines, anaa beta-blockers.

Specific phobias dey affect about 6–8% of people insyd de Western world den 2–4% insyd Asia, Africa, den Latin America insyd a given year. Social phobia dey affect about 7% of people insyd de United States den 0.5–2.5% of people insyd de rest of de world. Agoraphobia dey affect about 1.7% of people. Women be affected by phobias about twice as often as men. De typical onset of a phobia be around 10–17, wey rates be lower plus increasing age. Those plus phobias be more likely to attempt suicide.
## References


## External links
Social anxiety disorder

**Social anxiety disorder** (**SAD**), dem sanso know as **social phobia**, be an anxiety disorder wey be characterized by sentiments of fear den anxiety insyd social situations, wey dey cause considerable distress den impairing ability to function insyd at least sam aspects of daily life. Dese fears fi be triggered by perceived anaa actual scrutiny from odas. Individuals plus social anxiety disorder dey fear negative evaluations from oda people.

Physical symptoms often dey include excessive blushing, excessive sweating, trembling, palpitations, rapid heartbeat, muscle tension, shortness of breath, den nausea. Panic attacks sanso fi occur under intense fear den discomfort. Sam affected individuals fi use alcohol anaa oda drugs to reduce fears den inhibitions at social events. E be common for those plus social phobia to self-medicate insyd dis fashion, especially if dem be undiagnosed, untreated, anaa both; dis fi lead to alcohol use disorder, eating disorders, anaa oda kinds of substance use disorders. According to ICD-10 guidelines, de main diagnostic criteria of social phobia be fear of being de focus of attention, anaa fear of behaving in a way wey go be embarrassing anaa humiliating, avoidance den anxiety symptoms. Standardized rating scales fi be used to screen for social anxiety disorder den measure de severity of anxiety.

De first line of treatment for social anxiety disorder be cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT). CBT be effective in treating dis disorder, whether delivered individually anaa insyd a group setting. De cognitive den behavioral components seek to change thought patterns den physical reactions to anxiety-inducing situations.

Na de attention dem give to social anxiety disorder significantly increase since 1999 plus de approval den marketing of drugs for ein treatment. Na approved medications include chaw selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) den venlafaxine, a serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI). Na dem use propranolol, a beta blocker, for performance anxiety. Medications such as SSRIs be effective for social phobia, especially paroxetine.

## References


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*Burns, D. D. (1999). *Feeling Good: the new mood therapy* (Rev. ed.). New York: Avon. .
*Crozier, W. R., & Alden, L. E. (2001). *International Handbook of Social Anxiety: Concepts, Research, and Interventions Relating to the Self and Shyness*. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. .
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*Hales, R. E., & Yudofsky, S. C. (Eds.). (2003). Social phobia. In *Textbook of Clinical Psychiatry* (4th ed., pp.&nbsp;572–580). Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Publishing.
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## External links
Hepatitis C

**Hepatitis C** be an infectious disease wey be caused by de hepatitis C virus (HCV) wey primarily dey affect de liver; e be a type of viral hepatitis. During de initial infection period, people often get mild anaa no symptoms. Early symptoms fi include fever, dark urine, abdominal pain, den jaundice. De virus dey persist insyd de liver, wey cam be chronic, insyd about 70% of those wey initially be infected. Early on, chronic infection typically get no symptoms. Over chaw years however, e often dey lead to liver disease den occasionally cirrhosis. Insyd sam cases, those plus cirrhosis go develop serious complications such as liver failure, liver cancer, anaa dilated blood vessels insyd de esophagus den stomach.

HCV be spread primarily by blood-to-blood contact dem associate plus injection drug use, poorly sterilized medical equipment, needlestick injuries insyd healthcare, den transfusions. Insyd regions wer na dem implement blood screening, na de risk of contracting HCV from a transfusion drop substantially to less dan one per two million. HCV sanso fi be spread from an infected mommie to ein baby during birth. E no be spread thru breast milk, chow, water, anaa casual contact such as hugging, kissing, den dey share chow anaa drinks plus an infected person. E be one of five known hepatitis viruses: A, B, C, D, den E. Diagnosis be by blood testing to look for either antibodies to de virus anaa viral RNA. Insyd de United States, screening for HCV infection be recommended in all adults age 18 to 79 years old. Der be no vaccine against hepatitis C. Prevention dey include harm reduction efforts among people wey dey inject drugs, testing donated blood, den treatment of people plus chronic infection. Chronic infection fi be cured more dan 95% of de time plus antiviral medications such as sofosbuvir anaa simeprevir. Na Peginterferon den ribavirin be earlier generation treatments wey na dem prove successful insyd 

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Near-sightedness

**Myopia**, dem sanso know as **near-sightedness** den **short-sightedness**, be an eye condition wer light from distant objects dey focus in front of, instead of on, de retina. As a result, distant objects dey appear blurry, while close objects dey appear normal. Oda symptoms fi include headaches den eye strain. Severe myopia be associated plus an increased risk of macular degeneration, retinal detachment, cataracts, den glaucoma.

Myopia dey result from de length of de eyeball wey dey grow too long anaa less commonly de lens be too strong. E be a type of refractive error. Diagnosis be by de use of cycloplegics during eye examination.

Myopia be less common insyd people wey spend more time outsyd during kiddie time. Dis lower risk fi be secof greater exposure to sunlight. Myopia fi be corrected plus eyeglasses, contact lenses, anaa by refractive surgery. Eyeglasses are the simplest and safest method of correction. Contact lenses fi provide a relatively wider corrected field of vision, buh dem be associated plus an increased risk of infection. Refractive surgeries such as LASIK den PRK permanently change de shape of de cornea. Oda procedures dey include implantable collamer lens (ICL) placement insyd de anterior chamber in front of de natural eye lens. ICL no dey affect de cornea.

Myopia be de most common eye problem wey be estimated to affect 1.5 billion people (22% of de world population). Rates dey vary significantly insyd different areas of de world. Rates among adults be between 15% den 49%. Among kiddies, e dey affect 1% of rural Nepalese, 4% of South Africans, 12% of people insyd de US, den 37% insyd sam large Chinese cities. Insyd China de proportion of girlies be slightly higher dan boys. Na rates increase since de 1950s. Uncorrected myopia be one of de most common causes of vision impairment globally along plus cataracts, macular degeneration, den vitamin A deficiency.

## References


## External links
Childhood phobia

A **childhood phobia** be an exaggerated, intense fear "wey be out of proportion to any real fear" dem find insyd kiddies. E often be characterized by a preoccupation plus a particular object, class of objects, anaa situation wey one dey fear. A phobic reaction be twofold—the first part e be de "intense irrational fear" den de second part be "avoidance."

Children during dema developmental stages dey experience fears. Fear be a natural part of self-preservation. Fears dey allow kiddies to act plus de necessary cautions to stay safe. According to Child and Adolescent Mental Health, "such fears vary insyd frequency, intensity, den duration; dem dey tend to be mild, age-specific, den transitory." Fears fi be a result of misperceptions. Wen a kiddie dey perceive a threatening situation, dema body dey experience a fight anaa flight reaction. Kiddies dem place insyd new situations plus unfamiliar objects be more likely to experience such reactions. Dese fears for be passing, a result of childhood development.

A childhood fear dey develop into a childhood phobia wen e begin to interfere plus daily living. "Acute states of fear fi elicit counterproductive physiological reactions such as trembling, profuse perspiration, faint feelings, weakness insyd joints den muscles, nausea, diarrhea, den disturbances insyd motor coordination" E no be uncommon for frightened anaa anxious kiddies to regress insyd a phase of development. For example, a kindergartener fi begin to baby talk anaa wet de bed wen dem face plus a threatening anaa particularly frightening situation. Childhood phobias dey exist insyd chaw different varieties den intensities wey e get a wide range from tolerable to incapacitating.
## References
Social anxiety

**Social anxiety** be de anxiety den fear dem specifically link to being insyd social settings (i.e., interacting plus odas). Sam categories of disorders dem associate plus social anxiety dey include anxiety disorders, mood disorders, autism spectrum disorders, eating disorders, den substance use disorders. Individuals plus higher levels of social anxiety often avert dema gazes, show fewer facial expressions, den show difficulty plus initiating den maintaining a conversation. Social anxiety commonly dey manifest einself insyd de teenage years wey fi be persistent thru out life; however, people wey experience problems insyd dema daily functioning for an extended period of time fi develop social anxiety disorder. Trait social anxiety, de stable tendency to experience dis anxiety, fi be distinguished from state anxiety, de momentary response to a particular social stimulus. Half of de individuals plus any social fears dey meet de criteria for social anxiety disorder. Age, culture, den gender dey impact de severity of dis disorder. De function of social anxiety be to increase arousal den attention to social interactions, inhibit unwanted social behavior, den motivate preparation for future social situations.

## References
Specific social phobia

Mental health professionals often distinguish between generalized social phobia den **specific social phobia**. People plus generalized social phobia get great distress insyd a wide range of social situations. Those plus specific social phobia fi experience anxiety per insyd a few situations. De term "specific social phobia" sanso fi refer to specific forms of non-clinical social anxiety.

De most common specific social phobia be glossophobia (de fear of public speaking) den stage fright (de fear of performance). Odas dey include fears of intimacy anaa sexual encounters, using public restrooms (paruresis), attending social gatherings, using telephones, den dealing plus authority figures.

Specific social phobia fi be classified into performance fears den interaction fears, i.e., fears of acting insyd a social setting den interacting plus oda people, respectively. De cause of social phobia no be definite.

Symptoms of social phobia fi occur insyd late adolescence wen youths highly dey value de impressions dem give off to dema peers. Clinical experience of de prognosis of social phobia dey show say e fi prolong for chaw years buh dat e dey improve by mid life.

## References


## External links
* Nardil.org - Information on drug treatment for people with social anxiety and depression
* Anxiety Disorders Association of America - Help for people with anxiety disorders, including social phobia and social anxiety disorder
Specific phobia

**Specific phobia** be an anxiety disorder, wey be characterized by an extreme, unreasonable, den irrational fear dem associate plus a specific object, situation, anaa concept wich dey pose little anaa no actual danger. Specific phobia fi lead to avoidance of de object anaa situation, persistence of de fear, den significant distress anaa problems functioning dem associate plus de fear. A phobia fi be a fear of anything.

Although fears be common den normal, a phobia be an extreme type of fear wer dem dey take great lengths to avoid being exposed to de particular danger. Phobias be considered de most common psychiatric disorder, wey dey affect about 10% of de population insyd de US, according to de Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), (among kiddies, 5%; among teens, 16%). About 75% of patients get more dan one specific phobia.

E fi be described as wen patients be anxious about a particular situation. E dey cause a great load of difficulty insyd life. Patients get a lot of distress anaa interference wen functioning insyd dema daily life. Unreasonable anaa irrational fears get in de way of daily routines, work, den relationships secof de effort wey a patient dey make to avoid de terrifying feelings wey be associated plus de fear.

Females be twice as likely to be diagnosed dan males plus a specific phobia.

Kiddies den adolescents wey be diagnosed plus a specific phobia be at an increased risk for additional psychopathology later insyd life.
## References


## External links
* Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders – Specific phobias
Tinnitus

**Tinnitus** be a condition wen a person dey hear a ringing sound anaa a different variety of sounds wen no corresponding external sound be present den dat oda people no dey hear. De word *tinnitus* dey cam from de Latin **, "to ring".

Tinnitus usually be associated plus hearing loss den decreased comprehension of speech insyd noisy environments. E be common, wey dey affect about 10–15% of people. Chaw dey tolerate am well, wey e be a significant (severe) problem insyd 1–2% of people per. 

Rather dan a disease, tinnitus be a symptom wey fi result from a variety of underlying causes den fi be generated at any level of de auditory system as well as outsyd dat system. De most common causes be hearing damage, noise-induced hearing loss, anaa age-related hearing loss, dem know as presbycusis. Oda causes dey include ear infections, disease of de heart anaa blood vessels, Ménière's disease, brain tumors, acoustic neuromas (tumors on de auditory nerves of de ear), migraines, temporomandibular joint disorders, exposure to certain medications, a previous head injury, den earwax. Insyd sam people, e dey interfere plus concentration, wey fi be associated plus anxiety den depression. E fi suddenly emerge anaa increase during a period of emotional stress. E fi get a frequent occurrence insyd those plus depression.

De diagnosis of tinnitus usually dey base on a patient ein description of de symptoms dem dey experience. Such a diagnosis commonly be supported by an audiogram, den an otolaryngological den neurological examination. How much tinnitus dey interfere plus a person ein life fi be quantified plus questionnaires. If dem find certain problems, medical imaging, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), fi be performed. Oda tests be suitable wen tinnitus dey occur plus de same rhythm as de heartbeat. Rarely, de sound fi be heard by someone oda dan de patient by using a stethoscope, insyd wich case e be known as "objective tinnitus". Occasionally, spontaneous otoacoustic emissions, sounds produce normally by de inner ear, fi result in tinnitus.

Measures to prevent tinnitus dey include avoiding chronic anaa extended exposure to loud noise, den limiting exposure to drugs den substances harmful to de ear (ototoxic). If der be an underlying cause, treating dat cause fi lead to improvements. Otherwise, typically, tinnitus management dey involve psychoeducation anaa counseling, such as talk therapy. Sound generators anaa hearing aids fi help. No medication directly dey target tinnitus.

## References


## External links

* American Tinnitus Association
* Tinnitus.org UK
Rhabdomyolysis

**Rhabdomyolysis** (dem shorten as **rhabdo**) be a condition insyd wich damaged skeletal muscle dey break down rapidly. Symptoms fi include muscle pains, weakness, vomiting, den confusion. Der fi be tea-colored urine anaa an irregular heartbeat. Sam of de muscle breakdown products, such as de protein myoglobin, be harmful to de kidneys den fi cause acute kidney injury.

De muscle damage usually be caused by a crush injury, strenuous exercise, medications, anaa a substance use disorder. Oda causes dey include infections, electrical injury, heat stroke, prolonged immobilization, lack of blood flow to a limb, anaa snake bites as well as intense anaa prolonged exercise, particularly insyd hot conditions. Statins (prescription drugs to lower cholesterol) be considered a small risk. Sam people get inherited muscle conditions wey dey increase de risk of rhabdomyolysis. De diagnosis be supported by a urine test strip wich be positive for "blood" buh de urine dey contain no red blood cells wen dem examine plus a microscope. Blood tests dey show a creatine kinase activity greater dan 1000 U/L, plus severe disease be above 5000–15000 U/L.

De mainstay of treatment be large quantities of intravenous fluids. Oda treatments fi include dialysis anaa hemofiltration insyd more severe cases. Once urine output be established, sodium bicarbonate den mannitol be commonly used buh dem be poorly supported by de evidence. Outcomes be generally good if dem treat early. Complications fi include high blood potassium, low blood calcium, disseminated intravascular coagulation, den compartment syndrome.

Rhabdomyolysis be reported about 26,000 times a year insyd de United States. E be a significant problem for those dem injure insyd earthquakes, den relief efforts for such disasters often dey include medical teams dem equip to treat survivors plus rhabdomyolysis.
## Etymology den pronunciation
De word *rhabdomyolysis* (/ˌræbdoʊmaɪˈɒlɪsɪs/) dey use de combining forms **' + **' + **, wey dey yield "striated muscle breakdown".

## References


## External links
Klinefelter syndrome

**Klinefelter syndrome** (**KS**), dem sanso know as **47,XXY**, be a chromosome anomaly wer a male get an extra X chromosome. De complications commonly dey include infertility den small, poorly functioning testicles (if present). Dem often dey notice dese symptoms at puberty per, although dis be one of de most common chromosomal disorders. De birth prevalence of KS insyd de State of Victoria, Australia na dem estimate am to be 223 per 100,000 males. Na dem name am after American endocrinologist Harry Klinefelter, wey identify de condition insyd de 1940s, along plus ein colleagues at Massachusetts General Hospital.

De syndrome be defined by de presence of at least one extra X chromosome in addition to a Y chromosome, wey dey yield a total of 47 anaa more chromosomes rada dan de usual 46. Klinefelter syndrome dey occur randomly. De second X chromosome dey cam from de poppie den mommie nearly equally. An older mommie fi get a slightly increased risk of a kiddie plus KS. De syndrome be diagnosed by de genetic test dem know as karyotyping.

## References


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## External links
Naltrexone

**Naltrexone**, dem sell under de brand name **Revia** among odas, be a medication dem primarily use to manage alcohol use anaa opioid use disorder by reducing cravings den feelings of euphoria dem associate plus substance use disorder. Na dem sanso find am effective insyd de treatment of oda addictions wey fi be used give dem off-label. Dem dey take am orally anaa by injection into a muscle. Effects dey begin within 30 minutes, though a decreased desire for opioids fi take a few weeks to occur.

Side effects fi include trouble sleeping, anxiety, nausea, den headaches. Insyd those still on opioids, opioid withdrawal fi occur. Ein use no be recommended insyd people plus liver failure. E be unclear if ein use be safe during pregnancy. Naltrexone be an opioid antagonist wey e dey work by blocking de effects of opioids, wey dey include both opioid drugs as well as opioids dem naturally produce insyd de brain.

Na dem first make naltrexone insyd 1965 wey na dem approve am for medical use insyd de United States insyd 1984. Naltrexone, as naltrexone/bupropion (brand name Contrave), dem sanso use am to treat obesity. E dey on de World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Insyd 2021, na e be de 254th most commonly prescribed medication insyd de United States, plus more dan 1million prescriptions.

## References


## External links
Claustrophobia

**Claustrophobia** be a fear anaa anxiety of confined spaces. E be triggered by chaw situations anaa stimuli, wey dey include elevators, especially wen crowded to capacity, windowless rooms, den hotel rooms plus closed doors den sealed windows. Even bedrooms plus a lock on de outside, small cars, den tight-necked clothing fi induce a response in those plus claustrophobia. E be typically classified as an anxiety disorder, wich often dey result in panic attacks. Na dem attribute de onset of claustrophobia to chaw factors, wey dey include a reduction insyd de size of de amygdala, classical conditioning, anaa a genetic predisposition to fear small spaces.

One study dey indicate say anywer from five to ten percent of de world population be affected by severe claustrophobia, buh a small percentage of these people per receive sam kind of treatment for de disorder.

De term *claustrophobia* dey cam from Latin *claustrum* "a shut in place" den Greek **, *[[Phobia|phóbos]]*, "fear".

## Bibliography

* Carlson, Neil R., et al. *Psychology: the Science of Behavior,* 7th ed. Allyn & Bacon, Pearson. 2010.
* Cheng, Dominic T., et al. "Human Amygdala Activity During the Expression of Fear Responses". *Behavioral Neuroscience.* Vol. 120. American Psychological Association. 14 September 2006.
* Gersley, Erin. "Phobias: Causes and Treatments ". *AllPsych Journal.* AllPsych Online. 17 November 2001. Web. 18 September 2010.
* Hayano, Fumi PhD., et al. "Smaller Amygdala Is Associated With Anxiety in Patients With Panic Disorder". *Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences.* Vol. 63, Issue 3. Japanese Society of Psychiatry and Neurology 14 May 2009.
* Öst, Lars-Göran. "The Claustrophobia Scale: A Psychometric Evaluation". *Behaviour Research and Therapy* 45.5 (2007): 1053–64.
* Rachman, S.J. "Claustrophobia", in *Phobias: A Handbook of Theory, Research, and Treatment.* John Wiley and Sons, Ltd. Baffins Lane, Chichester, West Sussex, England. 1997.

* Rachman, S.J. "Phobias". *Education.com.* The Gale Group. 2009. Web. 19 September 2010.
* Speyrer, John A. "Claustrophobia and the Fear of Death and Dying". *The Primal Psychotherapy Page.* N.p.&nbsp;3 October 1995. Web. 9 September 2010.
* Thorpe, Susan, Salkovis, Paul M., & Dittner, Antonia. "Claustrophobia in MRI: the Role of Cognitions". *Magnetic Resonance Imaging.* Vol. 26, Issue 8. 3 June 2008.
* Walding, Aureau. "Causes of Claustrophobia". *Livestrong.com.* Livestrong Foundation. 11 June 2010. Web. 18 September 2010.
* "What Causes Claustrophobia?" *Neuroscience Blog.* NorthShore University HealthSystem. 11 June 2009. Web. 9 September 2010.

## External links
Modafinil

**Modafinil**, dem sell under de brand name **Provigil** among odas, be a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant den eugeroic (wakefulness promoter) medication dem use primarily to treat narcolepsy, a sleep disorder wey be characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness den sudden sleep attacks. Dem sanso approve modafinil for stimulating wakefulness insyd people plus sleep apnea den shift work sleep disorder. Dem dey take am by mouth. Modafinil no be approved by de US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use insyd people under 18 years old.

Common side effects of modafinil dey include anxiety, insomnia, dizziness, den headache. Modafinil get potential for causing severe allergic reactions, psychiatric effects, hypersensitivity, adverse interactions plus prescription drugs, den misuse anaa abuse. Modafinil fi harm de fetus if dem take am during anaa two months prior to pregnancy.

While dem dey use modafinil as a cognitive enhancer, anaa "smart drug", among healthy individuals wey dey seek improved focus den productivity, ein use outsyd medical supervision dey raise concerns regarding potential misuse anaa abuse. Na research on de cognitive enhancement effects of modafinil insyd non-sleep deprived individuals yield mixed results, plus sam studies wey dey suggest modest improvements in attention den executive functions, while odas dey show no significant benefits anaa a decline in cognitive functions at high doses.

De mechanism of action no be fully defined, buh dem dey think e dey act mainly as an atypical dopamine transporter inhibitor wey modestly dey increase dopamine insyd cortical den striatal regions widout de rapid signaling dem see plus classical stimulants. Dis effect be accompanied by activation of noradrenergic, orexin, histamine, glutamate, den GABA systems wey togeda dey promote stable wakefulness den cortical activation. Dese combined actions likely dey explain modafinil ein wake-promoting den cognitive effects plus a lower risk of euphoria den abuse dan amphetamine-like stimulants.

## References


## External links
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy

**Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy** (**HCM**, anaa **HOCM** wen obstructive) be a condition insyd wich muscle tissues of de heart cam be thickened widout an obvious cause. De parts of de heart wey be most commonly affected be de interventricular septum den de ventricles. Dis dey result in de heart be less able to pump blood effectively wey sanso fi cause electrical conduction problems. Specifically affected be de bundle branches wey dey conduct impulses thru de interventricular septum den into de Purkinje fibers, as dese be responsible for de depolarization of contractile cells of both ventricles.

People wey get hypertrophic cardiomyopathy fi get a range of symptoms. People fi be asymptomatic, anaa dem fi get fatigue, leg swelling, den shortness of breath. E sanso fi result in chest pain anaa fainting. Symptoms fi be worse wen de person be dehydrated. Complications fi include heart failure, an irregular heartbeat, den sudden cardiac death.

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy most commonly be inherited insyd an autosomal dominant pattern. E often be secof mutations insyd certain genes wey be involved plus making heart muscle proteins. Oda inherited causes of left ventricular hypertrophy dey include Fabry disease den Friedreich's ataxia. Oda considerations for causes of enlarged heart be athlete's heart den hypertension (high blood pressure). Making de diagnosis of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy often dey involve a family history anaa pedigree, an electrocardiogram, echocardiogram, den stress testing. Genetic testing be recommended for affected people den dema family members. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy fi be distinguished from oda inherited causes of cardiomyopathy by ein autosomal dominant pattern, whereas Fabry disease be X-linked, wey Friedreich's ataxia be inherited insyd an autosomal recessive pattern.

Treatment dey depend on symptoms den oda risk factors. Medications fi include beta blockers, verapamil anaa disopyramide. An implantable cardiac defibrillator fi be recommended insyd those plus certain types of irregular heartbeat. Surgery, insyd de form of a septal myectomy anaa heart transplant, dem fi do insyd those wey no dey improve plus oda measures. Plus treatment, de risk of death from de disease be less dan one percent per year.

Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy dey affect up to one insyd 500 people. People of all ages may be affected. Na de first modern description of de disease be by Donald Teare insyd 1958.
## References


## External links

*  GeneReviews/NIH/NCBI/UW entry on Familial Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy Overview
* National Heart, Blood, and Lung Institute Cardiomyopathy Page
Prader–Willi syndrome

**Prader–Willi syndrome** (**PWS**) be a rare genetic disorder wey be caused by a loss of function of specific genes on chromosome 15. Insyd babies, symptoms dey include weak muscles, poor feeding, den slow development. Beginning insyd kiddie time, those wey be affected cam be constantly hungry, wich often dey lead to obesity den type 2 diabetes. Mild to moderate intellectual impairment den behavioral problems sanso be typical of de disorder. Often, affected individuals get a narrow forehead, small hands den feet, short height, den light skin den hair. Chaw be unable to get kiddies.

About 74% of cases dey occur wen part of de poppie ein chromosome 15 be deleted. Insyd anoda 25% of cases, de affected person get two copies of de maternal chromosome 15 from de mommie den dey lack de paternal copy. As parts of de chromosome from de mommie be turned off thru imprinting, dem dey end up plus no working copies of certain genes. PWS no be generally inherited, buh rada de genetic changes happen during de formation of de egg, sperm, anaa insyd early development. No risk factors be known for de disorder. Those wey get one kiddie plus PWS get less dan a 1% chance of de next kiddie be affected. A similar mechanism dey occur insyd Angelman syndrome, except de defective chromosome 15 be from de mommie, anaa two copies be from de poppie.

Prader–Willi syndrome get no cure. Treatment fi improve outcomes, especially if e be carried out early. Insyd newborns, feeding difficulties fi be supported plus feeding tubes. Strict food supervision typically be required, wey dey start around de age of three, in combination plus an exercise program. Growth hormone therapy sanso dey improve outcomes. Counseling den medications fi help plus sam behavioral problems. Group homes often be necessary insyd adulthood.

PWS dey affect between 1 insyd 10,000 to 30,000 people worldwide. More dan 400,000 people dey live plus PWS.
## References


## External links

*http://www.ipwso.org/, International Prader-Willi Syndrome Organisation
Gonorrhea

**Gonorrhea** anaa **gonorrhoea**, dem colloquially know as **the clap**, be a sexually transmitted infection (STI) wey be caused by de bacterium *Neisseria gonorrhoeae*. Infection fi involve de genitals, mouth, anaa rectum.

Gonorrhea be spread thru sexual contact plus an infected person, anaa from a mommie to a kiddie during birth. Infected males fi experience pain anaa burning plus urination, discharge from de penis, anaa testicular pain. Infected females fi experience burning plus urination, vaginal discharge, vaginal bleeding between periods, anaa pelvic pain. Complications insyd females dey include pelvic inflammatory disease den insyd males dey include inflammation of de epididymis. Chaw of those wey be infected, however, get no symptoms. If untreated, gonorrhea fi spread to joints anaa heart valves. Globally, gonorrhea dey affect about 0.8% of women den 0.6% of men. An estimated 33 to 106 million new cases dey occur each year. Insyd 2015, na e cause about 700 deaths.

Diagnosis be by testing de urine, urethra insyd males, vagina anaa cervix insyd females. E fi be diagnosed by testing a sample dem collect from de throat anaa rectum of individuals wey na dem get oral anaa anal sex, respectively. Testing all women wey be sexually active den less dan 25 years of age each year as well as those plus new sexual partners be recommended; de same recommendation dey apply insyd men wey dey have sex plus men (MSM).

Gonorrhea fi be prevented plus de use of condoms, having sex plus one person per wey be uninfected, den by not having sex. Certain vaccines dem originally design to protect against infection wey be caused by related bacteria, meningococcus serotype B, na dem find dem to provide sam protection against gonorrhea. Treatment usually be plus ceftriaxone by injection den azithromycin by mouth. Na resistance develop to chaw previously antibiotics dem use den higher doses of ceftriaxone be occasionally required.

## References


## External links

* "Gonorrhea – CDC Fact Sheet"
Scurvy

**Scurvy** anaa **scorbutus** be a deficiency disease (state of malnutrition) wey dey result from a lack of vitamin C (ascorbic acid). Early symptoms of deficiency dey include weakness, fatigue, den sore arms den legs. Widout treatment, decreased red blood cells, gum disease, changes to hair, den bleeding from de skin fi occur. As scurvy dey worsen, der fi be poor wound healing, personality changes, den finally death from infection anaa bleeding.

E dey take at least a month of little to no vitamin C insyd de diet before symptoms dey occur. Insyd modern times, scurvy dey occur most commonly insyd kiddies dem neglect, people plus mental disorders, unusual eating habits, alcoholism, den older people wey dey live alone. Oda risk factors dey include intestinal malabsorption den dialysis.

While chaw animals dey produce dema vitamin C, humans den a few oda no dey do. Vitamin C, an antioxidant, be required to make de building blocks for collagen, carnitine, den catecholamines, den dey assist de intestines insyd de absorption of iron from foods. Diagnosis typically dey base on outward appearance, X-rays, den improvement after treatment.

Treatment be plus vitamin C supplements dem dey take by mouth, anaa intravenously for optimal resolution. Improvement often dey begin insyd a few days plus complete recovery insyd a few weeks. Sources of vitamin C insyd de diet dey include raw citrus fruit den chaw raw vegetables, wey dey include red peppers, broccoli, den tomatoes. Cooking often dey decrease de residual amount of vitamin C insyd chows.

Scurvy be rare compared to oda nutritional deficiencies. E dey occur more often insyd de developing world in association plus malnutrition. Rates among refugees be reported at 5 to 45 percent. Na dem describe scurvy as early as de time of ancient Egypt, den historically na e be a limiting factor insyd long-distance sea travel, often dey kill large numbers of people. During de later Age of Sail, na e be assumed say na 50 percent of de sailors go die of scurvy on a major voyage of exploration. Insyd long sea voyages, na crews be isolated from land for extended periods wey na dese voyages rely on large staples of a limited variety of chows den de lack of fruit, vegetables, den oda chows wey dey contain vitamin C insyd diets of sailors result in scurvy.

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Ciprofloxacin

**Ciprofloxacin** be a fluoroquinolone antibiotic dem use to treat a number of bacterial infections. Dis dey include bone den joint infections, intra-abdominal infections, certain types of infectious diarrhea, respiratory tract infections, skin infections, typhoid fever, den urinary tract infections, among odas. For sam infections e be used in addition to oda antibiotics. Dem fi take am by mouth, as eye drops, as ear drops, anaa intravenously.

Common side effects dey include nausea, vomiting, den diarrhea. Severe side effects dey include tendon rupture, hallucinations, den nerve damage. Insyd people plus myasthenia gravis, der be worsening muscle weakness. Rates of side effects appear to be higher dan sam groups of antibiotics such as cephalosporins buh lower dan odas such as clindamycin. Studies insyd oda animals raise concerns wey dey regard ein use insyd pregnancy. Na dem identify no problems, however, insyd de kiddies of a small number of women wey take de medication. E dey appear to be safe during breastfeeding. E be a second-generation fluoroquinolone plus a broad spectrum of activity wey usually dey result insyd de death of de bacteria.

Na dem patent ciprofloxacin insyd 1980 wey na dem introduce am by Bayer insyd 1987. E dey on de World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. De World Health Organization dey classify ciprofloxacin as critically important for human medicine. E be available as a generic medication. In 2023, it was the 155th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 3million prescriptions.

## References


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Common cold

De **common cold**, anaa de **cold**, be a viral infectious disease of de upper respiratory tract wey dey primarily affect de respiratory mucosa of de nose, throat, sinuses, den larynx. Signs den symptoms fi appear insyd as little as two days after exposure to de virus. Dese fi include coughing, sore throat, runny nose, sneezing, headache, fatigue, den fever. People usually dey recover insyd seven to ten days, buh sam symptoms fi last up to three weeks. Occasionally, those plus oda health problems fi develop pneumonia.

Well over 200 virus strains be implicated in causing de common cold, plus rhinoviruses, coronaviruses, adenoviruses den enteroviruses be de most common. Dem spread thru de air anaa indirectly thru contact plus objects insyd de environment, wey be followed by transfer to de mouth anaa nose. Risk factors dey include going to child care facilities, no dey sleep well, den psychological stress. De symptoms be mostly secof de body ein immune response to de infection rada dan to tissue destruction by de viruses demaselves. De symptoms of influenza be similar to those of a cold, although usually more severe den less likely to include a runny nose.

Der be no vaccine give de common cold. Dis be secof de rapid mutation den wide variation of viruses wey dey cause de common cold. De primary methods of prevention be hand washing; no dey touch de eyes, nose anaa mouth plus unwashed hands; den staying away from sick people. People be considered contagious as long as de symptoms be still present. Sam evidence dey support de use of face masks. Der sanso be no cure, buh de symptoms fi be treated. Zinc fi reduce de duration den severity of symptoms if dem start shortly after de onset of symptoms. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as ibuprofen fi help plus pain. Antibiotics, however, for no be used, as all colds be caused by viruses rada dan bacteria. Der be no good evidence wey cough medicines be effective.

De common cold be de most frequent infectious disease insyd humans. Under normal circumstances, de average adult dey get two to three colds a year, while de average kiddie fi get six to eight colds a year. Infections dey occur more commonly during de winter. Na dese infections exist thru out human history.

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