Tutorial on Old English (1)

:*This is an alternative page of [[Wikipǣdia:Tutorial on Old English]], this version is written using ƿynn.*

## Hū man sceolde ƿrītan
:*For information on typing, see *

Gif þē is nīed, brūc þā stafas: ǣ æ ā ē ī ō ū ȳ þ ð ƿ oþþe Ǣ Æ Ā Ē Ī Ō Ū Ȳ Þ Ð Ƿ in þīnum geƿritum.

When writing, use the early West Saxon spellings:
#Use *ie* instead of *y* (thus *sierƿung* instead of *syrƿung*, *his* instead of *hys*, etc.)
#Use *an* instead of *on* (thus *and* instead of *ond*, *mann* instead of *monn*, etc.)

### OE Style

As a general rule for the OE wiki, try to remember the following OE guidelines to give this wiki a consistent look and feel:

*Don'ts*
#Do not use y for ie in words such as his, hire, sierwung, or for eo in words such as feorran, feorsian
#Do not syncopate verb endings on verbs ending in consonant clusters or t/d.  It is well known that the Anglo-Saxons did this, but it will make reading articles so much easier if one finds "bīteþ" and "biddeþ" instead of "bitt" and "bītt."  And "hyngrest" not "hyngrst."  However, you can probably get away with "bītst."
#Do not use *on* instead of *an.*  It is easier to see and understand "mann," "and," and "band" than "monn," "ond," and "bond."
#Do not link to external sites within an article if you can help it.  Save that for the end of the article.
#Do not link to images outside the article.  Having little thumbnails that one may click on is nicer, and makes the article better to look at.

*Do's*
#Use the same spelling throughout your article.  It is well known that the Anglo-Saxons didn't do this, but it will make reading articles so much easier with consistent spelling.
#Use the special words and characters under the edit box if you need them.
#Use the following for definite articles: se, sēo, þæt; þæs, þǣre; þǣm, þǣre; þȳ/þon, þǣre; þone, þā, þæt; and plural: þā; þāra/þǣra; þǣm; þā - don't use thaet, þat, sio, sīo, þām, þāre, etc.  Consistency!
#Use the distinctive accusative forms of pronouns (mec, þec, ūsic, uncit, ēowic, incit, hine, hīe, hit).  This will make the articles that much easier to read.
#Use the *þ* for the same sound as in "theta" and *ð* for the same sound as in "that."  It is well known that the Anglo-Saxons didn't do this, but it will make pronouncing what is read in the articles so much easier.
#Use internal links within this wiki.  We are not an advertising service for other websites.
#Use image thumbnails within an article rather than simply linking to the image page.  This makes for prettier articles, and is already common practice in other wikis.

Or: be consistent, make it easy for your readers to understand.  And remember, this is an encyclopedia, so Neutral Point of View applies!

### Punctuation

#Punctuate sentences as you normally would, i.e. a period for sentences, question mark for questions, and exclamation mark for imperatives/commands.
#For subordinate clauses, separate them from the main clause by a comma, e.g. "Ic cann secgan, þæt hē is mīn brōðor." Or, "Þes is sē mōnaþ, þe ƿē 'Hāligmōnaþ' hātton."  This makes it a bit clearer to understand.
#In series, place commas after each word, including one before 'and' (mōdor, fæder, and sweostor).

### Runes

Please visit the  article if you wish to write using the runic alphabet. If you wish to do so, please have a version of the page written using the Latin alphabet first, then transliterated into runes.

## And as for Grammar

### Information about Syllables Relevant to Old English

Syllables break when:

*There are two consonants between two vowel clusters, e.g. hab-ban, en-gel.
*There is one consonant between two vowel clusters (the consonant going to the latter syllable), e.g. ē-þel, fre-mast. 

It is important to know what the stem of a word is: It is the most basic factor of a word (compound or not) minus declension/conjugation suffixes, therefore the Modern English word fireman has two stems: fire and man, the same rules apply to Old English; but in compound words, the declension/conjugation of a noun/adjective/verb is purely dependent on the last word in the compound (so the noun "sealtȳþ - salt-wave" may look like it takes the endings of a long-stemmed disyllable; but it is, in fact, a compound word of "sealt - salt" and "ȳþ - wave" (ȳþ being the final member of the compound), therefore it takes the conjugation of a long-stemmed monosyllable: ȳþ).

At many times in Old English, it is important to be able to distinguish four different types of syllables. 

Short-stemmed monosyllables: end with short vowel and one consonant, e.g. scip, in, glæd.

Long-stemmed monosyllables: end with either a long vowel and one consonant or a short vowel and two consonants, e.g. hand, cniht, fōt, tōþ.

Short-stemmed disyllables: end with a short vowel, then one consonant, then another short vowel, then one consonant, e.g. metod, ƿerod, hacod.

Long-stemmed disyllables: end with the same pattern as above (e.g. vowel, consonant cluster, vowel, consonant cluster) but *must* have at least one long vowel or one cluster of two consonants, e.g. engel, habban, ƿindig, ēþel.

### Verbs
The verb is conjugated as follows: ic (stem)-e, þu (stem)-est, hē (stem)-eþ/aþ, ƿē/gē/hīe (stem)-aþ
#Strong Verbs: ic -e, þu -(e)st, hē -(e)þ, ƿē/gē/hīe -aþ

--The () means the *e* of the ending can be syncopated if the ending is still understandable.  Bisen: stendeþ hē, ne stent hē, ac nimþ hē, ne nimeþ hē.  Understendest þu?

#### Weak Verbs

##### Type 1a
Verbs with stems ending in a double consonant or in -rian, unless otherwise marked.
Infinitive Forms: nerian, fremman, settan, gremman, etc.
#Note how the infinitive ending is always -an.






**Weak Verb 1a Present Indicative: nerian**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
nerie
ƿē
neriaþ


þu
nerest
gē
neriaþ


hē, hēo, hit
nereþ
hīe
neriaþ







**Weak Verb 1a Present Subjunctive: nerian**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
nerie
ƿē
nerien


þu
nerie
gē
nerien


hē, hēo, hit
nerie
hīe
nerien







**Weak Verb 1a Past Indicative: nerian**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
nerede
ƿē
neredon


þu
neredest
gē
neredon


hē, hēo, hit
nerede
hīe
neredon







**Weak Verb 1a Past Subjunctive: nerian**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
nerede
ƿē
nereden


þu
nerede
gē
nereden


hē, hēo, hit
nerede
hīe
nereden








**Weak Verb 1a Imperative: nerian**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


(þu)
nere
(gē)
neriaþ







**Weak Verb 1a Participles: nerian**



Present
Past



neriende
genered






And doubled consonant verbs (with fremman as an example):






**Weak Verb 1a Present Indicative: fremman**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
fremme
ƿē
fremmaþ


þu
fremest
gē
fremmaþ


hē, hēo, hit
fremeþ
hīe
fremmaþ







**Weak Verb 1a Present Subjunctive: fremman**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
fremme
ƿē
fremmen


þu
fremme
gē
fremmen


hē, hēo, hit
fremme
hīe
fremmen







**Weak Verb 1a Past Indicative: fremman**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
fremede
ƿē
fremedon


þu
fremedest
gē
fremedon


hē, hēo, hit
fremede
hīe
fremedon







**Weak Verb 1a Past Subjunctive: fremman**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
fremede
ƿē
fremeden


þu
fremede
gē
fremeden


hē, hēo, hit
fremede
hīe
fremeden








**Weak Verb 1a Imperative: fremman**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


(þu)
freme
(gē)
fremmaþ







**Weak Verb 1a Participles: fremman**



Present
Past



fremmende
gefremed






And one last type, settan/lecgan type 1a verbs:






**Weak Verb 1a Present Indicative: settan**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
sette
ƿē
settaþ


þu
setest
gē
settaþ


hē, hēo, hit
seteþ
hīe
settaþ







**Weak Verb 1a Present Subjunctive: settan**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
sette
ƿē
setten


þu
sette
gē
setten


hē, hēo, hit
sette
hīe
setten







**Weak Verb 1a Past Indicative: settan**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
sette
ƿē
setton


þu
settest
gē
setton


hē, hēo, hit
sette
hīe
setton







**Weak Verb 1a Past Subjunctive: settan**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
sette
ƿē
setten


þu
sette
gē
setten


hē, hēo, hit
sette
hīe
setten








**Weak Verb 1a Imperative: settan**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


(þu)
sete
(gē)
settaþ







**Weak Verb 1a Participles: settan**



Present
Past



settende
geseted






##### Notes: Weak Verb 1a
*The first person is the infinitive, without -an (the stem), plus -e.  (nerian -> neri+an -> neri+e)
*The second/third person is formed from the bare stem plus -est/-eþ (nerian -> ner+ian -> nerest, nereþ)
*The plural is the infinitive without -an (the stem), plus -aþ.  (nerian -> neri+an -> neri+aþ)
*The imperative is formed from the þu (minus -st) and ge (same) forms. (nerest ->nere-st -> nere)
*The subjunctive is formed from the stem + -e, -en. (nerian -> neri+e, neri+en)  Thus, it is just like the first person indicative and the first person indicative plus -n.
*The present participle is formed from the stem plus -ende (nerian -> neri+ende)
*The past participle is formed from the past tense and ge-, minus the -e (nerede -> ge+nered-e -> genered)

*Verbs ending in -rian and with doubled consonants drop the -i- or doubled consonant in the same positions: 2nd/3rd person singular, imperative singular, and throughout the past tense.
*Verbs like settan (ātreddan, cnyttan, hreddan, hƿettan, lettan, spryttan, lecgan) typically have the above declension.  Lecgan has (legde, geleged).  You may find past forms as "setede."

##### Type 1b
Verbs with stems ending in more than one consonant (not a doubled consonant) or with a long vowel and one consonant.
Infinitive Forms: dēman, hyngran, drencan, gierƿan, etc.
#Note how the infinitive ending is always -an.






**Weak Verb 1b Present Indicative: dēman**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
dēme
 ƿē
dēmaþ


þu
dēmst
gē
dēmaþ


hē, hēo, hit
dēmþ
hīe
dēmaþ







**Weak Verb 1b Present Subjunctive: dēman**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
dēme
ƿē
dēmen


þu
dēme
gē
dēmen


hē, hēo, hit
dēme
hīe
dēmen







**Weak Verb 1b Past Indicative: dēman**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
dēmde
ƿē
dēmdon


þu
dēmdest
gē
dēmdon


hē, hēo, hit
dēmde
hīe
dēmdon







**Weak Verb 1b Past Subjunctive: dēman**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
dēmde
ƿē
dēmden


þu
dēmde
gē
dēmden


hē, hēo, hit
dēmde
hīe
dēmden








**Weak Verb 1b Imperative: dēman**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


(þu)
dēm
(gē)
dēmaþ







**Weak Verb 1b Participles: dēman**



Present
Past



dēmende
gedēmed






And multiple consonant verbs (ending in -c, -sc, -p, -f, with drencan as an example):






**Weak Verb 1b Present Indicative: drencan**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
drence
ƿē
drencaþ


þu
drencest, drencst
gē
drencaþ


hē, hēo, hit
drenceþ, drencþ
hīe
drencaþ







**Weak Verb 1b Present Subjunctive: drencan**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
drence
ƿē
drencen


þu
drence
gē
drencen


hē, hēo, hit
drence
hīe
drencen







**Weak Verb 1b Past Indicative: drencan**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
drencte
ƿē
drencton


þu
drenctest
gē
drencton


hē, hēo, hit
drencte
hīe
drencton







**Weak Verb 1b Past Subjunctive: drencan**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
drencte
ƿē
drencten


þu
drencte
gē
drencten


hē, hēo, hit
drencte
hīe
drencten








**Weak Verb 1b Imperative: drencan**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


(þu)
drenc
(gē)
drencaþ







**Weak Verb 1b Participles: drencan**



Present
Past



drencende
gedrenced






And multiple consonant verbs (using hyngran as an example):






**Weak Verb 1b Present Indicative: hyngran**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
hyngre
ƿē
hyngraþ


þu
hyngrest
gē
hyngraþ


hē, hēo, hit
hyngreþ
hīe
hyngraþ







**Weak Verb 1b Present Subjunctive: hyngran**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
hyngre
ƿē
hyngren


þu
hyngre
gē
hyngren


hē, hēo, hit
hyngre
hīe
hyngren







**Weak Verb 1b Past Indicative: hyngran**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
hyngrede
ƿē
hyngredon


þu
hyngredest
gē
hyngredon


hē, hēo, hit
hyngrede
hīe
hyngredon







**Weak Verb 1b Past Subjunctive: hyngran**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
hyngrede
ƿē
hyngreden


þu
hyngrede
gē
hyngreden


hē, hēo, hit
hyngrede
hīe
hyngreden








**Weak Verb 1b Imperative: hyngran**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


(þu)
hyngre
(gē)
hyngraþ







**Weak Verb 1b Participles: hyngran**



Present
Past



hyngrende
gehyngred






And one last type, gierƿan verbs (ending in -ƿan):






**Weak Verb 1b Present Indicative: gierƿan**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
gierƿe
ƿē
gierƿaþ


þu
gierest
gē
gierƿaþ


hē, hēo, hit
giereþ
hīe
gierƿaþ







**Weak Verb 1b Present Subjunctive: gierƿan**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
gierƿe
ƿē
gierƿen


þu
gierƿe
gē
gierƿen


hē, hēo, hit
gierƿe
hīe
gierƿen







**Weak Verb 1b Past Indicative: gierƿan**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
gierede
ƿē
gieredon


þu
gieredest
gē
gieredon


hē, hēo, hit
gierede
hīe
gieredon







**Weak Verb 1b Past Subjunctive: gierƿan**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
gierede
ƿē
giereden


þu
gierede
gē
giereden


hē, hēo, hit
gierede
hīe
giereden








**Weak Verb 1b Imperative: gierƿan**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


(þu)
giere
(gē)
gierƿaþ







**Weak Verb 1b Participles: gierƿan**



Present
Past



gierƿende
gegierƿed, gegiered






##### Notes: Weak Verb 1b
*See notes on Weak Verb 1a for formation of the different forms of the verb.
*The most 'regular' 1b verbs are those like dēman (long vowel, 1 consonant) and hyngran (short vowel, multiple consonants), in that they don't have much variation in formation like drencan and gierƿan verbs.
*Verbs having a long vowel and one consonant, like **dēman**, don't generally have the full -est, -eþ endings.  Thus, the imperative is simply the þu form without -st (dēm!, not dēme!).
*Verbs like dēman include verbs ending in -rn, -ng, -rg, -lg, ƿiernan (ƿiernde, geƿierned), lengan (lengde, gelenged), byrgan (byrgde, gebyrged), and fylgan (fylgde, gefylged).  It also includes contracted verbs like hēan (hēade, gehēad), rȳn, tȳn, þēon, þȳn.
*Verbs like drencan include those ending in -nc, -sc, -p, -sp, -t, -rp.  They add -te in the past tense (ācƿencte, ādƿæscte, etc.).
*Verbs like hyngran, with a short vowel and multiple consonants, are more 'regular' than other 1b verbs.  Their past tense is always -ede, and the past participle is always ge-(stem)-ed (bīecnede, þrysmede, symblede, ræfnede).
*Verbs like gierƿan, ending in -ƿan, drop the -ƿ- in the same places as the -i- in 1a verbs (smierƿan -> smierest, nierƿan -> niereþ).  Verbs like getrīeƿan, lǣƿan, forslǣƿan, hlēoƿan (with a long vowel/diphthong) kept the -ƿ- in all forms, however.

### Weak Verb 2

These are all other verbs, and are about half of all weak verbs.






**Weak Verb 2 Present Indicative: endian**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
endie
ƿē
endiaþ


þu
endast
gē
endiaþ


hē, hēo, hit
endaþ
hīe
endiaþ







**Weak Verb 2 Present Subjunctive: endian**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
endie
ƿē
endien


þu
endie
gē
endien


hē, hēo, hit
endie
hīe
endien







**Weak Verb 2 Past Indicative: endian**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
endode
ƿē
endodon


þu
endodest
gē
endodon


hē, hēo, hit
endode
hīe
endodon







**Weak Verb 2 Past Subjunctive: endian**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
endode
ƿē
endoden


þu
endode
gē
endoden


hē, hēo, hit
endode
hīe
endoden








**Weak Verb 2 Imperative: endian**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


(þu)
enda
(gē)
endiaþ







**Weak Verb 2 Participles: endian**



Present
Past



endiende
geendod






Verbs like tƿēogan *to doubt* are slightly irregular, since they were originally class 3 verbs, but decline alike, so it's not too difficult to learn them.  There are only tƿēogan, fēogan *to hate*, frēogan *to love, make free*, smēagan *to ponder, consider*, and þrēagan *to reprove, rebuke*.  Sometimes these verbs show up as tƿēon, fēon, frēon, smēan, and þrēan.






**Weak Verb 2 Present Indicative: tƿēogan**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
tƿēoge
ƿē
tƿēogaþ


þu
tƿēost
gē
tƿēogaþ


hē, hēo, hit
tƿēoþ
hīe
tƿēogaþ







**Weak Verb 2 Present Subjunctive: tƿēogan**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
tƿēoge
ƿē
tƿēogen


þu
tƿēoge
gē
tƿēogen


hē, hēo, hit
tƿēoge
hīe
tƿēogen







**Weak Verb 2 Past Indicative: tƿēogan**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
tƿēode
ƿē
tƿēodon


þu
tƿēodest
gē
tƿēodon


hē, hēo, hit
tƿēode
hīe
tƿēodon







**Weak Verb 2 Past Subjunctive: tƿēogan**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


ic
tƿēode
ƿē
tƿēoden


þu
tƿēode
gē
tƿēoden


hē, hēo, hit
tƿēode
hīe
tƿēoden








**Weak Verb 2 Imperative: tƿēogan**


Pronoun
Singular
Pronoun
Plural


(þu)
tƿēo
(gē)
tƿēogaþ







**Weak Verb 2 Participles: tƿēogan**



Present
Past



tƿēogiende, tƿēonde (poetical)
getƿēod






##### Notes: Weak Verb 2
*See notes on Weak Verb 1a for formation of the different forms of the verb.
*These verbs all end in -ian.
*These verbs are the most 'regular' verbs in that all verbs of this class decline the same aside from a small group of exceptional verbs.
*The second and third person singular have the endings -ast and -aþ, without the -i-.
*The imperative is still the second person, minus -st.
*The verbs that act like tƿēogan are remnants of class 3 verbs that became class 2 verbs before the written history of Old English.

### Pronouns
In dæftunge: nemniendlic, āgniendlic, forgifendlic, ƿregendlic






**First Person Singular: I, We Two, We**



I
We two
We


Nom.
ic
ƿit
ƿē


Gen.
mīn
uncer
ūser, ūre


Dat.
mē
unc
ūs


Acc.
mec
uncit
ūsic








**Second Person Pronouns: Thou, Ye two, Ye**



Thou
Ye two
Ye


Nom.
þu
git
gē


Gen.
þīn
incer
ēoƿer


Dat.
þē
inc
ēoƿ


Acc.
þec
incit
ēoƿic








**Third Person Pronouns: He, She, It, They**



He
She
It
They


Nom.
hē
hēo
hit
hīe


Gen.
his
hire
his
hira, hiera


Dat.
him
hire
him
him, heom


Acc.
hine
hīe
hit
hīe







**Interrogative Pronoun: Who, What**



Who
What


Nom.
hƿā
hƿæt


Gen.
hƿæs
hƿæs


Dat.
hƿǣm
hƿǣm


Inst.
hƿȳ/hƿī
hƿȳ/hƿī


Acc.
hƿone
hƿæt





Notice how the Interrogative pronouns look like the pronouns *hē* and *hit* (hƿǣ**m** and hi**m**, hƿo**ne** and hi**ne**, hƿæ**t** and hi**t**, hƿæ**s** and hi**s**).  If you compare to the Definite Article, you'll see the same similarities, mostly a difference of þ-/hƿ- (þ**one** and hƿ**one**, þ**ǣm** and hƿ**ǣm**, þ**ȳ** and hƿ**ȳ**, þ**æt** and hƿ**æt**, þ**æs** and hƿ**æs**).

#### Declension
The genitive pronoun functions as an adjective.  As such, it declines to agree with the case, gender, and number of the noun which it describes.  The pronouns mīn, þīn, sīn, ūser, ēoƿer, uncer, incer decline, whereas his, hire, and hira **do not**.  The following table illustrates the declensions of these pronouns, which is exactly like the adjective *blind*.






**First Person Singular Genitive Declension: mīn**



Masculine
Neuter
Feminine


Nom.
mīn
mīn
mīn


Gen.
mīnes
mīnes
mīnre


Dat.
mīnum
mīnum
mīnre


Inst.
mīne
mīne
mīnre


Acc.
mīnne
mīn
mīne







**First Person Singular Genitive Declension: mīn**



Masculine
Neuter
Feminine


Nom.
mīne
mīn
mīna


Gen.
mīnra
mīnra
mīnra


Dat.
mīnum
mīnum
mīnum


Inst.
mīnum
mīnum
mīnum


Acc.
mīne
mīn
mīna








**Second Person Singular Genitive Declension: þīn**



Masculine
Neuter
Feminine


Nom.
þīn
þīn
þīn


Gen.
þīnes
þīnes
þīnre


Dat.
þīnum
þīnum
þīnre


Inst.
þīne
þīne
þīnre


Acc.
þīnne
þīn
þīne







**Second Person Singular Genitive Declension: þīn**



Masculine
Neuter
Feminine


Nom.
þīne
þīn
þīna


Gen.
þīnra
þīnra
þīnra


Dat.
þīnum
þīnum
þīnum


Inst.
þīnum
þīnum
þīnum


Acc.
þīne
þīn
þīna








**First Person Plural Genitive Declension: ūser**



Masculine
Neuter
Feminine


Nom.
ūser
ūser
ūser


Gen.
ūseres
ūseres
ūserre


Dat.
ūserum
ūserum
ūserre


Inst.
ūsere
ūsere
ūserre


Acc.
ūserne
ūser
ūsere







**First Person Plural Genitive Declension: ūser**



Masculine
Neuter
Feminine


Nom.
ūsere
ūser
ūsera


Gen.
ūserra
ūserra
ūserra


Dat.
ūserum
ūserum
ūserum


Inst.
ūserum
ūserum
ūserum


Acc.
ūsere
ūser
ūsera






### Nouns

The following tables show the most common noun declensions for the three genders (~68% masculine, ~73% feminine, ~91% neuter).






**The Strong Masculine Noun Declension**



Article
Singular
Article
Plural


Nom.
se
-
þā
-as


Gen.
þæs
-es
þāra
-a


Dat.
þǣm
-e
þǣm
-um


Inst.
þȳ/þon
-e
þǣm
-um


Acc.
þone
-
þā
-as







**The Weak Masculine Noun Declension**



Article
Singular
Article
Plural


Nom.
se
-a
þā
-an


Gen.
þæs
-an
þāra
-ena


Dat.
þǣm
-an
þǣm
-um


Inst.
þȳ/þon
-an
þǣm
-um


Acc.
þone
-an
þā
-an








**The Strong Feminine Noun Declension**



Article
Singular
Article
Plural


Nom.
sēo
-/-u
þā
-a


Gen.
þǣre
-e
þāra
-a


Dat.
þǣre
-e
þǣm
-um


Inst.
þǣre
-e
þǣm
-um


Acc.
þā
-e
þā
-a







**The Weak Feminine Noun Declension**



Article
Singular
Article
Plural


Nom.
sēo
-e
þā
-an


Gen.
þǣre
-an
þāra
-ena


Dat.
þǣre
-an
þǣm
-um


Inst.
þǣre
-an
þǣm
-um


Acc.
þā
-an
þā
-an








**The Strong Neuter Noun Declension**



Article
Singular
Article
Plural


Nom.
þæt
-
-/-u
-/-u


Gen.
þæs
-es
þāra
-a


Dat.
þǣm
-e
þǣm
-um


Inst.
þȳ/þon
-e
þǣm
-um


Acc.
þæt
-
þā
-/-u







**The Weak Neuter Noun Declension**



Article
Singular
Article
Plural


Nom.
þæt
-e
þā
-an


Gen.
þæs
-an
þāra
-ena


Dat.
þǣm
-an
þǣm
-um


Inst.
þȳ/þon
-an
þǣm
-um


Acc.
þæt
-e
þā
-an





#### Masculine Nouns

##### Strong Masculine





**Strong Masculine Noun: stān**



Article
Singular
Article
Plural


Nom.
se
stān
þā
stānas


Gen.
þæs
stānes
þāra
stāna


Dat.
þǣm
stāne
þǣm
stānum


Inst.
þȳ/þon
stāne
þǣm
stānum


Acc.
þone
stān
þā
stānas






This declension has about 63.8% of all masculine nouns.  Since this declension was so common, it became the basis for the modern English plural -(e)s ending.  One-syllable nouns, like stān, gang, and ǣl all decline alike.  Nouns ending in a double consonant, like bucc, hnæpp, and cropp, also decline like stān.  The first irregularity comes with nouns like dæg, which have the letter 'æ' followed by one consonant.  The 'æ' becomes 'a' in the plural.






**Strong Masculine Noun: dæg**



Article
Singular
Article
Plural


Nom.
se
dæg
þā
dagas


Gen.
þæs
dæges
þāra
daga


Dat.
þǣm
dæge
þǣm
dagum


Inst.
þȳ/þon
dæge
þǣm
dagum


Acc.
þone
dæg
þā
dagas






Nouns like **dæg** include: pæþ, stæf, hƿæl, etc.  One noun, mǣg, has both māgas and mǣgas for plural.

Nouns like mearh are also a litle different from stān.  They drop the -h before endings, and lengthen the vowel.






**Strong Masculine Noun: mearh**



Article
Singular
Article
Plural


Nom.
se
mearh
þā
mēaras


Gen.
þæs
mēares
þāra
mēara


Dat.
þǣm
mēare
þǣm
mēarum


Inst.
þȳ/þon
mēare
þǣm
mēarum


Acc.
þone
mearh
þā
mēaras






Nouns like **mearh** include: ealh, eolh, fearh, healh, sealh, seolh, ƿealh, etc.  The word scōh simply adds endings, since it already has a long vowel:






**Strong Masculine Noun: scōh**



Article
Singular
Article
Plural


Nom.
se
scōh
þā
scōs


Gen.
þæs
scōs
þāra
scōna


Dat.
þǣm
scō
þǣm
scōm, scōum


Inst.
þȳ/þon
scō
þǣm
scōm, scōum


Acc.
þone
scōh
þā
scōs






##### Weak Masculine

Note that all weak masculine nouns have the letter a as an ending in the nominative singular (making weak masculine nouns *very* easy to detect), which is a suffix which is often the equivalent in meaning to the Modern English suffix -er.

Note that some masculine nouns ending in a long ā are weak (e.g. rā "roebuck), but not all.
 





**Weak Masculine Noun: Nama - Name**



Article
Singular
Article
Plural


Nom.
se
nam**a**
þā
nam**an**


Gen.
þæs
nam**an**
þāra
nam**ena**


Dat.
þǣm
nam**an**
þǣm
nam**um**


Inst.
þȳ/þon
nam**an**
þǣm
nam**um**


Acc.
þone
nam**an**
þā
nam**an**






#### Neuter Nouns

Neuter nouns are much the same as masculine nous in declension, and, if you have already learnt the masculine noun declensions, these should be no problem. 

##### Strong Neuter

Here's where your knowledge of long-stemmed and short-stemmed syllables comes in handy.

Short-stemmed monosyllables and long-stemmed disyllables take these endings:






**Strong Neuter Noun: Scip - Ship**



Article
Singular
Article
Plural


Nom.
þæt
scip
þā
scip**u**


Gen.
þæs
scip**es**
þāra
scip**a**


Dat.
þǣm
scip**e**
þǣm
scip**um**


Inst.
þȳ/þon
scip**e**
þǣm
scipum


Acc.
þæt
scip
þā
scip**u**






And long-stemmed monosyllabes/short-stemmed disyllables take these endings:






**Strong Neuter Noun: Hūs - House**



Article
Singular
Article
Plural


Nom.
þæt
hūs
þā
hūs


Gen.
þæs
hūs**es**
þāra
hūs**a**


Dat.
þǣm
hūs**e**
þǣm
hūs**um**


Inst.
þȳ/þon
hūs**e**
þǣm
hūs**um**


Acc.
þæt
hūs
þā
hūs






Note that the only difference between the two declensions is that u is in the neuter plural for short-stemmed monosyllables and long-stemmed disyllables; but in long-stemmed disyllables and short-stemmed mono-syllables, the u is not there.

All of the rules for the masculine strong sub-declensions occur (e.g. æ in singular and a in plural; h after a vowel is lost before declension suffixes, and the vowel is lengthened; and h after a consonant is lost, and the first stem-vowel is lengthened) in the neuter strong declension, too.

##### Weak Neuter

Weak neuter nouns are almost exactly the same as weak masculine nouns in declension, but singular nominative and accusative has -e instead of -a and -an.






**Weak Neuter Noun: Ēare - Ear**



Article
Singular
Article
Plural


Nom.
þæt
ēar**e**
þā
ēar**an**


Gen.
þæs
ēaran**an**
þāra
ēar**ena**


Dat.
þǣm
ēar**an**
þǣm
ēar**um**


Inst.
þȳ/þon
ēar**an**
þǣm
ēar**um**


Acc.
þæt
ēar**e**
þā
ēar**an**






There is only one other noun belonging to this declension: ēage - eye.

#### Case Usage
##### General Notes
A noun's case tells what it is doing in a sentence.  And when there is an appositive phrase, it matches the noun to which it refers. E.g., "I gave it to John, the new president - Ic geaf hit Iohanne, þǣm nīƿan foresittende."  John and "the new president" are both in the dative case.

##### Nominative
Subject of a sentence, or the object of copula verbs (bēon, ƿesan, ƿeorðan).  This is the dictionary form of a noun.

##### Genitive
Case of possession, and the object of some prepositions and adjectives.  This tells *whose* thing a specific thing is.  E.g., "cyninges þorp" - "king's village."

##### Dative
Case of giving, telling to/for whom something is done, the benificiary of some action.  E.g., Ic geaf him þæt - I gave him that.  It is also the case of many prepositions.

##### Instrumental
Case telling "by what means" something is done.  It is inflected in nouns like the dative, but with an adjective describing the noun, the difference is made clearer (or with an article - þȳ or þon).  E.g., þȳ hamore slōg hē þone cyning - with the hammer he hit the king.

##### Accusative
Direct Object of a sentence, and the object of some prepositions (ƿiþ, etc.).  It is uninflected in masculine/neuter nouns, but has an -e ending with most feminine nouns.

It is also used to show duration of length or time, e.g. "I ran a mile," "I waited an hour," "I'll be running the whole length of the school," etc.

### Adjectives

These are those words that come before a noun, describing what kind of noun it is.  There are two ways to decline an adjective, either strong or weak.  A Strong adjective is that which stands alone, preceded by no article or possessive.  A Weak adjective is that which is preceded by se/sēo/þæt, mīn/þīn, etc.

*NOTE: eall, genōg, manig, and ōðer are always declined strong.  You may find "Se ōðer mann" instead of *"Se ōðera mann."

#### One-Syllable Adjectives





**Strong Adjective Singular Declension: glæd**



Masculine
Neuter
Feminine


Nom.
glæd
glæd
gladu


Gen.
glades
glades
glædre


Dat.
gladum
gladum
glædre


Inst.
glade
glade
glædre


Acc.
glædne
glæd
glade







**Strong Plural Adjective Declension: glæd**



Masculine
Neuter
Feminine


Nom.
glade
gladu
glada


Gen.
glædra
glædra
glædra


Dat.
gladum
gladum
gladum


Inst.
gladum
gladum
gladum


Acc.
glade
gladu
glada








**Strong Adjective Singular Declension: blind**



Masculine
Neuter
Feminine


Nom.
blind
blind
blind


Gen.
blindes
blindes
blindre


Dat.
blindum
blindum
blindre


Inst.
blinde
blinde
blindre


Acc.
blindne
blind
blinde







**Strong Adjective Plural Declension: blind**



Masculine
Neuter
Feminine


Nom.
blinde
blind
blinda


Gen.
blindra
blindra
blindra


Dat.
blindum
blindum
blindum


Inst.
blindum
blindum
blindum


Acc.
blinde
blind
blinda








**Strong Adjective Singular Declension: hēah**



Masculine
Neuter
Feminine


Nom.
hēah
hēah
hēa


Gen.
hēas
hēas
hēare


Dat.
hēa(u)m
hēa(u)m
hēare


Inst.
hēa
hēa
hēare


Acc.
hēane
hēah
hēa







**Strong Plural Adjective Declension: hēah**



Masculine
Neuter
Feminine


Nom.
hēa
hēa
hēa


Gen.
hēara
hēara
hēara


Dat.
hēa(u)m
hēa(u)m
hēa(u)m


Inst.
hēa(u)m
hēa(u)m
hēa(u)m


Acc.
hēa
hēa
hēa






##### Variations in Declension
#Adjectives like glæd, have æ followed by one consonant, and change the æ to a with endings beginning in a vowel (-es, -u, etc.).  Also declined like glæd are all adjectives ending in -lic and -sum.
#Adjectives like blind, have a short vowel followed by two consonants (sƿift, scearp), or a long vowel followed by one consonant (ƿāc, frōd).  Also declined like blind are all adjectives ending in -cund, -feald, -fæst, and -lēas.  The possessives mīn, þīn, sīn, ūser, uncer, ēoƿer, incer are declined like blind also.
#Adjectives like hēah, ending in -h, drop the -h before any ending beginning in a vowel, and drop that vowel.  Thus, where glæd has gladu, glades, hēah will have hēa, hēas.

#### Two-Syllable Adjectives






**Strong Adjective Singular Declension: manig**



Masculine
Neuter
Feminine


Nom.
manig
manig
manig


Gen.
maniges
maniges
manigre


Dat.
manigum
manigum
manigre


Inst.
manige
manige
manigre


Acc.
manigne
manig
manige







**Strong Plural Adjective Declension: manig**



Masculine
Neuter
Feminine


Nom.
manige
manig
maniga


Gen.
manigra
manigra
manigra


Dat.
manigum
manigum
manigum


Inst.
manigum
manigum
manigum


Acc.
manige
manig
maniga








**Strong Adjective Singular Declension: hālig**



Masculine
Neuter
Feminine


Nom.
hālig
hālig
hāligu


Gen.
hālges
hālges
hāligre


Dat.
hālgum
hālgum
hāligre


Inst.
hālge
hālge
hāligre


Acc.
hāligne
blind
hālge







**Strong Adjective Plural Declension: hālig**



Masculine
Neuter
Feminine


Nom.
hālge
hālig
hālga


Gen.
hāligra
hāligra
hāligra


Dat.
hālgum
hālgum
hālgum


Inst.
hālgum
hālgum
hālgum


Acc.
hālge
hālig
hālga








**Strong Adjective Singular Declension: ƿilde**



Masculine
Neuter
Feminine


Nom.
ƿilde
ƿilde
ƿildu


Gen.
ƿildes
ƿildes
ƿildre


Dat.
ƿildum
ƿildum
ƿildre


Inst.
ƿilde
ƿilde
ƿildre


Acc.
ƿildne
ƿilde
ƿilde







**Strong Plural Adjective Declension: ƿilde**



Masculine
Neuter
Feminine


Nom.
ƿilde
ƿildu
ƿilda


Gen.
ƿildra
ƿildra
ƿildra


Dat.
ƿildum
ƿildum
ƿildum


Inst.
ƿildum
ƿildum
ƿildum


Acc.
ƿilde
ƿildu
ƿilda






##### Variations in Declension

#Adjectives like manig, with a short stem (one short vowel and one consonant, plus an ending with one short vowel and one consonant, -ig, -od, -en, -or, -ol, -oþ, -er), simply add the endings to the adjective, but never add the -u ending.
#Adjectives like hālig, with a long stem (one short vowel and two consonants, or a long vowel with one consonant, plus an ending with one short vowel and one consonant, -ig, -od, -en, -or, -ol, -oþ, -er), will syncopate the second stem vowel (hālges, ēacne, hǣðna) in endings beginning with vowels.  These adjectives will always add the -u ending (but won't syncopate in that case).
#Adjectives ending in -e, such as ƿilde, will always have the *u*-ending in the feminine singular and neuter plural.  They simply drop the -e, and add endings as necessary.

#### U-Ending and Weak Adjectives






**Strong Adjective Singular Declension: gearu**



Masculine
Neuter
Feminine


Nom.
gearu
gearu
gearu


Gen.
gearƿes
gearƿes
gearore


Dat.
gearƿum
gearƿum
gearore


Inst.
gearƿe
gearƿe
gearore


Acc.
gearone
gearu
gearƿe







**Strong Plural Adjective Declension: gearu**



Masculine
Neuter
Feminine


Nom.
gearƿe
gearu
gearƿa


Gen.
gearora
gearora
gearora


Dat.
gearƿum
gearƿum
gearƿum


Inst.
gearƿum
gearƿum
gearƿum


Acc.
gearƿe
gearu
gearƿa








**Weak Adjective Singular Declension: blind**



Masculine
Neuter
Feminine


Nom.
blinda
blinde
blinde


Gen.
blindan
blindan
blindan


Dat.
blindan
blindan
blindan


Inst.
blindan
blindan
blindan


Acc.
blindan
blinde
blindan







**Weak Plural Adjective Declension: blind**



Masculine
Neuter
Feminine


Nom.
blindan
blindan
blindan


Gen.
blindra
blindra
blindra


Dat.
blindum
blindum
blindum


Inst.
blindum
blindum
blindum


Acc.
blindan
blindan
blindan






Weak Declension with definite article and possessive pronoun:







**Weak Adjective Singular Declension: blind**



Masculine
Neuter
Feminine


Nom.
se blinda
þæt blinde
sēo blinde


Gen.
þæs blindan
þæs blindan
þǣre blindan


Dat.
þǣm blindan
þǣm blindan
þǣre blindan


Inst.
þȳ blindan
þȳ blindan
þǣre blindan


Acc.
þone blindan
þæt blinde
þā blindan







**Strong Plural Adjective Declension: blind**



Masculine
Neuter
Feminine


Nom.
þā blindan
þā blindan
þā blindan


Gen.
þāra blindra
þāra blindra
þāra blindra


Dat.
þǣm blindum
þǣm blindum
þǣm blindum


Inst.
þǣm blindum
þǣm blindum
þǣm blindum


Acc.
þā blindan
þā blindan
þā blindan









**Weak Adjective Singular Declension: blind**



Masculine
Neuter
Feminine


Nom.
mīn blinda
mīn blinde
mīn blinde


Gen.
mīnes blindan
mīnes blindan
mīnre blindan


Dat.
mīnum blindan
mīnum blindan
mīnre blindan


Inst.
mīne blindan
mīne blindan
mīnre blindan


Acc.
mīnne blindan
mīn blinde
mīne blindan







**Strong Plural Adjective Declension: blind**



Masculine
Neuter
Feminine


Nom.
mīne blindan
mīn blindan
mīna blindan


Gen.
mīnra blindra
mīnra blindra
mīnra blindra


Dat.
mīnum blindum
mīnum blindum
mīnum blindum


Inst.
mīnum blindum
mīnum blindum
mīnum blindum


Acc.
mīne blindan
mīn blindan
mīna blindan






##### Variations in Declension
#Adjectives ending in -u change it to -o- before -re, -ra, -ne.  The -u changes to -ƿ- before endings beginning with a vowel.
#Adjectives occur in the weak declension after se, sēo, þæt, þes, þēos, þis, mīn, þīn, sīn, etc.
#Adjectives like glæd will have -a- throughout the weak declension.

### Numbers

We did not have Arabic numbers (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0) in Old English.  Rather, they used Roman numerals (i, v, x, c, d, m...).  For the purposes of this website, it is requested that all pages use Arabic numerals for ease of reading.

#### Cardinal Numbers

The cardinal numbers are: 

# ān; forma
# tƿēgen, tƿā, tū; ōðer
# þrīe, þrēo; þridda
# fēoƿer; fēorða
# fīf; fīfta
# six; sixta
# seofon; seofoða
# eahta; eahtoða
# nigon; nigoða
# tīene; tēoða
# endleofan; endleofta
# tƿelf; tƿelfta
# þrēotīene; þrēotēoða
# fēoƿertīene; fēoƿertēoða
# fīftīene; fīftēoða
# sixtīene; sixtēoða
# seofontīene; seofontēoða
# eahtatīene; eahtatēoða
# nigontīene; nigontēoða
# tƿentig; tƿentigoða
# ān and tƿentig; ān and tƿentigoða
:30. þrītig; þrītigoða
:40. fēoƿertig; fēoƿertigoða
:50. fīftig; fīftigoða
:60. sixtig; sixtigoða
:70. hundseofontig; hundseofontigoða
:80. hundeahtatig; hundeahtatigoða
:90. hundnigontig; hundnigontigoða
:100. hund, hundred, hundtēontig; hundtēontigoða
:110. hundendleofantig; hundendleofantigoða
:120. hundtƿelftig; hundtƿelftigoða
:200. tū hund
:300. þrēo hund
:1000. þūsend

Simply use the Arabic numbers when writing a number.  In regards to declension, only the numbers 1, 2, and 3 decline with the noun.  The others do not decline except when acting as a noun themselves (mid 4 manna, but mid fēoƿerum).

##### Usage with nouns
*Numbers 1, 2, 3 decline with the noun, just like any other adjective (in þrim dagum).
*Numbers 4 - 12 simply precede the noun, just like modern English (fēoƿer þegnas, seofon mōnþas).
*Decades (20, 30,...90) take a noun in the genitive, or in agreement (fīftig manna, on fēoƿertigum gēarum).

#### Declension of 1, 2, 3 in Old English

*Note that the numeral 1 could decline strong or weak, and in the weak declension, could be plural.






**Strong Singular Declension of Numeral: One**



Masculine
Neuter
Feminine


Nom.
ān
ān
ān


Gen.
ānes
ānes
ānre


Dat.
ānum
ānum
ānre


Inst.
āne
āne
ānre


Acc.
ǣnne
ān
āne







**Weak Plural Declension of Numeral: ān**



Masculine
Neuter
Feminine


Nom.
ānan
ānan
ānan


Gen.
ānra
ānra
ānra


Dat.
ānum
ānum
ānum


Inst.
ānum
ānum
ānum


Acc.
ānan
ānan
ānan








**Declension of Numeral: 2**



Masculine
Neuter
Feminine


Nom.
tƿēgen
tū
tƿā


Gen.
tƿēga
tƿēga
tƿēga


Dat.
tƿǣm
tƿǣm
tƿǣm


Inst.
tƿǣm
tƿǣm
tƿǣm


Acc.
tƿēgen
tū
tƿā








**Declension of Numeral: 3**



Masculine
Neuter
Feminine


Nom.
þrīe
þrēo
þrēo


Gen.
þrēora
þrēora
þrēora


Dat.
þrim
þrim
þrim


Inst.
þrim
þrim
þrim


Acc.
þrīe
þrēo
þrēo






#### Ordinal Numbers

For ordinal numbers, simply write the number and the declension afterwards: se 6a mann, þǣm 3an mann, etc.

The ordinal numbers, for the purposes of the wiki, are: 

forma, ōðer, þridda, fēorþa, fīfta, sixta, seofoða, eahtoða, nigoða, tēoða, endleofoða, tƿelfta, þrēotēoða (fēoƿer~, etc.), tƿentigoða (þrītigoða, etc.), hundtēontigoða (100th), hundendleofontigoða (110th), hundtƿelftigoða (120th).

## Sentence Construction

### Main Clauses

Typically, sentences have normal modern word order (called SVO, subject-verb-object).  The exception is with pronoun objects, which are typically placed before the verb.
:#Ic hine geseah - I saw him.
:#Hīe mē gēafon þæt hūs - they gave me the house.

#### Verb Agreement
Verbs agree with their subject in number and person.
:#Ic hine geseah (singular, 1st person)
:# Ƿē tȳdon þā leorneras (plural, 1st person)

### Subordinate Clauses
Subordinate clauses are introduced with þe, or sē (sēo, þæt) with/without þe.
#Þonne is ān port on sūðeƿeardum þǣm lande, þone man hǣteþ Sciringes heal - *Then is one port in the south of that country, which is called Skringssalr.* (þone is a relative pronoun, referring to "se port", and taking the accusative case, which is the correct case in the clause).

The type of relative pronoun "sē þe," "sēo þe," and "þæt þe" are more common when the antecedent has no demonstrative/qualifier.
# þæt þu onfō his gelēafan and his bebodu healde, **sē þe** þē fram ƿilƿendlicum earfeðum generede - *that thou may receive the trust of the one who has saved thee from earthly hardships, and obey his commands.*

### Complex Sentences

#### Verbs with þæt-complements
*The verbs forbeodan *forbid*, forberan *refrain from*, gesƿīcan *stop*, ƿiþcƿeðan *deny, refuse*, and several others, take a þæt-clause as objects.
#...and forbead þæt hine man God hēte - *and forbade anyone to call him God* (literally, "and forbade that one called him God").
#and forbead þæt man nā þǣr eft ne timbrode - *and forbade anyone to build there afterward* (literally, "and forbade that one never there after not built").
*Also, verbs like tƿēonan *doubt*, tƿēo bēon *to be in doubt*
#...forþon nis nān tƿēo, þæt hē forgifnesse sellan nelle, þǣm þe hīe geearnian ƿillaþ - *...therefore there is no doubt that he will give forgiveness to those who want to earn it.* (literally, "therefore is not no doubt that he will not give forgiveness, to them that want to earn it").

### Questions
Questions are formed in 2 ways: with verb-subject word order, or with question words.

#### Method 1: Verb-subject order
*Simply place the verb first, then the subject.  This is one of the ways we ask questions in modern English.
*Example: hæfst þu ænigne geferan? (Hast thou any companion?)

#### Method 2: Question Words
*Hƿæt, hƿā, hƿǣr, hƿilc, hū, hū fela, etc.
#Hƿā eart þu? *Who are you?*
*Using hƿæðer-subject-verb is used to express doubt or incredulity, or even when expecting the answer 'no.'  The verb is most often in the subjunctive, but may be indicative with impersonal verbs.
#Example: hƿæðer gē nū sēcen gold of trēoƿum? (Surely you aren't looking for gold in trees?, Are you looking for gold in trees?, literally, "whether ye may seek gold in trees?").
#Example: hƿæðer Rōmāne hit ƿiten nū ænigum menn tō secgenne, hƿæt hiera folces forƿurde? (Do the Romans now know enough to say how many of their people perished?, Surely the Romans know enough now to say how many of their people perished?)