Title: Hydrates in aqueous solution
Description: CONTENTS.    PAGE. 

INTRODUCTION 1 

Work of Chambers 1 

Work of Chambers and Frazer 3 

Earlier Work of Getman 

Freezing-point Apparatus 4 

Conductivity Apparatus 5 

Solutions 7 

Freezing-point Method 7 

Conductivity Method 8 

Boiling-point Method 8 

Refractivity Method 8 

Substances Employed in Earlier Work 9 

Results Obtained in Earlier Work 9 

Conclusions from the Earlier Work 14 

WORK OF GETMAN AND BASSETT 10 

EVIDENCE FOR THE EXISTENCE or HYDRATES 17 

Effect of Temperature on Water of Crystallization as Bearing on the 

Theory of Hydrates in Solution 17 

Relation between Water of Crystallization and Lowering of Freezing- 
point 20 

Experimental Work 26 

CALCULATION OF THE APPROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF THE HYDRATES 28 

The Results 28 

COMPOUNDS THAT HAVE BEEN STUDIED 30 

Lithium Chloride 30 

Lithium Bromide 31 

Lithium Iodide 32 

Lithium Nitrate 32 

Sodium Chloride 33 

Sodium Bromide 34 

Sodium Iodide 35 

Sodium Nitrate 36 

Sodium Sulphate 36 

Sodium Carbonate 37 

Sodium Chromate 37 

Sodium Bichromate 38 

Sodium Phosphate 39 

Sodium Ammonium Acid Phosphate 40 

Sodium Acetate 41 

Sodium Hydroxide 41 

Potassium Chloride 42 

Potassium Bromide 43 

Potassium Iodide 43 

Potassium Nitrate 44 

Potassium Sulphate 44 

Potassium Dihydrogen Phosphate 45 

V 



VI CONTENTS. 

PAGE. 

WORK OF GETiMAN AND BASSET! Continued. 

COMPOUNDS THAT HAVE BEEN STUDIED Continued. 

Potassium Carbonate 45 

Potassium Ferricyanide 46 

Dissociation of Potassium Ferricyanide 46 

Potassium Ferrocyanide 46 

Dissociation of Potassium Ferrocyanide 47 

Potassium Hydroxide 48 

Potassium Cupric Chloride 49 

Ammonium Chloride 50 

Ammonium Nitrate 51 

Ammonium Sulphate 51 

Ammonium Cupric Chloride 52 

Ammonium Hydroxide 53 

Calcium Chloride 54 

Calcium Bromide 55 

Calcium Iodide 57 

Calcium Nitrate 58 

Strontium Chloride .* 58 

Strontium Bromide 59 

Strontium Iodide 60 

Strontium Nitrate 61 

Barium Chloride 62 

Barium Bromide 63 

Barium Iodide 64 

Magnesium Chloride 65 

Magnesium Bromide 67 

Magnesium Nitrate 08 

Magnesium Sulphate 69 

Zinc Chloride 70 

Zinc Nitrate 70 

Zinc Sulphate 71 

Cadmium Chloride 72 

Cadmium Bromide 72 

Cadmium Iodide 72 

Cadmium Nitrate 72 

Cadmium Sulphate 73 

Manganese Chloride 73 

Manganese Nitrate 75 

Manganese Sulphate 76 

Nickel Chloride 76 

Nickel Nitrate 78 

Nickel Sulphate 79 

Cobalt Chloride 80 

Cobalt Nitrate 82 

Cobalt Sulphate 83 

Copper Chloride 84 

Copper Nitrate 85 

Copper Sulphate 86 



CONTENTS. VH 

P^GE. 
WORK OP GETMAN AND BASSETT Continued. 

COMPOUNDS THAT HAVE BEEN STUDIED Continued. 

Aluminium Chloride 87 

Aluminium Nitrate 88 

Aluminium Sulphate 88 

Chromium Chloride 89 

Chromium Nitrate 90 

Ferric Chloride 91 

Ferric Nitrate 92 

Hydrochloric Acid 93 

Hydrobromic Acid 94 

Nitric Acid 90 

Sulphuric Acid 97 

Chromic Acid 98 

Phosphoric Acid 100 

Methyl Alcohol 101 

Ethyl Alcohol 102 

N-Propyl Alcohol 103 

Acetone 104 

Acetamide 104 

Urea 105 

Chloral Hydrate 105 

Glycerol 106 

Glucose 107 

Fructose 107 

Mannite 108 

Lactose 109 

Cane-Sugar 109 

Organic Acids 110 

Acetic Acid 110 

Oxalic Acid 112 

Succinic Acid 113 

Tartaric Acid 114 

Citric Acid 115 

Freezing-point Curves . . .Hi'., 117, 119, 120, 121, 122, 124, 125, 127, 128, 133, 134 

Conductivity Curves 117,118,119,120.121.123,124,125,127,129 

Refractivity Curves 118. 122. 123, 125, 126, 128, 129 

Hydrate Curves 130,131,132,134 

DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS 135 

General Relations 142 

Nature of the Compounds formed 143 

Do Ions or Molecules Form Hydrates? 143 

The Old and the New Hydrate Theory 143 

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 144 

THE FORMATION OF ALCOHOLATES BY CERTAIN SALTS IN SOLUTION IN METHYL AND 

ETHYL ALCOHOLS WORK OF MCMASTER 147 

Results with Methyl Alcohol 149 

Results with Ethyl Alcohol 150 



VIII CONTENTS. 

PAGE. 

THE FORMATION OF ALCOHOLATES BY CERTAIN SALTS IN SOLUTION IN METHYL AND 

ETHYL ALCOHOLS WORK OF MCMASTER Continued. 

THE BEARING OF HYDRATES ON THE TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENTS OF CONDUC- 
TIVITY OF AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS 153 

SPECTROSCOPIC INVESTIGATIONS WORK OF UHLER 160 

AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS 161 

The Spectrograph 169 

The Spectroscope 170 

The Cells 171 

Freezing-point Apparatus 177 

Conductivity Apparatus 177 

Photographic Material 178 

Sources of Light 179 

Exposures and Spectrograms 180 

Plates 182 

Wave-lengths of Reference Lines 185 

Experimental Facts and Data 186 

Solutions 186 

Cobalt Chloride 187 

Cupric Chloride 190 

Cupric Bromide 1 92 

Cobalt Chloride and Calcium Chloride 194 

Cobalt Chloride and Calcium Bromide 200 

Cobalt Chloride and Aluminium Chloride 205 

Copper Chloride and Calcium Chloride 213 

Copper Chloride and Calcium Bromide 215 

Copper Chloride and Aluminium Chloride 221 

Copper Bromide and Calcium Chloride 224 

Copper Bromide and Calcium Bromide 226 

Copper Bromide and Aluminium Chloride 230 

General Summary of Results 232 

Discussion of the Several Theories 232 

NON-AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS 241 

Apparatus 241 

Solutions 244 

Cobalt Chloride in Methyl Alcohol 244 

Cobalt Chloride in Ethyl Alcohol 245 

Cobalt Chloride in Acetone 247 

Copper Chloride in Methyl Alcohol 251 

Copper Chloride in Ethyl Alcohol 252 

Copper Chloride in Acetone 253 

Copper Bromide in Methyl Alcohol 255 

Copper Bromide in Ethyl Alcohol 256 

CONCLUSIONS 259 

REFERENCES TO PAPERS ALREADY PUBLISHED ON THIS SAME SUBJECT 260 

INDEX .. 261
Subjects: Solution (Chemistry), Hydrates, Absorption spectra