Title: American/Muslims
Description: This study examines the ways in which members of the American Muslim population have been affected by the terrorist attacks of 9/11 and the events that have ensued. Specifically, it examines how increased suspicion as well as heightened prejudice and discrimination have impacted patterns of self-identification and attitudes regarding civic and political engagement among members of the Sunni Muslim immigrant population. The findings from this research and an analysis of the historical analogues are used to critically engage the theory of reactive identity formation. The research draws on two primary sets of data. The first consists of 48 focus groups conducted by the Muslims in New York City Research Project at Columbia University in 2000 and 2003. The second consists of 91 one-on-one interviews conducted between 2001 and 2005. I find that while most American Muslims have not experienced discrimination since 9/11, a clear majority perceive a marked increase in anti-Islamic prejudice. A majority also strongly oppose the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq as well as the War on Terror. The impact of these perceptions and perspectives has been mixed. Despite a surge in solidarity in the months following the attacks, Muslims are no more united today than they were in 2000. However, the boundaries distinguishing them from non-Muslims have become more pronounced and relevant in their daily lives. This--along with increased opposition to American foreign policy--has convinced many Muslims of the need to participate in politics and has created a sense of tension between their American and Muslim identities. Some have responded by distancing themselves from the Muslim community; many more have responded by identifying more strongly with others in their faith community.

These findings, and those from an analysis of the experiences of German and Japanese Americans in the First and Second World Wars, suggest several refinements to the theory of reactive identity formation. Specifically, they suggest that while discrimination and pressure to assimilate can provoke reactive solidarity and identification, they don't always do so, and sometimes have the opposite effect--hastening integration and identificational assimilation. I propose a theoretical framework to explain these variations in observed response patterns.