Title: Contributions of Biotechnology to Agriculture
Description: Approximately 20 years ago, the Food and Agriculture Organization published a paper stating that the amount of food produced worldwide will not be able to provide the constant nutritional needs for the world population by this year (2010) as a staggering 25 percent increase in world population was projected. Although this estimation has not materialised, it has generated a lot of concerns as there has been a 4-fold population increase in the last century (1918 – 2009), which has led to an increase in the number of people who are in need of food assistance. In addition As a result of the massive crop loss caused by insect pests, which at the time were treated with pesticides, which are expensive, there was a need to maintain the productivity yields of crops, which were not given much of a chance as the world population was on the rise. This necessitated the application of biotechnology to crops, which was also necessitated as a result of the massive crop loss caused by insect pests. The application of biotechnology in agricultural techniques opened up the possibility of generating innovative crops that were also more developed, safer, and less expensive. (Brown, 1992)

Agriculture is defined as the activities involved in the production of food crops and the rearing of livestock animals, whereas biotechnology was defined jointly by FAO and WHO (1996) as "the integration of natural sciences and engineering sciences in order to achieve the application of organisms, cells, parts thereof, and molecular analogues for products and services." Agriculture is defined simply as the activities involved in the production of food crops and the rearing of livestock animals. Therefore, Agrobiotechnology techniques, according to Huttner et al, (1995), are implemented to reduce the cost of production of crops and increase food productivity. This is accomplished by increasing food quality and food processing traits, adequate disease or pest resistance, improving environmental stress tolerance, and the control of weeds, which has led to the development of (genetically modified) GM crops in some regions of the world.

Plant breeding techniques have been improved with the use of molecular markers such as RFLP, RAPD, AFLP, SSRP, CAPS, and SSCP. These molecular markers are used for plant's genome mapping as well as to determine plant's phenotypes and select desirable traits for the proper modification of crops depending on the gene of interest that is to be incorporated into several populations of plants or crops generated by crosses. Other molecular markers include SSCP and SSRP. (Mohan et al, 1996)

There is a widespread belief that the biotechnological steps to humans are just one step ahead of those applied to animals, which involves the modification of animals to observe desirable traits. As a result, several biotechnology approaches have also been applied in livestock farming. The primary reason for this is that there is a general belief that the biotechnological steps to humans are just one step ahead of those applied to animals. (Becker and Cowan, 2009)

According to Fernandez-Cornejo (2008), the fundamental contributions of the application of biotechnology to agriculture depend on the acknowledgement of its prospective possible benefits and risks. Nevertheless, the primary focus of this paper will be on the potential contributions of biotechnology to agriculture (both plants and animals), taking into account the benefits as well as the drawbacks of the technology.

Biotechnology Applied to Plants (Crops)
Plant biotechnology innovations were founded on the cell theory as explained by Vasil (2007). Plant biotechnology has undergone amazing increase in the last ten years, the primary focus of which has been on generating crops with desirable features and making crop production more efficient. Plants and crops need to overcome some biotic and abiotic stresses in order to increase their productivity. This requirement led to the introduction of genetically modified (GM) crops approximately 20 years ago, and these crops have been commercialised either with single traitor multiple traits or over the past 10 years. The name "genetically modified" (GM) crops gives the impression that the genes of one crop are taken and transferred to the genes of another crop, or that the genes that are already present in the crop are manipulated in order to achieve the primary goal of altering the characteristics of the crop in question, which may be either the way the crop develops or the way it matures. The features that have been transmitted to biotechnology or genetically modified crops in order to boost their production are going to be discussed in the following paragraph.

Insect and pest resistance – Ferry et al (2005) estimated that 10 to 20 percent of major crops are lost to insects or pests. Crops are genetically modified to be poisonous and harmful to pests that attack the crops; one example of this is the application of Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) genes to grow cotton (in China and South Africa) and corn; this reduces the amount of pesticides used, which in turn increases profits, yields, and the health benefits (Report published by the Nuffield Council on Bioethics in 2004)
Disease resistance – As Raybould and Gray (1993) describe in greater detail, fungal, bacterial, and viral infestations to crops and plants have been suppressed by genetically modifying plants to be disease resistant. For instance, research is currently being conducted to reduce the viral and fungal infections to sweet potatoes and bananas, respectively.
Abiotic stress resistance – Motavalli et al. (2004) discussed the ongoing extensive research to modify crops to be able to survive in unfavourable environmental conditions such as drought, heat, cold, frost, extreme soil conditions and significantly increase food security. For instance, the use of trehalose genes to grow rice in India to protect it from dehydration is one example of how this research is being conducted. [Essay writing services](https://academic-master.com)  of Academic Master is providing help to world wide people in their works for increasing performance. 
Herbicide tolerance is a trait that enables a wide variety of weeds to be controlled by modifying crops to be resistant to the effects of weeds. As a result, the cost of herbicides can be reduced, and effective weed control measures can be taken, as discussed in Sharma et al. (2002) in the growth of soybeans in Argentina. Herbicide tolerance is a trait that enables a wide variety of weeds to be controlled.
Enhanced nutritional value – Plant biotechnologies have made it possible to modify crops so that they contain supplemental nutrients that are lacking in diets. One example of this is the addition of beta-carotene to rice, which increases the amount of vitamin A and helps prevent blindness, which is caused by a lack of vitamin A.
Biopharmaceuticals – According to Sharma et al. (2002), biotechnology applications in plants have been used to produce vaccines and medicines. This has enabled the production and easy distribution of inexpensive vaccines, such as the modification of potatoes to produce bacterial vaccines for E. coli. Biopharmaceuticals are also known as "biopharm."
As illustrated in figure 1, genetically modified crops have gained widespread acceptance not just in industrialised countries but also in developing countries. This is mostly attributable to the benefits that GM crops offer, the majority of which are either economic or environmental in nature. Other economic benefits in regard to the characteristics of genetically modified (GM) crops are further examined, in addition to the fact that plant or crop biotechnology has increased the productivity and yield of crops;

According to the findings of the Nuffield Council on Bioethics (2004), farmers have been able to increase the production of a wide variety of crops by selecting those with improved resistance to biotic (caused by insects, pests, or diseases) and abiotic (caused by drought, frost, or heat) conditions. Because genetically modified (GM) crops are resistant to damage from insects and other pests, farmers need to apply much less insecticide, which brings down the overall cost of producing these crops. Farmers are able to create more revenue as a result of a reduction in the cost of farming and the development of larger yields, both of which lead to a drop in the price of crops and, as a consequence, a reduction in the levels of poverty and malnutrition that exist in the economy. The nutrient levels of GM crops have been enhanced, and as a result, diseases and illnesses can be prevented with a better diet even in developing nations. Because genetically modified crops can maintain a higher level of freshness for an extended period of time

Take tomatoes as an example; their market shelf life can be extended by several means. The capacity of GMO crops to withstand abiotic conditions such as drought has led to an increase in food security, and the more cost-effective production of biopharmaceuticals such as vaccines and other medicines in GM plants has resulted in a significant reduction in the difficulty of vaccine distribution and production, leading to an improvement in the quality of healthcare systems.

According to Gatehouse et al. (1992), Wieczorek (2003), and Gatehouse (2005), one of the environmental benefits of genetically modified (GM) crops is that they require less or no use of pesticides and insecticides, both of which have the potential to be contaminants in the environment (land or water) and could accumulate as residues on foods. As a result, more environmentally friendly pesticides can be used, and in most cases, there is no need to use pesticides The sustainability of natural resources is also increased since there is a reduction in the use of energy or chemicals (pesticides), and natural habitats are preserved so that they can be utilised in a manner that is more effective. Since genetically modified (GM) crops may be cultivated anywhere, regardless of the abiotic circumstances, there is a reduced risk of desertification and soil erosion. Additionally, there has been a reduction in the amount of pressure placed on plants, therefore biodiversity has been preserved.

According to the advantages of biotechnology that were discussed in the previous figure 2, these advantages can only be obtained if the dangers and concerns that make up the drawbacks are researched, realised, and avoided. (Mannion, 1995). As will be shown in the following discussion, the possible dangers posed by applying biotechnology to agricultural crops and plants can be either health-, environment-, or society-related.

It is of great concern that Wieczorek, (2003) discusses the potential risk of introducing toxins and allergens into GM crops while genetic modification technology is underway. There is a potential risk of allergens and toxins being transferred into improved crops. Wieczorek, (2003) also emphasises the concerns raised about the use of molecular markers during gene transfer. There is a potential risk of diseases becoming resistant to clinical antibiotic treatments as a result of transfer of molecular markers during gene The fact that the long-term health implications of consuming genetically modified crops for an extended period of time are unknown raises a significant amount of concern, as Hobbs and Plunkett (1999) pointed out.

Genetic modification of plants could pose a risk of unintentional gene transfer to non-GM crops from GM crops, thereby causing the former to become wild plants and creating ecological instabilities, as discussed by Soregaroli and Wesseler. This is one of the environmental concerns related to the potential risk of GM crops hybridising with related weeds, which could result in superweeds that are more difficult to manage (2003). Wieczorek, (2003) suggests that the release of genetically modified (GM) crops into the environment may pose unanticipated and detrimental effects. This was highlighted by the fatal effects that Bt corn had on the larvae of the monarch butterfly, but the likelihood of this happening is extremely low. Because it is possible for insect pests to become immune to the crop-fortification traits of GM crops, a swift resistance can build up among pest populations. This was something that was feared would happen with Bt crops, and it could happen with GM crops as well. Furthermore, there is a high risk that biological diversity in nature will be negatively impacted as a result of an increase in the reliance on GM crops, which could exacerbate the failure of non-GM crops and put food security at risk.

According to Persley and Siedow (199), a social concern is the inadequate access to seeds of GM crops or food plants that have been patented because these seeds cannot be saved for replanting. Another concern is that GM crops carry a label showing a difference in, as is practised in the United States of America, where Gm crops carry a label showing the difference. Both of these concerns have been raised by Persley and Siedow (199). GM crops and food plants have been referred to as "unnatural" by critics because they are modified by humans and not found in nature as other crops created by God. This has caused an uproar of religious and ethical concerns, as discussed in Knight (2008), while it is feared that these GM plants could someday turn into weeds, adversely affect the natural ecosystem due to direct and indirect impacts on non-targeted plants/crops as described by Azadi and Ho, and adversely affect human health (2009).