IMPACTS OF RURAL ELECTRIFICATION IN RWANDA
Subtitle: A CASE STUDY OF EASTERN PROVINCE  AND SOME SUBURBS
Publisher: Electrical engineer, the Son of a poor millionaire living in the mysterious world, struggling for better standars of living, Detestor of Devoid of understandings
Published: 2015
Place of publication: KIGALI -RWANDA
Language: eng
Format: PaperBack
Number of pages: 51
Table of contents: title: COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY; title: SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING; title: (Nyarugenge Campus); title: P.O. Box: 3900 Kigali, Rwanda.; title: DEPARTMENT; title: OF; title: ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING; title: ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING PROGRAM; title: CERTIFICATE; title: This is to certify that the project work entitled “Impacts of Rural Electrification in Rwanda”is a record of the original bonafide work done by IRAGUHA Jean Marie Vianney(GS20120301) in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of Bachelor of Science Degree in Electrical Engineering of College of Science and Technology under the University of Rwanda during the academic Year 2014-2015.; title: …………………….……..………...                  …………………..………………………..; title: Mr. GASORE Geoffrey                                     Prof. Dr. Eng. NTAGWIRUMUGARA Etienne; title: Project Supervisor                                              Head of Department of EEE; title: Submitted for the final project Examination/evaluation held at School of Engineering (Nyarugenge Campus), College of Science and Technology on ………/June /2015; title: DECLARATION; title: I, IRAGUHA J.M.VIANNEY, hereby declare that this unique research project entitled “Impacts of Rural Electrification in Rwanda” carried out in academic year 2014-2015 in Research Directorate under the supervision and encouragement of Mr. GASORE Geoffrey, is really the special work undertaken by my effort and accentually declared to have never been presented or handled in any other university or higher learning institution for any Academic award.; title: IRAGUHA J.M.Vianney; title: Signature………………………; title: Date: June 23, 2015; title: DEDICATION; title: Sincerely speaking, this research project is extremely dedicated first and foremost to whoever made me who and what I am at this moment regardless of all boring circumstances from earlier in primary school’s childhood to current status in Higher Learning Institution (HLI) and in my particular nomination, my project is obviously dedicated to:; title: 	Almighty GOD; title: 	My Parents; title: 	 my beloved Brothers  & Sisters; title: 	 My extended family; title: 	My Friends; title: 	All UR-CST members; title: 	All REG/EUCL staff; title: 	My Classmates at large; title: ACKNOWLEDGEMENT; title: To begin with acknowledging of whoever contributed me anyhow in the accomplishment of my research project, my Almighty heavenly Father, GOD comes first in my precision and thereafter both charming nuclear family  particularly My beloved Mother and Father, N. Eppy, N. Joselyne, MPAMIJINGABO Bosco, NEZA Sharon, MUKASIYASA Olivah, N. Grace, RWIBUTSO Emmy, KAMUGISHA System, NKURUNZIZA Bonny and my relatives  B.J.Pierre, N. Odeth, TUMUSIIME Tom and his absolute family members for their relentless moral, financial and spiritual support.; title: My sincere appreciation drives first and foremost to UR-CST administration particularly Mr. GASORE Geoffrey for the useful materials delivered to me to realize my real-world training and figure out responsibly.; title: Behold, I am gratified to the Ministry of Infrastructure in Rwanda (MININFRA)’s staff that assisted me to acquire and accomplish my project through the data collection allowance. My thanks are also oriented to REG/EUCL and EARP for allowing me to collect data and have access to use some information relating to the project.; title: I cannot dash without dedicating  my Research project work to My beloved classmates at large for their sacrificial support whether tangible or intangible ones,  just know that what you did for me was vital and made me more brightened towards a bright future.; title: To end, I too thoughtfully accent recognition and sensitive gratitude to my parents, brothers and sisters, friends, relatives and colleagues for their assistance and encouragements during my internship.; title: May all stay in our heavenly Father, GOD’s great protection and wish you to regain what you reciprocally did for me sevenfold!; title: ABSTRACT; title: The research project was carried out to study and find out the role and impacts of rural electrification in Rwanda. Different data were collected and carefully studied so as to level the standard, usefulness, merits and impacts of the electrified rural areas. In this research project whose title is the Impacts of rural electrification in Rwanda, different aspects were taken into account basing on the records and data obtained from the concerned regions particularly those found in eastern province of Rwanda.; title: Lack of access to electricity is one of the major impediments to growth and development of the rural economies in developing sectors. That is why access to modern energy, in particular to electricity, has been one of the priority themes of the World Bank and other development organizations. Based on rigorous econometric estimation techniques, this study finds that grid electrification has significant positive impacts on households' income, expenditure, and educational outcomes. Benefits go up steadily as household exposure to grid electrification (measured by duration) increases and eventually reach a plateau. Finally, estimates also show that income benefits of electrification on an average exceed cost by a wide margin.; title: TABLE OF CONTENTS; title: CERTIFICATE	i; title: DECLARATION	ii; title: DEDICATION	iii; title: ACKNOWLEDGEMENT	iv; title: ABSTRACT	v; title: TABLE OF CONTENTS	vi; title: LIST OF FIGURES	ix; title: LIST OF TABLES	x; title: LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS/ ACRONYMS USED	xi; title: PROJECT TITLE: IMPACTS OF RURAL ELECTRIFICATION IN RWANDA	1; title: CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION	1; title: 1.1. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY	1; title: 1.2. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM	2; title: 1.3. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY	2; title: 1.3.1. Main Objective	2; title: 1.3.2. Specific objective	3; title: 1.4. RESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESIS	3; title: 1.4.1. Research Question	3; title: 1.4.2. Theoretical impacts of household rural electrification	3; title: 1.5. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY	4; title: 1.6. SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THESTUDY	4; title: 1.7. DEFINITIONS OF TERMINOLOGIES	4; title: CHAPTER TWO:  LITERATURE REVIEW	5; title: 2.0. IMPACTS OF RURAL ELECTRIFICATION	5; title: 2.1. IMPACTS OF SOLAR HOME SYSTEM (SHS)	5; title: 2.1.1. Environmental impacts	5; title: 2.1.2. Social impacts	5; title: 2.1.3. Cumulative impacts	5; title: 2.2. SOLAR PHOTO-VOLTAIC AS AN ATTRACTIVE TECHNOLOGY FOR RURAL ELECTRIFICATION	6; title: 2.4. IMPACTS OF BIOGASTECHNOLOGY IN RWANDA	9; title: 2.4.1. Biogas Technology	9; title: 2.4.2. The raw resources for biogas creation	12; title: 2.4.3. Biogas Production	13; title: 2.4.4. Parameters and process optimization	14; title: 2.4.5. Usefulness And Benefits Of Biogas	16; title: 2.4. LOCALIZED ELECTRIFICATION APPROACH IN RWANDA	16; title: 2.4.1. Rwanda’s Current Transmission and Distribution Capacity	16; title: 2.4.2. Access to Electronic Appliances	17; title: 2.4.3. Rwanda’s Localized Electrification Program	17; title: 2.4.4. Quantifiable benefits of rural electrification	18; title: 2.4.5. Non Quantifiable benefits	19; title: 2.5. ENERGY POLICY	20; title: 2.6. FEATURES OF RURAL ELECTRIFICATION	21; title: 2.7. CHALLENGES IN THE RURAL ELECTRIFICATION PROCESS	21; title: 2.8. BARRIERS TO RURAL ELECTRIFICATION ENERGY EFFICIENCY	22; title: 2.9. PLANNING AND CO-ORDINATION	24; title: 2.9.1. Technology Issues	25; title: 2.9.2. Implementation aspects	25; title: 2.9.3. The key issues that must be resolved	25; title: 2.10. CONCLUSION	26; title: CHAP THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY	27; title: 3.0. INTRODUCTION	27; title: 3.1. AREA OF STUDY	27; title: 3.2. SAMPLE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES	28; title: 3.3. SOURCES OF DATA COLLECTION	28; title: 3.4. INSTRUMENT FOR DATA COLLECTION	28; title: 3.5. METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION	28; title: 3.5.1. Interviewing	28; title: 3.5.2. Observation	28; title: 3.5.3. Challenges	29; title: CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION	30; title: 4.1. Introduction	30; title: 4.2. Indication	30; title: 4.3. Limited access of households despite the equitable distribution of the current	30; title: 4.4. Increase in Working hours	31; title: 4.5. Indications of positive Impacts	32; title: 4.6. Evolution of the electricity access rate (%) in the area before the project	33; title: CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS	35; title: 5. 1. CONCLUSIONS	35; title: 5.2. RECOMMENDATIONS	36; title: A.	BIBLIOGRAPHY/ REFERENCES	37; title: B.	ELECTRONIC REFERENCES	38; title: APPENDICES	39; title: LIST OF FIGURES; title: Figure 1: The Solar PV generated Power connected to Home’s grid at Main Fuse Box	8; title: Figure 2: Biogas cycle	10; title: Figure 3: A Biogas plant Borda type	11; title: Figure 4: Biogas digester viewed indifferent angles	12; title: Figure 5: Process of Biogas Production	13; title: Figure 6: Installation of Transmission Line	31; title: Figure 7 : Graphical Representation of Increase in working hours	32; title: Figure 8: Graphical representation of Revenues Before Vs After	33; title: Figure 9: Graphical representation of Consumption Before Vs After	33; title: LIST OF TABLES; title: Table 1: Components of Biogas	9; title: Table 2: Illustration of Technological Application and Barriers	23; title: Table 3: Number of subscribers per REG Station after the STEG Project	30; title: Table 4:  Increase in working hours	31; title: Table 5: Evolution access rate in Percentage	34; title: LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS/ ACRONYMS USED; title: %: Per cent; title: &: And; title: A: Ampere; title: CT: Current Transformer; title: DVD: Digital Versatile Disk/Diskette; title: EARP: Electricity Access Roll-Out Program; title: EDPRS: Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy; title: EEE: Electrical and Electronics Engineering; title: ELE: Electrical Engineering; title: EUCL: Energy Utility Corporation Limited; title: EWSA: Energy, Water and Sanitation Authority; title: H2O: Water; title: HLI: Higher Learning Institution; title: i.e.: That is; title: ISO: International Standard Organization; title: KV: Kilo Volts; title: KW: Kilo Watt; title: MININFRA: Ministry of Infrastructure; title: REG: Rwanda Energy Group; title: STEG: Societe Tunisienne de l’ Energie et Gaz; title: UR-CST:  University of Rwanda-College of Science and Technology; title: V: Voltage; title: VIZ: Namely; title: PROJECT TITLE: IMPACTS OF RURAL ELECTRIFICATION IN RWANDA; title: CHAPTER ONE: GENERAL INTRODUCTION; title: Rural electrification is the process of bringing electrical power to rural and remote areas. Electricity is used not only for lighting and household purposes, but it also allows for mechanization of many farming operations, such as threshing, milking, and hoisting grain for storage. In areas facing labor shortages, this allows for greater productivity at reduced cost.; title: As it was addressed, (RGB, 2nd August 2014) in declaration of second mandate 2010-2017 program, it was publically declared that only 21% of the total population of Rwanda have access to electricity, this implies that the biggest percentage about79% of the people lack electricity and its effects, Persistent effort in power generation is emphasized to at least shifting the current generation status of 119 Mega Watts to 563 which statistically means rising from 21% to 70%. It was also revealed that the big percentage of energy used is Biomass (Firewood, Charcoal Grasses), 85% which speeds the rate of environmental degradation.; title: It is estimated that there are about 7 million unelectrified rural households in Rwanda. Rural electrification is only starting in enumerable Rwandan areas and national Government is faced with immense challenges in meeting the electrification demand.  Basic requirements for successful rural electrification programs (like an appropriate institutional set-up) are non-existent in many of these regions and the capacity to launch an electrification drive is lacking. National wide rural electrification progresses only slowly, due to high population growth, the number of people without electricity is expected to increase Countrywide.; title: 1.1. BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY; title: Rwanda is trying to come out of the dark shadow that was cast over the East African Country during the April 1994 genocide. In the aftermath, there was no infrastructure that was found in place and the country set out on a new path of rediscovery and development. The constitution of the Republic of Rwanda was promulgated in 2003, and it seeks to develop human resources, to fight ignorance, to promote technology and social welfare of the people of Rwanda [1]; title: Following the 1994 April Genocide in Rwanda, the Government found an almost non-existent energy sector and a failed attempt at liberalization by the previous regime. The current Government passed the Rwanda Energy Policy 2011, and in its implementation has highlighted and encouraged the role of the private business and communities as drivers to achieve the policy goals. The Energy Policy objective is to improve electricity connectivity and access through the localized electrification program. This paper critically analyses Rwanda’s Energy Policy, Millennium Vision 2020 goals, and the current electricity demand and supply, as well as the private-community power localized electricity program in achieving the said Energy Policy. This paper further analyses the impact and constraints of the pico-micro hydroelectricity program; the role of the private sector and community involvement in achieving the Energy Policy objectives. The findings indicate that although the impact of the localized electrification program is constrained by various factors, if ably addressed by the Government and development partners, it can have a more positive impact on the achievement of connectivity and access of the local population and attainment of the Millennium 2020 goals [2]; title: The recent literature on rural electrification has emphasized the importance of linking its development with productive uses for energy. This has been viewed as necessary to increase the pace of rural electrification and reduce its concentration on a relatively small group of developing countries. The slowness to extend electricity to rural areas in a wide range of developing countries through grid extension, stand-alone and mini-grid approaches has resulted in a substantial proportion of the Rwanda’s population still without access to electricity.; title: This section provides the basic reasoning behind the mechanisms we study. As pointed above, electrification is speculated to impact many economic variables. Among these are; human capital, income, and welfare. The impacts on these variables are not direct effects of electricity, but indirect, through a series of mechanisms.; title: 1.2. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM; title: The people in rural areas lack mutual understandings on the effective use of electricity and this lead them to improperly use of the available electric energy,being less knowledgeable hinders socio-economical progress where the attitudes of establishing projects are seen to be less applicable.; title: 1.3. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY; title: 1.3.1. Main Objective; title: The purpose of this study is to review the past and more recent literature on the role and relation of electrification, particularly rural electrification, to economic growth and development by examining some of the economic and social issues underlying the development of rural electrification, drawing on the experience with both grid based expansion and off-grid applications that impact Rwandan remote areas.; title: The review will assess the impact that schemes for rural electrification have had on small business development and income generating activities and on access and affordability in Rwanda. Affordability is of course, related to household income and opportunities to earn income, as well as income or concessions provided through various types of policy interventions (e.g. implicit and explicit in the design of tariff and subsidization policies). Affordability is also integrally affected by wider issues, such as participation in community-based initiatives and the availability of localized credit facilities to help develop and finance access and use of energy.; title: 1.3.2. Specific objective; title: 	To reflect the image comparison between electrified and nonelectrified rural areas in Rwanda.; title: 	To identify the income generating projects suitable for rural development.; title: 	To give the advisable and liable information about the proper handling of electrical apparatus.; title: 	Develop knowledge and mutual understanding on impacts of rural electrification; title: 1.4. RESEARCH QUESTION / HYPOTHESIS; title: 1.4.1. Research Question; title: The study of rural electrification in Rwanda requires investigation into generation, transmission and distribution after decentralization of the energy sector, utility decision making, power theft, project funding and the like.; title: This research seeks to answer the following questions:; title: 	How do rural communities gain access to electricity?; title: 	What is the government doing to assist rural communities in these efforts?; title: 	What role does the electrification play in the larger realm of national development?; title: In an effort to answer these series of questions, and learn more about the electricity sector in Rwanda generally, I pursued research with specific objectives in mind. My independent research project objectives are:; title: Live and conducts Research in specific rural communities that are looking to implement electricity on improve up the existing power structure.; title: Collect information about rural electrification, Energy policy, and potential improvements to the system from individuals working in the electricity sector so as to level and scale up the impacts of rural electrification in Rwanda.; title: 1.4.2. Theoretical impacts of household rural electrification; title: New access to household electrification may change the nature of work in the home as well as the amount and type of work that can be done in the market. Providing new public infrastructure to a location may affect migration of employed and unemployed individuals. Outlining the form each of these changes may take is important for interpreting the empirical results in the research.; title: 	People are not aware about the significance of rural electrification; title: 	The villagers may not think of the impacts that result from misusing of the electricity.; title: 	People do not consider their capacity to be enough and they consider it to be wastage.; title: 	There may not be the governmental policies for the rural electrification; title: The rural habitants may lack knowledge to make the improvement of the rural electrification process and electricity usage in Rwanda.; title: 1.5. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY; title: This study seeks to fill that gap by examining the impact of access to electricity on lighting usage, children’s study time at home, household energy expenditures, and income in rural and remote areas in different regions of Rwanda.; title: This is accompanied by suggestion of possible solutions in a case we find that misunderstandings about the role of electric energy hinder the effective use of electricity.; title: 1.6. SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THESTUDY; title: This research focuses on the electrification particularly in Rwandan rural and remote areas, it does not intend to uncover and stick on the matters that are concerned with urban. Depending on the geographical aspects, this research might be far covering some of suburbs study.; title: 1.7. DEFINITIONS OF TERMINOLOGIES; title: 	Rural electrification is the process of bringing electrical power to rural and remote areas.; title: 	The national grid is a network of power lines which allows distribution of electricity throughout all or part of a country. The grid can be connected to a single power source or electricity generating plant but is usually linked with other plants to provide a more flexible and reliable network.; title: 	Accessibility of electricity refers to as customers who are closer to HV line by not more than 1.5km or LV line by not more than 35m; title: 	Connectivity refers to the way how people and electrical loads are connected; title: CHAPTER TWO:  LITERATURE REVIEW; title: 2.0. IMPACTS OF RURAL ELECTRIFICATION; title: Importance of electricity as a crucial infrastructure input for economic development of the country has been well established. Studies of rural electrification indicate the following broad consensus concerning the impact of electrification in the rural areas. Electrification process in Rwanda has much seen to contribute much towards the development in both rural and urban areas. Rwanda has triggered to such electricity accessibility through the application of different forms of energy such as Biogas, Solar, Hydro, Thermal mentioned but a few; all these seem to positively affect the inhabitants.; title: 2.1. IMPACTS OF SOLAR HOME SYSTEM (SHS); title: SHS are stand-alone Photovoltaic (PV) systems that offer a cost-effective mode of supplying convenient power for lighting and appliances to remote off-grid households. In rural areas that are not connected to the Portal-Grid, SHS can be used to meet a household's energy demand fulfilling basic electric needs. National-wide, SHS provide power to hundreds of thousands of households in remote locations where electrification by the grid is not feasible.[3]; title: 2.1.1. Environmental impacts; title: Solar PV systems do not emit any greenhouse gases. They are a proven technology, used safely across the country. A 100W solar module is estimated to prevent over two tons of carbon dioxide emissions over its lifetime, generating much more electricity then used in production. Operating PV systems make no noise and do not pollute. Solar power is therefore clean, silent, and freely available.; title: 2.1.2. Social impacts; title: Solar PV systems have proved the best option for electricity access in remote, rural areas. They provide quality lighting for evening study, household chores and community gatherings, freeing up productive daylight hours. Accessible electricity also enables simple home appliances such as radios, TVs and refrigerators. Developing remote, rural areas can provide an alternative to urban migration. Moreover, a PV system avoids the use of expensive and harmful petroleum fuels. However, PV systems need care and maintenance for a long life, which requires households to save money. If the PV system is not maintained, such as buying replacement batteries, it can fail. And if a system fails, the community can then perceive the technology itself negatively.[4]; title: 2.1.3. Cumulative impacts; title: As more and more solar PV systems are installed in Rwandan areas, new issues and opportunities arise. PV systems are often mounted on rooftops, but larger or multiple systems require more space, away from trees, which can raise land ownership and access issues. Increasing use of PV systems can produce a competitive market for parts, equipment, and maintenance skills, which helps everyone. Unfortunately, PV systems – and the electrical appliances they enable – create waste that is not biodegradable. If these wastes are released to the environment they can harm plants, animals, fish and people, polluting the environment for many years. Projects and organisations that promote PV systems, especially in rural and remote areas, must plan safe waste disposal.[5]; title: 2.2. SOLAR PHOTO-VOLTAIC AS AN ATTRACTIVE TECHNOLOGY FOR RURAL ELECTRIFICATION; title: Inefficient energy infrastructure, rapidly growing demand, and a general lack of generating capacity mean that many developing countries are unable to meet their basic energy demands. The International Energy Agency (IEA) estimates under its reference scenario that developing countries require Hundreds of billions annual investment for the electricity sector alone.[6]  In rural areas, where as many as four out of five people lack electricity, conventional grid connected electricity schemes are often not feasible.; title: Grid expansion can be extremely costly and has been demonstrated numerous times to be far less cost effective than supplying SHS. Because of the high cost of extending electrical grid coverage in these areas, non-grid-tied renewable energy technologies, such as solar PV, may be a least-cost solution.; title: The availability of clean electricity not only helps households avoid the health risks associated with conventional forms of energy, such as kerosene, charcoal, and disposable batteries, but it also helps the global environment through the avoidance of greenhouse gas emissions and conventional air pollution associated with fossil-fuel-based forms of electricity.; title: Renewable energy technologies also help governments gain energy independence and eliminate the need for costly grid expansion to remote villages. Solar PV and SHS are attractive renewable energy technologies for many applications in off-grid areas.; title: Most developing countries lie in areas with high solar insulation levels a “must” for solar PV and with the added benefit of SHS being modular, SHS can be installed to provide energy for one house, groups of houses, or an entire village.; title: According to the authorship under Marcus Wiemann, Elena María Cantos Gómez, Luis-Carlos MiróBaz (September 2013), The following Important Key issues have to be paid attention for, while dealing with Solar PV [7]:; title: Waste management: Electrical equipment, some solar panels, and most batteries, contaminate the environment by releasing chemicals that enter and stay in the food chain. In particular, batteries and inverters will need replacing, so used lead-acid batteries, similar to car batteries, will need disposal. From the start, the project should recommend appropriate disposal strategies so users know what to do, such as a battery exchange program. For example, batteries must not be opened or drained, and the lead must be prevented from entering the environment. Inter-country transport of hazardous wastes [including batteries] is regulated under the Waigani Convention. (Refer to SPREP for more information).; title: Maintenance: it is important to plan to look after the solar PV system for its whole life, instead of becoming like the many examples that no longer work. The humidity and salt air of the Pacific can be harsh, so choose the right equipment, check meters, clean and maintain regularly, and be prepared for repairs. Some batteries may need ‘topping up’ with pure water. For each task, agree who will be responsible at the start of the project.; title: Safety: solar panel installation and maintenance involves risks such as working at heights and electrical work. Poor electrical work such as adjustments can have consequences long afterwards. Use competent people who know and follow latest wiring rules.; title: Financial management: having a solar PV system can save time and money, like the cost of kerosene and diesel, and the time to buy or gather fuel. On the other hand, it costs money to engage skilled people, and buy parts. People need to be disciplined with their savings so money is available, as PV systems can be costly to fix. For community PV systems, good management and cooperation is essential. Overall, seeing the savings can encourage people to take care of the equipment.; title: Disasters and emergencies: whilst not avoidable, these can be prepared for. Are the structures safe in the event of a cyclone? If the building catches fire, what happens to the panel and electric currents? In case of a blackout or tripped circuit, do users know how to restore power?; title: Reliability of payments for services by consumers: it is critical to contemplate an effective and “no-personal intervention” mechanism of service discontinuance after a reasonable grace period for service payment.; title: Financial management of project accounting: the capacity of the project management committee to conduct transparent and accurate accounting is critical to demonstrate project breakeven.; title: Financing grid extensions and increase of capacity generation: effective and transparent project management is of utmost importance to achieve long-term sustainability.; title: Effective cost: Mini-grids can be implemented according to local standards at cost-effective prices.; title: Optimization: Total installed costs can be reduced by a considerable percentage if local import tariff and duty moratoriums are taken advantage of.; title: High Capacity: Increase solar panel capacity by at least a single unit above calculated requirements improves system performance and autonomy. Low relative cost provides great benefit in terms of ensuring the battery bank is charged quickly and effectively.; title: MOBSOL plans to conduct a follow-up social impact study to show the health, education and financial improvements experienced by the families. The community is seeking funding to expand the grid to provide power to other unelectrified households.; title: Figure 1:The Solar PV generated Power connected to Home’s grid at Main Fuse Box; title: As shown above, Solar intertie photovoltaic (PV) systems are not particularly complex. First there are panels, which collect the sunlight and turn it into electricity. The DC signals are fed into an inverter, which converts the DC into grid-compatible AC power (which is what you use in your home). Various switch boxes are included for safety reasons, and the whole thing is connected via wires and conduit.[8]; title: 2.4. IMPACTS OF BIOGASTECHNOLOGY IN RWANDA; title: 2.4.1. Biogas Technology; title: 2.4.1.1. What is Biogas technology?; title: Biogas technology is a Technique of producing Biogas. It requires knowledge and skills in Science and Technology. These include Biology, Chemistry, Agriculture (Gas production process, Use of bio effluent as natural fertilizer), Physics and Mechanical Engineering (pressure of gas, materials, appliances: Biogas stoves and Biogas lamps), Mathematics and Civil Engineering (Designs, construction, plumbing); title: 2.4.1.2. Biogas; title: a) What is Biogas?; title: Biogas is a combustible/flammable gas produced from all organic wastes during an anaerobic digestion (absence of oxygen) inside a tank called Biogas plant or Digester through bacteria action.; title: 	Organic wastes are terrestrial and aquatic plants waste and animal wastes; title: 	Terrestrial organic wastes are agricultural wastes such as wastes from maize, sorghum beans, cow peas, banana by products, kitchen wastes (Irish potatoes peelings, sweet and cassava peelings, banana peelings, remains of food), coffee husks, and rice husks.; title: 	Aquatic plants: Water Hyacinth, Algua.; title: b) Biogas composition; title: COMPONENTS	CHEMICAL FORMULA	RANGE	NORMAL; title: Methane; title: Carbone dioxide; title: Nitrogen; title: Hydro gen; title: Hydrogen sulphide; title: Water Vapour	CH4; title: CO2; title: N2; title: H2; title: H2S; title: H2O	55 - 85%; title: 14 - 44%; title: Trace; title: Trace; title: Trace; title: Trace	70%; title: 29%; title: Trace; title: Trace; title: Trace; title: Trace; title: Last 4 gases are all composed of 0.1- 1%; title: Table 1: Components of Biogas; title: c) Biogas CYCLE; title: Figure 2: Biogas cycle; title: d) Comparison of Biogas with other common sources of Energy; title: 1m3 of Biogas is equivalent to:; title: 	5,500-6,000 Kcal or 25,140 Kilo Joule; title: 	570 Liters of natural Gas; title: 	6 kg of fuel wood; title: 	2 Kg of charcoal; title: 	5 KW of electricity; title: 1 m3 of Biogas can be used for:; title: 	Cooking 3 meals (breakfast, lunch and supper) for a family of 5 to 6 persons per day; title: 	Keeping on Biogas lamp burning for 8 hours; title: 	Keeping one Horse power (power unit equivalent to 746 Watts) engine working for 2 hours; title: 	Run a lorry of 3 tons a distance of 2.8 Km; title: 2.4.1.3. Biogas plant; title: a) What is Biogas plant?; title: A Biogas plant is an airtight tank in which organic wastes mixed with water can be digested/ fermented through anaerobic bacteria action and Biogas is generated.; title: b) Design and Components of a Biogas plant; title: A Biogas plant is composed of the following parts or components; title: Figure 3: A Biogas plant Borda type; title: 1. Inlet tank/ mixing tank: Part where mixture of organic material and water pass to enter into the tank body; title: 2. Digester/ Tank body: Part where raw material and water are stored during anaerobic digestion; title: 3. Outlet tank/ Expansion tank/ compensating chamber: Part where bio effluent is stored; title: 4.  Dome/ Gas holder/ Gazometer: Part where gas produced is stored; title: 5. Gas valve; title: 6. Man hole/Neck: Part where builders can pass during the construction of the Biogas plant. It is where Removable lid is put after first feeding of the biogas plant; title: 7. Level indicating pressure of gas in the dome; title: 8. Scum: Floating organic materials; title: 9. Settlement of mad; title: 10. Settlement of sand and soil; title: 11. Reference level: Low limit of empty space; title: 12. Inlet pipe: Pipe connecting the inlet tank and the digester/ tank body in which mixture or raw material and Water pass by gravity; title: 13. Outlet pipe: Pipe taking out from the tank body into the outlet tank digested organic Materials; title: 14. Overflow: Pipe taking bio effluent outside the outlet tank (It is at 15 cm from the top of the outlet tank; title: 2.4.2. The raw resources for biogas creation; title: Figure 4: Biogas digester viewed indifferent angles; title: In principle, all biomass can be fermented and digested and are formed in carbon and hydrogen. They can be combusted or burned. Those are generally the waste biomass or cultivated biomass.; title: The waste biomass includes agricultural wastes such as straw of rice, wheat, bagasse of sugarcane and waste tree leaves; rural animal wastes such as cattle dung, human excreta, piggery dung and waste, poultry waste and slaughterhouse waste; urban garbage, aquatic wastes (waste from fishery), forestry residues and industrial wastes such as waste from sugar factory, tannery, furniture industry and food processing industry.; title: The waste is generated periodically and can be harnessed to generate methane gas, a useful gas that can be used for energy production.; title: The cultivated or harvested biomass is specially grown on land or in sea/lake for obtaining raw materials for biogas production. This category of biomass includes agricultural energy crops, aquatic crops (e.g. harvested algae) and forest crops.; title: However, wood does not ferment easily. Therefore pyrolysis or incineration processes are preferred for wood to energy conversion.; title: The maximum of gas-production from a given amount of raw material depends on the type of substrate, temperature, process adopted etc.[9]; title: 2.4.3. Biogas Production; title: The whole biogas-process can be divided into three steps: hydrolysis, acidification, and methane formation; title: Figure 5: Process of Biogas Production; title: 2.4.3.1. Hydrolysis; title: In the first step (hydrolysis), the original organic matter containing carbohydrates, fats and complex organic compounds is enzymolyzed externally by extracellular enzymes (cellulase, amylase, protease and lipase) of microorganisms and then they are split up into simpler organic compounds due to bacteria; title: 2.4.3.2. Acidification; title: The micro-organisms of anaerobic and facultative groups (i.e. bacteria that can grow under acid conditions) involved in the second step, produce fermentation and hydrolysis to form volatile liquids and solids of simpler organic nature and acids such as acetic acid (CH3COOH) [Rao &Parulekar, 1990]. In this acid formation phase, hydrogen (H2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are also released. To produce acetic acid, they need oxygen and carbon. For this, they use the oxygen solved in the solution or bounded oxygen.; title: Hereby, the acid-producing bacteria create an anaerobic condition which is essential for the methane producing microorganisms. Moreover, they reduce the compounds with a low molecular weight into alcohols, organic acids, amino acids, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide and traces of methane. From a chemical standpoint, this process is partially endergonic (i.e. only possible with energy input), since bacteria alone are not capable of sustaining that type of reaction.; title: 2.4.3.3. Methane formation; title: In this stage the organic acids and chemicals formed in the second stage are decomposed by anaerobes to release methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide gases. The processes of acid formation and methane fermentation should continue without retarding each other. Both these processes are caused by different types of bacteria. The two processes should be in optimum dynamic continuation for efficient release of methane gas. Stronger acid formation process retards the methane production process and vice versa. In practical fermentation processes the metabolic actions of various bacteria all act in concert. No single bacterium is able to produce fermentation products alone.; title: 2.4.4. Parameters and process optimization; title: In microbiological methanation, the following parameters are controlled and optimized by improvements in the design of the biogas plant:; title: 2.4.4.1. Substrate temperature; title: 	Temperature range of anaerobic fermentation; title: The process of biogas production takes place in anaerobic conditions and in different temperature diapasons. There are psychrophilic (temperature diapason below 200 C), mesophilic (20-400 C) and thermophilic (above 40 0C) regimes of bioconversion. Biogas production in a thermophilic regime is much higher than for the mesophilic and regimes. In principle, anaerobic fermentation is possible between 3°C and approximately 70°C.; title: 	Minimal average temperature; title: The rate of bacteriological methane production increases with temperature. However, given the amount of free ammonia also increases with temperature, bio-digestive performance may be inhibited or even reduced. In general, unheated biogas plants perform satisfactorily if the annual average temperature is about 20 °C or above or when the average daily temperature is at least 18 °C. In the range of 20-28 °C average temperature, gas production increases more than proportionally. If the temperature of the biomass is less than 15 °C, gas production is so low that the biogas plant is no longer economically viable. The process of anaerobic digestion is very sensitive to temperature variations. The sensitivity, in turn, depends on the temperature range; title: 2.4.4.2. Available nutrients; title: To grow, the bacteria need more than a simple input of organic matter as a source of carbon and energy. They also need some mineral nutrients. In addition to carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, the production of biomass requires a sufficient amount of nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and a number of trace elements such as iron, manganese, molybdenum, zinc, cobalt, selenium, tungsten, nickel, etc. Original substrates such as agricultural residues and municipal wastewater usually contain sufficient quantities of the items mentioned. Human excreta contains phosphorous. A higher concentration of any individual substance usually has an inhibitory effect, whereas analyzes are recommended on a case-by-case basis to determine the amount of nutrients, if any, has yet to be added.; title: 2.4.4.3. Retention time; title: The retention time can only be accurately defined in batch-type facilities (i.e. digesters treating a large amount of material at once). For continuous systems (i.e. systems adding and removing waste material on regular basis), the mean retention time is approximated by dividing the digester volume by the daily influent rate. Depending on the vessel geometry, the means of mixing, etc., the effective retention time may vary widely for the individual substrate constituents. Selection of a suitable retention time thus depends not only on the process temperature, but also on the type of substrate used.; title: 2.4.4.4. Hydrogen ion concentration (pH) level; title: Hydrogen ion concentration-pH is a measure of the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution i.e. measure of the activity of the solvated hydrogen ion. The methane-producing bacteria live best under neutral to slightly alkaline conditions. The process of fermentation in the digester solution is considered to be optimum for biogas generation when the pH takes on a value ranging between 7 and 8.5. A digester containing a high volatile-acid concentration requires a somewhat higher-than-normal pH value. If the pH value drops below 6.2, the medium will have a toxic effect on the methanogenic bacteria; title: 2.4.4.5. Nitrogen inhibition and Carbon/Nitrogen ratio; title: 	Nitrogen inhibition; title: All substrates contain nitrogen. For higher pH values, even a relatively low nitrogen concentration may inhibit the process of fermentation. Noticeable inhibition occurs at a nitrogen concentration of roughly 1.7μg ammonium-nitrogen (NH4-N) per liter substrate. Nonetheless, given enough time, the methanogens are capable of adapting to NH4-N concentrations in the range of 5.0-7.0μ g/liter substrate, the essential condition being that the ammonia level (NH3) does not exceed 0.2-0.3μg NH3-N per liter substrate. The rate of ammonia dissociation in water depends on the process temperature and pH value of the substrate slurry.; title: 	C/N ratio; title: Microorganisms need both nitrogen and carbon for assimilation into their cell structures. Various experiments have shown that the metabolic activity of methanogenic bacteria can be optimized at a C/N ratio of approximately 8-20, whereby the optimum point varies from case to case, depending on the nature of the substrate.[10]; title: 2.4.5. Usefulness And Benefits Of Biogas; title: 2.4.5.1. Usefulness; title: The biogas plant delivers a high grade fuel which has methane, carbon dioxide and other impurities. The biogas is used [Fulford, 2012; Luostarinen, 2011]:; title: i.	As fuel for kilns/ furnaces, domestic fuel used for cooking and lighting: Biogas replaces firewood and charcoal, so reduces deforestation; title: ii.	As fuel for internal combustion (IC) engines to drive pump sets, producing electrical energy from IC Engine driven generator sets : Biogas replaces LPG and kerosene, so saves fossil carbon; title: iii.	For producing mechanical energy by IC engine operated by biogas; title: iv.	Biogas production is accompanied by output compost that can be used as an organic fertilizer or a soil amendment; title: 2.4.5.2. Benefits Of Biogas Technology; title: Well-functioning biogas system unit can yield a whole range of benefits for their users, the society and the environment in general, the chief benefits being Production of energy (heat, light, electricity) as highlighted below:; title: i.	Transformation of organic wastes into high quality fertilizer.; title: ii.	Improvement of hygienic conditions through reduction of pathogens, worm eggs and flies.; title: iii.	 Reduction of workload, mainly for women, in firewood collection and cooking.; title: iv.	 Environmental advantages through protection of forests, soil, water and air.; title: v.	 Micro-economic benefits through energy and fertilizer substitution, additional income sources and increasing yields of animal husbandry and agriculture; title: vi.	Macro-economic benefits through decentralized energy generation, import substitution and environmental protection.; title: vii.	 Global Environmental Benefits of Biogas Technology.; title: 2.4. LOCALIZED ELECTRIFICATION APPROACH IN RWANDA; title: 2.4.1. Rwanda’s Current Transmission and Distribution Capacity; title: In regard to the transmission structure, due to geographical topography of the land and remoteness of most rural villages, ensuring connectivity and access is a hindrance to the Energy Policy objective of increasing access to most citizens, Rwanda has two power lines on the national grid: They are the Northern line, which runs from Mukungwa and Ntaruka hydro power stations and the Southern line that receives power from Rusizi 2 and Rusizi 1 hydro power stations. Rwanda also has two small hydro stations in Gisenyi and Gihira with 14 sub-stations that help reduce the voltage to 30kv and 15kv for distribution through medium low voltage sub-stations along 1,586 km on low voltage lines.; title: However these lines are not spread out into the rural areas and their roll out is rather slow and constrained due to the high capital costs involved. This clearly points to a country’s need for better infrastructure to ensure that the realized 2017 Energy Policy and strategic plans are achieved. There are two outstanding wishes in Rwanda electrification program, the first wish of reaching the goal of electrification level of 70% by 2017 (48% On Grid and 22% OFF grid) and the second wish is to reach the goal of having all people from High Risk zones to shift to the Planned settlements (Imidugudu) so as to facilitate the electrification program.; title: 2.4.2. Access to Electronic Appliances; title: The literature suggests that, after lighting, the First appliances bought by households are television sets (Bernard, 2012). As discussed above, television increases the marginal value of leisure but also access to information. Kitchen appliances, like refrigerators, blenders and microwaves, can save time in household chores. Refrigerators reduce the frequency of trips to the market, but they also increase the variety of foods that can be consumed by the household. Also, they provide better food storage. Access to refrigeration is another channel through which electrification can impact health.; title: Appliances like blenders and microwaves probably have little impact on the final product, but can save time in household chores. For a given set of household chores, this is equivalent to relaxing the time constraint, which increases welfare. The additional time may be allocated to leisure or work, for instance sewing, or cooking for sale. It may also replace the male in some farm tasks, while the male works in other things. Additional work, at least in principle, should lead to higher income which should lead to higher welfare. Electricity also facilitates access to cellphones, since they can be now charged at home, more cheaply. Cellphones and television increase access to information. Other devices, like DVD players or stereos are primarily to increase the marginal utility of leisure, which can also enhance welfare.; title: 2.4.3. Rwanda’s Localized Electrification Program; title: In Rwanda, the localized electrification program as a means of improving electricity connectivity and access has been championed through their 2014 Energy Policy and the Vision 2020. This calls for, and encourages, both foreign donor investment and public private partnerships in creating alternative electricity sources and exploiting the potential. [11]; title: The concept of localized electrification is drawn from the desire to ensure rural/local connectivity and access to electricity and the following are some of its characteristics:; title: i. Off-grid electricity generation for very small consumers (villages or homesteads) and a very low power output or less than 300kwh.; title: ii. The technology used is traditional or low cost technology using less complicated and technical approach to generate electricity.; title: iii. The distribution is off-grid being isolated and specific to each locality; it involves a rudimentary means of transmitting power to the consumers.; title: iv. There is no standard tariff - management of the cost is estimated and based on the willingness and ability to pay, (National Energy Policy and Strategy, Government of Rwanda, Ministry of Infrastructure, May 2011); title: Pico-Micro hydro installations are typically used for provision of electricity to isolated communities in developing countries that are not connected to the national grid or whose expansion is slow. Though localized electrification program and use of Pico-micro hydro installations, local businesses and households can obtain access and connection to electricity and not only control this expansion, but also the unit cost of the power consumed.; title: Micro hydro power systems are often implemented at localized level in villages through a small grid (connection). They are relatively cheaper and offer a higher energy source than use of solar PV. It was realized that Pico-micro hydro installations were able to supply households with electricity at a fraction of the cost to those who used solar panels.; title: The Government, through joint efforts with foreign development partners, private business and local communities, has drawn a seven (7) year transmission and distribution program that is intended to ensure the objective of increasing of their generation capacity. Various studies have been carried out on the potential of Micro hydro systems, with 12 sites that have been confirmed with an installed capacity to 9.2MW and the ability to supply 40,000 houses as public private partnerships.; title: KamalapurG.D(2012)examined the benefits of rural electrification and found them lying in two kinds, one being Quantifiable and other Non-Quantifiable and below is the brief.[12]; title: 2.4.4. Quantifiable benefits of rural electrification; title: 2.4.4.1. Household uses of electricity; title: Lighting: replacing liquid fuel, gas, biomass or animal waste; title: Cooking: replacing biomass, animal waste, liquid fuel, coal or gas.; title: Space heating, cooling and refrigeration: replacing biomass, animal waste, liquid fuel, coal/ gas.; title: Home appliances (fan, iron, radio, TV etc.): replacing batteries, biomass/ coal.; title: 2.4.4.2. Commercial uses of electricity; title: •	Lighting; title: •	Air-conditioning and refrigeration; title: •	Improved audio and video opportunities; title: •	More attractive atmosphere; title: •	Longer opening times; title: 2.4.4.3. Agricultural uses of electricity; title: Water pumping: replacing liquid fuel, coal, and gas or muscle power.; title: Parboiling, heating and drying: replacing biomass, coal or liquid fuel.; title: Chaff cutting, threshing etc.: replacing liquid fuel, hydro and muscle power, coal / biomass; title: 2.4.5. Non Quantifiable benefits; title: •	Modernisation, dynamic growth and attitude changes-catalytic effects; title: •	Improvement of quality of life, community services (including medical) and participation; title: •	Income redistribution and improving social equity; title: •	Employment creation; title: Other socio-political effects such as improving political stability, reducing discontent and disparities between urban and rural areas; title: The amount of electricity that households use depends on a range of factors and these factors affect much in the way towards the electrification process and below are the inclusion of the foreseen Factors that affect the Amount of Electrification.; title: •	How big your residence is; title: •	The number of people living there; title: •	The type and number of appliances; title: •	When and how appliances are used; title: •	Whether energy-hungry extras like pools, spas and air conditioners are on site.; title: •	Who Benefits from Rural Electrification?; title: It is widely recognized that the larger share of benefits from Rural Electrification is captured by the non-poor. International Energy Group analysis shows that this continues to be the case, although the gap closes as coverage expands.; title: Two factors underpin this anti-poor pattern in electrification: which communities get connected and which households can afford the connection once the grid is available.; title: In many rural communities to be connected to the grid are identified on a “least cost” basis, which favors which larger communities nearer to the existing grid, roads, and towns. The Bank has promoted this approach, which is often necessary to secure the financial viability of the RE program, in a number of countries. For example, the recent Peru Rural Electrification Project changed community prioritization from the government’s “social criteria” to a least cost approach.; title: Although this is necessary for the financial health of the service provider, there is a clear trade-off with reaching the more disadvantaged. Hence, some countries include social variables in their eligibility criteria; in Bank-supported projects this has most often been the case for community driven development projects that target the poorest areas.; title: In a small number of cases, Rural Electrification funds have been used to offset the financial loss incurred by private companies that extend coverage to less advantaged rural areas. Although off-grid connections can serve remote communities that may not be connected to the grid for some years, they do not necessarily reach the poor better than grid extension does. Bank support to off-grid electrification is typically through a private business model, so social concerns have to be weighed against financial viability.; title: In most regions, increases in coverage come from extensive growth (extending the grid to new communities) rather than intensive growth (connecting the unconnected in already electrified villages; title: 2.5. ENERGY POLICY; title: According to the RUHR Econonic paper authored by Gunther Bensch, JochenKluve, and Jörg Peters (September 2011), the energy policy of a country must be conducive to the implementation of a rural electrification program. The policy should clearly spell out Government’s commitment to rural electrification, taking into consideration its social responsibility towards the rural poor versus the financial viability of an electrification program.[13]; title: From world-wide experience the World Bank has concluded that:  “Provided that the background conditions are right, one of the most powerful ways to improve energy supplies is to ensure that the energy market is determined by consumers’ choices.  In particular that means both that the price of energy should reflect its cost and that regulation of energy industries should encourage competition and choice. Government of Rwanda (GoR) should concentrate on ensuring that there is a level playing field for different investors in energy, whether they are public utilities, private firms, or enterprises set up by the local community.  The opposite has been true in most developing countries.  Rules and regulations have strangled the emergence of firms other than the state-run utility.”; title: A focus on alternative energy sources is very appropriate in rural areas and should form part of the energy policy.  However, the effective exploitation of renewable energy technologies  (RETs)  requires far more systematic attention by policy makers, particularly in terms of eliminating taxes, subsidies and import distortions that are presently discriminating against renewables in favor of fossil fuels  (this is sometimes referred to as “leveling of the playing field”).; title: 2.6. FEATURES OF RURAL ELECTRIFICATION; title: Rural electrification is an important component of Integrated Rural Development; but according to Shahidur R. Khandker, Hussain A. Samad, Rubaba Ali, Douglas F. Barnes (May 2012),it has not given due importance because of the following reasons.[14]; title: 	Villages are located from 3-20 km away from existing grid or even more.; title: 	They are located in difficult topography areas like forests, hill areas and scattered manners.; title: 	The number of households may range between 2 to 200 with dispersed distribution of loads.; title: 	Power demand in villages is quite low and rural domestic consumers are mainly peak time consumers and contributing for poor load factors of 0.2-0.3.; title: 	The income level is low and hence the paying capacity; title: 2.7. CHALLENGES IN THE RURAL ELECTRIFICATION PROCESS; title: As mentioned before, the rural electrification process in Rwanda has been successful, especially when compared to other developing countries, not only in the East African region but Continent-wide. However, it is facing many challenges and, in order to achieve the standards of most of the developing areas, several issues need to be tackled.; title: First of all, the number of people still lacking access to electricity is around estimated in millions. Despite the proximity to full electrification rate, the massive size of the country in terms of population means that still a large number of individuals don’t have access to the electricity due to poor settling in high risk zones, remote area which may burden the suppliers.; title: Additionally and despite the large investments deployed over the last decades, further efforts need to be done on the modernization of the network and service and quality improvements which are particularly difficult given the massive investments required to maintain such an extensive grid.; title: Finally, the rural electrification process needs to incorporate new technologies that may represent the solution to provide electricity to those areas, especially in the Western regions, where the grid extension is not feasible and off-grid applications are required. This is the sector where the new renewable energies such as wind and solar are expected to play a key role by becoming the most appropriate solution in order to achieve the Central government´s goal of a full rural electrification before 2020.; title: 2.8. BARRIERS TO RURAL ELECTRIFICATION ENERGY EFFICIENCY; title: According to the Rwanda Energy PCN Clean (November, 2013), some of the common barriers to all the interventions as proposed include the following:; title: Awareness: While Rwanda has some experience with solar PV, very few potential customers are familiar with solar PV. Similarly, few potential developers of independent micro hydro schemes are familiar with the technology or the associated supply chains for equipment and service.  For wood fuel based end-uses, there is very limited technical knowledge of design and operations. REG, Rwanda Energy Group has never pursued any energy conservation/demand side management activities, and most of its current and prospective customers have had no particular motivation – other than the flat tariff – to examine higher efficiency alternatives.; title: Investment finance: At this stage, the particular market being targeted for renewable energy and energy efficiency technology is; title: (i) The government ministries and the public utility, REG; and; title: (ii) Other relatively large commercial/industrial/institutional customers.; title: Capacity and management experience: As mentioned above, the war and genocide wiped out a large portion of the human resource capacity in Rwanda, in both public and private sectors. While the returnees have brought in substantial knowledge of their own, they generally have had very limited experience in designing and executing government programs.; title: Equipment technical and service standards: For the whole range of renewable energy/energy efficiency technologies – from solar PV to improved ovens – there are no technical and service standards.; title: Lack of institutional frameworks for support, guidance and regulation: The government has embarked upon a significant public sector and utility reform agenda, in the process setting up institutions and arrangements that are relatively young and untested and requires consulting foreign professional workers.; title: Technology	Achievements	Barriers; title: Solar PV	Experience with institutional size systems; title: 4-5 commercial suppliers with a limited network   	Small and unsteady market growth.; title: Absence of technical and service standards; title: Lack of training and certification; title: Lack of awareness and weak supply chains for small household size systems; title: Micro-hydro 	Some technical experience with installation and operation	Lack of legal/regulatory framework for commercial approaches; title: Finance; title: DSM and Energy Efficiency	No notable achievements	Limited awareness; title: Inappropriate pricing/billing signals; title: Small and fragmented market; title: Weak supply chains for equipment and service; title: Biomass fuels	Wood fuel supply management (to gather more information); title: Improved stoves have been introduced successfully in Kigali; title: Improved ovens have been piloted by CST former KIST institution set up.	No market assessment and marketing strategies; title: Lack of standards and training programs; title: Table 2: Illustration of Technological Application and Barriers; title: The electricity industry is monopolized by state-run integrated utilities responsible for transmitting and distributing all the electricity they produce.  There is usually little or no scope for competition and private sector participation, and it is unaffordable for local private or co-operative non-grid-connected generation and distribution enterprises to enter the market.  Although some government programs have attempted to extend electricity supplies to rural areas, many of these (i.e. ELECTROGAZ—› RECORWASCO —› EWSA —› REG*) have become impotent as a result of unsustainable public institutions promoting technologies that are inappropriate for rural consumers.; title: What is required is a transparent, arms-length regulatory framework with legal guarantees of autonomy for utilities, and the enforcement of regulatory principles to ensure financial discipline, adequate tariffs and incentive-based competitive contracting of services.  Distribution should be unbundled from generation and transmission, and decentralized into service areas designed to make the bidding by private operators for the concession attractive.; title: Liberalizing energy markets, however important, may not alone provide the desired results.  Private companies have shown little interest in extending electricity supplies to rural areas, concentrating instead on more money-spinning contracts to generate electricity and to supply industrial and urban customers.  The main obstacle discouraging companies from providing supplies to rural areas is the high capital investment required.  It is therefore equally important to devise mechanisms that will reduce these high start-up costs.; title: Funding: A major challenge for rural electrification is the issue of funding.  The provision of electricity services in rural areas is generally significantly more expensive than in urban areas due to lower densities and greater distances.  The high costs, compounded by low revenues, have a major impact on the viability of rural electrification programs Potential funding sources include:; title: 	Capital subsidies secured from Government and other sources (For instance, the donors and international funding agencies); title: 	Borrowings obtained from the capital markets; title: 	Cross-subsidies (additional operating revenues extracted from other electricity consumers by charging higher prices); title: 	Self-financing (operating revenues from electrification customers themselves); title: 	Grant funding and subsidies often play a significant role in the early stages of an electrification program, but are unlikely to be sustained over longer periods of time. Grant funding and soft loans are usually conditional upon certain prerequisites. Donor agencies, on the other hand, often tie their funding to services and goods from the donor countries.; title: 	The provision of affordable credit to rural consumers may go a long way to ensuring a sustainable rural electrification program, especially where customers are expected to contribute a connection fee.; title: 2.9. PLANNING AND CO-ORDINATION; title: To date, few regions in Rwanda have invested in a rural electrification master plan; however, transmission network master plans are widely available. With increasing rural electrification activity on the country there is a need to consider the merits of such a master plan.  Proper planning of an electrification program as well as co-ordination with other programs are an essential part of the process.  The compilation of a master plan, defining the scope and extent of the electrification program, as well as establishing budget costs, should be the first step towards implementation of the program.; title: The master plan should not be developed as a blue print for the future networks, but rather as a general guideline capturing the philosophy and approach for rural electrification.  What should be avoided is a prescriptive plan that cannot be adjusted for changing circumstances and priorities. For the Rwandan Rural Electricity Distribution Master Plan a software-based prioritization tool has to be developed, allowing objective determination of the electrification schedule based on community benefit criteria and costs. With this computer tool, scenario analysis is possible and circumstance/priority changes can easily be effected.  The greatest advantage of this master plan is that it always remains current as long as network and infrastructure developments are updated in the data base, allowing the utility to perform regular load flow analyses and make the necessary adjustments.; title: 2.9.1. Technology Issues; title: Experience from many rural development projects around the world has shown that the implementation of technologies that are appropriate for local circumstances contributes significances towards the success of the project.  This holds also true for a rural electrification program of Rwanda.; title: From an operation and maintenance perspective it makes sense to standardize on network and solar home system components; this could even introduce economies of scale that will positively affect the cost of components.  However, this approach restricts market entry of other technologies and thus eliminates the cost-reducing effects that competition may bring about.  The appropriate approach depends on the circumstances:  in a utility-driven program the former is likely to be more suitable, while the latter could be more relevant in a market-driven program.; title: Irrespective of which approach is adopted, it is advisable to lay down technical performance standards to ensure a certain level of quality of components and systems.  This is of particular relevance for renewable energy technologies as poor performance of solar home systems, for example, may entice consumers to conclude that RETs are inferior technology when compared with grid electrification, rendering any SHS initiatives doomed for failure.; title: 2.9.2. Implementation aspects; title: The master plan will establish the priority ranking of villages to be electrified.  Once the annual budgets for electrification are known, the electrification schedule can be determined.; title: As far as institutional arrangements are concerned a few practical issues need to be considered. While a utility may be the central authority implementing the capital expenditure program, arrangements for providing customer services may vary in different parts of the country, and over time.[15]; title: 2.9.3. The key issues that must be resolved; title: Asset ownership and management: Which institution owns and takes responsibility for assets?  This is an important question as it affects the long-term viability of the program.; title: Customer services: Which institution takes responsibility for providing customer services and on what terms?; title: The first issue is a policy question and must be resolved by the parties contributing funds. It is preferable, for reasons of maintaining on-going investment in the system, that the assets be owned by a utility company.; title: The second question will depend on arrangements for distribution services in the area of the country concerned. If a utility is the owner of the assets, it will be necessary for that utility to enter into a contract with the service provider to operate the system and provide the appropriate customer services. While it is possible that the utility will itself be the agency operating the services, it is also likely that these will be provided by another company or a joint venture initiative.; title: 2.10. CONCLUSION; title: The main challenge is to bring electricity services to millions of Rwandan unelectrified rural households.  It is my belief that the following four points comprise the key deciding factors that will influence the success of rural electrification program in Rwanda:; title: Explicit Government commitment as spelt out in a country’s energy policy restructuring of the electricity sector and unbundling of integrated utilities to enhance efficiency commercial operation in the electricity distribution business, with a level playing field for grid and off-grid funders/investors and electricity service providers private sector participation in electricity distribution and rural electrification; title: Judging by the increasing electrification initiatives in Rwanda there is evidence that rural electrification is finding its way onto the agendas of decision makers and politicians.  Extensive experience with rural electrification is available in some African countries, and this can be drawn on by other countries that are now beginning to consider their own electrification programs.; title: CHAP THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY; title: 3.0. INTRODUCTION; title: Throughout the research period several different techniques were used to gather information whenever possible, methods utilized kept in line with participatory rural appraisal methodology; research methods that plead with information directly from individuals in the community, without making any assumptions or suggesting exogenous solutions to the problems. The methods used extensively was interviewing both formal and informal of key informants, general observation, and site appraisal/ mapping. Each of these methods can produce (and did produce) valuable information though they are not without their deficiencies. Alone they would have proven to be insufficient, but together, they were enlightening.; title: As much as possible, the report has compiled and analysed data and indicators to demonstrate positive or negative change. Attempts have also been made to establish a baseline to inform any future assessments. The report has used data from different sources such as policy and strategic initiatives including national planning and budget processes. By use of the integrated analysis approach, it aims to reinforce the cross-cutting nature of environment management further bringing together differing sectoral mandates in support of sustainable development.; title: The end result of this assessment will be more than just knowing about the state of the environment. It will provide policy-makers and other stakeholders some guidance on how to better manage and utilize the electricity.; title: 3.1. AREA OF STUDY; title: This research was conducted in some regions which are thought to be located far from city and characterized by hazards, remoteness and isolated from one another. Particular areas in which the research principally covered include Some Eastern areas which are Nyamata, Kamabuye, Gashora sectors in Bugesera District, Rwimiyaga, Musheli, Matimba sectors in Nyagatare district, kiziguro sector in Gatsibo district and any other region that could contribute much to this research was studied only if found to provide the basic information about the rural electrification’s impacts.; title: Visiting these sites helped the researcher to bring statistics and figures to life. The deficit created by insufficient access to electricity only became apparent after living and working in an area alongside its residents. Furthermore, visits to generation, transmission and distribution facilities will augment my own knowledge of the mechanics behind electrification, knowledge that proved to be necessary in order to understand the true state of the electricity sector.; title: 3.2. SAMPLE AND SAMPLING TECHNIQUES; title: The preferred sampling technique used is random sampling technique as it consequently gives equal opportunity or chance to be selected in the sample from the population and it was so done to meet the optimally needs.; title: 3.3. SOURCES OF DATA COLLECTION; title: Most of data collected from websites of Rwanda relating to the research such as RURA, REG-EUCL, MININFRA, EARP, and other official websites, data from books, newspapers, personnel and responses from interviewed people.; title: 3.4. INSTRUMENT FOR DATA COLLECTION; title: Audio and video Recorders, Camera, Ball point-Pen, Pencil (where necessary), Notebook (Fool scarps / Sheets of papers), Flash disks, hard and soft copies.; title: 3.5. METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION; title: 3.5.1. Interviewing; title: Formal and informal interviews yielded the most substantive information throughout the research process. Interviews were conducted in nearly all targeted areas and all citations from interviews were used with the consent of the interviewees. As educator and researcher in the field, formally interviewed individuals were targeted prioritizing the ones who are able to provide insight into broad and localized issues related to electricity in Rwanda. Because they deal with problems on day-to-day basis (and often take flack when things are not running smoothly), these people spoke with credibility and an enthusiasm for the subject. Often our formal conversation would unintentionally devolve into discussions about the government’s role in providing utilities or difficulties of living without consistent power. Many people were quick to provide an anecdote about an inconvenience or hardship they endured related to the supply of electricity.; title: Similarly, informal interviews revealed local perspectives on power that humanized the statistical information. Almost everyone in the visited areas had something to say about electricity in Rwanda, and their comments were duly noted.; title: 3.5.2. Observation; title: General observation should not be overlooked as an important research technique. Much of the research period was spent traveling. During this time the extent of local distribution grids, the number of visible lights and industrial processes requiring electricity were observed. As a research method, observation on its own is often insufficient to produce accurate, complete results used in conjunction with other methods however; it can be a wonderful tool.; title: 3.5.3. Challenges; title: Several challenges were encountered that prevented the complete implementation of the aforementioned methodology. Unfamiliarity with travel in Rwandan rural areas often created time management conflicts. Since only few hours and or days were spent in each place, a setback of several hours might have meant missing an interview. Unfamiliarity with the sites visited caused similar problems. Most times offices and facilities sought out through verbal instruction from local residents. Although this process leant itself well to the ‘general observation’ aspect of the methodology, it created unforeseen scheduling issues.; title: The business of electricity workers also contained inherent difficulties. The individuals who were sought out for interviews were typically the ones dealing with problems in communities. Hence tracking informants down without an appointment (or even with one) was sometimes impossible.; title: CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION; title: 4.1. Introduction; title: This chapter deals with data presentation, analysis and interpretation collected from the field where the findings are really related to the objectives of the research questions of the study and presented in various forms of tables, charts, histograms and so forth in which the responses and relevant information to the questions asked during the data collection are illustrated.; title: This section analyses the effectiveness of the project in achieving its expected results, it is about comparing actual results against expected results. An overview of the main results of the project is presented, unexpected achievements of the project and review of risk management and mitigation measures for the implementation of the project. These conclusions are based on a review of project documents, interviews with key informants and the outcome of the survey with beneficiaries.; title: 4.2. Indication; title: Station	Number of subscribed Cash Powers	Total	Expected	Percentage %; title: REG	STEG; title: Rwimiyaga	13957	10640	24597	32365	76; title: Musheli	10811	16787	27598	17806	155; title: Matimba	8780	24980	33760	11846	285; title: Total	33548	52407	85955	33577	256; title: Table 3: Number of subscribers per REG Station after the STEG Project; title: These figures show that the number of subscribers has increased in proportions of 76% for the Rwimiyaga Station, 155% for the Musheli Station and 288% for the Matimba Station.; title: In order to include the poorest and to have them enjoy the benefits of electricity, the STEG has installed meters on the basis of a pre-defined plan in complicity with REG regardless of the condition of the houses, some of which in poor condition reflecting the degree of poverty of the owners or occupants.; title: Much more, in order to preserve the safety of users, the STEG-installed meters on several doors of the same house and especially commercial houses but also on houses in the same plot belonging to the same person. This to avoid risks of accident and electrocution by wires pulled in directions in the case of using a single meter by multiple users.; title: 4.3. Limited access of households despite the equitable distribution of the current; title: In general, local authorities have appreciated this electrification project in their region. During the execution of electrification works, the poor and vulnerable households have been electrified as well as others without discrimination at all. In the beneficiary survey, it was found that even the poorest households and sometimes even abandoned houses have been electrified. Obviously poor households are unable to pay for electricity because they could not pay the subscription fees. Some local authorities propose to remove the meters that do not work or help this category of the population at REG level.; title: Figure 6: Installation of Transmission Line; title: The Objectives to improving life conditions of populations in the project zone have been reached, according to testimonies of beneficiaries met in the study context. The project effects on education, the access to healthcare, women promotion and the environment preservation are undeniable. It could be more a reality if, REG proximity services amongst others, permenantly, could be in place to explain to the beneficiaries the benefits of electrical domestic applications and the appropriate usage of electricity by families. Nevertheless, the project effectiveness is judged satisfactory at short and medium term.; title: 4.4. Increase in Working hours; title: Activities	Working hours in RWIMIYAGA	Working hours in MUSHELI	Working hours in MATIMBA	Working hours in KIZIGURO	Working hours in NYAMATA; title: Before	After	Before	After	Before	After	Before	After	Before	After; title: Charging	3	8	2	7	2	6	1	5	1	7; title: Studying	8	12	8	11	8	13	8	12	8	14; title: TV	1	5	1.5	6	1	6	2	7	1.5	8; title: Lighting	0	5	0	6	0.5	5	0	7	0.5	8; title: Grinding	4	10	2	11	2	9	1	6	1.5	10; title: Saloon	4	12	3	13	2.5	10	3.5	12	4	13; title: Table 4:  Increase in working hours; title: Figure 7 : Graphical Representation of Increase in working hours; title: From the data above as represented in both table 4 and Figure 7, the provision of electricity to rural community has greatly led to increase in number of working hours in each area. This clearly shows the progressive positive attitudes of the villagers which eradicates poverty by their respective income-generating projects.; title: 4.5. Indications of positive Impacts; title: Figure 8: Graphical representation of Revenues Before Vs After; title: Figure 9: Graphical representation of Consumption Before Vs After; title: In analyzing the data from both figure 8 and 9, it is clearly observed that Revenues increase much more than would be when the electricity was not accessed in the villages. This means that after having access to electricity, people sharpened their minds by establishing income-generating projects such as more Saloons, grinding machines, generators, shops which increase the revenues to the government.; title: Figure 9 also shows the positive impacts of availability of electricity in such a way thatthe Saving outweighs the Expenses, it can be clearly understood referring to the respondents arguments that they used to board motorcycles and bicycles while going to trading centers which, in most cases, are far from the  villagers. In the same case, when the charging batteries were gone low, they would have to wait for some hours until they are recharged, this seems to be a big problem for the ones whose telephone or any other electrictool that has to be charged at very hour.; title: 4.6. Evolution of the electricity access rate (%) in the area before the project; title: Sectorial Rural Areas	2011	2012	2013	2014; title: Rwimiyaga	            9.8	20	24.4	27; title: Matimba	11	21.70	-	24.4; title: Musheli	2.5	10	16	19; title: Gashora	7.5	9	11	13; title: Kamabuye	1.6	11	15	20; title: Kiziguro	3.4	17.4	22.4	28; title: [Source: National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda, 2011 and Sectors, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014]; title: Table 5: Evolution access rate in Percentage; title: From this table, changes in household access to electricity rates are enormous and this explains the acquisition by households of different appliances such as refrigerators, irons, televisions, radios, mobile telephones and others. The gradual increase of rate of accessing electricity clearly shows that these rural areas have great emphasis in setting up income-generating projects which may need electricity for the smooth running.; title: Nevertheless, it should be noted that some electrified households do not consume electricity further to several causes mentioned above. The access rate still does not match the rate of consumption. Indeed, we must not forget that poverty declines but also persists as the extreme poverty rates are still high.; title: CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS; title: 5. 1.CONCLUSIONS; title: Electrification is a major economic step ahead for any rural community. It brings about new opportunities and poses many challenges. Power systems which are only designed from a technological point of view and not adapted to the local community are doomed to fail. Their embedding within the local context determines whether the system will be operational in the long run and whether it will power social and economic development. There is no substitute for local ownership and responsibility.; title: Electrification has been a central policy tool in developing sectors as Businessmen look to invest in infrastructure. Several investors are currently seeking millions of dollars to extend and make their infrastructure more reliable to attract firms and promote growth. It is shown in this project work that the EARP’s extension of loans to cooperatives to electrify farms led to large productivity improvements in agriculture, which in turn led to increases in land values. To identify the effect of the EARP on economic outcomes we use within county variation over time while controlling for selection by including measures of cost associated with access to grid infrastructure, and then performing sample test that suggest a lack of selection bias.; title: The reality is that the introduction of rural electrification programs such as STEG, MOBSOL, REG in collaboration with EARP led to increase in agricultural productivity, which led farmers to seek employment off the farm less often, increased property values, and reduced infant mortality.; title: Schemes to collect tariffs can only work when people put money aside for covering their monthly fees. A social network, similar to those set up for micro‐financing schemes, would be appropriate for supporting community payments –both in terms of their willingness and their ability to pay. As for ownership and maintenance, safeguarding local training and capacity building are essential. Such aspects should be assured by the private sector in collaboration with a reliable local authority.; title: 5.2. RECOMMENDATIONS; title: A. Technology choices:; title: Renewable Energy systems, particularly hybrid systems, are a cost‐effective and sustainable technological solution for rural electrification.; title: Mini‐grids have sufficient capacity to power small businesses which can spur the development of local activities and enable communities to improve their living conditions.; title: The life‐cycle approach and an analysis of local conditions are essential tools for determining the right technological solution. Low upfront investments can result in more expensive outcomes in the medium and long run.; title: B. Political Challenges:; title: Access to electricity must rank high on the development agenda and should follow a reliable long term strategy. Policymakers should develop the right economic incentives for rural electrification which spur local initiative and private investment.; title: A close dialogue between policymakers, the private sector and representatives of rural communities is indispensable for sustainable policies.; title: C. Legal Framework:; title: The legal framework must allow for private and local initiatives. Monopolised power generation and distribution can act as a hindrance to accelerated rural electrification. Subsidies for fossil fuels must be contained. They should not hinder the deployment of renewable energy technologies.; title: Whenever the ability to pay does not cover the operation costs of rural electrification systems, subsidies are legitimate. Through the development of the rural economy, and the local job market, these subsidies can be phased out in the long run.; title: D. Financing and local commitment:; title: Financing schemes should spur private and local initiatives and generate enough cash for operation and maintenance.The embedding of the power supply within the local community practices is of key importance. Trained technicians must be available, electricity users must understand the possibilities and limitations of the system, and peers must assume responsibility for the functioning of payment schemes.; title: Local ownership determines whether rural electrification is successful, especially in the long run. All stake holders, community leaders, companies, aid organisations and public authorities are called upon to work together for capacity development and sustainable solutions.; title: A.	BIBLIOGRAPHY/ REFERENCES; title: 1.	Bank, W. (2008). The welfare Impact of Rural Electrification:Reassessment of the Costs and Benefits. Geveva: World Bank.; title: 2.	GoR. (2010). Government's Development Program 7 Years (2010-2017). 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Ultimate Survey of Household Living Conditions 2010-2011. Kigali, Rwanda: NISR.; title: 13.	Shahidur R. Khandker, D. F. (2009). Welfare Impacts of Rural Electrification: Evidence from Vietnam. Vietnam: Policy Research Working Papers.; title: 14.	Shahidur R.Khandker, D. F. (2009). Welfare Impacts Of Rural Electrification: A case Study From Bangladesh. Bangladesh: Policy Research Working Papers.; title: 15.	UN. (2000). Millenium Development Goals. New York: UN.; title: B.	ELECTRONIC REFERENCES; title: 1.	http://www.statistics.gov.rw/publications/article/how-many-are-we-rwanda; title: 2.	Guidelines for Human Settlement planning and design in South Africa; title: 3.	http://www.fig.net/pub/proceedings/nairobi/okpala-TS8-1.pdf; title: 4.	Electrification planning decision support tool.pdf, http://www.citeseerx.ist.psu.edu , D I Banks, F Mocke, E C Jonck, ELabuschagne, R Eberhard,; title: 5.	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