Julian, philosopher and emperor
Subtitle: and the last struggle of paganism against Christianity
Publisher: G.P. Putnam's sons
Published: 1906
Place of publication: New York, USA
Language: eng
Table of contents: title: CONTENTS.; title: CHAPTER I.; title: THE ROMAN WORLD UNDER CONSTANTINE 1; title: Public recognition of three great facts, how far already made - Its relation to the career of Julian, (i) That the Government had become monarchic - System of Diocletian - Functionaries and ranks - Administration in dioceses and provinces - Separation of civil and military authority. (2) Rome no longer the one capital - Extension of citizenship - Importance of other great cities - Founding of a new Rome by Constantine - Failure of Diocletian's schemes of division - Conflicts which led to supremacy of Constantine. (3) Christianity the religion of the Empire - Last persecution under Diocletian - Religious policy of Constantius Chlorus and Constantine - Edicts of Toleration - Other laws in favour of Christians - Constantine's actions with regard to the Donatist and the Arian controversies - Athanasius and the Council of Nicaea - Arian reaction - Synod of Tyre - Athanasius demands justice - His changes of fortune - Effect of these controversies on the education and later position of Julian - General character of the period.; title: Notes.; title: CHAPTER II.; title: PARENTAGE OF JULIAN. HIS BIRTH AND CHILDHOOD. CAREER AND END OF HIS BROTHER GALLUS 24; title: Birth of Julian - His three names - His pedigree - Death of his mother - Family massacre on death of Constantine - Escape of Julian and Gallus - New division of empire - Civil strife - Death of the younger Constantine - Conflicts with the Sassanid kings - Sapor invades Mesopotamia - Battle of Singara - Revolts of Magnentius, Vetranio, and Nepotian - Death of Constans - Success of Constantius - Battle of Mursa - Constantius sole Emperor - His need of a colleague - Education of Gallus and Julian in Constantinople, Marcellum, etc. Julian instructed in Homer by Mardonius - Intercourse with maternal relations - Lonely youth - Gallus made Caesar and married to Constantina - Sent to Antioch - His failure - Domitian sent to make inquiries - Tumult, alleged conspiracy, severe punishments - Mission of Ursicinus - Death of Constantina - Reckless conduct of Gallus - He starts for Italy - Is put to death in Istria - Relations of the two brothers.; title: Notes on genealogical tree, etc.; title: CHAPTER III.; title: JULIAN'S ACADEMIC EDUCATION 48; title: Intellectual tastes and studious habits of Julian - Was he ever a Christian ? - Intellectual life of the great Asiatic cities - Of Athens - Character of a literary education at this time - Subjects of study - Predominance of rhetoric - Influence of Rhetoric on the study of literature, mathematics, medicine, law, and philosophy - Representative leaders of thought - Maximus and the theosophical circle at Pergamun - Libanius of Antioch - His career and character - Themistius - His works, his religious attitude - Christianity and Paganism in education - Student life in Athens - Lack of discipline - Its effects on Julian.; title: Notes.; title: CHAPTER IV.; title: JULIAN'S ELEVATION TO THE CAESARSHIP  73; title: Effects of fall of Gallus - Character of Constantius and of Eusebia - Influence of sycophants - Julian summoned to Milan - Exile to Como - Retirement to Athens - His life there - His personal appearance - Fresh troubles in the East - Disturbances on Rhine frontier - Constantius in Gaul - His campaign in Rhaetia - Revolt of Silvanus treacherously suppressed - Constantius feels the need of a colleague - Julian summoned from Athens to Milan - Mental struggles - He is made Caesar and marries Helen - Leaves for Gaul - News of fall of Agrippina - Winter in Vienne.; title: Notes, Helen and Eusebia, etc.; title: CHAPTER V.; title: JULIAN'S CAESARSHIP IN GAUL 94; title: Julian and his colleagues - Sphere of his authority and character of his task - His barbarian foes - Campaign of 336 - March to Autun, Rheims, and the Rhine - Recovery of fortresses - Of Cologne - Romans retire to Sens - Irruption of barbarians - Misconduct and recall of Marcellus - Julian's attention to judicial and financial affairs - His mode of life - Rhetorical compositions - Campaign of 337 - Julian thwarted by Barbatio - The Lseti attack Lyons - Julian tries to intercept their retreat - Restoration of Rhine fortresses - Great invasion of Allemanni - They are beaten at the battle of Strasburg - Advance into the enemy's country - Winter in Paris - Financial refgrms - Campaign of 338 - March towards the lower Rhine - Defeat of the Salian Franks and of the Chamavi - Communication with Britain restored - Recall of Sallust - Julian again crosses the Rhine - Successes - Campaign of 33Q - Fortress building and expedition into Germany - Submission of chiefs - remarkable nature of Julian's achievements.; title: Notes.; title: CHAPTER VI.; title: MILITARY MOVEMENTS IN EAST AND WEST. JULIAN BECOMES EMPEROR 117; title: Intimate connection between events in East and West - Rival interpretations of breach between Constantius and Julian - Constantius visits Rome - New regulations - Adornment of the city - Alarm from the Danubian provinces - Expedition (358) against Quadi and Sarmatians - Massacre of Limigantes - Renewed conflict - Negotiations with Sapor - Necessity of war - Revolt of Antoninus and expedition of Ursicinus into Mesopotamia - Loss of Amida - Demand of troops from Gaul - Difficult position of Julian - Objection raised by the soldiers - Farewell dinner at Paris - Tumultuous night - Julian saluted as Augustus - Alarm of the soldiers for his safety - Attempts at compromise - Julian addresses the soldiers and writes a letter of explanation to Constantius - His second (doubtful) letter - Answer of Constantius - The army rejects its terms - Further unsuccessful negotiations - Various views of Julian's conduct.; title: Notes.; title: CHAPTER VII.; title: WARS IN EAST AND WEST CONTINUED. DEATH OF CONSTANTIUS, AND THE BEGINNING OF JULIAN'S; title: REIGN AS SOLE AUGUSTUS M5; title: Reasons for delay on both sides - Persian war - Fall of Singara and of Phcenice - Constantius advances against Persians - His third marriage - Attempts to gain allies in the East and to secure Africa against Julian - Sapor retreats - Constantius turns westward - Campaign of j 6 o in Gaul - Subjugation of Attuarian Franks - Julian again crosses the Rhine - He assumes imperial insignia - Celebrates the Epiphany - Death of Helen - Letters written to Athens and other cities - Campaign of j6i - Expedition against Vadomar, a chief of the Allemanni - Julian's fifth crossing of the Rhine - He addresses the soldiers and marches eastward - Threefold march - Sirmium taken - The pass of Succi seized - Disaffection in Rome - Meeting at Sirmium - Unexpected death of Constantius - His melancholy career - The corpse brought to Constantinople - Julian enters the city and assists at the obsequies - End of mutiny - Julian's immediate objects - commission to punish offenders - Cases of just and of unjust punishment - Palace reforms - Favours to philosophers - Improvement of the city - Religious schemes.; title: Notes.; title: CHAPTER VIII.; title: JULIAN'S RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY  169; title: Difficulty of grasping Julian's religious position - Excuses made for his so-called apostasy - Influence of Arianism - Of defective religious education - Positive sides of his religion more important than negative - His ardent Hellenism - Attitude of early Christian teachers towards the pagan culture - Oriental elements in Julian's religion - Mithraicism - Its origin, development, and significance at this time - Cosmopolitan character of religion in the Roman Empire - Reasons for growth of Mithraicism - Julian's devotion to King Helios - Its connection with the other elements of his theology - With the theories of Neo-Platonism - Hierarchies and agencies - Absence of morality - Julian's attempts to rationalise and moralise the old mythology - Difficulty of the task.; title: Notes.; title: CHAPTER IX.; title: JULIAN AS RELIGIOUS REFORMER AND CONTROVERSIALIST 193; title: Destruction and reconstruction - Attempt to graft humane and moral ideas on pagan institutions - Four letters on religion to the priestess Callixena - Fragment to a priest, on duties of his office - Julian's ideal of the priestly life - To Arsacius, high-priest of Galatia - To a priest guilty of assault - Judgment of Gregory Nazianzen on Julian's reforms - Controversial writings against Christians - How far original? - Their present form - Different kinds of argument used by Julian in dealing with what is capable or incapable of examination - Hellenic and Jewish theories of Creation - Points in which Christians differed both from Jews and from Hellenes - Strictures on Jewish and Christian morals - Jewish and Christian worship - Julian's failure to understand the Christian stand-point.; title: Notes.; title: CHAPTER X.; title: JULIAN'S POLICY AGAINST THE CHRISTIANS 218; title: Religious toleration - Under what conditions possible - Indifference or laissez-faire - Julian's idea of the supreme importance of religious truth, and of his own responsibilities as ruler - Means of ascertaining his policy - His determination not to persecute - Limits to his toleration - Withdrawal of privileges from clergy - Restoration of temple property - Cases of iconoclasm - Equal indulgence to all sects - Effects on religious parties - Return of exiles - Varied career of Aetius of Antioch - Party conflict in Alexandria - Murder of Bishop George - Return of Athanasius - He is again exiled - Julian's letter to the Alexandrians - Julian's edict against Christian schoolmasters - Its effect - Indirect influence against Christianity.; title: Notes.; title: CHAPTER XI.; title: LEGISLATIVE LABOURS AND ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS 245; title: Practical and theoretical elements in Julian's character and work - Various sources of law in the Roman Empire - Julian's efforts towards judicial and financial reforms - His personal interest in administration and judicature - Laws to regulate appeals and facilitate fair trials - Laws to moderate public burdens - The public post - Attempts to check abuses of the system - Concessions of immunity to impoverished districts - Special exemptions - Endeavours to improve municipal organisations - Various laws - Policy towards the Jews - Project to rebuild the temple - Its mysterious failure - His probable design.; title: Notes.; title: CHAPTER XII.; title: LITERARY RECREATIONS. CONTROVERSY WITH THE CYNICS 268; title: Character of Julian's literary work - Chief remains - Verses on Beer and on the Organ. "The Caesars" - Sketch of the composition - Procession of Emperors - Contest and award - Oration "Against the Cynic Heraclius" - Objection to Cynic treatment of mythology - Julian's model allegory - Oration "To the Unmannerly Dogs" - Character and origin of Cynicism - Its chief features in this period - Why Julian disapproved it - Relations of Cynics and Christians.; title: Notes.; title: CHAPTER XIII.; title: JULIAN AND THE ANTIOCHENES 295 Preparation for Persian war - Julian crosses into Asia - He visits Nicomedia and Pessinus - His letter to Aristoxenus - Arrival at Antioch - Character of city and citizens - Intercourse of Julian and Libanius - Judicial measures - Dispute with Senators as to religious rites - Transference of bones of St. Babylas - Burning of temple at Daphne - Attempt to regulate price of corn - The Senate ordered into custody - Ineffectual relief measures and grants - Julian writes the Misopogon - Death of his uncle Julian - He leaves Antioch - Bitter feeling.; title: Notes.; title: CHAPTER XIV.; title: JULIAN'S PERSIAN CAMPAIGN, HIS DEATH 314; title: Julian's objects and plans - The fugitive prince Hormisdas - March to Bercea, Batnae, Hierapolis, Carrhae - Troops detached for Armenia - Advance down the valley of the Euphrates - Beginning of hostilities at Anatho - Difficulties of march - Storming of Pirisabora - Capture of Maogamalcha - The fleet brought from the Euphrates into the Tigris - Troops cross the Tigris - Decision not to blockade Ctesiphon - Julian strikes eastward - Great difficulties of march - Julian bums his ships - Progress towards the north - The Persian army appears - Harassing march - Indecisive battle - Truce - Omens - The march resumed - Sudden attack of Persians - Julian rushes against the enemy - His wound and death - History and tradition.; title: Notes.; title: CHAPTER XV.; title: OUTCOME OF JULIAN'S ENTERPRISE, HIS POSITION IN HISTORY 338; title: (i.) The East - State of the army - Election of Jovian as Emperor - Disastrous march and ignominious peace - Evacuation of Nisibis - Burial of Julian at Tarsus - Death of Jovian - Succession of Valentinian and Valens - Subsequent affairs in the East, (ii.) The West : unwise measures of Jovian - Valentinian revives the policy of Julian in Gaul - Results of Julian's work there, (iii.) Civil government : general wish to continue a policy of economy - Suspicious character of Valens - Rebellion of Procopius - Legislative policy of Julian continued, (iv.) Religious affairs - Restoration of Christian symbols and privileges, but not much persecution - Valentinian in favour of non-intervention - Different policy of Theodosius - Concluding survey of Julian's life and character.; title: Notes.