### substance | atom | isotope:

Carbon isotope
* are also very valuble for determining paleo-oxygen levels
  - fixed in different ratios by different primary producers in lakes
* demonstrate open grassland giving way to woodland.
* reveal soil organic matter dynamics following arid land shrub expansion.

Heavier isotope
* react slower than lighter isotopes of the same element.
* undergo beta-minus decay.
+ Isotope: Chemistry :: Nuclear physics
  * Heavier isotopes react slower than lighter isotopes of the same element. For heavier elements, the relative mass difference between isotopes is much less, and the mass effect is usually small.

Oxygen isotope
* are much easier to interpret than carbon isotopes.
* tell a similar story.

### substance | atom | isotope:

Radioisotope
* Many radioisotopes used in labs are beta emitters.
* Some radioisotopes emit a lot of energy as they decay.
* are isotopes
  - present in many fruits, including bananas and tomatoes, and in many types of wood
  - radioactive forms of naturally occurring elements
  - the centerpieces for recent advances in the treatment of cancer
* dating methods are notoriously unreliable.
* decay at a constant rate which can be determined experimentally
  - over time
  - using half-life minimizes costs and concerns in radioactive waste management
  - via a unimolecular elementary step
* guide surgical probes are used in a variety of clinical procedures.
* have important diagnostic and therapeutic uses in clinical medicine and research
  - many important uses in science and industry
* is an isotope
* play an important role in the study of the functions of a normal human body.
* produce radiation and are placed in or near a tumor or near cancer cells
  - can be placed in or near a tumor or near cancer cells
* undergoing alpha decay are a concern due to their tendency to cause soft errors.

### substance | atom | isotope:

Stable isotope
* All stable isotopes are capable of capturing thermal neutrons.
* analyses in human nutritional ecology.
* are a key tool in the broad area of biogeochemistry
  - useful tools for understanding the global budgets of many important trace gases
  - valuable tools for research on mineral bioavailability and metabolism
* can reveal directions, pathways and rates of waterflow in and out of reservoirs.
* have the potential to help clarify the role of fungi in ecosystem processes.
* records from otoliths as tracers of fish migration in a mangrove system.

Lithium atom
* Most lithium atoms have shells.
* Most lithium atoms undergo optical transitions

Neutral atom
* Most neutral atoms have charge
  - electron charge
* can form, atomic nuclei surround by electron clouds.
* contain an equal number of electrons around the nucleus as protons in the nucleus.
  - equal numbers of electrons and protons, and thus have no net electrical charge
* have the same number of positively charged protons as negatively charged electrons
  - protons and electrons
* interact only with photons of highly specific energies.

Nitrogen atom
* give off blue light.
* have five valence electrons.

Ordinary atom
* are in neutral charge, that means the number of protons and electrons are equal.
* consist of a number of electrons in orbit around an atomic nucleus.