Mutation
* All mutations result in the expression of protein on the surface of the HeLa cells.
* Many mutations affect only one family
  - are pleiotropic - they have more than one phenotypic effect
  - have little effect on an organism's phenotype, health, and reproductive fitness
* Most mutation affects gamete quality
  - growth
  - shapes
  - has evolution
* Most mutations are beneficial and help a species evolve
  - to the organism
  - caused by radiation or replication errors
  - deletions of one or several exons in the dystrophin gene
  - harmful and decrease the chance of survival
  - harmful, some have no effect on survival, and very few lead to new species
  - presumed to be neutral, having no effect on cellular behavior
  - the result of errors in the replication process
* Most mutations arise spontaneously
  - when some aspect of the sequence is changed
  - confer a beneficial biochemical trait to the bacterial cell
  - create a premature termination codon
  - disrupt the existing design of the organism and hence hinder reproduction
  - have no effect on the individual, but some mutations cause disease
  - observed by scientists are detrimental to the organism
  - occur in somatic cells and are lost when the individual dies
  - result in recessive genes
* Some mutation affects cell separation
  - chromosome inheritances
  - color
  - hair color
* Some mutation causes albinism
  - cancer
  - cell death
  - family cancer syndromes
  - genetic disorder
  - changes skin color
  - leads to genetic variation
* Some mutations actually cause life-threatening forms of low blood pressure in newborns
  - alter gene number or sequence
  - are harmless, but others can lead to cancer and birth defects
* Some mutations are in genes that code for proteins
  - silent areas of the gene and are never expressed
  - lethal and completely inhibit further viral replication
  - can be lethal if the allele is present as a double dose
* Some mutations cause cells in the imaginal disk to assume the wrong identity or to die
  - severe disease, and others cause more benign forms of the disease
  - create new alleles
  - do cause sufficient change in protein structure to affect fitness
  - frequently occur during meiosis
  - happen in genes
* Some mutations have little or no effect on the overall functioning of the cell
  - negligible effect on fitness, and are therefore effectively neutral
  - significant wavelength shifts and most suffer a loss of fluorescence intensity
  - occur in so-called regulatory genes
  - result in a reduced rate of hemoglobin synthesis
  - seem to be susceptible to kidney damage when fed pellets.
  * can happen for several reasons. Damage by radiation, or by certain chemicals may cause mutations, but they do occur occasionally at random
* accumulate in different types of sequences at different rates
  - over time
* act on the genes to bring about slow, gradual change, one gene at a time.
* adds new genotypes to the population, often causing cloud to spread.
* affect learning.
* affecting OR genes on the chromosome are primarily responsible for the evolution of smell
  - X-linked genes cause relatively common and often serious medical disorders
  - heart muscle contractile proteins cause hypertrophic disease
  - metamorphosis
  - transmissions
  - wing shapes
* afford the changes necessary for the evolution of dynamically adapted agents.
* allow for genetic variation.
* also accumulate with age
  - changes the electrostatic environment if the charge is changed
  - create what is called a genetic load which only tends to weaken a species
* alter nucleotide order which can alter gene expression or protein shape and function
  - the base code in an individual s genes and result in altered proteins
* alters phenotypes
* always cause the loss or damage of previously existing information
  - decrease an organism's fitness
  - occur at random across every genome
* appear in every living thing.
* are a huge source of variability between and within species
  - way to introduce new alleles into a population
  - accidental alterations of the genetic code in a cell
  - accidents in reproduction
  - almost always harmful or neutral in their effects
* are also a common occurrence in cyanobacteria cells
  - one way in which weed resistance to herbicides can occur
  - alterations in nucleotide sequences of DNA that code for genes
  - an alteration in the genetic instructions that shape the molecules of living systems
  - another name for changes in the genes that are passed on to offspring
  - at the heart of evolution
  - beneficial if the fitness of an individual is enhanced
* are changes in an organism's DNA that potentially affect the correct functioning of genes
  - genes, which are passed on to daughter cells
* are changes in genetic information that arise spontaneously
  - the DNA information
* are changes in the DNA sequence of a gene
  - that are inherited
  - sequencing that cause changes in DNA replication
* are changes in the genetic material
  - structure that are passed to offspring
* are changes to genes or chromosomes due to chance, but with predictable frequencies
  - the DNA code
  - chemical changes to DNA that produce variations in the genetic code
  - common occurrences even in healthy people
  - essential for to occur because they increase genetic variation
* are essential to evolution theory, but mutations can only eliminate traits
  - genetic 'hallucinations', and only the useful ones survive
* are heritable changes in an organism's genome
* are important because they increase variation within a species
  - in evolution because they cause variation within the gene pool
  - increased by mutagens, such as oxidative reactions or ultraviolet light absorption
  - inevitable in human reproduction
  - mathematically incapable of bringing about evolution
  - mistakes in the DNA sequence
* are mistakes in the genetic code on a chromosome
  - copying process
  - mostly harmful, yet beneficial ones are vital to evolutionary theory
  - never random in evolution
  - one source of variation in offspring
* are permanent changes in genes
  - the DNA sequence, and are the only source of new alleles
  - physical changes in genes and chromosomes
  - pretty common in natural populations
* are random changes in gene structure but they occur at a roughly predictable rate
  - rare, and cancer is epidemic
  - responsible for genetic diseases like cystic fibrosis
  - simply chemical changes to the DNA molecule
  - small, random, and harmful
  - so common that every human mutant many times over
  - sources of variations in offspring
  - sudden changes in characteristics, such as genes
* are the agent, the raw material, of evolutionary change
  - cause of variations within a breeding population
  - main source of all variation in a population
* are the only known source of new alleles that current evolutionary theory allows
  - way new alleles can be created
* are the original source of genetic diversity
  - variations in heritable traits
  - primary source of genetic variability because a mutation creates a new gene
* are the source of all new genetic material in a species
  - new genetic variation
* are the ultimate source of all genetic variation
  - antibiotic-resistance genes
  - new alleles in a gene pool
  - variation, upon which 'natural selection' acts
  - very important concept in Biology
  - what cause diversity
* arise in somatic cells.
* can 'improve' the existing species or lead to the evolution of completely new organisms
  - accumulate over long periods of time
  - advance or delay the maturation of individual tissues
  - affect genes that control the birth or death of cells
  - also arise spontaneously, relating to aging, behavior, and the environment
* can also be harmful or beneficial, such as one gene creating duplicate copies of itself
  - neutral to natural selection
  - change the timing of certain events
  - lead to speciation
* can also occur from exposure to radiation or chemicals over a man's life
  - through exposure to mutagens such as x rays and radioactivity
  - apply to both sexually and asexually reproducing organisms
  - arise during DNA replication in mitosis, just as they do in meiosis
  - be beneficial and result in new traits
* can be beneficial, neutral or harmful depending on the environmental conditions Kingdoms
  - neutral, or harmful for the organism, but are random
* can be harmful, beneficial, or have no effect
  - have no effect, or have a survival advantage
  - in the same or different genes
  - part of speciation, the process of forming new species
  - potentially harmful or helpful allele changes in gene pools
* can cause change in gene frequencies directly
  - colon cancer, one of the most common inherited cancer syndromes known
  - one allele to change into another allele
  - overproduction of growth factors
  - create, as well as destroy, splice donor and acceptor sites
  - either improve the organism and help the species' chance for survival or harm it
* can happen by chance when a cell is reproducing
  - in sexual reproduction to add to the diversity of the offspring
  - have a range of effects
  - include translocations of parts of chromosomes, inversions, duplications
  - increase genetic complexity in addition to modifying existing genes
  - lead to birth defects, miscarriages, or cancer
  - occur anywhere in the DNA and in any cell
* can occur at different locations on genes
  - sites within a gene
* can occur in any cell of the body, including the sperm and eggs
  - our cells at any time
  - naturally as a result of occasional errors in DNA replication
  - through errors in DNA replication or chromosome crossover
  - whenever a base is incorrectly copied during replication
  - swap the symbols in two random positions of the parent chromosome
  - t accidentally produce all the tissues and hormones necessary for functioning nipples
* cause information to be lost
  - plant structures to grow in unusual places, such as carpels in the place of sepals
  - various differences between the offspring and their parents
* causes absence
  - exponential changes in gene frequencies
  - negative effects
  - the organism to evolve into a more intelligent organism, like primates
* change gene product
  - in DNA , the hereditary material of life
* changes the allele values in some genes.
* confer a high risk of breast cancer.
* continual process of tiny changes that happen as cells copy themselves.
* create variation in the gene pool by causing new traits to appear over time.
* creates genetic variation.
* creates new alleles
  - genetic variation in a gene pool
* do much more than cause genetic disorders or cancers.
* eliminates general recombination and renders bacteria sensitive to UV light.
* generally occur in families with very early onset disease.
* happen to individuals.
* has consequences
  - nuclei
* increase the amount of variation among offspring.
* introduces new variation into a population
  - random changes to chromosomes
* involves changes that are literally unimaginable from the perspective of the future mutant.
* involving the beta chain are common in people of southern European extraction
  - rearrangement of the DNA nucleotides is caused in four distinct ways
* is an asexual operation, and usually plays a relatively minor role in the population
  - important mechanism of evolution, but crossover, is the heart of the matter
  - applied in combination with crossover
  - change in DNA sequence that is inherited by offspring
  - implemented by occasionally altering a random part of a chromosome
  - now the primary source of genetic variation
* is one of the forces that drives evolution, but crossover is equally important
  - great inventions of all nature, the master technique of all progress
* is the ONLY source of novel genetic material
  - fundamental source of genetic variation
  - only way new alleles are created within a population
  - original source of genetic variation
* is the primary source of all gene variation
  - random changing of individual genetic symbols
  - result of any change in DNA structure
  - source of all new genetic variation
  - spice of life
  - term used for a spontaneous change in a chromosome or gene
  - ultimate origin of genetic variation
* is the ultimate source of all variation
  - genetic variation, on which response to selection depends
  - the genetic variation that serves as raw material for evolution
  - whole point of sex
  - ultimate source of genetic variation
* is very important in the evolution and adaptation in asexually reproducing organisms
  - rare both in real life and in genetic algorithms
  - what causes aging and death
  - when the nucleotide sequence of an organism changes
* is, what makes the evolution continue and what caused the development of the species.
  - extreme obesity
  - non-functioning or abnormal proteins leading to disease
  - variation, raw material for evolution
* leads to conditions.
* limiting factor rather than a controlling factor in evolution.
* makes cells resistant to streptomycin.
* mechanism for evolutionary change, initiating new variations.
* natural and inevitable process
  - process that introduces permanent changes in a DNA sequence
* occur all the time in living organisms
  - at rates characteristic of loci , and the type of mutational change
  - during practically every cell division
  - in only fruit flies and molds
  - only when cells divide and produce inaccurate copies of genes
  - randomly, that is, any gene can undergo mutation at any time
  - through time
* occur when DNA molecules are exposed to agents known as mutagens
  - the genetic code of DNA changes and come in many different forms
* occur, life evolves and individuals and species adapt or die out at alarming rates.
* occurs depending what environment the species live in
  - in the cell's DNA, or genetic material
* often cause cancer and viral and bacterial resistance to antibiotics.
* prevents a population from correlating.
* probably exist in every gene within the human population.
* produce chaos with genetic accident after accident, most of which are eventually fatal
  - chaos, deformity and disability to already well organized animals
  - much of the variability on which natural selection operates
* provide random changes and natural selection concentrates the beneficial features.
* provide the basis for evolutionary change
  - variation that enables populations to evolve
* provides evidence
  - novel features
* random process and occurs independent of gene flow.
* resulting in high affinity haemoglobins result in impaired oxygen release.
* results in abnormal bone growth
* sudden, random, unwanted and heritable change in the organisms.
* takes much longer than sexual reproduction.
* unary operation which, given one sequence, generates a new one.
* usually occur only once in every ten million duplications of a DNA molecule.
+ Mutation, Consequences of mutation: Classical genetics :: Cell biology
  * Mutations are the ultimate source of variation, upon which 'natural selection' acts. What happens is that some mutations affect the organism's ability to live and reproduce. This is an important part of the theory of evolution. The amount of heritable variation carried by a population can be huge, and as a consequence natural populations have the capacity to change and adapt to conditions in their environment.