omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Fusion torch. A fusion torch is a technique for utilizing the high-temperature plasma of a fusion reactor to break apart other materials (especially waste materials) and convert them into a few reusable and saleable elements. It was invented in 1968 by Bernard J. Eastlund and William C. Gough while they were program managers of the controlled thermonuclear research program of the United States Atomic Energy Commission (AEC). The basic concept was to impinge the plasma leaking from fusion reactors onto solids or liquids, vaporizing, dissociating and ionizing the materials, then separating the resulting elements into separate bins for collection. Other applications of fusion plasmas such as generation of UV and optical light, and generation of hydrogen fuel, were also described in their associated 1969 paper.

How it works

The process began with a tokamak, a doughnut-shaped magnetic "bottle", containing plasma and unwanted material. This combination would result in a pool of electrons and nuclei which in turn would cause the tokamak to overflow and transfer the plasma into an outlet. This plasma then passes through a series of metal plates, differing in particular temperatures, all arranged in descending order. The atoms of elements pass over the plates with boiling points above their own. Eventually, the atoms encounter plates where the temperature is lower than their boiling point. This makes them stick onto the plate. The plates then work as a distillation system which sorts the plasma into its constituent elements. These pure elements can then be reused.

1969 paper

In the paper "The Fusion Torch – Closing the Cycle from Use to Reuse", Bernard J. Eastlund and William C. Gough defined population (food), entropy (resources, energy, pollution), and war (human needs and behavior) as three traps that could hamper the advancement of mankind.

In terms of energy needs they estimated that by the year 2000 they would need 140,000 megawatts of electrical capacity. They also speculated that the fusion torch concept would be useful for the separation of uranium from reactor fuel element material.

References

Further reading 
"" by Bernard J. Eastlund and William C. Gough, USAEC Report Wash 1132, May 15, 1969

Nuclear technology
1968 in science
1968 introductions
Erwin Raisz. Erwin Raisz (1 March 1893, Lőcse, Hungary – 1 December 1968, Bangkok, Thailand) was a Hungarian-born American cartographer, best known for his physiographic maps of landforms.

Early life and education
Born in  Lőcse, Hungary (now part of Slovakia) in 1893, Raisz was the son of a civil engineer who introduced him to maps through his work. He received his degree in civil engineering and architecture from the Budapest University of Technology and Economics (Royal Polytechnicum) in Budapest in 1914.

Career
Raisz served in the army during World War I, and emigrated to New York in 1923. He worked for the Ohman Map Company while studying for his 1929 Ph.D. at Columbia University. He offered a course in cartography while a student, one of the first such in the United States.

In 1931 he joined the Institute of Geographical Exploration at Harvard University, where he taught cartography and was curator of the map collection for 20 years. He created a significant body of work using hand-drawn pen-and-ink techniques, which during that period were largely being replaced by photo-mechanical processes and scribing. Because they were hand-drawn, his maps and graphics have a distinctive look to them, unique to his hand.

He was author of the first cartography textbook in English, General cartography (1938).

Raisz is best known for his physiographic maps, which describe landforms using his "orthoapsidal" Armadillo projection (essentially a small-scale variation on an isometric projection). Created for continents, nations and states, they form a solid corpus of work whose use continues today. Raisz Landform Maps, operated by his family, continues to publish much of his work.

Later life and death
He travelled extensively for his work and died in Bangkok on December 1, 1968, en route to present a paper at the 11th International Geographical Congress meeting in New Delhi.

Sources
Biography of Raisz on the Raisz Landform Maps web site.
Designerati: Cartographers - Erwin Raisz

 ICC-Preconference-Workshop: Atlases and Infographics, Tokyo, 2019/07/13 Erwin Raisz‘ Atlases – an early multi-method approach to cartographic communication, by Eric Losang of Leibniz Institute fur Landerkunde (Leibniz Association)

Bibliography
.

References

American cartographers
Harvard University faculty
1893 births
1968 deaths
Hungarian cartographers
Columbia University alumni
Hungarian emigrants to the United States
Austro-Hungarian military personnel of World War I
20th-century cartographers
Hand mould. A hand mold is a simple mold used for low quantity work. It is used in the injection molding and printing industries.
It is made by a hand injection molding machine. It is a simple machine which contains a barrel, handle, nozzle, mold and heaters.

Printing
In the printing industry, a hand mold specifically refers to a two-part mold used for casting hand-made type. Inside the mold is a matrix.

In particular, it refers to a system for casting movable type, pioneered by Johannes Gutenberg, which was widely used in the early era of printing in Europe (15th-16th century).

In this method, the type was made by punching a letter-shaped cavity in a matrix made of some soft metal (typically copper).  Then this matrix would be held in the lower part of the mold, the upper part would close on it, and molten type metal would be poured into the cavity.  Using the hand mold, the printer could quickly make any additional type he might need.

Injection molding
In injection molding, hand molds refer to simple molds that have no provision for heat, cooling, or ejection. This means when a hand mold is cycled universal heating plates are required to warm the molds and the molds must be removed after each cycle to remove the moldings. This drastically increases the cycle time, which limits it to short runs, but to offset this is the low cost of the mold. They are usually single cavity molds, but may be multi-cavity if the molding is quite small. They are usually only of a two or three plate design because of the simplicity of the parts. If only a short run is required then the molds may be made from aluminum or brass, but if more parts are required then they are made from conventional steels.

Bullet casting
Hand cast bullets remain popular with the handloading, muzzleloading and small custom ammunition loading communities. In a tradition dating back to the beginning of firearms, molds matched to the bore (and the chamber for breech loading weapons) are custom made for each weapon. Anywhere from one to six cavities are carved into the molding block, along with appropriate gates and sprues. As the blocks are now usually made out of aluminum, which does not allow lead alloys to stick, only a small amount of parting compound is needed.

References

Casting (manufacturing)
Plastics industry
Printing terminology
Typography
William Hale (British inventor). William Hale (21 October 1797 – 30 March 1870), was a British inventor and rocket pioneer.

Biography 

Hale was born in Colchester, England in 1797. He was self-taught although his grandfather, the educator William Cole, is believed to have tutored him. By 1827 he had obtained his first patent; he also won a first class Gold Medal of the Royal Society of Arts in Paris for his paper on ship propulsion using an early form of jet propulsion.

Hale was inducted into the International Space Hall of Fame in 2004.

Rocketry 

In 1844, Hale patented a new form of rotary rocket that improved on the earlier Congreve rocket design. Hale removed the guidestick from the design, instead vectoring part of the thrust through canted exhaust holes to provide rotation of the rocket, which improved its stability in flight.

These rockets could weigh up to  and were noted for their glare and noise on ignition.

Hale rockets were first used by the United States Army in the Mexican–American War of 1846–1848. Although the British Army experimented with Hale rockets during the Crimean War of 1853–1856 they did not officially adopt them until 1867. In the American Civil War of 1861-1865 the Union forces deployed the Hale rocket launcher, a metal tube that fired  long spin-stabilized rockets up to . It was only generally used by the U.S. Navy.

References

Bibliography 
 Frank H. Winter, The First Golden Age of Rocketry: Congreve and Hale Rockets of the Nineteenth Century, (Washington and London: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990), p. 321 illus.

External links

19th-century British inventors
1870 deaths
1797 births
Early rocketry
Stanley Wardley. Stanley Gordon Wardley (13 January 1901 – 15 February 1965) was a British civil engineer and urban planner. He was City Engineer for Bradford during the major redevelopment of Bradford city centre in the 1950s and 1960s. Although generally favourably received during his lifetime, his reshaping of Bradford has since been extensively criticised and undone in large part.

Biography

Wardley was born on 13 January 1901 in Hendon. He was appointed City Engineer and Surveyor for Bradford in January 1946.

Wardley House, the building that houses the National Media Museum among other things, was named after him.

Redevelopment

Wardley's vision was for a new city 'with provision for a continuous self-regulating flow of traffic', and the buildings that were erected were modernist. The local sandstone was rejected as a building material. Many much-loved buildings were demolished to make way for the 'city of the future', and there was eventually considerable opposition. J. B. Priestley and David Hockney were among those who protested in vain against the demolition of the Swan Arcade in 1962.

In 2005 one of the icons of Wardley's redevelopment, Forster House, was demolished as part of the 'Broadway development' (see Forster Square, Bradford). Other recent changes have seen reversals of 1960s planning in Bradford, e.g. filling in of pedestrian under-passes and promotion of traffic-calming measures, and attempts to promote residential use of the city centre, as opposed to 1960s zoning.

References

See also
Urban planning

Alumni of University College London
1901 births
1965 deaths
British civil engineers
John Dodds (engineer). John Mathieson Dodds OBE (13 September 1905 – 15 October 1983) was a Scottish electrical engineer.  He was educated at the University of Aberdeen and at the Technische Hochschule, Aachen, where he won a Dr Ing. in 1933.

Dodds worked in the Research Department of Metropolitan-Vickers Electrical Co. in Trafford Park, Manchester. While at Metropolitan-Vickers, Dodds developed high-power thermionic valves. These valves were used in the transmitter part of equipment for radar stations for defence (Chain Home system), thereby making a significant contribution to Britain's survival in World War II. He was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 1944 Birthday Honours.

References

Further reading
Brown, Jim, Radar - how it all began,  .
Dodds, JM and Ludlow, JH (1946), Journal of the IEE, 93, Part IIIA, pp 1123–1129.
Swords, Sean S (1986),  Technical History of the Beginnings of Radar, pp 209, 270.
Watson-Watt, Robert (1957), Three Steps to Victory. Photograph of JMD.

Officers of the Order of the British Empire
Scottish electrical engineers
Alumni of the University of Aberdeen
RWTH Aachen University alumni
1905 births
1983 deaths
Metropolitan-Vickers people
Radar pioneers
People from Aberdeen
Fingrid. Fingrid Oyj is a Finnish national electricity transmission grid operator. It is owned by the Finnish state (53.1%) and various financial and insurance institutions (46.9%).

In 2011, power companies Fortum Power and Heat Oy and Pohjolan Voima sold their stakes in Fingrid (25% each), because of EU Internal Market Directive in Electricity, which requires that power production and ownership of the transmission systems should be separate. The transmission from and to the Russian network was interrupted by the Russian side on May 13, 2022.

See also

Energy in Finland
European Network of Transmission System Operators for Electricity (ENTSO-E)

References

External links
 

Companies based in Helsinki
Electric power transmission system operators in Finland
Energy companies established in 1996
Government-owned energy companies
Government-owned companies of Finland
Cauzin Softstrip. Cauzin Softstrip was the first commercial 2D barcode format.  Introduced in 1985, it could store up to 1000 bytes per square inch, which was 20 to 100 times more than the bar codes of the day. It was designed for paper data storage, to allow magazines to distribute computer programs by simply printing a pattern on a page. Several computer magazines printed Softstrip data that encoded program source listings, or even executable programs. It is now known as Datastrip code.

Softstrip format never became very popular for program distribution. It was intended to replace the tedium of entering type-in programs from magazines, but the format encoded less than a thousand bytes per square inch, which meant that large files took up a lot of space in a magazine.  The bar codes didn't work well if the magazine ink was smeared; and the reader hardware was relatively expensive at around US$200. The high cost of the unit and the added demands placed on publishers led to a chicken or egg dilemma between supply and demand where magazines were reluctant to publish listings in Softstrip format until there was a sizable user base, and users waited for the bar codes to become common in magazines before buying the unit.

More recently, other applications for the code have been developed, including its use on identification cards and similar documents to encode text and biometric data.

Reception
"The system works beautifully", David Tebbutt of Personal Computer World wrote in January 1987, "but, at the UK price of £200, I'm having a devil of a job deciding who could justify the price". He concluded that until a compelling business use appeared for it, Softstrip was "'all dressed up, with nowhere to go'".

See also
 QR codes

References

Further reading

External links 
 Photos of a Cauzin Softstrip Reader
 Brief history of the Softstrip format
 Investigation and reproduction of the format in modern times
 Reverse Engineering The Cauzin Softstrip 
 

Barcodes
Computer storage media
Paper data storage
Libdmc. Libdmc  is a library designed at the LIP6  laboratory. Its goal is to ease the distribution of existing model checkers. It has also been designed to provide the most generic interfaces, without sacrificing performance, thanks to the C++ language.

Model checking offers a way to automatically prove that a modeled system behavior is correct by verifying properties. However, it suffers from the so-called state space explosion problem, caused by an intensive use of memory. Many solutions have been proposed to overcome this problem (e.g. symbolic representations with decisions diagrams - like BDD) but these methods can rapidly lead to an unacceptable time consumption.

Distributed model checking is a way to overcome both memory and time consumptions by using aggregated resources of a dedicated cluster. However, re-writing an entire model checker is a difficult task, so the approach of libdmc is to give a framework in order to construct a model checker.

References 

Model checkers
HMS Crossbow (D96). HMS Crossbow was a  of the Royal Navy that was in service from 1948 and scrapped in 1972.

Service
On commissioning in 1948 Crossbow formed part of the 6th Destroyer Flotilla (later Squadron), as part of the Home Fleet, along with the other Weapon-class destroyers. In 1953 she took part in the Fleet Review to celebrate the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II. In 1955 she was replaced in the 6th Destroyer Squadron by .

In 1957 all of the Weapon class were taken into refit and conversion to re-equip them as radar pickets, to supplement the new s. Crossbow was converted at Chatham Dockyard. The conversion involved the removal of both sets of torpedo tubes and the erection of an additional lattice mast, which carried a large Type 965 Radar (AKE -1 aerial). Crossbow re-commissioned in 1959 and was then allocated to the 2nd Destroyer Squadron. She was present at Chatham Navy Days in April 1960.

Decommissioning and disposal
In 1963 Crossbow was reduced to operational reserve and three years later relieved the destroyer  as the harbor training ship for the shore establishment . She was replaced in that role by the destroyer  early in 1970. She was placed on the disposal list and sold to Thos. W. Ward for scrapping and arrived at their yard at Briton Ferry on 21 January 1972.

References

Publications
 
 

Weapon-class destroyers
1945 ships
Cold War destroyers of the United Kingdom
Ships built by John I. Thornycroft & Company
Almus Dam. Almus Dam (Almus Barajı in Turkish) is an earthen embankment dam that is near the town of Almus (28 kilometers East of Tokat city in center north of Turkey) and is located on the River Yesilirmak which runs into the Black Sea. The main purposes of the dam are irrigation, flood control and hydroelectricity. The hydroelectric power plant (established in 1966) at the dam has a capacity of 27 megawatts (three facilities at 9 megawatts each). The dam contains  of material and irrigates an area of 21,350 hectares. The dam's spillway is capable of discharging a maximum  and its bottom outlet a maximum of .

References

A
Hydroelectric power stations in Turkey
Dams completed in 1966
Lino Guzzella. Lino Guzzella, born in 1957, is a binational (Swiss and Italian) professor at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich, Switzerland. He has been a full Professor of Thermotronics in the Department of Mechanical and Process Engineering at the institute for dynamic systems and control (IDSC) since 1999. In his research, Lino Guzzella works on modelling and model-assisted optimisation and control of energy technology and mechatronic systems.

Professor Guzzella's team designed the PAC-Car II, a hydrogen fuel cell vehicle that won the Energy Globe Award in November 2005. According to the team's calculations, the car used the equivalent of one litre of petrol to travel 5385 km.

His ultimate goal would be to create zero-emission cars, stating that the real challenge lies in reducing costs of hydrogen and developing its production from renewable sources.

In 2006, Prof. Guzzella appeared as a guest panellist, along with BT futurist Ian Pearson, space tourist Anousheh Ansari and renowned American astronaut Buzz Aldrin on the CNN Future Summit: World in Motion programme, presented by Richard Quest in Singapore. The programme first aired on 23 November 2006 from Singapore.

In December 2011, the ETH Zurich Professors' Conference elected Lino Guzzella as Rector to the ETH Executive Board, responsible for education, for a period of four years, starting on 1 August 2012. From January 2015 he led the ETH as its new president until the end of 2018, when Joël Mesot took over.

Prof. Guzzella authored three books. Two were published with Springer, namely, Modeling and Control of Internal Combustion Engine Systems with Christopher Onder and Vehicle Propulsion Systems with Antonio Sciarretta. The third one, Analysis and Synthesis of Single-Input/Single-Output Control Systems, was published by vdf Hochschulverlag.

References

External links 
 Prof. Guzzella's profile on the ETH Webpage
 Website of Prof. Guzzella's research group
 ETH media release -  Lino Guzzella will be Rector of ETH Zurich, published 12.03.2012

Swiss mechanical engineers
Italian mechanical engineers
Academic staff of ETH Zurich
Living people
21st-century Italian engineers
20th-century Italian engineers
20th-century Swiss engineers
21st-century Swiss engineers
1957 births
Berke Dam. Berke Dam () is concrete arch-gravity dam built on the Ceyhan river in southern Turkey. There is a hydroelectric power plant, established in 2001 at the dam, with a power output of 510 MW (three facilities at 170 MW each). "Technical Data" Tunnels             = Water Intake Tunnel: 7200 meter; Highway Access Tunnel: 4300 meter & Grouting galleries; HRT: 6200 meter

References

External links

Hydroelectric power stations in Turkey
Dams completed in 1999
Dams on the Ceyhan River
1999 establishments in Turkey
Abmho. Abmho or absiemens is a unit of electrical conductance in the centimetre gram second (CGS-EMU) system of units. It corresponds to one gigasiemens (inverse nanoohm).

The CGS-EMU units are one of several systems of electromagnetic units that are subsystems of the centimetre–gram–second system of units, which include CGS-ESU, Gaussian units, and Heaviside–Lorentz units. The abmho is not a unit of any these other systems.

References

Electricity
Hessian crucible. A Hessian crucible is a type of ceramic crucible that was manufactured in the Hesse region of Germany from the late Middle Ages through the Renaissance period. They were renowned for their ability to withstand very high temperatures, rapid changes in temperature, and strong reagents. These crucibles were widely used for alchemy and early metallurgy.  Millions of the vessels were exported throughout Europe, Scandinavia, and the colonies in the Americas. The crucibles were made by firing kaolinitic clay at temperatures greater than 1100°C, forming mullite. Mullite is an aluminum silicate only described in the 20th century and is responsible for the excellent properties of the Hessian crucible.
Main production centre of the Hessian crucibles was the village of Großalmerode.

References

Alchemical tools
Laboratory equipment
Laboratory porcelainware
Analytical chemistry