omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Master aircrew. Master aircrew (MAcr) is the warrant-officer rank held by aircrew in the Royal Air Force. It is equivalent to warrant officer in other trades, and is effectively the highest non-commissioned aircrew rank. It has a NATO rank code of OR-9.

People holding this rank used to be referred to by different titles depending on their specialisation: 
 Master Signaller (MSig)
 Master Engineer (MEng)
 Master Air Electronics Operator (MAEOp)
 Master Air Loadmaster (MALM). 

This rank is the sole survivor of a system of separate ranks for aircrew which existed between 1 July 1946 and 1950 (another system for technical staff existed between 1950 and 1964). Other designations, such as master pilot and master navigator, once existed, but now these specialisations are only held by officers.

The badge of rank is a small version of the Royal Arms (as worn by a warrant officer) with an eagle below, all surrounded by a wreath. Master aircrew receive a warrant signed by the Secretary of State for Defence.

New Zealand
The Royal New Zealand Air Force used the rank until June 2007 when the Master Aircrew rank reverted to Warrant Officer.

See also
RAF enlisted ranks

References

Military ranks of the Royal Air Force
Warrant officers
Sterling Newberry. Sterling Price Newberry (August 10, 1915 – January 28, 2017) was an American inventor and microscopist. He was born in Springfield, Missouri. Newberry invented the shadow X-ray microscope and was one of the founders of the Microscopy Society of America. He turned 100 in August 2015 and died in January 2017 at the age of 101.

The first X-ray microscopes had used grazing off lenses at a very low angle to focus X-ray images. The images, however, were blurry from diffraction. While working on an alternate approach for General Electric, a technician came to him with a badge. The technician did not believe there were X-Rays in the machine, he had taken his warning badge, with X-ray film, and placed a bit of screen wire on it. He pulled the badge out and saw the exposed screen wire pattern on it. He also saw another screen wire pattern, however, far smaller and finer. Newberry recognized that the fine pattern was the screen wire mounting for the specimen, but it was 400-to-the-inch wire and it had been magnified by expansion of the shadow. This gave him the insight he needed to create a working commercial microscope, placing the specimen very close to a point source of X-rays and then further back a photographic plate. The "shadow" of the specimen would be under-exposed, that is X-ray dark, on the plate. This process is similar to medical X-rays, except that the microscope uses a point source for clarity whereas a medical x-ray tends to use a much larger x-ray source to avoid distortion.

References

External links
  Early electron microscope
  Microscopy Society of America

1915 births
2017 deaths
20th-century American inventors
American men centenarians
People from Springfield, Missouri
Riabouchinsky solid. In fluid mechanics a Riabouchinsky solid is a technique used for approximating boundary layer separation from a bluff body using potential flow.  It is named after Dimitri Pavlovitch Riabouchinsky.

Riabouchinsky solids are typically used for analysing the behaviour of bodies moving through otherwise quiescent fluid (examples would include moving cars, or buildings in a windfield).

Typically the streamline that touches the edge of the body is modelled as having no transverse pressure gradient and thus may be styled as a free surface after separation.

The use of Riabouchinsky solids renders d'Alembert's paradox void; the technique typically gives reasonable estimates for the drag offered by bluff bodies moving through inviscid fluids.

References

Fluid dynamics
Russian inventions
IBM 740. The IBM 740 CRT Recorder was announced in 1954 and used with the IBM 701, IBM 704, and IBM 709 computers to draw vector graphics images, point by point, on 35 mm photographic film (i.e. microfilm). The 740 film recorder contained digital-to-analog converters and a 7-inch, high precision, electrostatic CRT. The raster size was 1,024 by 1,024, but only 256 resolved spots could be displayed on a vertical or horizontal line. Points could be displayed in one of two intensities, and a line could be drawn from a point, vertically or horizontally, to the edge of the display to form an axis.

Each point to be displayed was stored in a single 36-bit word, with 10 bits each for the X and Y coordinates, and 3 control bits, one to set either high or low intensity and two to indicate that an X or Y axis is to be drawn starting from the given point. If both the X and Y axis bits were set, a 45-degree line was drawn.

The 740's CRT used a short persistence P11 phosphor. The film used was 35 mm and was stored in a magazine that could hold up to 100 feet. ASA 200 speed film was recommended. The film could be advanced under computer control.

The IBM 780 CRT Display was a monitor that could be attached to the 740 and mirror to an operator what was being drawn on 740's CRT. The 780 had a 21-inch CRT with a longer persistence (2 second, nominal) P7 phosphor.

See also
IBM 2250
Phosphor#Standard phosphor types

References
IBM 709 Data Processing System, Form A22-6501-0, 1958, p. 106ff.
IBM Archive article about the 740

External links
CRT Phosphor Characteristics

740
Display 740
History of human–computer interaction
CogPrints. CogPrints is an electronic archive in which authors can self-archive papers in any area of cognitive science, including psychology, neuroscience, and linguistics, and many areas of computer science (e.g., artificial intelligence, robotics, vision, learning, speech, neural networks), philosophy (e.g., mind, language, knowledge, science, logic), biology (e.g., ethology, behavioral ecology, sociobiology, behaviour genetics, evolutionary theory), medicine (e.g., psychiatry, neurology, human genetics, imaging), anthropology (e.g., primatology, cognitive ethnology, archeology, paleontology), as well as any other portions of the physical, social and mathematical sciences that are pertinent to the study of cognition.

CogPrints  is moderated by Stevan Harnad.  The archive was launched in 1997 and now contains over 2000 freely downloadable articles. 

Some cite CogPrints, along with the physics archive arXiv as evidence that the author self-archiving model of Open Access can work—although under the influence of the Open Archives Initiative and its OAI-PMH, the emphasis in self-archiving has since moved away from such central repositories in the direction of distributed self-archiving in Institutional Repositories.
CogPrints was first made OAI-compliant, and then the software was converted into the EPrints software at the University of Southampton by Rob Tansley who then went on to design DSpace. EPrints is now maintained by Christopher Gutteridge at Southampton.

See also
 List of academic databases and search engines
 List of preprint repositories

References
 Borgman, Christine L (2007) Scholarship in the digital age: information, infrastructure, and the Internet. MIT Press
 Butler, Declan (2000) Souped up search engines. Nature 405: 112–5 
 Carr, L., Swan, A. and Harnad, S. (2011) Creating and Curating the Cognitive Commons: Southampton’s Contribution. In: Curating the European University, pp. 193–199, Universitaire Pers Leuven
 Hall, Gary (2008) Digitize this book!: the politics of new media, or why we need open access now. Wilsted & Taylor
 Van de Sompel, Herbert, Thomas Krichel, Michael L. Nelson et al. (2000) The UPS Prototype: An Experimental End-User Service across E-Print Archives. D-Lib Magazine 6(2).

External links
 
 Web Archive

Eprint archives
Open-access archives
Bibliographic databases and indexes
Climate Change Levy. The Climate Change Levy (CCL) is a tax on energy delivered to non-domestic users in the United Kingdom.

Scope and purpose
Introduced on 1 April 2001 under the Finance Act 2000, it was forecast to cut annual emissions by 2.5 million tonnes by 2010, and forms part of the UK's Climate Change Programme. The levy applies to most energy users, with the notable exceptions of those in the domestic and transport sectors. Electricity from nuclear is taxed even though it causes no direct carbon emissions. Originally electricity generated from new renewables and approved cogeneration schemes was not taxed, but the July 2015 Budget removed this exemption from 1 August 2015, raising £450m/year.

Rates
From when it was introduced, the levy was frozen at 0.43p/kWh on electricity, 0.15p/kWh on coal and 0.15p/kWh on gas.

A reduction of up to 90% from the levy may be gained by energy-intensive users provided they sign a Climate Change Agreement.

Revenue from the levy was offset by a 0.3% employers' rate reduction in National Insurance. However, the Finance Act 2002 subsequently increased that rate by 1%, reversing the reduction. The revenue used to fund a number of energy efficiency initiatives such as The Carbon Trust. However, revenue recycling was removed at the Spending Review 2010, with the revenue going to the Exchequer.  

In the 2006 budget it was announced that the levy would in future rise annually in line with inflation, starting from 1 April 2007. In the 2018 Budget, it was announced that the rates of the Climate Change Levy would be adjusted until 2022 so that the gas rate reaches 60% of the electricity rate in 2021 to 2022.  

Rates have changed as tabulated below.

See also
Climate change in the United Kingdom
Environmental tax
Energy policy of the United Kingdom
Energy in the United Kingdom
Renewables Obligation (United Kingdom)

References

Further reading

External links
HMRC – Climate Change Levy in depth

Taxation in the United Kingdom
Climate change policy in the United Kingdom
2001 introductions
European multilateral defence procurement. European multilateral defence procurement refers to the collective armaments purchasing policies of European nations.

European countries hope to establish a profitable export competing the American one.

Industry
In 2015, the German Krauss-Maffei Wegmann (KMW) and French Nexter merged under a joint holding company KMW+Nexter Defense Systems. Both companies are major producers of military land systems. 

Other major European defence contractors include:
Airbus Defence and Space
Airbus Helicopters
Dassault Aviation
Damen Group
Diehl Defence
Kongsberg Defence & Aerospace
Leonardo S.p.A., including the former AgustaWestland
Naval Group
Navantia
Rheinmetall
Rolls-Royce
Saab Group
Safran
Thales Group
ThyssenKrupp Marine Systems

Products
Then British Prime Minister Tony Blair came under pressure from President Bill Clinton to select Raytheon's future missile to arm the Eurofighter, however the UK government selected the European Meteor air-to-air missile.

Airbus Group CEO Tom Enders has called the difficulties in coordinating European investment in the A400M program a "horror", and said "I am determined, at least for my company, not to ever again walk into such a program".

French President Emmanuel Macron and German Chancellor Angela Merkel have signalled their countries intention to co-operate on the development of a future combat aircraft to be produced as a replacement for Dassault Rafale and Eurofighter Typhoon.

Code of Conduct on Defence Procurement 
The European Union has adopted a code of conduct with the objective to inject transparency and competition into the military procurement. It is administered by the EDA and under its scope are contracts under Article 346 of TFEU, of at least €1 million and with the exclusions of weapons of mass destruction, cryptographic equipment and other procurements.

As of 2009 the code is adopted by Norway and all EDA members except Romania, who may join later.

See also 
 OCCAR
 European Border and Coast Guard Agency
 Common Security and Defence Policy
 European Defence Fund
 Permanent Structured Cooperation
 European Defence Agency

References

External links
 The British Library - finding information on the defence industry (PDF file) 

Procurement
Military acquisition
Carl Perkins Bridge. The Carl D. Perkins Bridge is a cantilever bridge that spans the Ohio River between Washington Township, Scioto County, Ohio and South Portsmouth, Greenup County, Kentucky.  The bridge carries the two lanes of State Route 852 and Truck Route U.S. Highway 23.  The bridge connects to Kentucky Route 8.

History
In July 1978, inspections of the original U.S. Grant Bridge found serious deterioration in its suspension cables. The bridge was closed to traffic and was rehabilitated over an 18-month period. With future traffic projected to increase compounded with a decline in level of service on the original U.S. Grant Bridge, the Kentucky Department of Transportation (KYDOT) and the Ohio Department of Transportation (ODOT) agreed to begin planning for a new bridge. The 1978 Surface Transportation Assistance Act authorized the construction of a new bridge across the Ohio River in Portsmouth. In the environmental impact statement, it was decided the new bridge would be located  downstream from the U.S. Grant Bridge.

The bridge opened on January 28, 1988. It is named after the late Carl D. Perkins, Congressman from the 7th District of Kentucky.

During the demolition of the original U.S. Grant Bridge and the construction of its replacement upstream, it was the only highway bridge connecting Ohio to Kentucky at Portsmouth. The Perkins Bridge also served as a detour for U.S. Highway 23 during this time period.

See also

 List of crossings of the Ohio River

References

External links

Carl Perkins Bridge at Bridges & Tunnels

Bridges completed in 1988
Bridges over the Ohio River
Bridges in Greenup County, Kentucky
Transportation in Scioto County, Ohio
Buildings and structures in Scioto County, Ohio
Road bridges in Kentucky
Road bridges in Ohio
U.S. Route 23
Bridges of the United States Numbered Highway System
Cantilever bridges in the United States
XIO. XIO is a packet-based, high-performance computer bus employed by the SGI Origin 2000, Octane, Altix, Fuel and Tezro machines. The XIO forms a bus between high-performance system devices and the memory controller.

XIO is usually used in a star topology, using a router ASIC called Crossbow (Xbow) to connect up to eight fully symmetrical devices in a system (one of them is usually the memory controller / CPU bridge, called HEART in Octane or Hub in Origin). Other devices known to have XIO interfaces are:
 BRIDGE: XIO to PCI-64 bridge (Octane, Origin)
 XBRIDGE: XIO to PCI-X bridge (Altix)
 HQ4: command processor of ImpactSR cards (Octane)
 KTOWN: frontend for InfiniteReality2 cards (Onyx, Origin variation)
 XC: Crosstown converter
 BUZZ: "OpenGL-on-a-Chip" ASIC used in ODYSSEY/VPro graphics (V6/V8/V10/V12)

The XIO employs two source-synchronous channels (one in each direction), each 8 or 16 bits wide. They are clocked at 400 MHz to achieve peak rates of 800 MB/s (i.e. in megabytes). Each of the devices can utilize the full bandwidth, as the XBow router prevents collisions by being able to route between any two points.

Transfer is organized into micropackets. These contain a total of 128 bits of data and 32 bits of control. The control information encapsulates an 8 bit sideband (used by higher layers for framing), sequence numbers (for go-back-n link-layer retransmissions) and check bits (CRC-16).

It is probable that XIO uses STL (which SGI likes to call SGI transistor logic) low-voltage single-ended I/O standard. CrossTown is a version of XIO utilizing PECL for differential I/O standard (like NUMAlink) for longer connections.

Higher-level encapsulation differs from NUMAlink (like used to connect HUB chips in Origin-series machines). It is well suited for short memory transactions.

XIO uses very delicate compression connectors, which should be handled with extreme care.

References

Computer buses
Reaction Motors XLR99. The Reaction Motors LR99 engine was the first large, throttleable, restartable liquid-propellant rocket engine. Development began in the 1950s by the Reaction Motors Division of Thiokol Chemical Company to power the North American X-15 hypersonic research aircraft. It could deliver up to  of thrust with a specific impulse of  or  at sea level. Thrust was variable from 50 to 100 percent, and the restart capability allowed it to be shut down and restarted during flight when necessary.

Design and development
The engine is propelled by liquid oxygen and anhydrous ammonia, pumped into the engine by turbopumps at a mass flow rate of over  per minute.

After one hour of operation, the XLR99 required an overhaul. Operating times nearly twice that were recorded in tests, but declared largely unsafe. The basic X-15 aircraft carried fuel for about 83 seconds of full-powered flight, while the X-15A-2 carried fuel for just over 150 seconds. Therefore, each XLR99 was capable, in theory, of between 20 and 40 flights before an overhaul.

Like many other liquid-fuel rocket engines, the XLR99s used regenerative cooling, in that the thrust chamber and nozzle had tubing surrounding it, through which the propellant and oxidizer passed before being burned. This kept the engine cool, and preheated the fuel. The basic engine has a mass of .

Operational history
The LR-99 was used exclusively to power the X-15 research aircraft after initial trials that used a pair of Reaction Motors XLR11s.

Applications
 North American X-15

Variants
XLR99-RM-1 prototype engines for initial testing and flight trials.
YLR99-RM-1 Service test engines fitted to X-15s for later flights.

Specifications (YLR-99-RM-1)

See also
 Reaction Motors XLR11

References

External links

 Reaction Motors XLR99 Rocket – National Museum of the United States Air Force
 XLR-99

Aircraft rocket engines
Rocket engines of the United States
Rocket engines using the gas-generator cycle
Bare-metal restore. Bare-metal restore is a technique in the field of data recovery and restoration where the backed up data is available in a form that allows one to restore a computer system from "bare metal", i.e. without any requirements as to previously installed software or operating system.

Typically, the backed up data includes the necessary operating system, applications and data components to rebuild or restore the backed up system to an entirely separate piece of hardware. In some configurations, the hardware receiving the restore needs to have an identical configuration to the hardware that was the source of the backup, although virtualization techniques and careful planning can enable a bare-metal restore to a hardware configuration different from the original.

Disk imaging applications enable bare-metal restores by storing copies (images) of the entire contents of hard disks to networked or other external storage, and then writing those images to other physical disks. The disk image application itself can include an entire operating system, bootable from a live CD or network file server, which contains all the required application code to create and restore the disk images.

Examples of software used for bare-metal recovery
The dd utility on a Linux boot CD can be used to copy file systems between disk images and disk partitions to effect a bare-metal backup and recovery. These disk images can then be used as input to a new partition of the same type but equal or larger size, or alternatively a variety of virtualization technologies as they often represent a more accessible but less efficient representation of the data on the original partition.

The IBM VM/370 operating system provides a command by the name of "ddr," for disk dump and restore. It is a bit by bit backup of a hard drive to a specified media, typically tape, but many choices exist. 

Microsoft introduced a new backup utility (Wbadmin) into Windows Server 2008 family of operating system in 2008 which has built-in support for bare-metal recovery. Users of this software can also recover their system to a Hyper-V virtual machine.

Microsoft updated the Windows Recovery Environment features in the Windows 8 family of operating system to be set up to provide built-in support for bare-metal recovery.

Microsoft Windows Server 2012 (R2) offers built-in Bare-Metal-Recovery.

Comparison with other data backup and restoration techniques 
 Bare-metal restore differs from local disk image restore where a copy of the disk image, and the restoration software, are stored on the computer that is backed up.
 Bare-metal restore differs from simple data backups where application data, but neither the applications nor the operating system are backed up or restored as a unit.

See also
 Comparison of disk cloning software

References 

Backup
Backup software
Qualification. Qualification may refer to:

Processes 
 Qualifications-Based Selection (QBS), a competitive contract procurement process established by the United States Congress
 Process qualification, ensures that manufacturing and production processes can consistently meet standards during commercial production
 Qualification principle, in programming language theory, the statement that syntactic classes may admit local definitions
 Pre-qualification (lending), a process by which a lending institution estimates how much it is willing to lend to a borrower

Credentials
 Professional qualification, attributes developed by obtaining academic degrees or through professional experience
 Qualification badge, a decoration of People's Liberation Army Type 07 indicating military rank or length of service
 Qualifications for professional social work, professional degrees in social work in various nations
 Qualification types in the United Kingdom, various levels of academic, vocational or skills-related education achievements
 International Qualification Examination, taken by foreign accountants to become a Certified Public Accountant in the United States
 School leaving qualification, academic qualification awarded for the completion of high school in various times and countries
 Scottish Vocational Qualification, certificate of vocational education in Scotland

Sports
 :Category:Qualification for sports events
 World Cup qualification (disambiguation)

See also
 Qualification problem, the impossibility of listing all the preconditions required for an action to have its intended effect
 
 

Former disambiguation pages converted to set index articles
List of EDA companies. A list of notable electronic design automation (EDA) companies.

Existing companies

Software companies

FPGA companies

Electronics distribution companies

Development communities

Defunct companies

See also
 List of items in the category Electronic Design Automation companies
 Comparison of EDA software
 Cadence Design Systems: Acquisitions and mergers
 Synopsys: Acquisitions, mergers, spinoffs

References

Lists of technology companies
CATS (software). CATS (Computer Aided Transcription System) is an EDA software for mask data preparation (MDP) in integrated circuit design and manufacturing.

CATS receives tape out data output from the integrated circuit physical design step, most commonly in GDSII format, processes it, and converts into data that control the fabrication of photomasks used to manufacture the designed IC. CATS software tools generate photomask layers from input design layers and allow users to inspect the input and output data and verify  its accuracy.

Originally it was developed by Transcription Enterprises, Ltd, acquired by Numerical Technologies, Inc. (2000). At the moment of acquisition, it was an industry standard for MDP operations, such as mask fracturing and  mask inspection, with about 95% of market share. In its turn, Numeritech was acquired by Synopsys, Inc. (2003).

References 

Electronic design automation software