omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
James Beaumont Neilson. James Beaumont Neilson (22 June 1792 – 18 January 1865) was a Scottish inventor whose hot-blast process greatly increased the efficiency of smelting iron.

Life
He was the son of the engineer Walter Neilson, a millwright and later engine wright, who had been a partner of David Mushet in Calder Ironworks, Glasgow.  He was born in Shettleston and was trained as an engine wright.  After the failure of a colliery at Irvine he was appointed foreman of the Glasgow Gasworks in 1817 at the age of 25.  Five years later he became the manager and engineer there, a position he held for 40 years.

While trying to solve a problem with a blast furnace at Wilsontown Ironworks, Neilson realized that the fuel efficiency of the furnace could be increased by blowing it with hot air, rather than cold air, by passing it through a red-hot vessel.  Experiments were continued at Clyde Iron Works, leading to his forming a partnership with Charles Macintosh and others to exploit it.  Patents were obtained for the system in 1828.

Experimentation showed that a temperature of 600°F reduced fuel consumption to a third of that with cold blast, and enabled raw coal to be used instead of coke, with a further cost saving.  It also enabled the exploitation of black band ironstone, the use of which had previously proved unprofitable.

In the early 1830s. Neilson successfully sued those who adopted his methods without licence.  After that, Neilson and his partners licensed it widely at one shilling per ton iron made, a level low enough to discourage evasion. The royalties were initially low, but by 1840 were producing £30,000 per year from 58 ironmasters.

Certain infringers were intransigent. Between 1839 and the expiry of the patent in 1842 a considerable number of proceedings were brought. Neilson v Baird was heard in the Court of Session in 1843, in a trial lasting 10 days and costing £40,000.  Further proceedings against Baird ended in the award of damages of £160,000.

Neilson retired from Glasgow Gasworks in 1847. He bought an estate on Bute. Later he bought an estate at Queenshill, near Kirkcudbright, where he died.  He is buried in the family mausoleum at Tongland Kirkyard. His son, Walter Montgomerie Neilson, erected Neilson's Monument to his memory on the hill at Queenshill in 1883.

Both in Glasgow and near Kirkcubright, he founded institutions for the education of working men.

William Neilson, James's brother, founded the Glasgow engineers and locomotive manufacturers Neilson and Company, in 1836, partly financed by James. James's son Walter took over the running of the firm in 1843.

See also
 Neilson v Harford

References

External links
James Beaumont Neilson from Memoirs and portraits of one hundred Glasgow men (1886)

1792 births
1865 deaths
Scottish inventors
People of the Industrial Revolution
Engineers from Glasgow
Fellows of the Royal Society
James Beaumont
Businesspeople from Glasgow
19th-century Scottish businesspeople
People from Shettleston
Power Marketing Administration. The Power Marketing Administration (PMA) is a United States federal agency within the Department of Energy responsible for marketing hydropower, primarily from multiple-purpose water projects operated by the Bureau of Reclamation, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and the International Boundary and Water Commission.

The federal government first assumed a role in power marketing in the early 1900s when power from federal water projects in excess of project needs was sold in order to repay the government's investment in the projects.

The Southeastern Power Administration is the only PMA that doesn't construct and own transmission lines, putting it at a disadvantage with regards to dealing with private utility companies compared to the other three PMAs. The SEPA has to contract with other utilities to provide transmission.

There are four federal PMAs, which market and deliver power in 34 U.S. states:
 Bonneville Power Administration (established 1937)
 Southwestern Power Administration (established 1943)
 Southeastern Power Administration (established 1950)
 Western Area Power Administration (established 1977)

A fifth PMA, the Alaska Power Administration, existed from 1967 to 1998. In 1995 Congress passed a law authorizing the sale of the two hydroelectric power projects in the APA, the Eklutna Hydroelectric Project and the Snettisham Hydroelectric Project, to private companies. It also authorized the termination of the APA.

References

United States Department of Energy
Institute of High Pressure Physics of the Polish Academy of Sciences. Institute of High Pressure Physics, also known as Unipress (Polish: Instytut Wysokich Ciśnień Polskiej Akademii Nauk) is a scientific institute founded in 1972 by the Polish Academy of Sciences (PAN).

Main fields of activity
 Biological materials
 Food preservation
 High-pressure instrumentation
 Nanocrystalline materials
 Optoelectronics
 Semiconductors
 Superconductors

Notable people
 Sylwester Porowski

References

External links
 

1972 establishments in Poland
Organizations established in 1972
Institutes of the Polish Academy of Sciences
2,2,2-Trifluoroethanol. 2,2,2-Trifluoroethanol is the organic compound with the formula CF3CH2OH. Also known as TFE or trifluoroethyl alcohol, this colourless, water-miscible liquid has a smell reminiscent of ethanol. Due to the electronegativity of the trifluoromethyl group, this alcohol exhibits a stronger acidic character compared to ethanol.

Synthesis
Trifluoroethanol is produced industrially by hydrogenation or the hydride reduction of derivatives of trifluoroacetic acid, such as the esters or acyl chloride.

TFE can also be prepared by hydrogenolysis of compounds of generic formula CF3−CHOH−OR (where R is hydrogen or an alkyl group containing from one to eight carbon atoms), in the presence of a palladium containing catalyst deposited on activated charcoal. As a co-catalyst for this conversion tertiary aliphatic amines like triethylamine are commonly employed.

Properties
Trifluoroethanol is used as a specialized solvent in organic chemistry. Oxidations of sulfur compounds using hydrogen peroxide are effectively conducted in TFE.

It competitively inhibits alcohol dehydrogenase for example.

TFE forms complexes with Lewis bases such as THF or pyridine through hydrogen bonding, yielding 1:1 adducts. It is classified as a hard Lewis acid and its acceptor properties are discussed in the ECW model yielding EA = 2.07 and CA = 1.06.

TFE can be used in biochemical experiments to stabilize alpha helix. There are also stable beta sheets in TFE, suggesting that TFE stabilizes the secondary structure the sequence has a preference for.

Reactions
Oxidation of trifluoroethanol yields trifluoroacetic acid. It also serves as a source of the trifluoroethoxy group for various chemical reactions (Still-Gennari modification of HWE reaction).

2,2,2-Trifluoroethyl vinyl ether, an inhaled drug introduced clinically under the tradename Fluoromar, features a vinyl ether of trifluorethanol. This species was prepared by the reaction of trifluoroethanol with acetylene.

Safety
Trifluoroethanol is classified as toxic to blood, the reproductive system, bladder, brain, upper respiratory tract and eyes. Research has shown it to be a testicular toxicant in rats and dogs.

See also 
Trifluoromethanol

References

External links 
 Halocarbon Fluorochemicals 
 United States Patent number 4,647,706 "Process for the synthesis of 2,2,2-Trifluoroethanol and 1,1,1,3,3,3-Hexafluoroisopropanol"

Halogenated solvents
Primary alcohols
GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators
Glycine receptor agonists
Sedatives
Hypnotics
Fluoroethanols
Trifluoromethyl compounds
Inter-working function. The inter-working function (IWF) is a method for interfacing a wireless telecommunication network with the public switched telephone network (PSTN). The IWF converts the data transmitted over the air interface into a format suitable for the PSTN.

IWF contains both the hardware and software elements that provide the rate adaptation and protocol conversion between  PSTN and the wireless network.
Some systems require more IWF capability than others, depending on the network which is being connected. The IWF also incorporates a "modem bank", which may be used when, for example, the GSM data terminal equipment (DTE) exchanges data with a land DTE connected via analogue modem

The IWF provides the function to enable the GSM system to interface with the various
forms of public and private data networks currently available.
The basic features of the IWF are:
 Data rate adaption
 Protocol conversion

References

Wireless networking
Telephony
Minatec. Minatec (initially called the Micro and Nanotechnology Innovation Centre) is a research complex specializing in micro/nano technologies in Grenoble, France.

The center was inaugurated in June 2006 by François Loos, French Minister Delegate for Industry, as a partnership between LETI (the Electronics and Information Technologies Laboratory of CEA, the French Atomic Energy Commission) and by Grenoble Institute of Technology (Université Grenoble Alpes). The site was already home to LETI,  Europe's top center for applied research in microelectronics and nanotechnology. Minatec combines a physical research campus with a network of companies, researchers, and engineering schools. It was launched to foster technology transfer, with applications in energy and communications.
 
The complex is home to 3,000 researchers, 1,200 students, and 600 technology transfer experts on a 20-hectare campus offering 10,000 square meters for cleanroom space. It offers a continuum that includes student technology transfer, industry, and applied research.

The Minatec campus has dedicated special-events facilities (900 m²), including a 20-person conference rooms and a 400-seat amphitheater. These spaces are available to researchers for their scientific events such as the international conference held every two years.

Minatec includes fundamental research labs like INAC and FMNT, plus a major technological research lab, Leti. MINATEC also cooperates with the INSTITUT NÉEL and RTRA, which are located nearby.

Funding 
Minatec represents an investment of 193.5 million euros between 2002 and 2005, mainly paid by local authorities and the CEA.

See also 
Polygone Scientifique

References

External links

Research institutes in France
Microtechnology
Nanotechnology institutions
Educational institutions in Grenoble
Grenoble Institute of Technology
Science and technology in Grenoble
Organizations established in 2006
2006 establishments in France
Johnson Boat Works. Johnson Boat Works was a builder and developer of racing sailboats of the scow design in White Bear Lake, Minnesota. It was founded in 1896, by John O. Johnson who had emigrated from Norway in 1893. After working with Gus Amundson for three years, Johnson started his own boat-building business in 1896. His first major success was the "Minnezika" a 38 ft scow design which won the championship on White Bear Lake in 1900.  This sailboat was the beginning of the A-Class.  As more classes were founded, Johnson moved on to B's, C's, D's, and E's. 

Johnson was commissioned to build the 16 ft X-Boat for youth in the 1930s. Johnson designed the J-Scow in the mid-1950s which was converted to the MC. Through the years, the boat builder built Optis and 420s. In 1994, the builder brought out the Johnson 18. In 1998, two years after JBW turned 100 years old, the family sold the company. The scow molds were sold to their competitor Melges Boat Works (now called Melges Performance Sailboats) in Wisconsin. The other molds, including the Johnson 18 mold, were sold to Catalina Yachts in California. The repair and storage part of the company was sold to a family member who renamed the company White Bear Boat Works.

References

 White Bear Boat Works and the history of Johnson Boat Works. Retrieved August 29, 2005.

Johnson Boat Works
River Don Engine. The River Don Engine is a 1904-built steam engine used for hot rolling steel armour plate. It is a 3-cylinder simple engine of  diameter,  stroke. At its operating steam pressure of 160psi, it developed , and was able to reverse from full speed in 2 seconds. The rapid reverse was an essential feature of an engine used for rolling, as delays would result in cooling of the workpiece. This engine was one of four built to the same design, one going overseas to the Japanese Government, one to John Brown's Atlas plant, one to William Beardmore of Glasgow and one which stayed in Sheffild at Cammell's mill. It is claimed to be one of the most powerful steam engines ever built, and the most powerful remaining in Europe.

The River Don Engine worked for over 50 years at Cammell's mill before being moved first to British Steel's River Don plant (hence its name) and then in 1978 to its present home at the Kelham Island Museum, Sheffield. The engine was last used for commercial work in the 1970s, to roll out reactor shield plates for nuclear power plants.

The engine is normally regularly demonstrated at the museum, without load, and under 100 psi of steam pressure. It had to be taken out of service following the floods of July 2007, which extensively damaged the museum and parts of the engine, but was restored to working order in 2008.

References

External links
New Kelham Island Museum Blog
Kelham Island Museum page

Preserved stationary steam engines
Giovanni Giorgi. Giovanni Giorgi (November 27, 1871 – August 19, 1950) was an Italian physicist and electrical engineer who proposed the Giorgi system of measurement, the precursor to the International System of Units (SI).

Early life
Giovanni Giorgi was born in Lucca on November 27, 1871.

Career
Giorgi studied engineering at the Institute of Technology of Rome, he worked at Fornaci Giorgi in Ferentino, then was the director of the Technology Office of Rome between 1905 and 1924. He also taught at the University of Rome between 1913 and 1939. During World War II he moved to Ferentino. He was an Invited Speaker of the ICM in 1924 in Toronto, in 1928 in Bologna, and in 1932 in Zurich.

Personal life
He was engaged to Laura Pisati, his former master's student who became the first woman invited to deliver a lecture at the fourth International Congress of Mathematicians (ICM), but she died in 1908 shortly before both her talk and their intended wedding.

Death
Giorgi died on August 19, 1950, in Castiglioncello, Livorno at the age of 78.

The Giorgi system
Toward the end of the 19th century, after James Clerk Maxwell's discoveries, it was clear that electric measurements could not be explained in terms of the three base units of length, mass and time, and that some irrational coefficients appeared in the equations without any logical physical reason. In 1901, Giorgi proposed to the  (AEI) that the MKS system (which used the metre, kilogram and second as its base units) should be extended with a fourth unit to be chosen from the units of electromagnetism, solving also the presence of the irrational coefficients.

In 1935 this was adopted by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) as the M.K.S. System of Giorgi without specifying which electromagnetic unit would be the fourth base unit. In 1946 the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) approved a proposal to use the ampere as that unit in a four-dimensional system, the MKSA system.

The Giorgi system was thus the precursor of the International System of Units (SI) adopted in 1960, which was based on six base units: metre, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, and candela. The mole was added as a seventh base unit in 1971.

Works

Notes

References
 
 

1871 births
1950 deaths
Italian electrical engineers
20th-century Italian physicists
Metrologists

nl:Giovanni Giorgi
M. Frank Rudy. Marion Frank Rudy (24 January 1925 – 13 December 2009) was an American aeronautical engineer and inventor, most known for patenting what would become the Nike Air Sole.

Early life and education 

Rudy was born in Cleveland, Ohio and raised in Fairview Park, Ohio.

He was a graduate of Fairview High School and Case Western Reserve University's class of 1950, majoring in mechanical and aeronautical engineering.  He was also a member of the Phi Kappa Tau fraternity.

Career 

Rudy's first job after graduation was with NASA, where he worked on projects for the Saturn and Apollo rocket engines.

With a slow down in the space industry in 1969, Ruby, an avid skier, took a job at Nike Inc. in Oregon.  In 1977, Rudy designed a cushioning system based on an inert gas encapsulated in polyurethane plastic. The first shoe to implement the technology would be the Nike Air Tailwind in 1978. The design was ultimately trademarked by Nike as the "Air" sole. 

Throughout his career, Rudy ultimately held more than 250 patents.

Death 

Rudy died in his home in California on December 13, 2009. He was 84 years old.  Rudy is buried in San Fernando Mission Cemetery.

Legacy

The 19 varsity athletic teams at his alma mater, Case Western Reserve Spartans, wear a special patch on their uniforms commemorating him and his invention.   The emblem has Rudy's initials, MFR, with a 3D design of special texture and shine to resemble inflated air sole look, and has orbiting planets pay tribute to his career as an aerospace engineer.

References

American aerospace engineers
Case Western Reserve University alumni
1925 births
2009 deaths
Nike, Inc. people
People from Fairview Park, Ohio
Engineers from Ohio
20th-century American engineers
20th-century American inventors
Neville Robinson. Frank Neville Hosband Robinson (13 April 1925 – 19 October 1996) was an English physicist.

Neville Robinson was educated at The Leys School in Cambridge, England, and Christ's College, Cambridge, where he studied Physics.

Robinson initially worked as a civil servant at the Services Electronic Research Laboratory (SERL) in Baldock, Hertfordshire, under the director Robert Sutton. He then moved to the Clarendon Laboratory at Oxford University to undertake a DPhil doctorate degree in low temperature physics, as a Nuffield Research Fellow (1950–54). With Jim Daniels and Michael Grace, he produced an example of nuclear orientation for the first time. Then in 1951, in the first nuclear cooling experiment, he produced the lowest temperature ever achieved until then at only ten millionths of a degree Kelvin above absolute zero.

Robinson was an English Electric Research Fellow from 1955 to 1959. He was a faculty fellow at Nuffield College, Oxford, from 1958 to 1961, immediately followed by becoming a founding fellow of St Catherine's College, Oxford, where he stayed until his retirement in 1992. He was also a senior research officer at Oxford University during 1959 to 1992, working at the Clarendon Laboratory. During his career, he visited Bell Telephone Laboratories in New Jersey, United States, three times while on sabbatical leave (during 1954–55, 1965–66, and 1973–74).

In 1973, Robinson published the book Macroscopic Electromagnetism, a standard text. His paper Microwave shot noise and minimum noise factor was awarded the Clerk Maxwell Prize in 1954 by the British Institution of Radio Engineers. Importantly, he invented the Robinson oscillator in the field of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR), which now forms the underlying basis of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) systems used in many hospitals.

Family
Robinson married Daphne Coulthard in 1952. They had three children including the doctor Natasha Robinson, author Andrew Robinson and the diplomat Vicky Bowman. He died of a heart attack, aged 71, in Colmar, France.

References

External links
 Books by Neville Robinson from Amazon.co.uk

1925 births
1996 deaths
People from West Bromwich
People educated at The Leys School
Alumni of Christ's College, Cambridge
Alumni of Nuffield College, Oxford
English civil servants
English nuclear physicists
Fellows of Nuffield College, Oxford
Fellows of St Catherine's College, Oxford
Scientists at Bell Labs
Airlines (video game). Airlines is a construction and management simulation game created by Interactivision for MS-DOS and published by Take-Two Interactive in 1994. The object of the game is to successfully set up an airline by buying aircraft, planning routes, setting ticket prices and dealing with events such as hostage and oil crises. The game has 4 airlines, a minimum of one of which is human controlled. The game begins with the year set as 1970 and as time progresses more aircraft models become available, corresponding with their first flights in reality. The aircraft in the game used real aircraft names, illustrations and model specifications.

Gameplay

Legacy
In October 2002, Interactivison released Airlines 2 with 110 aircraft types, 250 airports with 15 possible regions to start with, and more than 300 routes.

See also 
 Air Bucks
 Aerobiz
 Airline Tycoon
 Airport Tycoon

References 

1994 video games
Business simulation games
DOS games
DOS-only games
Take-Two Interactive games
Video games developed in Denmark
Video games set in 1970
Thomsonite. Thomsonite is the name of a series of tecto-silicate minerals of the zeolite group. Prior to 1997, thomsonite was recognized as a mineral species, but a reclassification in 1997 by the International Mineralogical Association changed it to a series name, with the mineral species being named thomsonite-Ca and thomsonite-Sr.  Thomsonite-Ca, by far the more common of the two, is a hydrous sodium, calcium and aluminium silicate, NaCa2Al5Si5O20·6H2O.  Strontium can substitute for the calcium and the appropriate species name depends on the dominant element. The species are visually indistinguishable and the series name thomsonite is used whenever testing has not been performed.  Globally, thomsonite is one of the rarer zeolites.

Thomsonite was first identified in material from Scotland in 1820.  It is named for the Scottish chemist Thomas Thomson.  The crystal system of thomsonite is orthorhombic.  The Mohs hardness is 5 to 5.5.  It is transparent to translucent and has a density of 2.3 to 2.4.  It may be colorless, white, beige, or somewhat green, yellow, or red.  The crystals tend to be long thin blades that typically form radial aggregates, and sometimes fans and tufts.  The aggregates are variable and  may be spikey in appearance, dense and ball-like, or form worm-like growths.  Tight acicular radiating clusters and sphericules are common forms.

Thomsonite occurs with other zeolites in the amygdaloidal cavities of basaltic volcanic rocks, and occasionally in granitic pegmatites.  Examples have been found in Faroe Islands (var. Faroelite), Scotland, Arkansas, Colorado, Michigan, Minnesota, New Jersey, Oregon,  Ontario, Nova Scotia, India, and Russia.

Nodules of massive thomsonite that display an attractive banded coloring are found along the shore of Lake Superior.  Most of these thomsonite nodules and their derived pebbles are less than 0.6 cm (1/4 inch). Those enclosed in basalt are extremely difficult to remove without breaking them.  Consequently, a very large percentage of those used as gemstones are from pebbles collected from beaches.

References

Mindat Thomsonite-Ca
Webmineral Thomsonite-Ca
IMA Zeolite Classification
R. V. Dietrich, Thomsonite

External links

Structure type THO

Tectosilicates
Zeolites
Orthorhombic minerals
Minerals in space group 52
Minerals described in 1820
Ultraviolet-sensitive bead. Ultraviolet-sensitive beads (UV beads) are beads that are colorful in the presence of ultraviolet radiation.  Ultraviolet rays are present in sunlight and light from various artificial sources and can cause sunburn or skin cancer.  The color change in the beads alerts the wearer to the presence of the radiation.

When changing colour they undergo photochromism.

When the beads are not exposed to ultraviolet rays, they are colorless and either translucent or opaque. However, when sunlight falls onto the beads, they instantly turn into red, orange, yellow, blue, purple, or pink.

References

Beadwork
Craft materials
Jewellery components
Ultraviolet radiation