omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen. "Über die von der molekularkinetischen Theorie der Wärme geforderte Bewegung von in ruhenden Flüssigkeiten suspendierten Teilchen" () is the 1905 journal article, by Albert Einstein,  that proved the reality of atoms, the modern understanding of which had been proposed in 1808 by John Dalton. It is one of the four groundbreaking papers Einstein published in 1905, in Annalen der Physik, in his miracle year.

In 1827, botanist Robert Brown used a microscope to look at dust grains floating in water. He found that the floating grains were moving about erratically; a phenomenon that became known as "Brownian motion". This was thought to be caused by water molecules knocking the grains about. In 1905, Albert Einstein proved the reality of these molecules and their motions by producing the first statistical physics analysis of Brownian motion. French physicist Jean Perrin used Einstein's results to experimentally determine the mass, and the dimensions, of atoms, thereby conclusively verifying Dalton's atomic theory.

Before this paper, atoms were recognized as a useful concept, but physicists and chemists hotly debated whether atoms were real entities. Einstein's statistical discussion of atomic behavior gave experimentalists a way to count atoms with an ordinary microscope. Wilhelm Ostwald, one of the leaders of the anti-atom school of energeticism, later told Arnold Sommerfeld that he had been converted to a belief in atoms by Einstein's complete explanation of Brownian motion.

The paper also provided the best way up to that time of estimating the Avogadro constant—the corrected value from Einstein's paper was accurate to one significant figure.

References

External links
 
 

1905 in science
1905 documents
Works by Albert Einstein
Physics papers
Works originally published in Annalen der Physik
Lithol Rubine BK. Lithol Rubine BK is a reddish synthetic azo dye. It has the appearance of a red powder and is magenta when printed.  It is slightly soluble in hot water, insoluble in cold water, and insoluble in ethanol. When dissolved in dimethylformamide, its absorption maximum lies at about 442 nm. It is usually supplied as a calcium salt.  It is prepared by azo coupling with 3-hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid.
It is used to dye plastics, paints, printing inks, and for textile printing. It is normally used as a standard magenta in the three and four color printing processes.

When used as a food dye, it has E number E180. It is used to color cheese rind, and it is a component in some lip balms.

References

Azo dyes
Food colorings
Inks
Calcium compounds
Benzenesulfonates
2-Naphthols
Naphthoic acids
E-number additives
Rosenmund reduction. The Rosenmund reduction is a hydrogenation process in which an acyl chloride is selectively reduced to an aldehyde. The reaction was named after Karl Wilhelm Rosenmund, who first reported it in 1918.

The reaction, a hydrogenolysis, is catalysed by palladium on barium sulfate, which is sometimes called the Rosenmund catalyst. Barium sulfate has a low surface area which reduces the activity of the palladium, preventing over-reduction. However, for certain reactive acyl chlorides the activity must be reduced further, by the addition of a poison. Originally this was thioquinanthrene although thiourea has also been used. Deactivation is required because the system must reduce the acyl chloride but not the subsequent aldehyde. If further reduction does take place, it will create a primary alcohol which would then react with the remaining acyl chloride to form an ester.

Rosenmund catalyst can be prepared by reduction of palladium(II) chloride solution in the presence of BaSO4. Typical reducing agent is formaldehyde.

While Rosenmund reduction method can be used to prepare several aldehydes, formaldehyde cannot be prepared, as formyl chloride is unstable at room temperatures.

See also
 Lindlar catalyst - Palladium on calcium carbonate with added catalytic poison, similar to the Rosenmund catalyst
 Grundmann aldehyde synthesis - Also reduces an acyl halide to an aldehyde, via the use of diazomethane
 Diisobutylaluminium hydride (DIBALH) can also reduce acid chlorides to aldehydes.
 Stephen aldehyde synthesis - Nitriles to aldehydes via reduction

References

Further reading
 
 

Organic redox reactions
Name reactions
DME. DME may refer to:

Chemicals
 DME (psychedelic), 3,4-dimethoxy-beta-hydroxyphenethylamine, a psychedelic drug
 Dimethoxyethane, a solvent
 Dimethylethanolamine, a precursor molecule for C-choline
 Dimethyl ether, a fuel and an aerosol spray propellant

Medicine
 Diabetic macular edema
 Durable medical equipment

Technology
 Dashtop mobile equipment
 Diastatic malt extract, used in home-brewing
 Distance measuring equipment, used in aviation
 Dropping mercury electrode, used in polarography
 ICL Direct Machine Environment, an operating system

Transport 
 Delhi–Mumbai Expressway, in India
 Dakota, Minnesota and Eastern Railroad
 Disney's Magical Express, at Walt Disney World
 Moscow Domodedovo Airport, serving Moscow, Russia

Other uses
 Design Management Europe Award
 DME Academy, in Daytona Beach, Florida
 Dubai Mercantile Exchange
 Ɗugwor language
 United States District Court for the District of Maine
 Durium Marche Estere, a sub-label of Durium Records
Sylwester Porowski. Sylwester Andrzej Porowski (born April 7, 1938 in Bierzyn, Lower Silesian Voivodeship), is a Polish physicist specializing in solid-state and high pressure physics. He is the Co-Director and Board Member of The Institute of High Pressure Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences in Warsaw.

In 2001 Professor Porowski's team built the blue semiconductor laser, a pioneering feat in the study of optoelectronics.

Porowski was awarded Prize of the Foundation for Polish Science in 2013 for developing a high-pressure method for producing gallium nitride monocrystals.

References

External links
 Unipress Website

1938 births
Living people
People from Strzelin
20th-century Polish physicists
University of Warsaw alumni
Polish inventors
Tony Tebby. Tony Tebby is a computer programmer and the designer of Qdos, the computer operating system used in the Sinclair QL personal computer, while working as an engineer at Sinclair Research in the early 1980s. 

He left Sinclair Research in 1984 in protest at the premature launch of the QL, and formed QJUMP Ltd., a software house specializing in system software and utilities for the QL, based in Rampton, Cambridgeshire, England.

Prior to this, he worked at the Philips Research Laboratories in Redhill, Surrey where he worked on realtime image processing, using electronic hardware rather than software. At that time, software would have been either a batch program on the PRL mainframe computer or, within the departmental laboratory, the Commodore PET.

Among the software developed by QJUMP was SuperToolkit II, a collection of extensions to Qdos and SuperBASIC; a Qdos floppy disk driver which became the de facto standard for the various third-party floppy disk interfaces sold for the QL; and the QJUMP Pointer Environment, which extended the primitive display windowing facility of Qdos into something approaching a full GUI. Tebby also received a commission to write a Qdos-like operating system for the Atari ST; this was called SMS2.

Tebby later moved to Le Grand-Pressigny, France, but continued his involvement in the QL user community. In the early 1990s, he developed SMSQ, a new Qdos-compatible OS, based on SMS2, for the Miracle Systems QXL, a QL emulator card for PCs. An enhanced version of SMSQ was ported to the Atari ST and various other QL emulators, being renamed SMSQ/E. He has also worked on Stella, an embedded operating system for 68000-series and ColdFire processors.

References 

Computer programmers
Sinclair Research
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
UFluids@Home. μFluids@Home is a computer simulation of two-phase flow behavior in microgravity and microfluidics problems at Purdue University, using the Surface Evolver program.

About 
The project's purpose is to develop better methods for the management of liquid rocket propellants in microgravity, and to investigate two-phase flow in microelectromechanical systems, taking into account factors like surface tension. Systems using electrowetting, channel geometry, and hydrophobic or hydrophilic coatings to allow the smooth passage of fluids can then be designed. Such systems include compact medical devices, biosensors, and fuel cells.

Computing platform 
μFluids@Home uses the BOINC volunteer computing platform.

Application notes
 There is no screensaver.
 Work unit CPU times are generally less than 20 hours.
 Work units average in size around 500 kB.
 You must run many work units to get levels of credit comparable to SETI@home or climateprediction.net BOINC projects.

References

External links 
 Website archive

Science in society
Free science software
Volunteer computing projects
21st Century Airships. 21st Century Airships Inc. was a Canadian airship technologies research and development company. These projects included the development of a spherical shaped airship as well as airships for high altitude, environmental research, surveillance and military applications, heavy lifting and sightseeing.

History 
Hokan Colting, a Canadian airship design entrepreneur, founded the seemingly now-defunct 21st Century Airships in 1988. Colting aimed at designing an airship that could be cheaper to operate, and easier to control. The 21st Century Airships holds the world record for altitude reached in an airship at 6,400 metres. It is also one of the companies who attempted to develop airships for use in communications. His concept involved the construction of ships that can route cellular phone and wireless data above atmospheric interference and without the need for towers and satellites.

21st Century Airships Inc. was able to build ships for the U.S. Air Force and private companies such as Dex Flying Pictures.

See also 
 High-altitude airship

References 

Aircraft manufacturers of Canada
The Lattice Project. The Lattice Project was a volunteer computing project that combined computing resources, Grid middleware, specialized scientific application software and web services into a comprehensive Grid computing system for scientific analysis. It ran the Genetic Algorithm for Rapid Likelihood Inference (GARLI) software to determine the relationships between different genetic samples.

A major aspect of the project makes use of the Berkeley Open Infrastructure for Network Computing (BOINC) platform.  The Lattice Project maintained a separate BOINC web site, but the site is dead as of this writing, causing this project to shut down because BOINC depends on this website to get setup information to set this project up on its clients.

References

External links 
 The Lattice Project website archive

Science in society
Free science software
Volunteer computing projects
Curtiss XSB3C. The Curtiss XSB3C was a proposed development by Curtiss-Wright of the Curtiss SB2C Helldiver dive bomber, submitted to meet a U.S. Navy requirement for a new dive bomber to replace the SB2C in service. Considered inferior to the competing Douglas XSB2D and requiring higher grade fuel than was provided on aircraft carriers, the project was cancelled before any aircraft were built.

Design and development
In response to a Navy request for proposals issued on 3 February 1941 for a replacement for the SB2C, Curtiss designed an improved and enlarged version of the Helldiver, which was, at the time, still only in the process of flight testing. A larger tail, revised wing planform and tricycle landing gear distinguished the aircraft from its predecessor, in addition to the provision of heavier armament.

An internal bomb bay in the midsection of the aircraft could carry up to  of bombs, or alternatively, two torpedoes could be carried in semi-submerged mountings. In addition, hardpoints for two  bombs were fitted under the wings. Forward-firing armament proposals were for the aircraft to be fitted with either six .50-calibre machine guns or four 20mm cannon in the wings, while defensive armament was planned to be fitted in a power-operated turret.

Power was intended to be provided by a Wright R-3350 of , while the Pratt & Whitney R-4360, giving , was considered for future installation. Impressed with the inspection of the mockup of the massive aircraft in December 1941, the Navy ordered two prototypes, and parts of the design were tested by the XSB2C-6.

As the project progressed during 1942, however, it was determined to be inferior to the competing Douglas aircraft. This, combined with the aircraft's requirement for 115/145 octane fuel, which was considered difficult to handle aboard ship, and the decision by the Bureau of Aeronautics that future attack aircraft would be single-seat aircraft, led to the Navy's decision to cancel the prototype contract, and no examples of the XSB3C were ever built.

Specifications (XSB3C-1)

See also

References

Citations

Bibliography

 Johnson, E.R. American Attack Aircraft Since 1926. McFarland, 2008. .
 Lawson, Robert and Barrett Tillman. U. S. Navy Dive and Torpedo Bombers of World War II. MBI Publishing, 2001, p. 82-83. .
 Norton, Bill. U.S. Experimental & Prototype Aircraft Projects: Fighters 1939-1945. North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press, 2008, p. 111. .

External links
 XSB3C-1 serials

SB03C
Cancelled military aircraft projects of the United States
Single-engined tractor aircraft
Low-wing aircraft
Carrier-based aircraft
1940s United States bomber aircraft
Aircraft with retractable tricycle landing gear
Raffinate. In chemical separation terminology, the raffinate (from French raffiner, to refine) is a product which has had a component or components removed. The product having the removed materials is referred to as the extract. For example, in solvent extraction, the raffinate is the liquid stream which remains after solutes from the original liquid are removed through contact with an immiscible liquid. In metallurgy, raffinating refers to a process in which impurities are removed from liquid material.

In pressure swing adsorption the raffinate refers to the gas which is not adsorbed during the high pressure stage. The species which is desorbed from the adsorbent at low pressure may be called the "extract" product.

Types

Raffinate-1 or C4R1
In naphtha cracking process, C4R1 refers to C4 residual obtained after separation of 1,3-butadiene from C4 raffinate stream and which, mainly consists of isobutylene 40~50 wt% and cis- or trans-2-butene 30~35 wt%. Normally C4R1 is a side product in 1,3-butadiene plant and feed to tert-butyl alcohol plant.

Raffinate-2 or C4R2
In naphtha cracking process, C4R2 refers to C4 residual obtained after separation of 1,3-butadiene and isobutylene from C4 raffinate stream and which mainly consists of cis- or trans-2-butene 50~60 wt%, 1-butene 10~15 wt%, and n-butane ~20 wt%. Normally C4R2 is a side product in tert-butyl alcohol plant if C4R1 is used for feed.

Raffinate-3 or C4R3
In naphtha cracking process, C4R3 refers to C4 residual obtained after separation of 1,3-butadiene, isobutylene, and 1-butene from C4 raffinate stream which mainly consists of cis- or trans-2-butene, n-butane, and unseparated 1-butene. Normally C4R3 is being process through a selective hydrogenation unit (SHU) and CDHydro deisobutenizer unit to produce isobutylene as a feed to tert-butyl alcohol  plant.

Raffinate-4 or C4R4
In naphtha cracking process, C4R4 refers to C4 residual obtained after separation of 1,3-butadiene, isobutylene, 1-butene, and cis- or trans-2-butene from C4 raffinate stream which mainly consists of n-butane. Normally C4R4 is a side product in tert-butyl alcohol plant if C4R3 is used for feed.

See also

 Thin layer extraction

References

Separation processes
Louis Dunn. Louis Gerhardus Dunn (1908-1979) was a South African-born engineer who played a key role in the development of early American missiles and launch vehicles.

Caltech 
Dunn received both undergraduate and graduate degrees in aeronautical engineering from the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in Pasadena, CA. During that time the Guggenheim Aeronautical Laboratory at Caltech (GALCIT), a prestigious aeronautical engineering research facility, was led by Theodore von Kármán. By 1943 Dunn had joined the Caltech faculty and become a naturalized U.S. citizen.

JPL 
In 1943 and 1944, von Kármán and Frank Malina, who had been doing rocket research at GALCIT, began using Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in the names of their projects. Malina hired Dunn to be the assistant director of JPL in 1945.  Dunn took over as acting director when Malina left and was formally appointed as director in 1947. Dunn resigned from this position in 1954. William Hayward Pickering, who had been project manager for the Corporal missile under Dunn, succeeded him as JPL director.

Ramo-Woolridge and Aerojet General 
After leaving JPL Dunn led the Atlas missile program at the Ramo-Wooldridge Corporation, a predecessor of TRW.
In 1963 he moved to Aerojet General, and he died at his home in Mountain Ranch, CA on August 13, 1979.

References

External links 

1908 births
1979 deaths
American aerospace engineers
South African emigrants to the United States
20th-century American engineers
Naturalized citizens of the United States
Directors of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory
Sufa. Sufa or SUFA may refer to:

Sufa, Israel, a kibbutz in Israel and a border crossing between Israel and the Gaza Strip
Sufa, Sinai, a former Israeli settlement in Sinai
AIL Storm, also known as Sufa, an Israel Defense Forces vehicle
INS Sufa, an Israeli Sea Corps Saar 4.5 class missile boat
Social Union Framework Agreement, a Canadian labour agreement
F-16I, also known as Sufa, a two seat Block 52 variant of the F-16 Fighting Falcon, heavily modified by the Israeli Defense Forces.
Programmable interval timer. In computing and in embedded systems, a programmable interval timer (PIT) is a counter that generates an output signal when it reaches a programmed count. The output signal may trigger an interrupt.

Common features
PITs may be one-shot or periodic. One-shot timers will signal only once and then stop counting. Periodic timers signal every time they reach a specific value and then restart, thus producing a signal at periodic intervals. Periodic timers are typically used to invoke activities that must be performed at regular intervals.

Counters are usually programmed with fixed intervals that determine how long the counter will count before it will output a signal.

IBM PC compatible
The Intel 8253 PIT was the original timing device used on IBM PC compatibles. It used a 1.193182 MHz clock signal (one third of the color burst frequency used by NTSC, one twelfth of the system clock crystal oscillator, therefore one quarter of the 4.77 MHz CPU clock) and contains three timers. Timer 0 is used by Microsoft Windows (uniprocessor) and Linux as a system timer, timer 1 was historically used for dynamic random access memory refreshes and timer 2 for the PC speaker.

The LAPIC in newer Intel systems offers a higher-resolution (one microsecond) timer. This is used in preference to the PIT timer in Linux kernels starting with 2.6.18.

See also
 High Precision Event Timer
 Monostable multivibrator
 NE555

References

External links 
 High Performance Windows Timers
 Timing on the PC family under DOS

IBM PC compatibles
Digital electronics
Tape edge machine. A tape edge machine is a type of sewing machine used in the bedding industry to finish the top and bottom edges of a mattress. The machine is used to stitch the top and bottom panels of a mattress to the mattress edge, and to cover that raw edge with a protective tape or ribbon. Some tape-edge machines are fully automated, capable of turning corners and flipping the mattress without involvement from the operator.

The protective tape attached by a tape-edge machine, also known as tape-edge or binding tape, can be either knit or woven, and can come in a variety of patterns and colors.

Union Special, a sewing machine company founded in 1881, designed the first tape-edge machine and premiered it at the 1934 World's Fair in Chicago.

References

External links
 
 
 
 

Sewing machines
Atomic hydrogen welding. Atomic hydrogen welding (AHW or Athydo) is an arc welding process that uses an arc between two tungsten electrodes in a shielding atmosphere of hydrogen. The process was invented by Irving Langmuir in the course of his studies of atomic hydrogen. The electric arc efficiently breaks up the hydrogen molecules, which later recombine with tremendous release of heat, reaching temperatures from 3400 to 4000 °C. Without the arc, an oxyhydrogen torch can only reach 2800 °C.  This is the third-hottest flame after dicyanoacetylene at 4987 °C and cyanogen at 4525 °C.  An acetylene torch merely reaches 3300 °C. This device may be called an atomic hydrogen torch, nascent hydrogen torch or Langmuir torch. The process was also known as arc-atom welding.

The heat produced by this torch is sufficient to weld tungsten (3422 °C), the most refractory metal. The presence of hydrogen also acts as a shielding gas, preventing oxidation and contamination by carbon, nitrogen or oxygen, which can severely damage the properties of many metals. It eliminates the need of flux for this purpose.

The arc is maintained independently of the workpiece or parts being welded. The hydrogen gas is normally diatomic (H2), but where the temperatures are over  near the arc, the hydrogen breaks down into its atomic form, absorbing a large amount of heat from the arc. When the hydrogen strikes a relatively cold surface (i.e. the weld zone), it recombines into its diatomic form, releasing the energy associated with the formation of that bond. The energy in AHW can be varied easily by changing the distance between the arc stream and the workpiece surface.

In atomic hydrogen welding, filler metal may or may not be used. In this process, the arc is maintained entirely independent of the work or parts being welded. The work is a part of the electrical circuit only to the extent that a portion of the arc comes in contact with the work, at which time a voltage exists between the work and each electrode.

This process is being replaced by gas metal-arc welding, mainly because of the availability of inexpensive inert gases.

Video documentation 
 The Inside of Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding, Part 1 - 1943
 The Inside of Atomic Hydrogen Arc Welding, Part 2 - 1943

See also
 Oxy-fuel welding and cutting#Hydrogen

References

 Norton science encyclopedia 1st and 6th edition    copyright 1921–1950 and 1976
 Van Nostrand's Encyclopedia of Science  (Pg. 1311)
 Welding Handbook Vol. 2 Library of Congress number 90-085465   copyright 1991 by American Welding Society
 Kalpkjian, Serope and Steven R. Schmid. Manufacturing Engineering and Technology textbook  Fifth edition. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education, Inc., 2006
 
 
 

Arc welding
Hydrogen technologies