omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Lithium 12-hydroxystearate. Lithium 12-hydroxystearate (C18H35LiO3) is a chemical compound classified as a lithium soap.  In chemistry, "soap" refers to salts of fatty acids. Lithium 12-hydroxystearate is a white solid. Lithium soaps are key component of many lubricating greases.

Use

Lithium 12-hydroxystearate exhibits high oxidation stability and a dropping point up to around 200 °C. Most greases used today in motor vehicles, aircraft, and heavy machinery contain lithium stearates, mainly lithium 12-hydroxystearate.  Greases can be made with the addition of several different metallic soaps.  Some greases are prepared from sodium, barium, lithium, and calcium soaps.  Lithium soap greases are preferred for their water resistance, and their oxidative and mechanical stability.  Depending on the grease, they also have good performance at high or low temperatures, but not both.

Production
To produce lithium 12-hydroxystearate, lithium hydroxide and 12-hydroxystearic acid are combined in an aqueous medium.  With vigorous stirring, dilute monohydrate lithium hydroxide is gradually added to a dispersion of the fatty acid in water heated to slightly below boiling. Since these lithium soaps are difficult to filter, they are collected by spray drying.  For applications, lithium 12-hydroxystearate is usually dispersed in synthetic oils such as silicone oil and ester oil.  The synthetic oils are preferred for their greater stability and ability to perform at extreme temperatures.

12-hydroxystearic acid is prepared by the hydrogenation of castor oil, followed by saponification with sodium hydroxide and acidification with hydrochloric acid.  This process converts ricinoleate moieties in castor oil triglycerides to 12-hydroxystearate, with stearate as a byproduct from dehydration of the hydroxy acid followed by hydrogenation.  Lithium soaps manufactured from hydrogenated castor oil typically contain a mixture of lithium 12-hydroxystearate and lithium stearate.

References

External links

 

Greases
Lithium salts
Organolithium compounds
Stearates
Oliver Patterson Watts. Oliver Patterson Watts (July 16, 1865 – February 6, 1953) was a professor of chemical engineering and applied electrochemistry at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. Born in Thomaston, Maine, Watts received his bachelor's degree from Bowdoin College in 1889. He received his doctoral degree in 1905; he was the first person to be awarded a Ph.D. in chemical engineering at the University of Wisconsin, where he served as a professor until 1935, after which he was an emeritus professor in the university's college of engineering. Watts is known for his development of the hot nickel plating bath known as the "Watts Bath", which he first described in a paper published in 1915.

References

External links

1865 births
1953 deaths
People from Thomaston, Maine
Scientists from Madison, Wisconsin
American chemical engineers
Electrochemists
Bowdoin College alumni
University of Wisconsin–Madison faculty
University of Wisconsin–Madison College of Engineering alumni
Travel Air 9000. The Travel Air 9000 was an American general-purpose biplane of the 1920s, a member of the family of aircraft that began with the Travel Air Model A. It was later known as the Curtiss-Wright CW-9 after Curtiss-Wright acquired Travel Air. Only four examples were built, two each converted from Travel Air 3000s and 4000s.

Design and development
Like other members of this family, the Model 9000 was an unequal-span, single-bay, staggered biplane of conventional design. The passengers and pilot sat in tandem, open cockpits. It had a conventional tail, and fixed, tailskid undercarriage. The fuselage was built from welded steel tubes, and the wings from wood. Travel Air model numbers primarily reflected changes in powerplant, and the Model 9000 was powered by a Siemens-Halske Sh 14 radial engine mounted in the nose, driving a tractor propeller. 

The prototype, registered X-3791, began life as Model 4000, construction number 302. It was licensed on December 16, 1927, and received type certificate ATC-38 the following April. The second Model 9000 (registered NC4420) also began as a Model 4000 (construction number 380), while the other two were conversions from Model 3000s.

NC4420, named Smith's Incubator, was re-engined for a time with a  10-cylinder Anzani engine, receiving approval 2-25 in July 1928. It was later converted back to Sh 14 power.

Operational history
A subsequent owner fitted the prototype Model 9000 with an extra  fuel tank. In this configuration, Viola Gentry used it to set a new aerial endurance record for women. On December 3, 1928, she stayed aloft over Long Island for 8 hours 6 minutes and 37 seconds.

George B. Peck flew a Model 9000 in the 1928 Ford National Reliability Air Tour, attaining 22nd place.

Seventeen-year-old Richard James flew a Model 9000 named Spirit of American Youth to claim a $1,000 prize from the American Society of the Promotion of Aviation for the first young person under the age of eighteen to complete a transcontinental flight. James departed San Francisco on October 30, 1928 and arrived at Curtiss Field, Long Island on December 15. The Siemens-Halske company presented him with a silver loving cup and President Calvin Coolidge shook his hand.

Specifications

Notes

References

Bibliography
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

1920s United States civil utility aircraft
Travel Air aircraft
Biplanes
Conventional-tail aircraft
Single-engined tractor aircraft
Aircraft with fixed conventional landing gear
Aircraft first flown in 1927
Travel Air 8000. The Travel Air 8000 was an American general-purpose biplane of the 1920s, a member of the family of aircraft that began with the Travel Air Model A. It was also known as the Travel Air 4000-CAM, and later as the Curtiss-Wright CW-8 after Curtiss-Wright acquired Travel Air. Only three examples were built.

Design and development
Like other members of this family, the Model 8000 was an unequal-span, single-bay, staggered biplane of conventional design. The passengers and pilot sat in tandem, open cockpits. It had a conventional tail, and fixed, tailskid undercarriage. The fuselages were built from welded steel tubes, and the wings from wood. Travel Air model numbers primarily reflected changes in powerplant, and the Model 8000 was powered by a Fairchild-Caminez 447 radial engine mounted in the nose, driving a tractor propeller.

The prototype Model 8000 was a re-manufactured Travel Air Model B. Its engine was an innovative design that used a cam in place of a crankshaft. The result was an engine that was mechanically simpler and which ran at half the RPMs of a conventional radial engine for the same power, promising greater efficiency. The low RPMs needed a larger propeller,  in diameter, compared to the  propeller of the Travel Air 2000. In turn, the larger propeller needed more ground clearance, which meant that the whole powerplant had to be mounted higher on the Model 8000's nose. 

Despite much enthusiasm for the new engine among American manufacturers, it did not work well. It was prone to excessive vibration, even to the point of splitting propellers, it ran hot because the large propeller hubs needed to absorb its torque also blocked cooling air from the cylinders, and that torque also twisted airframes.  

It proved very difficult for Fairchild-Caminez to get the engine operating reliably enough to pass certification. By the time this was achieved, in June 1928, the Model 8000 itself had already received type certificate ATC-37 in April. It would be the only aircraft type certified to use this engine.

Beside the prototype, only two other examples of the Model 8000 were built, and no details about them other than one construction number have been preserved. 

The problems with the engine proved insurmountable, and development was abandoned in fall, 1928. It was withdrawn from sale, and Fairchild Aircraft founder Sherman Fairchild offered customers their money back.

By March 1929, the Fairchild-Caminez engine was removed from the prototype Model 8000 and the aircraft was converted into a Travel Air 2000.

Operational history
Fairchild Aircraft purchased the prototype, and entered it in the 1928 Ford National Reliability Air Tour together with a Fairchild-Caminez 447-powered Waco 10. Flown by James Nelson Kelly, the Model 8000 finished in thirteenth place out of a field of twenty-five, requiring several engine changes.

Specifications

Notes

References

Bibliography
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

1920s United States civil utility aircraft
Travel Air aircraft
Biplanes
Conventional-tail aircraft
Single-engined tractor aircraft
Aircraft with fixed conventional landing gear
Aircraft first flown in 1927
Cyclohexanedimethanol. Cyclohexanedimethanol (CHDM) is a mixture of isomeric organic compounds with formula C6H10(CH2OH)2. It is a colorless low-melting solid used in the production of polyester resins.  Commercial samples consist of a mixture of cis and trans isomers.  It is a di-substituted derivative of cyclohexane and is classified as a diol, meaning that it has two OH functional groups.  Commercial CHDM typically has a cis/trans ratio of 30:70.

Production
CHDM is produced by catalytic hydrogenation of dimethyl terephthalate (DMT). The reaction conducted in two steps beginning with the conversion of DMT to the diester dimethyl 1,4-cyclohexanedicarboxylate (DMCD): 
C6H4(CO2CH3)2  +  3 H2   →   C6H10(CO2CH3)2

In the second step DMCD is further hydrogenated to CHDM:
C6H10(CO2CH3)2  + 4 H2   →  C6H10(CH2OH)2  +  2 CH3OH
A copper chromite catalyst is usually used industrially. The cis/trans ratio of the CHDM is affected by the catalyst. 

Byproduct of this process are 4-methylcyclohexanemethanol (CH3C6H10CH2OH) and the monoester methyl
4-methyl-4-cyclohexanecarboxylate (CH3C6H10CO2CH3, CAS registry number 51181-40-9).  The leading producers in CHDM are Eastman Chemical in US and SK Chemicals in South Korea.

Applications
Via the process called polycondensation, CHDM is a precursor to polyesters. It is one of the most important comonomers for production of polyethylene terephthalate (PET), or polyethylene terephthalic ester (PETE), from which plastic bottles are made. In addition it maybe spun to form carpet fibers.

Thermoplastic polyesters containing CHDM exhibit enhanced strength, clarity, and solvent resistance. The properties of the polyesters vary from the high melting crystalline poly(1,4-cyclohexylenedimethylene terephthalate), PCT, to the non-crystalline copolyesters derived from both ethylene glycol and CHDM. The properties of these polyesters also is affected by the cis/trans ratio of the CHDM monomer.  
CHDM reduces the degree of crystallinity of PET homopolymer, improving its processability. The copolymer tends to resist degradation, e.g. to acetaldehyde. The copolymer with PET is known as glycol-modified polyethylene terephthalate, PETG. PETG is used in many fields, including electronics, automobiles, barrier, and medical, etc.

CHDM is a raw material for the production of 1,4-cyclohexanedimethanol diglycidyl ether, an epoxy diluent. The key use for this diglycidyl ether is to reduce the viscosity of epoxy resins.

References

External links
U.S. National Library of Medicine: Hazardous Substances Databank – 1,4-cyclohexanedimethanol

Monomers
Diols
Buff strength. Buff strength is a design term used in the certification of rail rolling stock. It refers to the required resistance to deformation or permanent damage due to loads applied at the car's ends, such as in a collision. Particular emphasis on buff strength is placed in the United States, with buff strength requirements there being higher than in Europe.

United States
Buff strength requirements grew out of best-practice design standards during the latter part of the nineteenth century. By the twentieth century, a design limit of  was required by federal approval agencies. This was upped to  for certain categories in 1945.

Federal requirements for buff strength were set in 1999 at  for all passenger-carrying units, unless reduced by waivers or special order. The Federal Static and Strength Regulation (49 Code of Federal Regulations § 238.203) requires that a passenger rail car be able to support a longitudinal static compressive load of  without permanent deformation.

There are other strength requirements associated with end-structure design. 49 CFR § 238.211 specifies that the cab ends of locomotives, cab cars, and self-powered multiple-unit cars have lead ends capable of supporting  longitudinal force at the top of the underframe, and  of force above the top of the underframe.

Europe
There are multiple certifying and approving agencies in Europe, so universal agreement on strength standards is not guaranteed. A 1977 German standard (VÖV 6.030.1/1977) presented values which have been followed by some other countries. The document was revised in 1992 and is presently known as VDV Recommendation 152 - Structural Requirements to Rail Vehicles for Public Mass Transit in Accordance with BOStrab.

In 1995 the European Common Market Committee for Standardization issued a draft document, Structural Requirements of Railway Vehicle Bodies. It mandated differing design loads for vehicles in differing categories, ranging from  for tramways to  for passenger coaches and locomotives.

In general the European approach to crashworthiness of passenger coaches puts more emphasis on crumple zones rather than buff strength, meaning that the required design loads are less than those in the United States. This is generally agreed to reduce construction costs.

See also 

 Compressive strength
 Container compression test
 Crashworthiness
 Deformation (engineering)
 Headstock (rolling stock)
 Railworthiness

References

Rail transport
Deformation (mechanics)
IEC connectors. IEC connectors are electrical power connectors specified by IEC standards.

The term may refer to connectors specified by:

IEC 62196, for electric vehicles
IEC 60309, for industrial purposes
IEC 60320, for appliance coupling, up to 250 V AC
IEC 60906-1, up to 250 V AC
IEC 60906-2, up to 125 V AC 
IEC 60906-3, safety extra-low voltage,  6 V, 12 V, 24 V, 48 V AC and DC
IEC 60034. IEC 60034 is an international standard of the International Electrotechnical Commission for rotating electrical machinery.

Part 30
IEC 60034-30 specifies energy-efficiency classes for single-speed, continuous duty(S1), three-phase, cage-induction motors with 2, 4 or 6 poles. It classifies five classes: IE1 (standard), IE2 (high) and IE3 (premium), IE4 (super premium efficiency), IE5 (ultra premium efficiency). For each class the efficiency is defined for a rated output range from 0.75 to 375 kW. In the European Community the IE2 class is mandatory for all new motors since 16 June 2011. The IE3 class will be mandatory from 1 January 2015 (7.5–375 kW) and 1 January 2017 (0.75–375 kW).

From June 1, 2021, three-phase motors from 0.75 kW to 1000 kW must meet at least IE3 efficiency. Electric motors from 0.12 kW to 0.55 kW must meet at least class IE2 efficiency.

From July 1, 2023, at least efficiency class IE4 will be required for electric motors in 2/4/6-pole versions from 75 kW to 200 kW. At least IE2 efficiency will be required also for single-phase motors from 0.12 kW up.

References

External links 
 

60034
Henry Norlande Ruttan. Brigadier General Henry Norlande Ruttan (May 21, 1848 – October 13, 1925) was a Canadian engineer and Canadian Army Officer. In 1885, he became the first city engineer of Winnipeg, remaining in office until his retirement in 1914.

Career
Ruttan served as a survey engineer to Sir Sandford Fleming. He was Winnipeg's city engineer for many years. Of Ruttan's many engineering projects, the James Avenue Pumping Station (1906), was considered the most modern such institution in the world.

A charter member of the Canadian Society for Civil Engineering, he served as president in 1910. In addition to the Canadian Society of Civil Engineering, he belonged to several other professional organizations, including Institution of Civil Engineers, American Society of Civil Engineers, and Royal Society for the encouragement of Arts, Manufactures & Commerce.

A recipient of the Canada General Service Medal, he was promoted to the rank of brigadier general in 1912.

Personal life
Ruttan was born in Cobourg, Ontario, in 1848 to Henry Jones Ruttan and Margaret Pringle. He was a descendant of United Empire Loyalists, as was his wife, Andrina Barberie of Dalhousie, New Brunswick, whom he married in 1882.  They had nine children, of whom four sons and two daughters survived infancy including Mary Louise Ruttan (b. 1877), Arthur Charles Ruttan, Col. Charles Millidge Ruttan (d. 1970), Henry Andrew Ruttan (1881–1958 – father of Susan), Francis Norlande Ruttan (born 1885), and J. D. Ruttan (born 1888). Ruttan's paternal grandfather, Henry Ruttan, was Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Upper Canada.

Ruttan belonged to several social clubs, including Manitoba Club, Carlton Club, St. Charles Country Club, and the Winnipeg Automobile Club. He was a Mason, a member of the AF & AM, and he attended the Anglican church.

He died at his home in Armstrong's Point, Winnipeg, Manitoba, in 1925.

References

1848 births
1925 deaths
People from Cobourg
Canadian civil engineers
Canadian generals
Canadian Anglicans
Huguenots
United Empire Loyalists
Scientists from Ontario
Engineers from Ontario
Sulfur chloride pentafluoride. Sulfur chloride pentafluoride is an inorganic compound with the formula . It exists as a colorless gas at room temperature and is highly toxic, like most inorganic compounds containing the pentafluorosulfide (–) functional group. The compound adopts an octahedral geometry with  symmetry. Sulfur chloride pentafluoride is the only commercially available reagent for adding the – group to organic compounds.

Reactivity
 is highly reactive and toxic. In contrast, sulfur hexafluoride () is inert and nontoxic despite having a closely related chemical formula. This difference highlights the lability of the S–Cl bond in .

Under free-radical conditions,  adds across double bonds. The following reaction occurs with propene:
 +  → CH3CHClCH2SF5

The addition reaction is catalyzed by  at around −30 °C.  is used similarly.

 is also a precursor to O(SF5)2 and F2NSF5 (from tetrafluorohydrazine).

Synthesis
Sulfur chloropentafluoride can be synthesized by several routes, starting from two lower sulfur fluorides, sulfur tetrafluoride and disulfur decafluoride:

The corresponding  is prepared similarly from in-situ generated bromine monofluoride.

References

Sulfur chlorides
Sulfur fluorides
Titanium Institute. The State Titanium Research and Design Institute is an institute that designs non-ferrous metallurgy works and produces materials used in the manufacture of semiconductors and carbon-graphite materials within Ukraine. Institute placed in Zaporizhzhia.

Around 500 people work at the Institute.

References

External links 
 Institute's website
 Ukraine today. State Titanium Research and Design Institute
  О проблемах Института титана г. Запорожье

Titanium
Research institutes in Zaporizhzhia
Research institutes in the Soviet Union
1956 establishments in the Soviet Union
Research institutes established in 1956
Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors with Applications to Transistor Electronics. Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors with Applications to Transistor Electronics  is a book by Nobel Prize winner William Shockley, first published in 1950.  It was a primary source, and was used as the first textbook, for scientists and engineers learning the new field of semiconductors as applied to the development of the transistor. This was the invention that led to electronic computers, ubiquitous communication devices, compact electronics controllers, and a host of other important inventions of the last half of the twentieth century.

The book was printed by D. Van Nostrand in New York, and went through many later printings.

An earlier version containing some of the material appeared in the Bell Labs Technical Journal in 1949.

Contents
The arrangement of chapters is as follows:

Part I INTRODUCTION TO TRANSISTOR ELECTRONICS

Chapter 1: THE BULK PROPERTIES OF SEMICONDUCTORS
Chapter 2: THE TRANSISTOR AS A CIRCUIT ELEMENT
Chapter 3: QUANTITATIVE STUDIES OF INJECTION OF HOLES AND ELECTRONS
Chapter 4: ON THE PHYSICAL THEORY OF TRANSISTORS
Chapter 5: QUANTUM STATES, ENERGY BANDS, AND BRILLOUIN ZONES

PART II  DESCRIPTIVE THEORY OF SEMICONDUCTORS
Chapter 6: VELOCITIES AND CURRENTS FOR ELECTRONS IN CRYSTALS
Chapter 7: ELECTRONS AND HOLES IN ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS
Chapter 8: INTRODUCTORY THEORY OF CONDUCTIVITY AND HALL EFFECT
Chapter 9: DISTRIBUTIONS OF QUANTUM STATES IN ENERGY
Chapter 10: FERMI-DIRAC STATISTICS FOR SEMICONDUCTORS
Chapter 11: MATHEMATICAL THEORY OF CONDUCTIVITY AND HALL EFFECT
Chapter 12: APPLICATIONS TO TRANSISTOR ELECTRONICS

PART III  QUANTUM MECHANICAL FOUNDATIONS
Chapter 13: INTRODUCTION TO PART III
Chapter 14: ELEMENTARY QUANTUM MECHANICS WITH CIRCUIT THEORY ANALOGUES
Chapter 15: THEORY OF ELECTRON AND HOLE VELOCITIES, CURRENTS AND ACCELERATIONS
Chapter 16: STATISTICAL MECHANICS FOR SEMICONDUCTORS 
Chapter 17: THE THEORY OF TRANSITION PROBABILITIES FOR HOLES AND ELECTRONS
APPENDIX A  Units
APPENDIX B  Periodic Table
APPENDIX C  Values of the physical constants
APPENDIX D  Energy conversion chart
NAME INDEX
SUBJECT INDEX

References

1950 non-fiction books
1950 in science
Physics textbooks
King Faisal Air Academy. The King Faisal Air Academy () is a military officers' academy and flight school in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia founded in 1968.

History

Founded on 10 January 1968,  by Prince Sultan bin Abdul Aziz, Minister of Defense and Aviation, King Faisal Air Academy was officially opened on 20 May 1970 under the auspices of King Faisal bin Abdul Aziz.

The college has an internal and external scholarship system to study other aviation sciences such as aviation engineering, as well as accounting and law.

Present
Training lasts for twenty-seven months, with  bachelor's degrees in aeronautical sciences awarded to aircrew and engineering degrees awarded to graduates in technical specialties.

Programs include fighter pilot, weapon director, air traffic controller, and information technology training. Because most of the Royal Saudi Air Force's equipment is made by the United Kingdom and the United States, instruction is in English, and much of the faculty is British. Unlike other officer training schools, graduates of KFAA are trained as both pilots and officers  simultaneously and are fully qualified for both flight and command duties upon graduation. Some graduates go on to further training with the United States Air Force at Columbus Air Force Base.

References

Flight training
Education in Saudi Arabia
K
Picramic acid. Picramic acid, also known as 2-amino-4,6-dinitrophenol, is an acid obtained by neutralizing an alcoholic solution of picric acid with ammonium hydroxide. Hydrogen sulfide is then added to the resulting solution, which turns red, yielding sulfur and red crystals. These are the ammonium salts of picramic acid, from which it can be extracted using acetic acid. Picramic acid is explosive and very toxic. It has a bitter taste.

Along with its sodium salt (sodium picramate) it is used in low concentrations in certain hair dyes, such as henna, it is considered safe for this use provided its concentration remains low.

References 

Acids
Explosive chemicals
Dinitrophenol derivatives
Anilines
Europium barium titanate. Europium barium titanate is a chemical compound composed of barium, europium, titanium, and oxygen.  It is magnetic and ferroelectric at 1.5 K.

It is a ceramic material which was used in 2010 experiments on a new theory on baryon asymmetry.

References 

Titanates
Barium compounds
Europium(III) compounds
Ferroelectric materials
Perovskites