omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Photoinduced electron transfer. Photoinduced electron transfer (PET) is an excited state electron transfer process by which an excited electron is transferred from donor to acceptor. Due to PET a charge separation is generated, i.e., redox reaction takes place in excited state (this phenomenon is not observed in Dexter electron transfer).

Breadth 

Such materials include semiconductors that can be photoactivated like many solar cells, biological systems such as those used in photosynthesis, and small molecules with suitable absorptions and redox states.

Process 

It is common to describe where electrons reside as electron bands in bulk materials and electron orbitals in molecules. For the sake of expedience the following description will be described in molecular terms.  When a photon excites a molecule, an electron in a ground state orbital can be excited to a higher energy orbital.  This excited state leaves a vacancy in a ground state orbital that can be filled by an electron donor.  It produces an electron in a high energy orbital which can be donated to an electron acceptor.  In these respects a photoexcited molecule can act as a good oxidizing agent or a good reducing agent.

Photoinduced oxidation

[MLn]2+ + hν → [MLn]2+*

[MLn]2+* + donor → [MLn]+ + donor+

Photoinduced reduction

[MLn]2+ + hν → [MLn]2+*

[MLn]2+* + acceptor → [MLn]3+ + acceptor−

The end result of both reactions is that an electron is delivered to an orbital that is higher in energy than where it previously resided. This is often described as a charge separated electron-hole pair when working with semiconductors.

In the absence of a proper electron donor or acceptor it is possible for such molecules to undergo ordinary fluorescence emission. The electron transfer is one form of photoquenching.

Subsequent processes 

In many photo-productive systems this charge separation is kinetically isolated by delivery of the electron to a lower energy conductor attached to the p/n junction or into an electron transport chain. In this case some of the energy can be captured to do work. If the electron is not kinetically isolated thermodynamics will take over and the products will react with each other to regenerate the ground state starting material. This process is called recombination and the photon's energy is released as heat.

Recombination of photoinduced oxidation

[MLn]+ + donor+ → [MLn]2+ + donor

Potential induced photon production 

The reverse process to photoinduced electron transfer is displayed by light emitting diodes (LED) and chemiluminescence, where potential gradients are used to create excited states that decay by light emission.

References 

Photochemistry
Chemical reactions
Optoelectronics
Waikato Aero Club. The Waikato Aero Club (Waikato Avitation) was founded in 1933 to provide pilot training and aerial services to the Waikato region of New Zealand. The club is based at Hamilton Airport near Rukuhia, on the outskirts of Hamilton. 

The club has New Zealand Qualifications Authority as an education services provider and runs a full-time ab initio to commercial pilot course of study for qualifying students.

The Waikato Aero Club is affiliated with the Royal New Zealand Aero Club and actively participates in the annual flying skills competitions organised by the RNZAC national body.

Current Aircraft Fleet 
 1 x Alpha Aviation R2160 two-seat trainer aircraft
 3 x Cessna 172 four-seat trainer/touring aircraft
 1 x Piper Cherokee Archer III PA28-181 four-seat trainer/touring aircraft
 1 x Diamond Da42 Twinstar

Notable members 
June Constance Howden, Air Transport Auxiliary pilot during World War Two.

References

External links
 Waikato Aero Club website

Waikato
Flying clubs
Transport organisations based in New Zealand
Clubs and societies in New Zealand
USS Kingbird (AMc-56). USS Kingbird (AMc-56) was a wooden dragger acquired by the U.S. Navy, just prior to World War II, for clearing coastal minefields.

The first Kingbird (AMC-56), ex-Governor Saltonstall, was built in 1939 by the Quincy Drydock & Yacht Co., Quincy, Massachusetts, acquired by the Navy 26 December 1940, and placed in service as a coastal minesweeper in the 1st Naval District 24 July 1941.

Following assignment to Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in January 1942, Kingbird operated in the 1st Naval District as a coastal minesweeper for over 2 years. She was reclassified IX-176 10 July 1944 and placed out of service 28 July 1944 for use in training sound operators for new submarines.

Kingbird was transferred to the War Shipping Administration 7 June 1946 for disposal. Her fate is unknown.

References

External links 
 NavSource Online: Mine Warfare Vessel Photo Archive - Kingbird (AMc 56)- IX-176

Ships built in Quincy, Massachusetts
1939 ships
Minesweepers of the United States Navy
World War II minesweepers of the United States
Electrobat. The Electrobat was one of the first electric automobiles. It was designed and built in 1894 by mechanical engineer Henry G. Morris and chemist Pedro G. Salom in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

History 
Morris and Salom had backgrounds in battery-powered streetcars and, as the battery streetcar business was fading, they teamed up to make battery road vehicles. Their Electrobat received a patent on August 31, 1894. Built like a small version of a battery streetcar, it was a slow, heavy, impractical vehicle with steel tires to support its immense, 1,600-pound lead battery. An improved version, the Electrobat II, entered production in 1895. 

In 1896, the pair founded the Morris & Salom Electric Carriage and Wagon Company.

Subsequent versions were lighter and had pneumatic tires, with bodies built at the Caffrey Carriage Company in Camden, New Jersey. These cars steered by their rear wheels and had two  motors that propelled them  per charge at . Morris and Salom went on to build about a dozen Hansom cabs based on this vehicle, to compete with the horse-drawn cabs then in service in New York City; they operated in New York, Boston, and elsewhere.  

In 1897, they sold the cabs and their concept to Isaac L. Rice, who reincorporated the enterprise as the Electric Vehicle Company, which later became part of Albert Augustus Pope's empire.

See also 

 1895 Electrobat IV at ConceptCarz

References

Vehicles introduced in 1894
1890s cars
Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States
Companies based in Philadelphia
Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Pennsylvania
Highwheeler
Electric vehicles introduced in the 19th century
Electric vehicle manufacturers
Veteran vehicles
Planar. Planar is an adjective meaning "relating to a plane (geometry)".

Planar may also refer to:

Science and technology
 Planar (computer graphics), computer graphics pixel information from several bitplanes
 Planar (transmission line technologies), transmission lines with flat conductors
 Planar, the structure resulting from the planar process used in the manufacture of semiconductor devices, such as planar transistors
 Planar graph, graph that can be drawn in the plane so that no edges cross
 Planar mechanism, a system of parts whose motion is constrained to a two-dimensional plane
 Planar Systems, an Oregon-headquartered manufacturer of digital displays
 Zeiss Planar, photographic lens designed by Paul Rudolph at Carl Zeiss in 1896

See also 
 List of planar symmetry groups
 Planarity, a computer puzzle game
 Plane (disambiguation)
 Planer (disambiguation)
Tamplin. The Tamplin was an English automobile manufactured by Tamplin Motors from 1919 to 1923 in Kingston Road, Staines, Middlesex  and from 1924 to 1925 in Malden Road, Cheam, Surrey.

Edward Alfred Tamplin, a member of the Sussex brewing family but with no direct involvement in the business, ran the Railway Garage in Staines. He was an agent for the Carden cyclecar and in 1919, after contracting to take the entire output, purchased the rights to manufacture it. The car was powered by a  JAP V-twin, air-cooled engine mounted on the side of the body and coupled by chain drive to a Sturmey-Archer three-speed-and-reverse gearbox and then by an exposed belt to the rear wheels. To avoid the need for a differential, drive was to the left-side rear wheel. The engine was started by a kick starter from the driver's seat. The clutch pedal, when fully depressed, operated the brakes. The wheels were close together, giving the car a very narrow track. The independent front suspension used coil springs and the rear had quarter elliptical leaf springs. Some cars were fitted with Blackburne engines.

The open body was made of fibreboard which was made waterproof by soaking it in linseed oil. The car seated two people, one behind the other. The body tub also acted as the chassis.

In 1924 a new, more conventional, version was announced with a front-mounted engine and a much wider body, allowing side-by-side seating. A centrally mounted chain replaced the belt drive to the rear axle. The new model also had a separate chassis.

Total production of the cars is uncertain. Tamplin claimed 1896 were made, but this is not supported by known chassis numbers. At the busiest times up to 14 cars a week may have been made.

By 1925 the market for cyclecars was effectively over and Tamplin returned to the garage business becoming a truck dealer.

See also
 List of car manufacturers of the United Kingdom

References

Cyclecars
Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of England
History of Surrey
Staines-upon-Thames
Learnability. Learnability is a quality of products and interfaces that allows users to quickly become familiar with them and able to make good use of all their features and capabilities.

Software testing
In software testing learnability, according to ISO/IEC 9126, is the capability of a software product to enable the user to learn how to use it. Learnability may be considered as an aspect of usability, and is of major concern in the design of complex software applications.

Learnability is defined in the Standard glossary of terms used in software testing published by the International Software Testing Qualifications Board.

Computational learning theory
In computational learning theory, learnability is the mathematical analysis of machine learning. It is also employed in language acquisition in arguments within linguistics.

Frameworks include:
 Language identification in the limit proposed in 1967 by E. Mark Gold.  Subsequently known as Algorithmic learning theory.
 Probably approximately correct learning (PAC learning) proposed in 1984 by Leslie Valiant

References

Software testing
Port Talbot Railway 0-6-2T (Stephenson). The Port Talbot Railway Stephenson Class were eleven 0-6-2T locomotives introduced into traffic in 1898 designed and built by Robert Stephenson and Company. They predated the somewhat similar but larger Rhymney Railway M class by six years.

They were successful designs ideally suited to hauling coal trains a relatively short distance. Four of the class were nevertheless quickly sold, two to the Rhondda and Swansea Bay Railway in 1901, and two more to the Neath and Brecon Railway in 1903. This left seven to be absorbed into the Great Western Railway (GWR) in 1922.

In 1925, two were rebuilt with the then newly developed number 10 standard boiler and high domed cab by the GWR. In this form they were visually similar to a smaller version of the GWR 5600 Class introduced in 1924.

Welsh 0-6-2T types 

The numerous railways of South Wales had one thing in common apart from transporting coal in large quantities; their liking for the 0-6-2T type. The first was in 1885 on the Taff Vale Railway the design being by their mechanical engineer Tom Hurry Riches, father of Charles T. Hurry Riches who was the designer of the Rhymney Stephensons.

The suitability of the type was because the nature of the work they undertook demanded high adhesive weight, plenty of power with good braking ability, but no need for outright speed, nor large tanks or bunker as the distances from pit to port were short. These Welsh locomotives were taken over by the GWR at the grouping in 1923 and many, including seventeen of the Rhymney A, M, P and R's, were rebuilt with GWR taper boilers. All the Rhymney Stephenson-derived locos passed into British Railways (BR) ownership in 1948. Others included (with some gaps in numbering):

 Brecon and Merthyr Railway, BR numbers 431-436 
 Cardiff Railway, BR number 155 
 Rhymney Railway, BR numbers 35-83 
 Taff Vale Railway, BR numbers 204-399

For further information on these pre-grouping locomotives see Locomotives of the Great Western Railway.

See also
 Port Talbot Railway 0-8-2T (Sharp Stewart)
 Port Talbot Railway 0-8-2T (Cooke)

External links
Telford Steam Railway 5619 project 5643 6695

Port Talbot Railway and Docks Company locomotives
0-6-2T locomotives
Robert Stephenson and Company locomotives
Railway locomotives introduced in 1898
Scrapped locomotives
Standard gauge steam locomotives of Great Britain
Freight locomotives
IAPWS. The International Association for the Properties of Water and Steam (IAPWS)  is an international non-profit association of national organizations concerned with the properties of water and steam, particularly thermophysical properties and other aspects of high-temperature steam, water and aqueous mixtures that are relevant to thermal power cycles and other industrial applications.

The organization publishes a range of 'releases.'  Specifically, these relate to the thermal and expansion properties of steam.
Both free software and commercial software implementations of the IAPWS correlations are available.

References

External links
 Official Website

Thermodynamics
Ibertren. Ibertren is a Spanish brand of model railway, based in Barcelona. It specialises in models of the Spanish RENFE train engines and cars.

Ibertren N scale models were quite popular in Spain in the 90s; as of 2008, it sells a very limited selection of N models and a few H0 models.

N series

Ibertren manufactured two series of N-scale models: 2N and 3N.

In the 3N series, a non-insulated DC three-rail system was used to power the engines. The 2N series, which were introduced later when 3N sales went down, used DC with negative current on one rail and positive on the other.

Scenery
Ibertren also sold model train scenery, such as cars, people, and train stations.

History
In 1973, Iberten launched its first model train engines, modeled after a green diesel SNCF 61006 shunter.

In 1992, Model Iber S.A., the company from Barcelona behind the Ibertren brand, was forced to shut down due to financial problems.

In 2004, a company named "Ibertren Modelismo, S.L." (also from Barcelona) relaunched the brand, with a H0-only catalog.

In 2008, the company announced at the Nuremberg Toy Fair that it would manufacture N models again.

References

External links
 Official webpage
 Fan page, with photos of all known models
 Ferromodelismo.es Ibertren 3N information 

Manufacturing companies based in Barcelona
Model railroad manufacturers
Toy train manufacturers
Spanish brands
Model manufacturers of Spain
RFA Ennerdale (A173). RFA Ennerdale (A173) was a Dale-class fleet tanker and landing ship (gantry) of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary.

Taken over by the Admiralty and completed as a Landing Ship Gantry carrying 15 LCMs with accommodation for 150 military personnel. Took part in the North African, Italian, and Far East landings.

In August 1943, Captain S.T. Dunster was awarded the OBE. The citation read:
"The ship [RFA Ennerdale] played a vital part in carrying oil and petrol to forces operating off the coast of North Africa and was the focus of sustained and heavy air attacks. So skillfully was she handled by her Master and so efficient was her barrage that she sustained no damage, and performed invaluable work. In addition to this service, her Master did well in two Malta Convoys earlier in the war. His courage and resource have been unfailing."

In December 1945 she was damaged by a mine at Port Swettenham in Malaya, and returned to the UK for repair. After the war she resumed freighting duties as a tanker.

Ennerdale was sold to the British Iron & Steel Corporation for scrapping and broken up 1959–60.

References
 
 
 

Dale-class oilers
Tankers of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary
1941 ships
Ships built by Swan Hunter
JR Freight Class EH500. The  is a Bo′Bo′+Bo′Bo′ wheel arrangement multi-system AC/DC two-unit electric locomotive type operated by JR Freight in Japan since 1997.

Operations
The locomotives are built at the Toshiba factory in Fuchū, Tokyo. Initially, they were all based at Sendai depot for use on long-distance container trains from the Tokyo area to Hokkaido via the Tohoku Main Line, replacing DC Class EF65s south of Kuroiso, pairs of AC Class ED75s north of Kuroiso, and pairs of AC Class ED79s through the Seikan Tunnel.

In 2004, locomotives EH500-25 and EH500-27 were loaned in turn to Moji depot in Kitakyushu for trials. From 2007, a number of EH500s were transferred to Moji depot for use on 1,300 tonne freight trains between Honshu and Kyushu through the Kanmon Tunnel, replacing ageing AC Class ED76s and dual-voltage EF81-300s and EF81-400s.

, the fleet totalled 82 locomotives (EH500-901 and EH500-1 to EH500-81). 12 locomotives, EH500-45 to EH500-50 and EH500-67 to EH500-72, are based at Moji Depot, and the other 70 members of the class are based at Sendai.

Variants
 EH500-901: Prototype
 EH500-1 – 2: Pre-series 1st batch
 EH500-3 – 9: Full-production 2nd batch
 EH500-10 –: 3rd batch

EH500-901
The prototype, EH500-901, was delivered to Sendai depot in September 1997 for extensive testing on the Tohoku Main Line and Kaikyo Line until March 1999. The livery is red and grey with black cab surrounds. It joined the rest of the Class EH500 fleet for use on revenue services from the start of the March 2000 timetable revision. "Kintaro Eco-Power" logos were added to the sides from December 2002.

1st batch: EH500-1 and EH500-2
Two pre-series locomotives, EH500-1 and EH500-2, were delivered in March 2000. These locomotives are finished in a livery of maroon and grey with black cab surrounds.

2nd batch: EH500-3 to EH500-9
Built from March 2000 to January 2001. The headlamps were moved to a higher position to reduce problems of blockage by snow. New "Kintaro Eco-Power" logos were added to the sides.

3rd batch: EH500-10 onward
Locomotives from EH500-10 (delivered in August 2001) onward are painted in a revised colour scheme using bright red instead of the earlier maroon colour. The black colour around the cab windows was also discontinued. Locomotives numbered EH500-15 onwards have narrower surrounds on the front-end headlight boxes, and the front-end white band is also correspondingly slightly thinner.

Classification

The EH500 classification for this locomotive type is explained below. As with previous locomotive designs, the prototype is numbered EH500-901, with subsequent production locomotives numbered from EH500-1 onward.
 E: Electric locomotive
 H: Eight driving axles
 500: AC/DC locomotive with AC motors

See also
 JNR Class EH10
 JR Freight Class EH200
 JR Freight Class EH800

References

1500 V DC locomotives
20 kV AC locomotives
Electric locomotives of Japan
EH500
1067 mm gauge locomotives of Japan
Railway locomotives introduced in 1998
Toshiba locomotives
Multi-system locomotives
Bo′Bo′+Bo′Bo′ locomotives
Imnam Dam. Imnam Dam () is a dam on the Bukhan River in North Korea, completed in 2003.

Construction began in 1986. The dam was immediately seen as a threat by the South Korean government. The Bukhan River is a tributary of the Han River, and war scenarios foresaw North Korea releasing flood waters that could engulf the South Korean capital of Seoul. Though fears of a "water attack" have diminished, 2002 satellite photos of cracks in the North Korean dam caused fears it could collapse following heavy rains. In September 2005, without warning, North Korea released a massive amount of water from a dam, causing large floods in South Korea.

To protect itself against the perceived threat, South Korea built the Peace Dam across the border, 22 miles to the south.

Since Imnam Dam was built, water inflow to the Han River has decreased by 12 percent. This has caused environmental problems and water shortages in the Seoul metropolitan area.

Imnam Dam is 710 meters wide, 121.5 meters high, and has a claimed capacity of 2.62 billion tons of water.

References 

Dams in North Korea
Dams completed in 2003
2003 establishments in North Korea
Buildings and structures in Kangwon Province
Robert C. Williams Paper Museum. The Robert C. Williams American Museum of Papermaking is a research institution and public museum dedicated to the preservation of the history of paper and paper technology.  Located inside the Paper Tricentennial Building at the Georgia Institute of Technology in Atlanta, Georgia, United States, the museum features the largest collection of paper and paper-related artifacts in the world, including watermarks, papers, tools, machines, and manuscripts. Changing exhibits focus on paper art, and a permanent exhibit details the science and technology used in papermaking.

History
Originally called the Dard Hunter Paper Museum, the Robert C. Williams Paper Museum began in 1939.  The original museum was created by Dard Hunter and located at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.  Hunter filled the museum with various artifacts representing the art of papermaking.  Few people visited the museum while it was at MIT and eventually it was moved to a smaller building on campus.

In 1954 the then Institute of Paper Chemistry of Appleton, Wisconsin offered the museum a prominent place on its campus. Hunter became the museum's curator, a job he held until his death in 1966.

In 1989 the Institute of Paper Chemistry was relocated to Atlanta, Georgia and renamed the Institute of Paper Science and Technology.  The Dard Hunter Collection was packed and moved as well. Supporting this collection is one of the main goals of the  Friends of Dard Hunter, an organization that promotes hand papermaking and the other arts practiced by Hunter.

During the spring of 1993 the museum was re-opened inside of IPST and renamed the American Museum of Papermaking.  During this time the museum continued to grow, and a traveling exhibition program was instituted.

In 1996 the museum received a substantial donation from the James River Corporation.  As a result, the museum's name was again changed, this time to the Robert C. Williams Paper Museum, in recognition of Robert C. Williams, the co-founder of the James River Corporation. Williams had been a student at the Institute of Paper Chemistry and chairman of the Board of Trustees of the Institute of Paper Science and Technology.

In 2005, through a donation from the Mead-Witter Foundation, an additional exhibition space was added to the museum.  This new space was named the George W. Mead Education Center.

References

External links

Robert C. Williams Paper Museum official website

Georgia Tech
Museums in Atlanta
Industry museums in Georgia (U.S. state)
University museums in Georgia (U.S. state)
Art museums and galleries in Georgia (U.S. state)
Museums established in 1939
1939 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state)
Paper
Papermaking in the United States
11th Engineer Battalion (Belgium). The 11th Engineer Battalion () is an engineer battalion in the Motorized Brigade of the Belgian Armed Forces. The soldiers of the 11th Engineer Battalion have diverse combat capabilities, specializes in underwater missions and reconnaissance for amphibious operations. some of the battalion soldiers are also trained Paracommando's and can be employed to support the 2nd Commando and 3rd Paratrooper battalions of Special Operations Regiment

Organisation
The 11th Engineer Battalion comprises:
 HQ staff
 construction company
 light combat engineers company
 combat engineers company
 service company

Note: Unlike The 4th Engineer Battalion it does not have a CBRN company

References 

Engineer Battalion, 11
Military units and formations of Belgium in World War II