omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Bishnu S. Atal. Bishnu S. Atal (born 1933) is an Indian physicist and engineer. He is a noted researcher in acoustics, and is best known for developments in speech coding. He advanced linear predictive coding (LPC) during the late 1960s to 1970s, and developed code-excited linear prediction (CELP) with Manfred R. Schroeder in 1985.

In 1987, Atal was elected as a member into the National Academy of Engineering for innovative research in the area of linear predictive coding of speech.

Biography
Atal was born in India, and received his BS degree in physics (1952) from the University of Lucknow, a diploma in electrical communication engineering (1955) from the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore  and a PhD in electrical engineering (1968) from Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute.

From 1957 to 1960, he was a lecturer in acoustics at the Department of Electrical Communication Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore.

In 1961 Atal joined Bell Laboratories, where his subsequent research focused on acoustics and speech, making major contributions in the field of speech analysis, synthesis, and coding, including low bit-rate speech coding and automatic speech recognition. He advanced and promoted linear predictive coding (1967), and developed code-excited linear prediction (1985) with Manfred R. Schroeder.

He retired in 2002 to become affiliate professor of Electrical Engineering at the University of Washington.

Atal holds more than 16 U.S. patents, and is a member of the National Academy of Engineering and National Academy of Sciences, and a fellow of the Acoustical Society of America and of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. He received the 1986 IEEE Morris N. Liebmann Memorial Award "for pioneering contributions to linear predictive coding for speech processing", and the 1993 IEEE ASSP Society Award for contributions to linear prediction of speech, multipulse, and code-excited source coding. He is the Franklin Institute's 2003 Benjamin Franklin Medal Laureate in Engineering.

Selected works 
 US Patent 4,472,832: Digital speech coder

References 
 New Jersey Inventors of the Year
 IEEE Signal Processing Society Speech Technical Committee (STC) newsletter
 Voice Communication Between Humans and Machines

External links
 From “Harmonic Telegraph” to Cellular Phones – Bishnu Atal talks about the history of telecom invention and his role in pushing cell phone technology (Aug 23, 2016 at USC, event, book)

1933 births
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Living people
Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
Fellows of the IEEE
Scientists at Bell Labs
Indian Institute of Science alumni
University of Lucknow alumni
Polytechnic Institute of New York University alumni
Fellows of the Acoustical Society of America
Speech processing researchers
Benjamin Franklin Medal (Franklin Institute) laureates
Grainstone. Under the Dunham classification (Dunham, 1962) system of limestones, a grainstone is defined as a grain-supported carbonate rock that contains less than 1% mud-grade material. This definition has recently been clarified as a carbonate-dominated rock that does not contain any carbonate mud and where less than 10% of the components are larger than 2 mm. The spaces between grains may be empty (pores) or filled by cement.

The identification of grainstone 
The presence of any primary carbonate mud precludes a classification of grainstone. A study of the use of carbonate classification systems by Lokier and Al Junaibi highlighted that the most common source of confusion in the classification of grainstone was to misidentify fine-grained internal micrite, generated by in-situ processes, as clay–silt grade sediment - thus resulting in the misidentification of grainstone as packstone. Failure to correctly determine the size and abundance of component grains greater than two millimeters was also a source of error.

Dunham's original definition of grainstone stated that it must contain less than 1% mud to fine-silt grade (<20 μm) sediment. Embry and Klovan and Wright  reduced the permitted amount of carbonate mud in a grainstone to zero. Given that grainstone facies are interpreted to have been deposited under high-energy conditions, it is sensible to preclude the presence of primary carbonate mud from this classification.

References

Limestone
Trans-European high-speed rail network. The Trans-European high-speed rail network (TEN-R), together with the Trans-European conventional rail network, make up the Trans-European Rail network, which in turn is one of a number of the European Union's Trans-European transport networks (TEN-T). It was defined by the Council Directive 96/48/EC of 23 July 1996.

The European Union council decision 2002/735/EC defines technical standards for interoperability of the system.

Description 
The aim of this EU Directive is to achieve the interoperability of the European high-speed train network at the various stages of its design, construction and operation.

The network is defined as a system consisting of a set of infrastructures, fixed installations, logistic equipment and rolling stock.

By definition of the EC decision, a high-speed line must have one of these three infrastructure characteristics:
 specially built high-speed lines equipped for speeds generally equal to or greater than 
 specially upgraded high-speed lines equipped for speeds of the order of 
 specially upgraded high-speed lines which have special features as a result of topographical, relief or town-planning constraints, on which the speed must be adapted to each case.

The rolling stock used on these lines must be compatible with the characteristics of the infrastructure.

Along important listed rail routes (TEN-T), the railway shall be of high speed type, either when new parts are built, or when upgrades are made. This creates a quality requirement on these projects.

Corridors

 Corridor 1 – Berlin–Palermo
 Corridor 2 – London, Paris, Amsterdam and Cologne to Brussels
 Corridor 3 – Lisbon–Madrid
 Corridor 4 – LGV Est
 Corridor 6 – Lyon–Budapest
 Corridor 7 – Paris–Bratislava

See also
High-speed rail in Europe
Trans-European Transport Networks
Trans-European Road network
Trans-European Rail network
Trans-European conventional rail network
Trans-European Inland Waterway network
Motorways of the Sea
Trans-European Seaport network
Trans-European Airport network
Trans-European Combined Transport network

References

Trans-European Rail network
High-speed rail in Europe
Avro 557 Ava. The Avro Type 557 Ava was a British twin-engined biplane torpedo bomber of the 1920s. It was developed by Avro to meet a requirement for a heavy torpedo bomber for the Royal Air Force but was unsuccessful, only two prototypes being built.

Design and development
The British Air Ministry produced Specification 16/22 in 1922 for a long-range land-based torpedo bomber. The specification required that the aircraft be capable of carrying a 21 in (533 mm) torpedo or an equivalent weight of bombs and produced responses both from Blackburn Aircraft (the Cubaroo) and Avro. Roy Chadwick, chief designer of Avro, initially produced a single-engined design, the Avro 556 powered by a Napier Cub engine, similar to the Cubaroo. This was rejected in favour of a twin-engined aircraft using two Rolls-Royce Condor engines, the Avro Type 557 Ava and winning an order for two prototypes from the Air Ministry. Completed in secret (owing to its armament of a 21 in (533 mm) torpedo, thought to be able to sink the largest warships), the first prototype Ava (serial number N171) flew in mid-1924.

The Ava was a three-bay biplane of wooden construction, with the un-cowled engines between the wings. It had a biplane tail, initially fitted with triple rudders, of which the centre rudder was soon removed. The fuselage accommodated two pilots in an open cockpit, with nose and dorsal gun positions and a retractable ventral "dustbin" gun position that could be manned by the navigator/bomb aimer, who otherwise occupied a large enclosed cabin. The 2,000 lb (910 kg) torpedo or equivalent bomb load were carried on external racks under the fuselage.

The Air Ministry dropped its plans to use the 21 in (533 mm) torpedo but Avro continued with construction of the second prototype, which was of all-metal construction but was otherwise similar to the first prototype, flying on 22 April 1927. While a modified version of the Ava was proposed to meet Specification B19/27 for a heavy bomber, it was unsuccessful, no further aircraft being built.

Variants
Ava Mk I
 First prototype. Wooden construction.
Ava Mk II
 Second prototype. Metal construction.

Specifications (Ava Mk I)

See also

References

External links

 Avro Ava – British Aircraft Directory

557 Ava
1920s British bomber aircraft
Cancelled military aircraft projects of the United Kingdom
Biplanes
Twin piston-engined tractor aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1924
Schottky anomaly. The Schottky anomaly is an effect observed in solid-state physics where the specific heat capacity of a solid at low temperature has a peak. It is called anomalous because the heat capacity usually increases with temperature, or stays constant. It occurs in systems with a limited number of energy levels so that E(T) increases with sharp steps, one for each energy level that becomes available. Since Cv =(dE/dT), it will experience a large peak as the temperature crosses over from one step to the next.

This effect can be explained by looking at the change in entropy of the system.  At zero temperature only the lowest energy level is occupied, entropy is zero, and there is very little probability of a transition to a higher energy level.  As the temperature increases, there is an increase in entropy and thus the probability of a transition goes up.  As the temperature approaches the difference between the energy levels there is a broad peak in the specific heat corresponding to a large change in entropy for a small change in temperature.  At high temperatures all of the levels are populated evenly, so there is again little change in entropy for small changes in temperature, and thus a lower specific heat capacity. 

 

For a two level system the specific heat coming from the Schottky anomaly has the form:

 

Where Δ is the energy between the two levels.

This anomaly is usually seen in paramagnetic salts or even ordinary glass (due to paramagnetic iron impurities) at low temperature. At high temperature the paramagnetic spins have many spin states available, but at low temperatures some of the spin states are "frozen out" (having too high energy due to crystal field splitting), and the entropy per paramagnetic atom is lowered.

It was named after Walter H. Schottky.

Details 

In a system where particles can have either a state of energy 0 or , the expected value of the energy of a particle in the canonical ensemble is:

with the inverse temperature  and the Boltzmann constant .

The total energy of  independent particles is thus:

The heat capacity is therefore: 

Plotting  as a function of temperature, a peak can be seen at . In this section

for the  in the introductory section.

References

Thermodynamic properties
Condensed matter physics
Samuel Kurtz Hoffman. Samuel Kurtz Hoffman (15 April 1902 – 26 June 1995) was an American engineer who specialised in rocket propulsion.

He served as chief engineer at engine manufacturing firm Lycoming Engines and later became professor of aerospace engineering at Pennsylvania State University, his alma mater.

While leading a team at North American Aviation (which later became Rocketdyne) between 1949 and 1970 he developed the F-1 engines that would power the Saturn V rocket, and later worked on the Space Shuttle Main Engine.

References

1902 births
1995 deaths
20th-century American Jews
Pennsylvania State University alumni
American aerospace engineers
Pennsylvania State University faculty
20th-century American engineers
Burials at Santa Barbara Cemetery
Falcon Virgo. Falcon Virgo is a series of exercises designed to test airspace security, especially around major American cities like New York City and Washington, D.C.  They involve both regular military fighter aircraft and air operations centers (to include Air Force Reserve Command and Air National Guard) and Civil Air Patrol forces.

Description 

The exercises comprise a series of training flights held in coordination with the United States Northern Command / North American Air Defense Command (USNORTHCOM / NORAD), First Air Force (1 AF), the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), the National Capital Region Command Center (NCRCC), the Joint Air Defense Operations Center (JADOC), the Continental US NORAD Region (CONR), the Civil Air Patrol (CAP), the U.S. Coast Guard and the CONR's various Air Defense Sectors.

One of the exercises implied the pilots from the Civil Air Patrol (CAP) who orchestrated fake aerial attacks on US cities, such as New York City and Washington DC, to stress-test Air Force and the Coast Guards.

The exercises are planned and controlled to ensure NORAD's rapid response capability. NORAD has conducted exercise flights of this nature throughout the U.S. and Canada since the start of Operation Noble Eagle, the command's response to the terrorist attacks on 11 September 2001.

Exercises 

09-07 - 15 to 19 May 2009
12-07 - 11 to 12 April 2012
15-13 - August 2015

References 

Military exercises involving the United States
Gate oxide. The gate oxide is the dielectric layer that separates the gate terminal of a MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor) from the underlying source and drain terminals as well as the conductive channel that connects source and drain when the transistor is turned on.  Gate oxide is formed by thermal oxidation of the silicon of the channel to form a thin (5 - 200 nm) insulating layer of silicon dioxide. The insulating silicon dioxide layer is formed through a process of self-limiting oxidation, which is described by the Deal–Grove model.  A conductive gate material is subsequently deposited over the gate oxide to form the transistor.  The gate oxide serves as the dielectric layer so that the gate can sustain as high as 1 to 5 MV/cm transverse electric field in order to strongly modulate the conductance of the channel.

Above the gate oxide is a thin electrode layer made of a conductor which can be aluminium, a highly doped silicon, a refractory metal such as tungsten, a silicide (TiSi, MoSi2, TaSi or WSi2) or a sandwich of these layers. This gate electrode is often called "gate metal" or "gate conductor". The geometrical width of the gate conductor electrode (the direction transverse to current flow) is called the physical gate width. The physical gate width may be slightly different from the electrical channel width used to model the transistor as fringing electric fields can exert an influence on conductors that are not immediately below the gate.

The electrical properties of the gate oxide are critical to the formation of the conductive channel region below the gate.  In NMOS-type devices, the zone beneath the gate oxide is a thin n-type inversion layer on the surface of the p-type semiconductor substrate. It is induced by the oxide electric field from the applied gate voltage VG. This is known as the inversion channel. It is the conduction channel that allows the electrons to flow from the source to the drain.

Overstressing the gate oxide layer, a common failure mode of MOS devices, may lead to gate rupture or to stress induced leakage current.

During manufacturing by reactive-ion-etching the gate oxide may damaged by antenna effect.

History 
In 1955 Carl Frosch and Lincoln Derrick accidentally grew an oxide layer over silicon at Bell Labs and patented their method. By 1957 Frosch and Derrick were aware of surface passivation by silicon dioxide and made the first gate oxide for a transistors. In 1987, Bijan Davari led a research team at the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center that demonstrated the first MOSFET with a 10 nm gate oxide thickness, using tungsten gate technology.

See also 

 Gate dielectric

References 

MOSFETs
Semiconductor devices
Semiconductor fabrication materials
Semiconductor structures
Arab inventions
Egyptian inventions
South Korean inventions
Iranian inventions
American inventions
Aquacultural engineering. Aquacultural engineering is a multidisciplinary field of engineering and that aims to solve technical problems associated with farming aquatic vertebrates, invertebrates, and algae. Common aquaculture systems requiring optimization and engineering include sea cages, ponds, and recirculating systems. The design and management of these systems is based on their production goals and the economics of the farming operation.

Aquaculture technology is varied with design and development requiring knowledge of mechanical, biological and environmental systems along with material engineering and instrumentation. Furthermore, engineering techniques often involve solutions borrowed from wastewater treatment, fisheries, and traditional agriculture.

Aquacultural engineering has played a role in the expansion of the aquaculture industry, which now accounts for half of all seafood products consumed in the world. To identify effective solutions the discipline is combined with both fish physiology and business economics unknowledge.

Recirculating aquaculture systems
Recirculating aquaculture systems often involve intensive, high-density culture of a species with limited water usage and extensive filtration. In a typical recirculating aquaculture system, a series of filtration steps maintains a high level of water quality that promotes rapid fish growth. Steps include solids removal, biofiltration, oxygenation, and pumping, with each one requiring different equipment and engineering considerations. Comprehensive instrumentation and sensor controls are required to monitor this equipment and the underlying water conditions such as temperature, dissolved oxygen, and pH. Development of recirculating aquaculture systems is still underway in 2017, and engineering advances are needed to make the systems economically viable for culturing most species.

Research
The Journal of Aquacultural Engineering publishes engineers' studies related to the design and development of aquacultural systems. Worldwide, universities provide aquacultural engineering education often under the umbrella of agricultural or biological engineering.

See also 
Recirculating aquaculture systems

References

Aquaculture
Engineering disciplines
Ferranti effect. In electrical engineering, the Ferranti effect is the increase in voltage occurring at the receiving end of a very long (> 200 km) AC electric power transmission line, relative to the voltage at the sending end, when the load is very small, or no load is connected. It can be stated as a factor, or as a percent increase.

It was first observed during the installation of underground cables in Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti's 10,000-volt AC power distribution system in 1887.

The capacitive line charging current produces a voltage drop across the line inductance that is in-phase with the sending-end voltage, assuming negligible line resistance. Therefore, both line inductance and capacitance are responsible for this phenomenon. This can be analysed by considering the line as a transmission line where the source impedance is lower than the load impedance (unterminated). The effect is similar to an electrically short version of the quarter-wave impedance transformer, but with smaller voltage transformation.

The Ferranti effect is more pronounced the longer the line and the higher the voltage applied. The relative voltage rise is proportional to the square of the line length and the square of frequency.

The Ferranti effect is much more pronounced in underground cables, even in short lengths, because of their high capacitance per unit length, and lower electrical impedance.

An equivalent to the Ferranti effect occurs when inductive current flows through a series capacitance. Indeed, a  lagging current  flowing through a  impedance results in a voltage difference , hence in increased voltage on the receiving side.

See also
LC circuit "A series resonant circuit provides voltage magnification."
Reflections of signals on conducting lines
Failure of the first trans-Atlantic telegraph cable
Telegrapher's equations
Characteristic impedance#Transmission line model

References

Electric power transmission
Electrical phenomena
Ferranti
Transmission lines
Michael Dickson (engineer). Michael Geoerge Tufnell Dickson (22 September 1944 – 28 May 2018) was a structural engineer and a founding partner of Buro Happold. He was a Visiting Professor of Engineering Design at the University of Bath Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering.

He studied mechanical sciences (the precursor of engineering) at Cambridge University followed by structural engineering and town planning at Cornell University in the United States. In 2007 he was awarded an Honorary Doctor of Engineering from the University of Bath.

He became chairman of Buro Happold in 1996, and held the post until April 2005, when he resigned from the partnership, and was chairman of the Happold Trust, a charitable trust funded by Buro Happold.  From 2000 to 2002 he was Chairman of the Construction Industry Council and from 2005 to 2006 he was the President of the Institution of Structural Engineers. He also chaired the New Construction Research and Innovation Strategy Panel from 2003-2005.

Dickson died on 28 May 2018 after a short illness.

References

1944 births
2018 deaths
Cornell University College of Architecture, Art, and Planning alumni
British structural engineers
Presidents of the Institution of Structural Engineers
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering
Academics of the University of Bath
Cornell University College of Engineering alumni
Onesource State Apportionment. ONESOURCE State Apportionment (formerly Liquid Engines) is software that helps corporations manage their state and international taxes.

Patent controversy

Liquid Engines has filed a number of patent applications that are considered to be tax patents. These types of patents are controversial and legislation has been introduced into the United States Congress to ban them.  Thus both Liquid Engines and one of its founders, Edward Lazear, have come under criticism by organizations that are opposed to tax patents.  Edward Lazear was President George W. Bush's chief economic adviser and signed over all of his ownership rights to the patent application to Liquid Engines in part to avoid a conflict of interest.

Acquisition

In August 2008, Liquid Engines, headquartered in Sunnyvale, California, was acquired and dissolved into the Tax & Accounting division of Thomson Reuters. 

 Liquid Engines was renamed ONESOURCE State Apportionment inn 2012.

References

External links

Software companies based in California
Companies based in Sunnyvale, California
Defunct software companies of the United States
Binghamite. Binghamite (also called silkstone and cuyunite) is a type of chalcedony found only on the Cuyuna Range (near Crosby) in Crow Wing County, Minnesota. The stone occurs near deposits of iron ore.

Description

Mining in the area uncovered deposits of the stone, but since mining operations were discontinued in the area many years ago the stone has become fairly rare. The stone has areas that are highly chatoyant similar to pietersite or tiger's eye. It is a variety of chalcedony with fibers of goethite or hematite usually in colors of red, gold, and black. The highest quality binghamite compares with pietersite for color and chatoyancy. When the stone's pattern is arranged in parallel bands it is called silkstone. Binghamite is named after William Bingham, a lapidarist, who discovered it in 1936.

References

Crow Wing County, Minnesota
Geology of Minnesota
Agates