omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Expensive Desk Calculator. Expensive Desk Calculator by Robert A. Wagner is thought to be computing's first interactive calculation program.

The software first ran on the TX-0 computer loaned to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) by Lincoln Laboratory. It was ported to the PDP-1 donated to MIT in 1961 by Digital Equipment Corporation.

Friends from the MIT Tech Model Railroad Club, Wagner and a group of fellow students had access to these room-sized machines outside classes, signing up for time during off hours. Overseen by Jack Dennis, John McKenzie and faculty advisors, they were personal computer users as early as the late 1950s.

The calculators Wagner needed to complete his numerical analysis homework were across campus and in short supply so he wrote one himself. Although the program has about three thousand lines of code and took months to write, Wagner received a grade of zero on his homework. His professor's reaction was, "You used a computer! This can't be right." Steven Levy wrote, "The professor would learn in time, as would everyone, that the world opened up by the computer was a limitless one."

References

See also
 PDP-1
 Expensive Typewriter
 Expensive Planetarium
 Expensive Tape Recorder

Calculators
History of software
Class (locomotive). A class of locomotives is a group of locomotives built to a common design, typically for a single railroad or railway. Classes can vary between country, manufacturer, and company. For example, the United States generally used the Whyte notation for steam locomotive classification, but the Baldwin Locomotive Works had their own classification system. A list of locomotive classification systems follows:

United States of America 

 Whyte notation
 AAR wheel arrangement
 Pennsylvania Railroad locomotive classification
 List of Milwaukee Road locomotives
 List of Norfolk and Western Railway locomotives

Britain 

 British Rail locomotive and multiple unit numbering and classification
 List of British Rail classes
 Locomotives of the Caledonian Railway
 Locomotives of the Great Northern Railway 
 Locomotives of the Midland Railway 
 GWR locomotive numbering and classification
 SR locomotive numbering and classification
 Southern Railway multiple unit numbering and classification
 LMS locomotive numbering and classification
 LNER locomotive numbering and classification
 Steam locomotives of British Railways

Ireland 

 Steam locomotives of Ireland
 Diesel locomotives of Ireland
 Multiple units of Ireland

Germany 

 List of Bavarian locomotives and railbuses
 German locomotive classification
 DRG locomotive classification
 DR locomotive classification
 DB locomotive classification
 UIC classification of locomotive axle arrangements

Finland 

 List of Finnish locomotives

Indonesia 

 List of locomotives in Indonesia

Russia 

 List of Russian steam locomotive classes

China 

 List of locomotives in China

Switzerland 

 Swiss locomotive and railcar classification

South Africa 

 South African locomotive numbering and classification
 List of South African locomotive classes

Japan 

 Japan Railways locomotive numbering and classification

New Zealand 

 Locomotives of New Zealand

References 

Locomotive classification systems
Rail transport-related lists
Caustic pencil. A caustic pencil (or silver nitrate stick) is a device for applying topical medication containing silver nitrate and potassium nitrate, used to chemically cauterize skin, providing hemostasis or permanently destroying unwanted tissue such as a wart, skin tag, aphthous ulcers, or over-production of granulation tissue. They are not used as a treatment for minor skin cuts, and are not to be confused with a styptic pencil.

The silver and potassium nitrates in caustic pencils is in a dried, solid form at the tip of a wooden or plastic stick. When the material is applied to a wound or lesion, the tissue moisture or blood dissolves the dried nitrate salts, which then chemically burn the tissue. It requires moisture for activation.

Silver nitrate sticks are often used for minor hemostasis where patients are not under general anesthesia, and where electrocautery would be painful and inconvenient. One common use of silver nitrate sticks is in emergency medicine, to control epistaxis (nosebleed). The stick is rolled on the affected mucous membrane or visible blood vessel in the nares (nostril) where the chemical cauterization stops the minor bleeding.

If the bleeding is too copious, the chemical cautery may not be effective, as the flowing blood can wash away the chemical before it can react with the tissue. It can also be accidentally spread to undesirable locations where it can cause skin staining and tissue burns. This is especially important, as it is often used in the nose where accidental aerosolization can occur, splattering the clinician or other parts of the patient and causing unintentional burns. Accidental application to unintended tissue is treated with copious water irrigation, and saline solution will inactivate the chemical reaction.

References

Medical equipment
James Samuel. James Samuel (21 March 1824 – 25 May 1874) was a railway engineer who was born in Glasgow on 21 March 1824. He was appointed engineer to the Eastern Counties Railway in 1846. He held two important patents but, in  both cases, the invention was the work of another.

Career
He became engineer to the Eastern Counties Railway in 1846.

He was a supporter of light railway vehicles and collaborated with William Bridges Adams on these. He designed a pair of light 2-2-0 locomotives for the Morayshire Railway. These were built by Neilson and Company for the opening of the line in August 1852. They were not a great success.

From 1858 he worked on civil engineering projects in Asia Minor, the US and Mexico.

Innovations
In 1850 James Samuel lodged patent 13029 for a form of locomotive compounding, giving "continuous expansion" using two cylinders of equal diameter,  a system devised by John Nicholson, a driver on the Eastern Counties Railway. Two locomotives were built using this system—one for goods and one for passenger traffic—and, according to papers read by James Samuel before the Institute of Mechanical Engineers in January and April, 1852, the results were "highly satisfactory". Unfortunately, no other record of them is known to survive. James Samuel also patented a railway fishplate in 1844.

References

Gordon, W.J. (1910): Our Home Railways (volume one). Frederick Warne & Co, London, England.

1824 births
1874 deaths
Scottish railway mechanical engineers
Center for Analysis and Prediction of Storms. The Center for Analysis and Prediction of Storms (CAPS) was established at the University of Oklahoma in 1989 as one of the first eleven National Science Foundation Science and Technology Centers.  Located at the National Weather Center in Norman, Oklahoma, its mission is the development of techniques for the computer-based prediction of high-impact local weather, such as individual spring and winter storms, with the NEXRAD (WSR-88D) Doppler weather radar serving as a key data source.

Activities 
Since 1989, scientists in CAPS have developed and improved ARPS (The Advanced Regional Prediction System). ARPS is a comprehensive regional to storm-scale atmospheric modeling/prediction system. It is a complete system that includes a realtime data analysis and assimilation system, the forward prediction model and a post-analysis package. ARPS has been used successfully in many real thunderstorm cases in research.

Development and project 
CAPS, along with several other University of Oklahoma institutions, is a partner in a new Engineering Research Center led by the University of Massachusetts Amherst. The Engineering Research Center for Collaborative Adaptive Sensing of the Atmosphere (CASA) seeks to revolutionize the remote sensing of the lower troposphere, initially via inexpensive, low-power, phased array Doppler weather radars placed on cell towers and buildings. unique component of this project is that the sensors collaborate with one another and dynamically adjust their characteristics to sense multiple atmospheric phenomena while meeting multiple end user needs in an optimal manner.  

CAPS also is leading an NSF Large Information Technology Research (ITR) grant that seeks to develop an infrastructure for mesoscale meteorology research and education. Known as Linked Environments for Atmospheric Discovery (LEAD), a transforming element of this project is the ability for analysis tools, forecast models, and data repositories to function as dynamically adaptive, on-demand systems that can change configuration rapidly and automatically in response to the evolving weather; respond immediately to user decisions based upon the weather problem at hand; and steer remote observing systems to optimize data collection and forecast/warning quality.

References

External links

ARPS
NSSL
NWC
Atmospheric Radar Research Center

Meteorological research institutes
Tornado
Storm
University of Oklahoma
1989 establishments in Oklahoma
Raster passes. Raster passes are the most basic of all machining strategies for the finishing or semi-finishing of a part during computer-aided manufacturing (CAM). In raster passes machining the milling cutter moves along curves on the cutter location surface (CL surface) obtained by intersecting the CL surface with vertical, parallel planes. Many CAM systems implement this strategy by sampling cutter location points on these curves by calculating intersection points of the CL surface and as many vertical lines as needed to approximate the curve to the desired accuracy.

Computer-aided manufacturing
Heijunka box. A heijunka box is a visual scheduling tool used in heijunka, a method originally created by Toyota for achieving a smoother production flow. While heijunka is the smoothing of production, the heijunka box is the name of a specific tool used in achieving the aims of heijunka.

The heijunka box is generally a wall schedule which is divided into a grid of boxes or a set of 'pigeon-holes'/rectangular receptacles. Each column of boxes representing a specific period of time, lines are drawn down the schedule/grid to visually break the schedule into columns of individual shifts or days or weeks. Coloured cards representing individual jobs (referred to as kanban cards) are placed on the heijunka box to provide a visual representation of the upcoming production runs.

The heijunka box makes it easy to see what type of jobs are queued for production and for when they are scheduled. Workers on the process remove the kanban cards for the current period from the box in order to know what to do. These cards will be passed to another section when they process the related job.

Implementation

The Heijunka box allows easy and visual control of a smoothed production schedule.

A typical heijunka box has horizontal rows for each product. It has vertical columns for identical time intervals of production. In the illustration on the right, the time interval is thirty minutes. Production control kanban are placed in the pigeon-holes provided by the box in proportion to the number of items to be built of a given product type during a time interval.

In this illustration, each time period builds an A and two Bs along with a mix of Cs, Ds and Es. What is clear from the box, from the simple repeating patterns of kanbans in each row, is that the production is smooth of each of these products.

This ensures that production capacity is kept under a constant pressure thereby eliminating many issues.

See also
Lean production
Just In Time

References

Bibliography
 

Japanese business terms
Lean manufacturing
Toyota Production System
San Luis Rassini. Rassini is a company based in Mexico. It produces vehicle parts such as springs, suspension components, and disc brakes.

Formerly known as SANLUIS, Rassini is a Mexican company that produces leaf springs, coil springs, rubber bushings and brake discs, drums and hubs. It has three facilities in U.S.A., two are manufacturing facilities and one is a Technical center located in Plymouth MI.

In 2000, Rassini opened a technical center in Plymouth, MI to support customers in NA. In 2001, it opened a plant in Montpelier, Ohio after negotiating with city officials, making it the first Mexican company to set up operations in the state. In 2014, it opened a facility in Flint MI to produce brake discs.

References

External links
 Rassini company website

Manufacturing companies of Mexico
Free Software Initiative of Japan. The Free Software Initiative of Japan are a non-profit organization dedicated to supporting Free Software growth and development. It was founded on 10 July 2002 and organized the Free Software Symposium in Tokyo on October 22 and 23 of that year. The organization's founding chairman was Prof. Masayuki Ida, and  the current chairman is Niibe Yutaka. , FSIJ have been involved in the Google Summer of Code as a mentoring organization, CodeFest Kyoto and CodeFest Japan.

References

External links

 Free Software Initiative of Japan home page (English version)

Free and open-source software organizations
Chemical compound microarray. A chemical compound microarray is a collection of organic chemical compounds spotted on a solid surface, such as glass and plastic. This microarray format is very similar to DNA microarray, protein microarray and antibody microarray. In chemical genetics research, they are routinely used for searching proteins that bind with specific chemical compounds, and in general drug discovery research, they provide a multiplex way to search potential drugs for therapeutic targets.

There are three different forms of chemical compound microarrays based on the fabrication method.  The first form is to covalently immobilize the organic compounds on the solid surface with diverse linking techniques; this platform is usually called Small Molecule Microarray, which is invented and advanced by Dr. Stuart Schreiber and colleagues .  The second form is to spot and dry organic compounds on the solid surface without immobilization, this platform has a commercial name as Micro Arrayed Compound Screening (μARCS), which is developed by scientists in Abbott Laboratories .  The last form is to spot organic compounds in a homogenous solution without immobilization and drying effect, this platform is developed by Dr. Dhaval Gosalia and Dr. Scott Diamond  and later commercialized as DiscoveryDot technology by Reaction Biology Corporation .

Polymer Microarrays

Polymer microarrays have been developed to allow screening for new polymeric materials to direct different tissue lineages. Research has also been directed towards studying the surface chemistry of these arrays to determine which surface chemistries control cell adhesion, although concerns have been raised as to the influence of the substrate on measurements and the questionable statistical interpretation of results.

The lack of control in the production of many of these polymer arrays suggests that any practical application of these technologies will be limited. This is particularly true for the in situ polymerisation of acrylate monomers in minute volumes.

References
 Uttamchandani, M. et al. (2005) "Small molecule microarrays, recent advances and applications". Curr Opin Chem Biol. 9, 4–13 .
 Walsh, D.P. and Chang, Y.T. (2004) "Recent Advances in Small Molecule Microarrays, Applications and Technology". Comb Chem High Throughput Screen. 7, 557–564 .
 Hoever, M. and Zbinden, P. (2004) "The evolution of microarrayed compound screening. Drug Discov". Today 9, 358–365.
 Gosalia, DN and Diamond, SL. (2003) "Printing Chemical libraries on microarrays for fluid phase nanoliter reactions". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 100, 8721–8726 .
 Ma, H. et al. (2005) "Nanoliter Homogenous Ultra High Throughput Screening Microarray for Lead Discoveries and IC50 Profiling".  Assay Drug Dev. Technol. 3, 177–187 . 
 Horiuchi, K.Y. et al. (2005) "Microarrays for the functional analysis of the chemical-kinase interactome", accepted, J Biomol Screen. 11, 48–56 .
 Ma, H. and Horiuchi, K.Y. (2006) "Chemical Microarray: a new tool for drug screening and discovery", Drug Discovery Today, 11, 661–668 .

Nanotechnology
Microarrays
Electric eye. An electric eye is a photodetector used for detecting obstruction of a light beam. An example is the door safety system used on garage door openers that use a light transmitter and receiver at the bottom of the door to prevent closing if there is any obstruction in the way that breaks the light beam. The device does not provide an image; only the presence of light is detectable. Visible light may be used, but infrared radiation conceals the operation of the device and typically is used in modern systems. Originally, systems used lamps powered by direct current or the power line alternating current frequency, but modern photodetector systems use an infrared light-emitting diode modulated at a few kilohertz, which allows the detector to reject stray light and improves the range, sensitivity, and security of the device.

Examples
Highway vehicle counter
 In the 1930s, an electric eye vehicle counter was introduced in the US using two IR lamps set apart so that only cars and pedestrians would be counted.
First compact commercial unit
 A compact type of electric eye was offered in 1931 that was enclosed in a small steel case and much easier to install compared to older models.
Automatic wrapping machines
 In the 1930s, an electric eye apparatus was developed to help a wrapping machine wrap 72 boxes a minute.
Automatic door opener
 In 1931, General Electric tested the first automatic door openers now popular in hospitals. They called their electric eye the Magic Eye.
Business alarm system
 In 1931, an electric eye that used invisible UV wavelength was offered to businesses in need of a 24-hour alarm system. A system of this type is demonstrated in the first scene of the 1932 film Jewel Robbery.
Automatic cameras
 In 1936, Dr. Albert Einstein and Dr. Gustav Bucky received a patent for a design which applied the electric eye to a camera. The camera was capable of automatically determining the proper aperture and exposure.

See also
 Photoelectric sensor
 Machine vision

References

External links

 "Latest Way Beams Of Light Are Put To Work" Popular Mechanics, April 1931

Optical devices
Garage door openers
Gresley. Gresley may refer to

Church Gresley, village and former civil parish in the South Derbyshire district of Derbyshire, England
Frank Gresley (1855–1936), a British painter
Harold Gresley (1892–1967), son of Frank, also a British painter
James Stephen Gresley (1829–1908), father of Frank, also a British painter
Sir Nigel Gresley (1876–1941), a locomotive engineer (designer)
LNER Class A4 4498 Sir Nigel Gresley, a steam locomotive named after Nigel Greasley, built 1937
Sir Nigel Gresley, 6th Baronet (c. 1727 – 1787), an English land-owner, mine-owner and builder
Energy gap. In solid-state physics, an energy gap or band gap is an energy range in a solid where no electron states exist, i.e. an energy range where the density of states vanishes.

Especially in condensed matter physics, an energy gap is often known more abstractly as a spectral gap, a term which need not be specific to electrons or solids.

Band gap

If an energy gap exists in the band structure of a material, it is called band gap. The physical properties of semiconductors are to a large extent determined by their band gaps, but also for insulators and metals the band structure—and thus any possible band gaps—govern their electronic properties.

Superconductors

For superconductors the energy gap is a region of suppressed density of states around the Fermi energy, with the size of the energy gap much smaller than the energy scale of the band structure. The superconducting energy gap is a key aspect in the theoretical description of superconductivity and thus features prominently in BCS theory. Here, the size of the energy gap indicates the energy gain for two electrons upon formation of a Cooper pair. If a conventional superconducting material is cooled from its metallic state (at higher temperatures) into the superconducting state, then the superconducting energy gap is absent above the critical temperature , it starts to open upon entering the superconducting state at , and it grows upon further cooling.
BCS theory predicts that the size  of the superconducting energy gap for conventional superconductors at zero temperature scales with their critical temperature :  (with Boltzmann constant ).

Pseudogap
If the density of states is suppressed near the Fermi energy but does not fully vanish, then this suppression is called pseudogap. Pseudogaps are experimentally observed in a variety of material classes; a prominent example are the cuprate high-temperature superconductors.

Hard gap vs. soft gap

If the density of states vanishes over an extended energy range, then this is called a hard gap. If instead the density of states exactly vanishes only for a single energy value (while being suppressed, but not vanishing for nearby energy values), then this is called a soft gap. A prototypical example of a soft gap is the Coulomb gap that exists in localized electron states with Coulomb interaction.

References 

Electronic band structures
Superconductivity
Polypropylene carbonate. Polypropylene carbonate (PPC), a copolymer of carbon dioxide and propylene oxide, is a thermoplastic material. Catalysts like zinc glutarate are used in polymerization.

Properties 
Polypropylene carbonate is soluble in polar solvents like lower ketones, ethyl acetate, dichloromethane and chlorinated hydrocarbons and insoluble in solvents like alcohols, water, and aliphatic hydrocarbons. It also forms stable emulsions in water.
PPC allows the diffusion of gases like oxygen through it. Having a glass temperature (Tg) between 25 and 45 °C, PPC binders are amorphous. The glass temperature of PPC is slightly greater than polyethylene carbonate (PEC).

Its refractive index is 1.46 while its dielectric constant is 3.

Applications 
Polypropylene carbonate is used to increase the toughness of some epoxy resins.
It is used as a sacrificial binder in the ceramic industry, which decomposes and evaporates during sintering. It has a low sodium content which makes it suitable for the preparation of electroceramics like dielectric materials and piezoelectric ceramics.

Composites of polypropylene carbonate with starch (PPC/starch) are used as biodegradable plastics.

One of the largest manufacturers of polypropylene carbonate is Empower Materials, located in New Castle, DE, USA.

References

Further reading

External links
Material properties of Polypropylene carbonate

Plastics
Polycarbonates
Biodegradable plastics
Boltzmann Medal. The Boltzmann Medal (or Boltzmann Award) is a prize awarded to physicists that obtain new results concerning statistical mechanics; it is named after the celebrated physicist Ludwig Boltzmann. The Boltzmann Medal is awarded once every three years by the Commission on Statistical Physics of the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics, during the STATPHYS conference.

The award consists of a gilded medal; its front carries the inscription Ludwig Boltzmann, 1844–1906.

Recipients
All the winners are influential physicists or mathematicians whose contribution to statistical physics have been relevant in the past decades. Institution with multiple recipients are Sapienza University of Rome (3) and École Normale Supérieure, Cornell University, University of Cambridge and Princeton University (2).

The Medal cannot be awarded to scientist who already has been laureate of a Nobel Prize. Three recipients of the Boltzmann Medal have gone to win the Nobel Prize in Physics: Kenneth G. Wilson (1982), Giorgio Parisi (2021) and John Hopfield (2024).

See also

 List of physics awards

References

External links
IUPAP Commission on Statistical Physics (C3) the official website of C3, the Boltzmann Award recipients list during 1975–2010 (archived 10 August 2011)

Physics awards
Statistical mechanics
Triennial events
IUPAP