omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
François Andréossy. François Andréossy (1633–1688)  was a French engineer, cartographer, and a citizen of Narbonne.  He was born in Paris on 10 June 1633.   After completing his engineering studies in Paris, Andréossy went to Italy in 1660 to study Italian canal technology in Lombardy and Padua.  He returned from the trip and sought out Pierre-Paul Riquet as a patron.  Riquet was beginning his investigation into the possibility of building a canal across southern France from the Atlantic to the Mediterranean.  Andréossy supplied the technical expertise that Riquet lacked and became Riquet's right-hand man throughout the construction of the canal.

He was also responsible for the levelling and the drawing of maps. He monitored the construction and assisted Riquet until Riquet's death. Andréossy continued to work at the canal and serve the family of Riquet until he died in Castelnaudary on 3 June 1688.

Andréossy's descendants continued like him for a century. His great-grandson, the general Antoine-François Andréossy, argued in his Histoire du Canal du Midi that his ancestor should be considered the father of the Canal du Midi, instead of Riquet.

References

1633 births
1688 deaths
Scientists from Paris
17th-century French engineers
Canal du Midi
Wear and tear. Wear and tear is damage that naturally and inevitably occurs as a result of normal wear or aging. It is used in a legal context for such areas as warranty contracts from manufacturers, which usually stipulate that damage from wear and tear will not be covered.

Wear and tear is a form of depreciation, which is assumed to occur even when an item is used competently and with care and proper maintenance. For example, repeated impacts may cause stress to a hammer's head. This stress is impossible to prevent in the normal use of the tool for its designed task, and any attempt to avert it impedes its functionality. At the same time, it is expected that the normal use of a hammer will not break it beyond repair during a reasonable life cycle.

If an object's restoration is impossible, it is regarded as consumable. Parts that are designed to wear inside a machine—e.g., bearings and O-rings—are intended to be replaced with new ones; consumables like paper, cardboard, fabrics, and product packaging are designed with a service life commensurate with their intended use. For example, grocery stores may issue customers a paper or plastic sack to carry out groceries, but it is intended that the sack will have a short lifespan before wear and tear would cause it to fail.

Durable goods (e.g., automobiles, heavy machinery, mainframe computers, musical instruments, handguns, water heaters, furnaces) are designed with wear parts that are maintained generally by replacement of parts. One way to determine if a good is durable or not is whether a service technician or repairman would typically attempt repairs on it. A specialist may need to be consulted, such as an auto mechanic, a computer technician, a luthier, a gunsmith, or a plumber. An automobile's engine may be repairable with a simple adjustment or replacement of a single and inexpensive broken part. Similarly, an electric water heater element that fails from years of wear and tear may be replaced rather than the entire water heater.

Whereas an automobile needs consumable fuel and lubricants to operate, components such as tires, seats, and paint are subject to wear and tear and typically are not covered under any warranty when subjected to normal use.

Wear and tear in relation to carpet can be applied to the general area for everyday use, however worn areas around desks and high traffic areas should be considered damage.

See also
 Distressing
 Longevity
 Service life
 Siamese twins (linguistics)

References

External links

 Dictionary.com definition
 Tearspare

Accounting terminology
Contract law
Depreciation
Ivar Langen. Ivar Langen (born December 21, 1942) was the rector at the University of Stavanger from 2003 to 2007. He was a central figure in the campaign to gain university status for Stavanger University College, which was awarded in 2005.

Langen has been a professor of Mechanical Engineering since 1994. In 1997, he founded the Centre for Maintenance and Asset Management, and from 2000 to 2003, he was the vice dean of the School of Science and Technology at Stavanger University College.  Langen also serves on the board of directors of the International Society of Offshore and Polar Engineers and was president of the organisation from 2002 to 2003.

He is a fellow of the Norwegian Academy of Technological Sciences.

References

1942 births
Living people
Norwegian engineers
Academic staff of the University of Stavanger
Rectors of universities and colleges in Norway
Members of the Norwegian Academy of Technological Sciences
Andesine. Andesine is a silicate mineral, a member of the plagioclase feldspar solid solution series. Its chemical formula is (Ca, Na)(Al, Si)4O8, where Ca/(Ca + Na) (% anorthite) is between 30 and 50%. The formula may be written as Na0.7-0.5Ca0.3-0.5Al1.3-1.5Si2.7-2.5O8.

The plagioclase feldspars are a continuous solid solution series and as such the accurate identification of individual members requires detailed optical study, chemical analysis or density measurements. Refractive indices and specific gravity increase directly with calcium content.

It is sometimes used as a gemstone.

Name and discovery
Andesine was first described in 1841 for an occurrence in the Marmato mine, Marmato, Cauca, Chocó Department, Colombia. The name is for the Andes due to its abundance in the andesite lavas in those mountains.

In the early 2000s, red and green gemstones began to be marketed under the name of 'andesine'.  After some controversy, these gemstones were subsequently discovered to have been artificially-colored.

Occurrence
Andesine occurs in intermediate igneous rocks such as diorite, syenite, and andesite. It characteristically occurs in metamorphic rocks of granulite to amphibolite facies commonly exhibiting antiperthite texture. It also occurs as detrital grains in sedimentary rocks. It is commonly associated with quartz, potassium feldspar, biotite, hornblende, and magnetite.

References

External links

Tectosilicates
Sodium minerals
Calcium minerals
Feldspar
Triclinic minerals
Gemstones
Minerals in space group 2
Chromium trioxide. Chromium trioxide (also known as chromium(VI) oxide or chromic anhydride) is an inorganic compound with the formula . It is the acidic anhydride of chromic acid, and is sometimes marketed under the same name.
This compound is a dark-purple solid under anhydrous conditions and bright orange when wet. The substance dissolves in water accompanied by hydrolysis. Millions of kilograms are produced annually, mainly for electroplating. Chromium trioxide is a powerful oxidiser, a mutagen, and a carcinogen.

Production, structure, and basic reactions
Chromium trioxide is generated by treating sodium dichromate with sulfuric acid:

Approximately 100,000 tonnes are produced annually by this or similar routes.

The solid consists of chains of tetrahedrally coordinated chromium atoms that share vertices. Each chromium center therefore shares two oxygen centers with neighbors. Two oxygen atoms are not shared, giving an overall stoichiometry of 1:3.  

The structure of monomeric  has been calculated using density functional theory, and is predicted to be pyramidal (point group C3v) rather than planar (point group D3h).

Chromium trioxide decomposes above 197 °C, liberating oxygen and eventually giving :

It is used in organic synthesis as an oxidant, often as a solution in acetic acid, or acetone in the case of the Jones oxidation. In these oxidations, the Cr(VI) converts primary alcohols to the corresponding carboxylic acids and secondary alcohols to ketones. The reactions are shown below:

 Primary alcohols to carboxylic acids

 Secondary alcohols to ketones

Applications
Chromium trioxide is mainly used in chrome plating. It is typically employed with additives that affect the plating process but do not react with the trioxide. The trioxide reacts with cadmium, zinc, and other metals to generate passivating chromate films that resist corrosion. It is also used in the production of synthetic rubies. Chromic acid solution is also used in applying types of anodic coating to aluminium, which are primarily used in aerospace applications. On the International Space Station, it is used to control bacteria growth in the wastewater storage tank. A chromic acid/phosphoric acid solution is also the preferred stripping agent of anodic coatings of all types.

Safety
Chromium trioxide is highly toxic, corrosive, and carcinogenic. It is the main example of hexavalent chromium, an environmental hazard. The related chromium(III) derivatives are not particularly dangerous; thus, reductants are used to destroy chromium(VI) samples.

Chromium trioxide, being a powerful oxidizer, will ignite organic materials such as alcohols on contact.

Images

References

External links

 ATSDR Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Chromium Toxicity U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
 Chromium Trioxide at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of Nottingham)
 Reactions with Chromium Trioxide as Oxidizing Agent

Acidic oxides
Chromium(VI) compounds
Bremermann's limit. Bremermann's limit, named after Hans-Joachim Bremermann, is a theoretical limit on the maximum rate of computation that can be achieved in a self-contained system in the material universe. It is derived from Einstein's mass–energy equivalency and the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, and is c2/h ≈ 1.3563925 × 1050 bits per second per kilogram. 

This value establishes an asymptotic bound on adversarial resources when designing cryptographic algorithms, as it can be used to determine the minimum size of encryption keys or hash values required to create an algorithm that could never be cracked by a brute-force search. For example, a computer with the mass of the entire Earth operating at Bremermann's limit could perform approximately 1075 mathematical computations per second. If one assumes that a cryptographic key can be tested with only one operation, then a typical 128-bit key could be cracked in under 10−36 seconds. However, a 256-bit key (which is already in use in some systems) would take about two minutes to crack. Using a 512-bit key would increase the cracking time to approaching 1072 years, without increasing the time for encryption by more than a constant factor (depending on the encryption algorithms used).

The limit has been further analysed in later literature as the maximum rate at which a system with energy spread  can evolve into an orthogonal and hence distinguishable state to another,  
In particular, Margolus and Levitin have shown that a quantum system with average energy E takes at least time  to evolve into an orthogonal state. This is one of the quantum speed limit theorems.
However, it has been shown that chaining multiple computations or access to quantum memory in principle allow computational algorithms that require arbitrarily small amount of energy/time per one elementary computation step.

See also 
 Quantum speed limit
 Landauer's principle
 Bekenstein bound
 Kolmogorov complexity
 Transcomputational problem
 Limits of computation
 Ultrafinitism

References

External links 
 Gorelik, G. (2010) Bremermann's Limit in cGh-physics // arXiv:0910.3424v4
 Lokshin, A (2017). Arbitrary choice, ‘understanding’ and Gorelik-Bremermann limit. Far East Journal of Mathematical Sciences, V. 102, Issue 1, P. 215–222

Cybernetics
Theory of computation
Limits of computation
Spirit Parser Framework. The Spirit Parser Framework is an object oriented recursive descent parser generator framework implemented using template metaprogramming techniques. Expression templates allow users to approximate the syntax of extended Backus–Naur form (EBNF) completely in C++. Parser objects are composed through operator overloading and the result is a backtracking LL(∞) parser that is capable of parsing rather ambiguous grammars.

Spirit can be used for both lexing and parsing, together or separately.

This framework is part of the  Boost libraries.

Operators 

Because of limitations of the C++ language, the syntax of Spirit has been designed around the operator precedences of C++, while bearing resemblance to both EBNF and regular expressions.

Example 
This example shows how to use an inline parser expression with a semantic action.

#include <string>
#include <iostream>
#include <boost/spirit/include/qi.hpp>
#include <boost/spirit/include/phoenix.hpp>
 
int main()
{
  namespace qi = boost::spirit::qi;

  std::string input;
 
  std::cout << "Input a line: \n";
  getline(std::cin, input);
  std::cout << "Got '" << input << "'.\n";
 
  unsigned count = 0;
  /*  
      Next, parse the input (input.c_str()),
      using a parser constructed with the following semantics:
 
      Zero or more occurrences of (
          literal string "cat" (when matched, increment the counter "count")
      or  any character (which will be skipped)
      )

     The parser is constructed by the compiler using operator overloading and
     template matching, so the actual work is done within qi::parse(), and the
     expression starting with * only initializes the rule object that the parse
     function uses.

  */
  auto rule = *(qi::lit("cat") [ ++qi::_val ] | qi::omit[qi::char_]);
  qi::parse(input.begin(), input.end(), rule, count);
  

  // Finally, show results.
  std::cout << "The input contained " << count << " occurrences of 'cat'\n";
}

References

External links
Spirit parser framework github page
Spirit parser framework
Documentation in the Boost project
Article on Spirit by designer Joel de Guzman in Dr. Dobb's Journal

Parser generators
Neutron probe. A neutron probe is a device used to measure the quantity of water present in soil.

A typical neutron probe contains a pellet of americium-241 and beryllium. The alpha particles emitted by the decay of the americium collide with the light beryllium nuclei, producing fast neutrons. When these fast neutrons collide with hydrogen nuclei present in the soil being studied, they lose much of their energy. The detection of slow neutrons returning to the probe allows an estimate of the amount of hydrogen present. Since water contains two atoms of hydrogen per molecule, this therefore gives a measure of soil moisture.

See also
Frequency domain sensor
Time-domain reflectometer
Neutron detection

References

 :  Google Translate: "Establishment of soil moisture measurement points, calibration of a neutron probe at the instance of the type Wallingfordsonde iH11"

Probe
Soil physics
Tillamook Air Museum. Tillamook Air Museum is an aviation museum south of Tillamook, Oregon, United States. The museum is located at a former U.S. Navy Air Station and housed in a former blimp hangar, known as "Hangar B", which is the largest clear span wooden structure in the world.

History
The six-blimp hangar was built by the United States Navy in 1942 during World War II  for Naval Air Station Tillamook. It is  long and  wide, covering more than . It stands  tall. Each door weighs  and are  tall. Its companion building, Hangar "A", was destroyed by fire on August 22, 1992.

Between April 2013 and September 2014, the museum moved the part of its collection owned by Jack Erickson from Tillamook to Madras, Oregon.

In November 2014, the owners of Hangar B, the Port of Tillamook Bay, announced that they would continue operation of the Tillamook Air Museum with the remaining collection.

In 2016, the Classic Aircraft Aviation Museum moved some aircraft to the museum.

In 2021, the museum received a B-52 cockpit on loan from Scroggins Aviation Mockup & Effects.

Collection

Aircraft on display

 Aero Spacelines Mini Guppy
 Alenia C-27A Spartan
 BAC Jet Provost
 Boeing B-52 Stratofortress cockpit 
 Boeing 727 cockpit
 Bell TH-57 Sea Ranger
 Bellanca 14-13 Cruisair Senior
 Brown Starlite
 Cessna 180F Skywagon
 Chris-Teena Mini Coupe
 Convair 880 – Forward fuselage
 Cvjetkovic CA-65 Skyfly
 Douglas A-4B Skyhawk
 Douglas A-26C Invader
 ERCO Ercoupe 415C
 Fairchild GK-1
 Fisher R-80 Tiger Moth
 Grumman F-14A Tomcat
 Kaman HTK-1 Huskie
 LTV A-7 Corsair II
 McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom cockpit Used in the 2016 film, "Sully."
 Nieuport 11 – Replica
 Nord 1101 Noralpha
 PZL-Mielec Lim-6bis
 PT-17 Stearman
 Rans S-4 Coyote
 Rutan Model 61 Long-EZ
 Rutan Quickie
 Ryan PT-22 ST-3KR
 WindRyder

Exhibits

The Museum also features an exhibit hall with a large collection of rare historical wartime and aviation themed artifacts including pieces of the great German airship, the LZ-129 Hindenburg, a World War II Luftwaffe flight jacket and a WWII Japanese Army Winter flight suit.

 Anderson Air Raid Shelter walk-thru interactive exhibit
 Curtiss SB2C Helldiver crash exhibit
 Naval Air Station Tillamook Pigeon Loft walk-thru Exhibit
 Spots of Light: To Be a Woman in the Holocaust Exhibit

See also
 Evergreen Aviation Museum, in McMinnville, Oregon
Hangar One (Mountain View, California)
 List of aerospace museums
 Marine Corps Air Station Tustin
 Moffett Federal Airfield
 Western Antique Aeroplane & Automobile Museum in Hood River, Oregon
 Navy Air Stations Blimps bases

References

External links

 Aviation: From Sand Dunes to Sonic Booms, a National Park Service Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary
 

Oregon Coast
Aerospace museums in Oregon
Tillamook, Oregon
Museums in Tillamook County, Oregon
1994 establishments in Oregon
Museums established in 1994
Aircraft type club. Aircraft type clubs are organizations that provide information and support to a single aircraft type or a group of aircraft types from the same manufacturer or family of aircraft.

There are hundreds of aircraft type clubs around the world providing services to most certified, amateur-built, warbird and ultralight aircraft types that have been produced in any significant numbers. In some cases, especially those dealing with highly popular aircraft designs, there may be two or more competing type clubs offering services for the same aircraft type or types.

Most aircraft type clubs are independent of the manufacturer. While the majority are organized as not-for-profit associations, some type clubs are run as for-profit businesses.

Services
Type clubs vary in the services they offer and how they work. Some clubs are run by one volunteer enthusiast, using a free web service to provide a website or forum. These often have minimal publications or services. Some of the largest types clubs have full-time professional staff and offer a full range of services. Many are non-profits, but some are for-profit companies.
 
Services offered by type clubs can include:
A magazine
News and events
A website
Technical question support from aircraft type experts
Buyers guides
Conventions
Fly-ins
Information on Airworthiness Directives
Information on Supplemental Type Certificates
Type-specific classified ads
Background and historical information
Maintenance tips
Aircraft parts
Operating tips
Maintenance and aircraft systems courses
Aircraft type conversion training
Type-specific insurance (at group discounted rates)
Formation flying training
Scholarships

References

External links
 Listing of type clubs

Aviation organizations
Flexity Outlook. The Bombardier Flexity Outlook is a series of low-floored, articulated light-rail trams manufactured by Bombardier Transportation. Part of the larger Bombardier Flexity product line (many of which are not low-floor), Flexity Outlook vehicles are modular in design and commonly used throughout Europe.

Types

Bombardier markets two types or families of designs as "Flexity Outlook".

Eurotram

The Eurotram was a design of electric tramcars designed by for use on the network of the Compagnie de Transports Strasbourgeois (CTS). It is initially contracted to Socimi and ABB. After Socimi went bankrupt, the order for Eurotrams was completed by ABB Group. Later models were manufactured under successor companies Adtranz and Bombardier Inc.

Bombardier began to market this type as Flexity Outlook (E), when they made them until 2004.

Cityrunner 
The more common Cityrunner, which has a more traditional tram design, is used by several cities in Austria (in Innsbruck, Linz and Graz), also Łódź (Poland), Geneva (Switzerland), Eskişehir (Turkey), and Brussels (Belgium), and vehicles for Marseille, (France) Valencia,  Alicante (both Spain), Palermo (Italy) and Toronto (Canada) are in the design and production phase.  (Although the Toronto Transit Commission has ordered the Flexity Outlook Cityrunner for its legacy system, Metrolinx has ordered the Flexity Freedom for Toronto's new Eglinton Crosstown line that is under construction along Eglinton Avenue in mid-Toronto.)

While most Flexity Outlook trams are bi-directional, the Toronto cars are single-ended in order to meet the operating requirements of that city's legacy streetcar routes. Bombardier has built single-ended Flexity Outlook versions for cities including Graz, Łódź and Milan.

The Flexity Outlook Cityrunner has a modular design, allowing it to be customised for use on networks that require narrow vehicles or nearly unique tight curve radii, down to  in the case of Toronto. Toronto's version of the Outlook is gauged to fit its legacy streetcar lines, with a track gauge of .

Its closest competitors are the Citadis from Alstom, the Combino and S70 from Siemens, and Bombardier's other Flexity trams.

Olympic Line 

Bombardier Transportation operated a Flexity Outlook demo system in Vancouver from January 21 to March 21, 2010, coinciding with the 2010 Winter Olympics. The trams were on loan from a fleet of Flexity Outlook series made for the Brussels tram network. The service was called the Olympic Line and used electrified railway right-of-way owned by the City of Vancouver and not part of the regional transit authority (TransLink).

The temporary line operated from Granville Island to near Olympic Village Station on the Canada Line at 2nd Avenue. Service consisted of a  link with two stations, with cars operating every 10 minutes.

See also 
 Bombardier T2000

References

External links 

 Flexity official site

Tram vehicles of Austria
Tram vehicles of Belgium
Tram vehicles of France
Tram vehicles of Italy
Tram vehicles of Poland
Tram vehicles of Portugal
Tram vehicles of Spain
Tram vehicles of Switzerland
Flexity Outlook
Articulated passenger trains

pl:Flexity Outlook
Instance (computer science). In computer science, an instance is an occurrence of a software element that is based on a type definition. When created, an occurrence is said to have been instantiated, and both the creation process and the result of creation are called instantiation.

Examples

Class instance 

A class instance is an object-oriented programming (OOP) object created from a class. Each instance of a class shares a data layout but has its own memory allocation.

Computer instance 

A computer instance is an occurrence of a virtual machine which typically includes storage, a virtual CPU.

Polygonal model 

A computer graphics polygonal model can be instantiated in order to be drawn several times in different locations in a scene which can improve the performance of rendering since a portion of the work needed to display each instance is reused.

Program instance 

In a POSIX-oriented operating system, program instance refers to an executing process. It is instantiated for a program via system calls such as fork() and exec(). Each executing process is an instance of a program which it has been instantiated from.

References 

Object (computer science)