omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
1-Chloro-1,2,2,2-tetrafluoroethane. 1-Chloro-1,2,2,2-tetrafluoroethane, C2HClF4, is a hydrochlorofluorocarbon used as a component in refrigerants offered as replacements for chlorofluorocarbons. HCFC-124 is also used in gaseous fire suppression systems as a replacement for bromochlorocarbons.

References

Refrigerants
Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
Ozone-depleting chemical substances
Computer Power and Human Reason. Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgment to Calculation is a 1976 nonfiction book by German-American computer scientist Joseph Weizenbaum in which he contends that while artificial intelligence may be possible, we should never allow computers to make important decisions, as they will always lack human qualities such as compassion and wisdom.

Background
Before writing Computer Power and Human Reason, Weizenbaum had garnered significant attention for creating the ELIZA program, an early milestone in conversational computing. His firsthand observation of people attributing human-like qualities to a simple program prompted him to reflect more deeply on society's readiness to entrust moral and ethical considerations to machines.

Reception and legacy
Computer Power and Human Reason sparked scholarly debate on the acceptable scope of AI applications, particularly in fields where human welfare and ethical considerations are paramount. Early academic reviews highlighted that Weizenbaum's stance pushed readers to recognize that even as computers grow more capable, they lack the intrinsic moral compass and empathy required for certain kinds of judgment.

The book caused disagreement with, and separation from other members of the artificial intelligence research community, a status the author later said he'd come to take pride in.

See also
 Ethics of artificial intelligence
 Criticism of technology

References

External links
 Plug & Pray, Documentary Film on Joseph Weizenbaum and the ethics of technology

Sociology books
Technology books
Philosophy of artificial intelligence
1976 non-fiction books
Fuller (metalworking). In metalworking, a fuller is a tool used to form metal when hot.  The fuller has a rounded, either cylindrical or parabolic, nose, and may either have a handle (an "upper fuller") or a shank (a "lower fuller").  The shank of the lower fuller allows the fuller to be inserted into the hardy hole of the anvil.  Upper fullers furthermore come in "straight" or "cross" varieties, depending on the orientation of the handle relative to the face.  

The fuller is a forging tool, used to spread the metal.  The fuller is placed against the metal stock, and then either the fuller (for an upper fuller) or the stock (for a lower fuller) is struck with a hammer.  The rounded nose of the fuller spreads the metal more efficiently than the flat face of the hammer. The process leaves ridges in the stock, which may then be flattened out later with the hammer or other tools. "Fullering," more generally, refers to any forging process creating a sharp transition in cross-dimensional area; with care, some types of fullering can be achieved using only hammer and the edge of the anvil (which acts as the fuller).

See also
 Fuller (groove), a groove on a blade often created by fullering
 Swaging

References

Metalworking hand tools
Press tools
Swage block. A swage block (or swager block) is a large, heavy block of cast iron or steel used in smithing, with variously-sized holes in its face and usually with forms on the sides.

The through-holes are of various shapes and sizes and are used to hold, support or back up a hot bar of metal for further shaping.  Operations performed on a swage block include but are not limited to bending, cutting, punching and forming.  The sides are scalloped to present formed shapes for forging operations. Shapes are for example the curve of a wheel, which could be used to finish a wheel rim, using a suitable hammer. Other shapes, such as the half hexagon, can be used with a matching top swage to form a hexagonal cross-section on a bar. The various shapes around the edge of the swage block all have corresponding shapes in the form of top swages to shape iron bar into various sections.

The image shows a 15-inch, square swage block with various semi-circular, hexagonal, and square shapes around its perimeter along with a selection of through-holes. 

There are two general types of swage block: Industrial, as described above, and artistic. Artist Blacksmiths sometimes require a tool that will allow metal to be formed in ways that an anvil or traditional industrial swage block will not allow, a special Artists' block is then often used. As with industrial swage blocks, artistic blocks come in many shapes and sizes; common features are hemispherical and ovoid depressions, asymmetrical curves and non-standard angled planes (i.e. not 45 or 90 degrees). In addition, individual blocks may contain unique features of specific use or relevance to a particular smith or branch of the blacksmithing craft.

The example pictured below is a block ten inches square by four inches deep and allows a smith to form metal to various angles and shapes, most notably as spoons, ladles and funnels.

Gallery

External links

Metalworking tools
Metallic objects
Percussion instruments
Warwickite. Warwickite is an iron magnesium titanium borate mineral with the chemical formula  or . It occurs as brown to black prismatic orthorhombic crystals which are vitreous and transparent. It has a Mohs hardness of 3 to 4 and a specific gravity of 3.36.

Occurrence
It occurs metasomatized limestone skarns and in lamproite and carbonatite veinlets. It was first described in 1838 near Warwick, Orange County, New York. It has also been reported from Bancroft, Ontario; in Murcia Province, Spain; in Siberia and near
Pyongyang, North Korea.

References

Iron(II) minerals
Magnesium minerals
Titanium minerals
Borate minerals
Orthorhombic minerals
Minerals in space group 62
UNOS (operating system). UNOS is a discontinued real-time operating system (RTOS); it was the first 32-bit Unix-like system with real-time extensions. It was developed by Jeffery Goldberg, MS. who left Bell Labs after using Unix and became VP of engineering for Charles River Data Systems (CRDS), now defunct. UNOS was written to capitalize on the first 32-bit microprocessor, the Motorola 68k central processing unit (CPU). CRDS sold a UNOS based 68K system, and sold porting services and licenses to other manufacturers who had embedded CPUs.

History
Jeff Goldberg created an experimental OS using only eventcounts for synchronization, that allowed a preemptive kernel, for a Charles River Data Systems (CRDS) PDP-11. CRDS hired Goldberg to create UNOS and began selling it in 1981.

UNOS was written for the Motorola 68000 series processors. While compatible with Version 7 Unix, it is also an RTOS. CRDS supported it on the company's Universe 68 computers, as did Motorola's Versabus systems. CRDS's primary market was OEMs embedding the CRDS unit within a larger pile of hardware, often requiring better real-time response than Unix could deliver.

UNOS has a cleaner kernel interface than UNIX in 1981. There was e.g., a system call to obtain ps information instead of reading /dev/kmem.

UNOS required memory protection, with the 68000 using an MMU developed by CRDS; and only used Motorola MMUs after UNOS 7 on the 68020 (CRDS System CP20) (using the MC68851 PMMU).

UNOS was written in the programming languages C and assembly language, and supported Fortran, COBOL, Pascal, and Business Basic.

Limits
UNOS from CRDS never supported paged virtual memory and multiprocessor support had not been built in from the start, so the kernel remained mostly single-threaded on the few multiprocessor systems built.
A UNOS variant enhanced by H. Berthold AG under the name vBertOS added demanded page loading and paged processes in 1984, but was given up in favor of SunOS because of the missing GUI and the missing networking code in Spring 1985, when Berthold imported the first Sun to Europe.

References

Discontinued operating systems
Embedded operating systems
Real-time operating systems
Unix variants
68k architecture
X86 operating systems
Butyraldehyde. Butyraldehyde, also known as butanal, is an organic compound with the formula CH3(CH2)2CHO. This compound is the aldehyde derivative of butane. It is a colorless flammable liquid with an unpleasant smell. It is miscible with most organic solvents.

Production
Butyraldehyde is produced almost exclusively by the hydroformylation of propylene:
 CH3CH=CH2 + H2 + CO → CH3CH2CH2CHO
Traditionally, hydroformylation was catalyzed by cobalt carbonyl but rhodium complexes are more common.  The dominant technology involves the use of rhodium catalysts derived from the water-soluble ligand tppts. An aqueous solution of the rhodium catalyst converts the propylene to the aldehyde, which forms a lighter (less dense) immiscible phase. About 6 billion kilograms are produced annually in this manner. Butyraldehyde can be produced by the catalytic dehydrogenation of n-butanol.  At one time, it was produced industrially by the catalytic hydrogenation of crotonaldehyde, which is derived from acetaldehyde.

Reactions and uses
Butyraldehyde undergoes reactions typical of alkyl aldehydes, and these define many of the uses of this compound.  Important reactions include hydrogenation to the alcohol, oxidation to the acid, and base-catalyzed condensation.  In the presence of a base, two equivalents of butyraldehyde undergoe aldol condensation to give 2-ethylhexenal. This unsaturated aldehyde is then partially hydrogenated to form 2-ethylhexanal, a precursor to plasticizers such as bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate.

Butyraldehyde is a component in the two-step synthesis of trimethylolpropane, which is used for the production of alkyd resins.

References

External links

Flavors
Alkanals
Foul-smelling chemicals
Eric Hehner. Eric "Rick" C. R. Hehner (born 16 September 1947) is a Canadian computer scientist. He was born in Ottawa. He studied mathematics and physics at Carleton University, graduating with a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in 1969. He studied computer science at the University of Toronto, graduating with a Master of Science (M.Sc.) in 1970, and a Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in 1974. He then joined the faculty there, becoming a full professor in 1983. He became the Bell University Chair in software engineering in 2001, and retired in 2012.

Hehner's main research area is formal methods of software design. His method, initially called predicative programming, later called Practical Theory of Programming, is to consider each specification to be a binary (boolean) expression, and each programming construct to be a binary expression specifying the effect of executing the programming construct. Refinement is just implication. This is the simplest formal method, and the most general, applying to sequential, parallel, stand-alone, communicating, terminating, nonterminating, natural-time, real-time, deterministic, and probabilistic programs, and includes time and space bounds. This idea has influenced other computer science researchers, including Tony Hoare.

Hehner's other research areas include probabilistic programming, unified algebra, and high-level circuit design. In 1979, Hehner invented a generalization of radix complement called quote notation, which is a representation of the rational numbers that allows easier arithmetic and precludes roundoff error.

He was involved with developing international standards in programming and informatics, as a member of the International Federation for Information Processing (IFIP) IFIP Working Group 2.1 on Algorithmic Languages and Calculi, which specified, maintains, and supports the programming languages ALGOL 60 and ALGOL 68. and of IFIP Working Group 2.3 on Programming Methodology.

References

External links
 
 DBLP publications
 A Practical Theory of Programming, Professor Hehner's book, available free in PDF
Eric Hehner archival papers held at the University of Toronto Archives and Records Management Services

1947 births
Canadian computer scientists
Formal methods people
Living people
Carleton University alumni
University of Toronto alumni
Academic staff of the University of Toronto
ISO 11783. ISO 11783, known as Tractors and machinery for agriculture and forestry—Serial control and communications data network (commonly referred to as "ISOBUS") is a communication protocol for the agriculture industry based on, and harmonized with, the SAE J1939 protocol (which is based on the CAN bus).

Official maintenance of ISO 11783 is done by ISO TC 23 / SC 19 / WG 1 and WG5, however the Agricultural Industry Electronics Foundation (AEF) helps guide the ongoing direction of ISOBUS, organizes PlugFest events where many companies meet to test together, and provides formal ISOBUS conformance test tools.

The ISOBUS standard specifies a CAN network for control and communications on forestry or agricultural tractors and implements, although most usage is in the agricultural domain. It was noted as a widely-used industry standard in 2019.

Parts

The standard comes in 14 parts:

ISO 11783-1:  General standard for mobile data communication
ISO 18883-2:  Physical layer
ISO 11783-3:  Data link layer
ISO 11783-4:  Network layer
ISO 11783-5:  Network management - supporting plug-and-play changes to the network
ISO 11783-6:  Virtual terminal - a universal human machine interface for implement ECUs
ISO 11783-7:  Implement messages application layer - communication of signals (speeds, temperature, work-state, etc.)
ISO 11783-8:  Power train messages
ISO 11783-9:  Tractor ECU - a gateway between the open ISOBUS and the tractor private network, and power management for both a 15 A and a 55 A circuit.
ISO 11783-10: Task controller and management information system data interchange - prescription application and data logging of implement operation.
ISO 11783-11: Mobile data element dictionary - types of information being commanded and data logged (e.g. seeds per acre)
ISO 11783-12: Diagnostics services - identification of devices and functionalities within those devices
ISO 11783-13: File server - a network accessible location for storage and retrieval of data
ISO 11783-14: Sequence control - the record, edit and playback of commanded sequences to offload the operator from as many repetitive tasks.

Agricultural Industry Electronics Foundation and ISOBUS
The Agricultural Industry Electronics Foundation works to promote ISOBUS and coordinate enhanced certification tests for the ISO 11783 standard.

References

External links

ISO 11783-1:2017
Agricultural Industry Electronics Foundation
Official VDMA page for ISOBUS
Open-source PoolEdit editor for creating ISOBUS user interfaces
Open-source ISOBUS library implemented in C++

11783
Network protocols
Sensitivity speck. A sensitivity speck or sensitivity center is an imperfection or other specific point in a silver halide crystal which traps electrons, causing photosensitivity. This can produce a latent image in the crystal, having applications in photography and dosimetry.

A sensitivity speck is very often the site of shallow electron traps, such as crystalline defect (particularly edge dislocation) and silver sulfide specks created by sulfur sensitization process.

When a photon is absorbed by a silver halide crystal, a free-carrier (electron in the conduction band) is generated. This free-carrier can migrate through the crystal lattice of silver halide, until captured by the shallow electron trap, where the electron is likely to reduce an interstitial silver ion to form an atomic silver. Subsequent exposure can grow the size of silver cluster through the same mechanism. This forms the latent image where the silver cluster becomes large enough to render the entire crystal developable in developer solution.

See also
 Gelatin silver print

References

Bibliography 
 Fosbinder, Robert, and Orth, Denise. Essentials of Radiologic Science. United Kingdom, Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2011.

External links
 "Definition of SENSITIVITY SPECK". www.merriam-webster.com.

Science of photography
Radiography
SNCF Class BB 16100. The SNCF Class BB 16100 electric locomotives were converted from class BB 16000s by fitting TDM push-pull equipment to work the Paris Nord to St. Quentin/Amiens services as well as Paris St Lazare - Rouen.

Conversions
 16101 from 16004
 16102 from 16017
 16103 from 16046
 16104 from 16040
 16105 from 16014
 16106 from 16009
 16107 from 16048
 16108 from 16026
 16109 from 16023
 16110 from 16035
 16111 from 16016
 16112 from 16010
 16113 from 16030
 16114 from 16062
 16115 from 16060

References

MTE locomotives
Bo′Bo′ locomotives
16100
Railway locomotives introduced in 1991
25 kV AC locomotives
Standard gauge electric locomotives of France

Passenger locomotives
British Rail Class 109. The British Rail Class 109 is a class of 2-car diesel multiple units built in 1957 by D Wickham & Co. Five two-car units were built featuring an unusual body design. The design, first used in 1936 for South American railways, aimed to minimise weight. It had no underframe, but the whole body was formed into a welded stress-bearing box girder made of  solid drawn steel tube. Aluminium was used for panels, luggage racks, window frames, vacuum pipes and fuel and vacuum tanks. The corrugated steel floor was filled with sprayed asbestos and covered with asbestos-filled flame-proofed hardboard and rubber sheet.

The units soon became non-standard and two were sold back to the manufacturer who exported them to Trinidad and Tobago.  Another unit was converted into departmental service, and survived in BR ownership until the early 1980s.

Vehicle numbers

Further use 
One two-car set (50416+56171) was extensively overhauled in 1967 at Doncaster, revamping the interiors and adding kitchen facilities to 50416. After repainting, the set was used as the ER General Managers special train, numbered 975005 / 975006.

Preservation 
One two-car unit, (see above) the former departmental unit, formed of vehicles 50416 and 56171, has been preserved and restored to working condition at the Llangollen Railway. It was restored using lottery money.

References

External links 
 https://web.archive.org/web/20051029135601/http://www.railcar.co.uk/his100-109/109intro.htm

109
D. Wickham and Company rolling stock
Train-related introductions in 1957
Silicothermic reaction. Silicothermic reactions are thermic chemical reactions using silicon as the reducing agent at high temperature (800-1400°C).

They were initially commercialized for the production of low-carbon ferromanganese before and during World War I(F. M. Becket played a significant role) and are still used today. They were also historically used for the production of low-carbon ferrochrome, but were displaced by electric methods.

The most prominent example is the Pidgeon process (developed commercially in Canada during the Second World War by Lloyd Montgomery Pidgeon) for reducing magnesium metal from ores. Other processes include the Bolzano process and the magnetherm process. All three are commercially used for magnesium production.

See also
Aluminothermic reaction
Calciothermic reaction

References

Metallurgy
Metallurgical processes
Inorganic reactions
Silicon
Aluminothermic reaction. Aluminothermic reactions are exothermic chemical reactions using aluminium as the reducing agent at high temperature.  The process is industrially useful for production of alloys of iron. The most prominent example is the thermite reaction between iron oxides and aluminium to produce iron itself:

 Fe2O3  +  2 Al   →   2 Fe  +  Al2O3

This specific reaction is however not relevant to the most important application of aluminothermic reactions, the production of ferroalloys.  For the production of iron, a cheaper reducing agent, coke, is used instead via the carbothermic reaction.

History
Aluminothermy started from the experiments of Russian scientist Nikolay Beketov at the University of Kharkiv in Ukraine, who proved that aluminium restored metals from their oxides under high temperatures. The reaction was first used for the carbon-free reduction of metal oxides. The reaction is highly exothermic, but it has a high activation energy since strong interatomic bonds in the solids must be broken first. The oxide was heated with aluminium in a crucible in a furnace. The runaway reaction made it possible to produce only small quantities of material. Hans Goldschmidt improved the aluminothermic process between 1893 and 1898, by igniting the mixture of fine metal oxide and aluminium powder by a starter reaction without heating the mixture externally. The process was patented in 1898 and used extensively in the later years for rail track welding.

Applications
The aluminothermic reaction is used for the production of several ferroalloys, for example ferroniobium from niobium pentoxide and ferrovanadium from iron, vanadium(V) oxide, and aluminium. The process begins with the reduction of the oxide by the aluminium:
3 V2O5  +  10 Al  →   5 Al2O3  +  6 V

Other metals can be produced from their oxides in the same way.

Aluminothermic reactions have been used for welding rail tracks on-site, useful for complex installations or local repairs that cannot be done using continuously welded rail.  Another common use is the welding of copper cables (wire) for use in direct burial (grounding/earthing) applications. It is still the only type of electrical connection recognized by the IEEE (IEEE, Std 80–2001) as continuous un-spliced cable.

See also
 Thermite
 Calciothermic reaction
 Silicothermic reaction

References

Inorganic reactions
Metallurgy
Russian inventions
Ukrainian inventions