omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Elmer FEM solver. Elmer is a computational tool for multi-physics problems. It has been developed by CSC in collaboration with Finnish universities, research laboratories and industry. Elmer FEM solver is free and open-source software, subject to the requirements of the GNU General Public License (GPL), version 2 or any later.

Elmer includes physical models of fluid dynamics, structural mechanics, electromagnetics, heat transfer and acoustics, for example. These are described by partial differential equations which Elmer solves by the Finite Element Method (FEM).

Elmer comprises several different parts:
 ElmerGrid – A mesh conversion tool, which can be used to convert differing mesh formats into Elmer-suitable meshes.
 ElmerGUI – A graphical interface which can be used on an existing mesh to assign physical models, this generates a "case file" which describes the problem to be solved. Does not show the whole ElmerSolver functionality in GUI.
 ElmerSolver – The numerical solver which performs the  finite element calculations, using the mesh and case files. 
 ElmerPost – A post-processing/visualisation module. (Development stopped in favour of other post-processing tools such as ParaView, VisIt, etc.)

The different parts of Elmer software may be used independently. Whilst the main module is the ElmerSolver tool, which includes many sophisticated features for physical model solving, the additional components are required to create a full workflow. For pre- and post-processing other tools, such as Paraview can be used to visualise the output.

The software runs on Unix and Windows platforms and can be compiled on a large variety of compilers, using the CMake building tool. The solver can also be used in a multi-host parallel mode on platforms that support MPI. Elmer's parallelisation capability is one of the strongest sides of this solver.

External links

See also 

 Finite Element Method
 List of finite element packages

References 

Numerical software
Free computer-aided design software
Finite element software for Linux
Free software programmed in Fortran
Free science software
Computational physics
Engineering software that uses Qt
Computer-aided engineering software for Linux
Software that uses Tk (software)
Bob Braden. Robert T. Braden (28 January 1934 – April 2018) was an American computer scientist who played a role in the development of the Internet. His research interests included end-to-end network protocols, especially in the transport and network layers.

Career

Braden received a Bachelor of Engineering Physics from Cornell University in 1957, and a Master of Science in physics from Stanford University in 1962. After graduating, he worked at Stanford and Carnegie Mellon University. He taught programming and operating systems courses at Stanford, Carnegie Mellon, and also UCLA, where he moved next.

He remained at UCLA for 18 years, 16 of them at the campus computing center. He spent 1981–1982 at the Computer Science Department of University College London. While there, he wrote the first relay system connecting the Internet with the U.K. academic X.25 network.

He joined the networking research group at the Information Sciences Institute (ISI) in 1986, and was a project leader in the Computer Networks Division. He was named an ISI Fellow in 2001.

Professional contributions
While at UCLA, Braden was responsible for attaching UCLA's IBM 360/91 supercomputer to the ARPAnet, beginning in 1970. He was active in the ARPAnet Network Working Group, contributing to the design of the File Transfer Protocol in particular.

In 1978, he became a member of the Internet Working Group, which developed TCP/IP, and began development of a TCP/IP implementation for UCLA's IBM system. The UCLA IBM software was distributed to other OS/MVS sites, and was later sold commercially.

In 1981, he was invited to join the Internet Configuration Control Board, the organization that later became the Internet Architecture Board (IAB). He later served for 13 years as a member of the IAB.

Braden had been a member of the Internet Engineering Task Force and the Internet Research Task Force since their inception. When IAB task forces were formed in 1986, he created the End-to-End Task Force, later known as the IRTF End-to-End Research Group, which he chaired and later ran as a networking community mailing list for a number of years. Among his many contributions during this period are:
 Editing the Host Requirements RFCs
 Developing the Resource Reservation Protocol
 Developing T/TCP
 Serving as co-editor of the Request for Comments (RFC) series.
 Serving with the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
 Coordinating the DARPA research network DARTnet

Braden was a Fellow of the ACM.

External links
 Carl Malamud interviews Bob Braden, Internet Talk Radio, 29 September 1993
 Oral history interview with Robert Braden, Charles Babbage Institute, University of Minnesota
 Obituary sent to the IETF mailing list

Sources
 Gary Malkin, Who's Who in the Internet: Biographies of IAB, IESG and IRSG Members
 RFC Editor, et al., 30 Years of RFCs

References

1934 births
2018 deaths
American computer scientists
Cornell University College of Engineering alumni
Academics of University College London
Internet pioneers
Year of introduction missing
Northrop AQM-35. The AQM-35 was a supersonic target drone produced by the  Northrop Corporation.

Overview

The AQM-35 program began life in 1953 as the Model RP-61 supersonic target drone. In June 1954 the United States Air Force awarded Northrop a contract for development of the project as the Q-4; the first flight-capable XQ-4 was launched in 1956.

The XQ-4 was capable of either ground or air launch, though the former mode was never tested. It was powered by a Westinghouse XJ81-WE-3 turbojet, allowing it to reach speeds of Mach 1.55. The drone's course was followed with radar, and flight commands were sent by a radio telemetry system. When the mission was completed the XQ-4 would deploy a three-stage parachute system along with four large inflatable airbags to cushion the impact with the ground.

The Air Force planned to use the Q-4 as a target for various surface-to-air and air-to-air missiles. A secondary reconnaissance function was planned, with TV or cameras carried. The drone was air-launched by a Lockheed DC-130 Hercules drone controller aircraft, or other carrier aircraft.

In 1963, the Q-4 family of drones were given the designation AQM-35A and AQM-35B. They were never considered entirely successful, with a variety of problems arising during both the development and flight testing phases. It was also considered that the flight performance of the drone was so high that it was not a realistic test for the missiles being developed––ironic since the whole point of the project was to develop a supersonic target. Only 25 of all types were ever built. The last examples of the type were retired during the 1960s.

Variants

XQ-4Prototype of the RP-61 supersonic target drone.
Q-4Production target drones.
Q-4ADeveloped to use a Fairchild J83 engine and a modified radar signature for testing the CIM-10 Bomarc missile. When the engine could not be developed in time the variant was cancelled.
Q-4B Fitted with a much more powerful J85-GE-5 engine and a strengthened airframe. This variant was first flown in 1961.
AQM-35APost 1962 designation of the Q-4 drone.
AQM-35BPost 1962 designation of the Q-4B

Specifications (Q-4/AQM-35A)

See also

References

 Northrop (Radioplane) Q-4/AQM-35

Q-004
1950s United States special-purpose aircraft
Target drones of the United States
Single-engined jet aircraft
High-wing aircraft
Reversing thermometer. A reversing thermometer is a mercury-in-glass thermometer which, unlike most conventional mercury thermometers, has the unique ability to record a temperature for later viewing. When inverted, these thermometers capture and display the current temperature until they are returned to their upright position. From around 1900 to 1970, reversing thermometers were the primary instruments oceanographers relied on to measure water temperatures beneath the ocean's surface.

Construction and application 
It consists of a conventional bulb connected to a capillary in which a constriction is placed so that upon reversal the mercury column breaks off in a reproducible manner. The mercury runs down into a smaller bulb at the other end of the capillary, which is graduated to read temperature. A 360° turn in a locally widened portion of the capillary serves as a trap to prevent further addition of mercury if the thermometer is warmed and the mercury expands past the break-off point. The remote-reading potentialities of reversing thermometers make them particularly suitable for use in measuring subsea temperature as a function of pressure. In this application, both protected thermometers and unprotected thermometers are used, each of which is provided with an auxiliary thermometer. They are generally used in pairs in Nansen bottles. They are usually read to 0.01°C, and after the proper corrections have been applied, their readings are considered reliable to 0.02°C.

References

External links
Introduction to Physical Oceanography by Robert H. Stewart (Open Source Textbook)
Glossary of Meteorology (American Meteorological Society)

Thermometers
Northrop AQM-38. The AQM-38 was an American target drone, developed during the 1950s by the Radioplane Division of the Northrop Corporation, Newbury Park, California, and manufactured by its Ventura Division at Van Nuys, California. Extensively used for surface-to-air missile training, over two thousand were built during its production run and it saw continued use within the United States Army and United States Navy for nearly twenty years.

Design and development

Following flight trials of the XKD4R target drone, developed for the United States Navy, Radioplane redesigned the aircraft into an improved version, designated RP-76, which first flew in 1959. Compared to the XKD4R, the RP-76 had redesigned wing fairings, with the vertical control fin being moved to the underside of the missile, as opposed to being on top.

The RP-76 was designed to fly a pre-programmed trajectory on autopilot, with radio command guidance being optional. As with the XKD4R, control was provided by three fins located forwards on the body of the craft. A Luneburg lens was included to augment the drone's radar signature, and recovery at the end of the flight was by parachute.

Operational history
Following its first flight in 1959, the RP-76 was most often launched from a F-89 Scorpion fighter of the United States Air Force, and was extensively used by the U.S. Army for training the operators of surface-to-air missiles; it saw additional use in training USAF fighter pilots in air-to-air gunnery, as well.

A slightly modified version, designated RP-78, was supplied to the U.S. Navy; it used a more powerful rocket, producing  of thrust, to propel the drone to a top speed of Mach 1.25.

In 1963, the RP-76 and RP-78 received the designations AQM-38A and AQM-38, respectively, in the new "tri-service" missile designation system. In all, over 2,000 examples of the drone were built by Northrop, with the missile remaining in service with the U.S. Military until they were retired in the mid-1970s.

See also
List of missiles

References
Citations

Bibliography

External links

Target drones of the United States
QM-38
Rocket-powered aircraft
1950s United States special-purpose aircraft
High-wing aircraft
Long-fiber-reinforced thermoplastic. Long-fiber-reinforced thermoplastic (LFRTs) is a type of easily mouldable thermoplastic used to create a variety of components used primarily in the automotive industry. LFRTs are one of the fastest growing categories in thermoplastic technologies. Leading this expansion is one of the oldest forms, glass mat thermoplastic (GMT) and two of the segment’s newest: precompounded (pelletized) LFRTs (long-fiber-reinforced thermoplastics), also known as LFTs, and inline compounded (ILC) or direct LFTs (D-LFTs).

LFRTs differ from the composite structures used in the aerospace industry for components such as aircraft parts. The fibers in LFRTs are relatively short (6.35 mm/0.25 in. or greater) compared to the fibres contained in composite aircraft components. High performance composites usually contain fibers as long as the component  itself (6 metres or longer).

Their structural properties and low cost per part have enabled LFRTs to replace metal parts in the automotive industry. In addition, some new organic fibers can even be recyclable. With the independence of choosing the reinforcement from a wide range of fibers and the matrix from a wide range of thermoplastics polymer in the LFRTs, its property can be changed according to customer needs. LFRTs have become an increasingly valuable and popular part of building envelope components such as windows and doors.

Manufacture
LFRT components or semi-finished products are made by compression or injection molding. Fibers are contained in the polymer matrix, often in the form of a granulate raw material.
Long Fiber Reinforced Thermoplastic Compounds are typically 10–12 mm in length.  Fiber is unidirectional along the length of the 12 mm pellet.

See also
FRP tanks and vessels (The strength of the fibres is used to make a tank extra strong in the tangential direction, where it is double the longitudinal direction due to the stresses)
Fibre-reinforced plastic

References 

Composite materials
Polymers
Fibre-reinforced polymers
Hinman collator. The Hinman collator, an early optical collator, was an opto-mechanical device for comparing pairs of documents for differences in the text. Documents that appeared similar were said to “collate”. The collator resulted in rapid advances in the study of literary works.

Invented by Charlton Hinman in the late 1940s, the device used lights and mirrors to superimpose images of the two documents so that differences in text alignment or wording stood out. This resulted in huge improvements in speed and efficiency compared to the traditional cross-referencing of texts by eye.

The idea built on earlier work such as Carl Pulfrich's blink comparator used to help identify the former planet Pluto, and Hinman's work analysing aerial photographs during World War II.

Hinman used his device to compare the many slightly different impressions of the First Folio of William Shakespeare's works. The printing and bookbinding processes used in the time of Shakespeare often resulted in variations in the pages bound into the final books, and the collator enabled Hinman to describe the exact order in which the Folios had been composited and printed. He used the collator to compare 55 different copies of the First Folio held by the Folger Shakespeare Library, and subsequently wrote about his findings in Printing and Proof-reading of the First Folio of Shakespeare in 1963.

In the wake of Hinman's success, the device was purchased by a number of universities, libraries and other institutions (allegedly including the CIA). As more compact types of collator were developed in the 1960s, the last Hinman was built in 1978. In his 2002 survey of mechanical collators, Steven Escar Smith estimates from scattered records that as many as 59 Hinman Collators were produced, 41 of these surviving at the time of his survey's publication. 

A more portable collator was developed by Randall McLeod.

See also
 Blink comparator
 vdiff

References

External links
Kelsey Jackson Williams, 'The Hinman Collator', Stirling (Scotland): The Pathfoot Press, 2018.
Books and Mirrors
Charlton Hinman and The Roots of Mechanical Collation
Instructions for implementing Blink Comparator on personal computer 

Optical devices
Bibliography
Textual scholarship
Heatproof mat. A heatproof mat, also known as wire gauze or a gauze mat, is a piece of apparatus commonly used in tabletop lab experiments that involve moderate temperatures (for example, when a Bunsen burner is being used) to prevent damage to a work surface. They may also be used for domestic equipment, such as hot plates, hair stylers, hair straighteners or other hot objects.

Traditionally, such mats were made of asbestos, often reinforced with a metal mesh, but fiberglass or other substitutes are now used because of the toxicity of asbestos fibres.

References

Laboratory equipment
Scratch awl. A scratch awl is a woodworking layout and point-making tool. It is used to scribe a line to be followed by a hand saw or chisel when making woodworking joints and other operations.

The scratch awl is basically a steel spike with its tip sharpened to a fine point. The tip of the spike is drawn across the timber, leaving a shallow groove. It may also be used to mark a point by pressing the tip into the timber. It is generally used when dimensioning and for laying out with the grain. It may also be used across the grain.  However, a marking knife is preferred for this operation.

Scratch awls are traditionally used in leather crafting to trace patterns onto leather. They are sometimes used in the automotive and sheet metal trades to punch holes and scribe lines in sheet metal.

See also
Bradawl
Stitching awl

References

Woodworking measuring instruments
Woodworking hand tools
Moskva-class helicopter carrier. The Moskva class, Soviet designation Project 1123 Kondor (condor) and S-703 Project 1123M Kiev, was the first class of operational aircraft carriers (helicopter cruisers in the Soviet classification) built by the Soviet Union for the Soviet Navy.

These ships were laid down at Nikolayev South (Shipyard No.444). The lead vessel was launched in 1965 and named  (); she entered service two years later. Moskva was followed by  (, which was commissioned in late 1968; there were no further vessels built, reportedly due to the poor handling of the ships in rough seas. Both were conventionally powered.

The Moskvas were not true "aircraft carriers" in that they did not carry any fixed-wing aircraft; the air wing was composed entirely of helicopters. They were designed primarily as anti-submarine warfare (ASW) vessels, and her weapons and sensor suite was optimized against the nuclear submarine threat. Their strategic role was to defend the Soviet ballistic missile submarine bastions against incursions by Western attack submarines, forming the flagships of an ASW task force.

Design

The operational requirement was issued by Admiral Sergey Gorshkov in 1959. The aim of the ships was to counter NATO Polaris submarines and act as a flagship for anti-submarine warfare. Initially it was hoped to operate ten helicopters from an 8000-ton ship. The design evolved into a larger vessel capable of operating up to 14 helicopters with self defence armament.

Armament

Shipboard ASW armament included a twin  SUW-N-1 launcher capable of delivering a FRAS-1 projectile carrying a  torpedo (or a 5 kiloton nuclear warhead); a pair of RBU-6000 ASW mortars; and a set of torpedo tubes. For self-defence, the Moskvas had two twin SA-N-3 surface-to-air missile (SAM) launchers with reloads for a total of 48 surface-to-air missiles, along with two twin  /80 guns.

Propulsion

Gas turbines were considered but were as yet untried in such a large vessel. Instead a high pressure steam plant similar to that used by the s was used. The machinery of Moskva had severe problems and had to be rebuilt in 1973 following a fire. Operational performance was disappointing with a practical maximum speed of  and  maximum sustainable speed. Sea keeping was also disappointing.

Ships 

Both vessels were part of the Black Sea Fleet. Leningrad was retired in 1991 and Moskva in 1996. Leningrad was scrapped in 1995 and Moskva in 1997. A third ship to be named Kiev was cancelled in 1969, which was to have been an anti-surface warfare vessel. The Moskva class was succeeded by the larger .

See also
 List of ships of the Soviet Navy
 List of ships of Russia by project number

References

Citations

Sources
  Also published as

External links
 Moskva class - Complete Ship List
 Project 1123 Kondor - Moskva class on globalsecurity.org
  Moskva class

Helicopter carrier classes
 
Moskva class helicopter carrier
Florentine bronze. Florentine bronze is a modern term for a type of bronzed metal.

Prior to 1828, the primary artificial bronze used for copper and copper alloys was antique green of various shades. A metal colouring called "Florentine bronze" was introduced by a French man named Lafleur around 1828 and soon became popular. A variation, Florentine fremé ("smoked" bronze), was introduced by another French man named Camus  in 1833.

The alloy is usually formed as a mixture of aluminium or tin (<10%) and copper (>90%). Currently no chemical formula for Florentine bronze has been made as it is an alloy which is not standardised (in proportions) worldwide.
 
"Florentine bronze" bears no relation to the 16th century bronze reductions of full-scale sculptures that were made in Florence after models by Giambologna and other Mannerist sculptors, to satisfy a collectors' market.

References

Copper alloys
Bronze
Cabin motorcycle. A cabin motorcycle is a fully  or semi-enclosed motorcycle. They first appeared in the 1920s In parts of Eastern Europe, they are known as dalniks.

These fully enclosed non-production motorcycles used for land-speed record-breaking attempts, such as the NSU Delphin III, are known as streamliners.

Manufacturers and models

Fully-enclosed
 Acabion
 Lit Motors – C-1 (development prototype)
 Peraves – Ecomobile, MonoTracer, E-Tracer, Zerotracer (Monotracer launched 1982, approx. 150 sold to 2014, E-Tracer available afterwards)

Semi-enclosed
 BMW Motorrad – C1 (produced 2000–2002, over 12,600 sold)
 Benelli Adiva
 Honda – Gyro Canopy (in continuous production since 1990, 62,000 sold as of 2002)
 Quasar (produced 1975–1982, approx. 22 sold)
 The Auto Moto

References

External links
"dalniks" & cabin motorcycles
History of Cabin motorcycle(Czech)

Motorcycle classifications
Business Readiness Rating. Business Readiness Rating (Open BRR) is one of several rating systems for open source software.  It is hoped that the system will address testing and reliability requirements important in the enterprise environment, sharing and reducing the perceived TCO of open source software.  It considers the quality of the product (e.g., security), the quality of the community supporting that product, and some ISO 25010 characteristics (e.g., usability).

Sponsors included Carnegie Mellon Silicon Valley Center for Open Source Investigation, CodeZoo, SpikeSource, and Intel.

Similar rating systems include OpenSource Maturity Model (OSMM), Source Quality Observatory for Open Source Software (SQO-OSS), Evaluation Framework for Free/Open souRce projecTs (EFFORT), Qualification and Selection of Open Source software (QSOS) model, and Open Source Usability Maturity Model (OS-UMM).

References

External links
Business Readiness Rating

Free software culture and documents