omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
PKP class SP45. SP45 is the name for a Polish diesel locomotive. It was built for the purpose of passenger traffic.
No operating examples of this loco remain. All have been phased out or rebuilt into SU45.

History
In the early 1960s in Poland an urgent need became apparent to introduce locomotives capable of servicing passenger traffic on main and secondary rail routes. The number of steam locomotives was shrinking and electrification was far too slow to introduce electric locos on a large scale.

Prototypes
In the second half of the 1960s a few models of a new locomotive, with Co-Co bogies and electric transmission, were built at the Hipolit Cegielski Metal Works in Poznań. In general, all prototypes differed by engine-alternator combination. The final decision was to use a Fiat-licensed engine and an Alsthom-licensed alternator.

Introduction
The first locos were assigned to the Poznań railway district, and on successfully passing the necessary tests, they entered service in Warsaw. Between 1970 and 1976, a total number of 265 locomotives were produced. This type served on all main routes in Poland

Production

Present days
All locomotives of this type were rebuilt into SU45 (with a new heating system) or phased out.

Locomotive assignment

Nicknames
These locomotives used to be called the following names:
Fiat - because of diesel engine licensed by Fiat
Suka (eng. bitch) - from the two first letters of the code name (SUka - after conversion to SU45 class)

See also
Polish locomotives designation

External links

Modern Locos Gallery
Rail Service
Mikoleje
Chabówka Rail Museum

Diesel–electric locomotives of Poland
Co′Co′ locomotives
Railway locomotives introduced in 1970
Standard gauge locomotives of Poland
Non-thermal microwave effect. Non-thermal microwave effects or specific microwave effects have been posited in order to explain unusual observations in microwave chemistry. The main effect of the absorption of microwaves by dielectric materials is a brief displacement in the permanent dipoles which causes rotational entropy. Since the frequency of the microwave energy is much faster than the electrons can absorb, the resultant energy can cause frictional heating of nearby atoms or molecules. If the material is rigid there will be no release of rotational energy, and therefore no heating. There are no "Non-thermal effects". If the material is not a dielectric material with dipoles or an ionic distribution, there is no interaction with microwaves and no heating. Non-thermal effects in liquids are almost certainly non-existent, as the time for energy redistribution between molecules in a liquid is much less than the period of a microwave oscillation. A 2005 review has illustrated this in application to organic chemistry, though clearly supports the existence of non-thermal effects. It has been shown that such non-thermal effects exist in the reaction of  O + HCl(DCl) -> OH(OD) + Cl in the gas phase and the authors suggest that some mechanisms may also be present in the condensed phase. Non-thermal effects in solids are still part of an ongoing debate. It is likely that through focusing of electric fields at particle interfaces, microwaves cause plasma formation and enhance diffusion in solids via second-order effects. As a result, they may enhance solid-state sintering processes. Debates continued in 2006 about non-thermal effects of microwaves that have been reported in solid-state phase transitions. A 2013 essay concluded the effect did not exist in organic synthesis involving liquid phases. A 2015 perspective discusses the non-thermal microwave effect (a resonance process) in relation to selective heating by Debye relaxation processes.

References

Chemical kinetics
Microwave chemistry
PKP class SP47. SP47 was a code name for a Polish diesel locomotive, designed for passenger transport. It never reached serial production.

History
SP47 was supposed to be an export hit of the Cegielski Works. Unfortunately, due to political decisions only two prototypes of this locomotive were ever built. SP47 was the most modern Polish locomotive in those times, and one of the most modern in Europe.

Prototypes
The design of the locomotive, later code-named SP47, was drawn up in 1972. In 1974 construction started at the Cegielski workshop in Poznań, but, on finishing the first one, the decision was taken to terminate diesel locomotives production in Poland. The reason for this was the danger that Polish locomotives would compete with the Soviet ones; in fact SP47 was by far better than any Soviet locomotive.

The second prototype (following a great struggle) was completed in 1977.

Career
Both locomotives were dispatched to Olsztyn, where they worked until their end. The second prototype suffered a serious engine failure a few months after entering service. As a result, in 1991 it was set aside, and in 1998 taken out of service and scrapped in 2001.
The first of two prototypes run until a serious engine failure in 1997.

SP47-001 is currently (after exterior renovation) exhibited at the Railway Museum in Kościerzyna heritage park.

See also
Polish locomotives designation

Co′Co′ locomotives
Diesel–electric locomotives of Poland
Railway locomotives introduced in 1975
Standard gauge locomotives of Poland
David Brooks (inventor). David Brooks was an American inventor from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, remembered for an innovative insulator for telegraph lines in 1864 and 1867. He patented it while working for the Central Pacific Railroad. His patents allowed the railroad to more easily communicate with construction crews building the first transcontinental railroad in America.

The insulator had a thick metal casing around blown glass; the assembly was held together with molten sulfur. Out of the tube extends a "ramshorn" rod that held the telegraph wires. It was mounted into holes drilled into the bottom of wooden crossarms attached to poles.

Prior to the invention, Brooks worked for the Pennsylvania Railroad, which in the 1850s received permission to build its own telegraph line, having bought necessary patents. Brooks was the railroad's first superintendent of telegraphs, appointed in 1852.

References

Inventors from Pennsylvania
American engineers
Year of birth missing
Year of death missing
American people in rail transportation
Pennsylvania Railroad people
Sensorama. The Sensorama was a machine that is one of the earliest known examples of immersive, multi-sensory (now known as multimodal) technology. This technology, which was introduced in 1962 by Morton Heilig, is considered one of the earliest virtual reality (VR) systems.

Development 
Heilig, who today would be thought of as a "multimedia" specialist, in the 1950s saw theater as an activity that could encompass all the senses in an effective manner, thus drawing the viewer into the onscreen activity. He dubbed it "Experience Theater", and detailed his vision of multi-sensory theater in a 1955 paper, "The Cinema of the Future" (Robinett 1994). In 1962 he built a prototype of his vision, dubbed the Sensorama, along with five short films for it to display. 

The Sensorama was a mechanical device, which includes a stereoscopic color display, fans, odor emitters, stereo‐sound system, and a motional chair. It simulated a motorcycle ride through New York and created the experience by having the spectator sit in an imaginary motorcycle while experiencing the street through the screen, fan-generated wind, and the simulated noise and smell of the city. These elements are triggered at the appropriate time, such as the release of exhaust chemicals when the rider approached a bus. The petrol fumes and the smell of pizza snack bars were recreated by chemicals. While the machine still functions today, audiences cannot interact with it and it cannot respond based on the user's actions.  

Howard Rheingold (in his 1991 book Virtual Reality) spoke of his trial of the Sensorama using a short film piece that detailed a bicycle ride through Brooklyn, created in the 1950s, and still seemed quite impressed by what it could do more than 40 years later. The Sensorama was able to display stereoscopic 3-D images in a wide-angle view, provide body tilting, supply stereo sound, and also had tracks for wind and aromas to be triggered during the film. Heilig was unable to obtain financial backing for his visions and patents, and so the Sensorama work was halted.

See also
The Sensorium, the world's first commercial "4D film"

References
 Heilig M. (1962). US Patent #3,050,870
 Rheingold, H. (1991). Virtual Reality, Simon & Schuster, New York, N.Y.
 Robinett, W. (1994). "Interactivity and Individual Viewpoint in Shared Virtual Worlds: The Big Screen vs. Networked Personal Displays." Computer Graphics, 28 (2), 127.

Specific

External links
 medienkunstnetz.de article

Products introduced in 1962
Multimodal interaction
Virtual reality
PKP class EP02. EP02 (also manufactured as Pafawag 1E) is a name for a Polish electric locomotive. It was made for passenger transport purposes.

Technical features
Improvements were brought in with this locomotive type. The front and back of the box had dragging and bumping devices installed. The whole body was given a more aerodynamic shape compared to previous models.
This machine is of Bo′Bo′ type, meaning that each axle is powered separately. The axles are installed in pairs on two bogies. The bogies had lighter, welded construction which gave the whole vehicle better contact with the rails.

The engines used in EP02 were not modern ones, and had a large weight compared with power and small rotation. The engine contained two engineer's compartments on each end, with all the devices necessary for running the locomotive inside. The engine and high voltage compartments were situated in the middle part of the body.

History
After World War II almost no electric locomotives survived in Poland, and local industry was not yet able to start the production of such vehicles. The solution for this problem was sought mainly abroad and resulted in a decision to buy some components from England. The design for EP02 by Central Rail Industry Construction Office in Poznań was ready in 1951.

Introduction
In 1951 the design was sent to Pafawag, but the construction met with a few obstacles, mainly lack of material and parts.
The first locos were directed into Warsaw-Ochota railway district in 1953. Soon many construction faults appeared, like wheel spinning  after reaching  speed, inconstant drive and vertical shakes. The faults were systematically corrected, and the experience was used during designing the ET21 and EU06.

Production

Operation
All the EP02s initially operated in Warsaw, but soon were moved to Łódź. Once there were enough EU07s, all EP02s were moved to Dębica. In 1971 the last three machines were retired and reassigned to work as heating power supplies (used solely to supply electric power from overhead to heat cars during longer stops at stations, it involved parking them at selected stations and removal of most of the electric, brake and control equipment, retaining only the pantographs and switches associated with the HEP supply). This prolonged EP02s’ life by 24 years—EP02-07 was working as a heating power supply in Zakopane until 1992 and EP02-08 in Przemyśl until 1996.

During the operation, the locomotives were modified by the addition of automatic brakes and heating systems.

Locomotive assignment

See also
Polish locomotives designation

External links
Modern Locos Gallery
Rail Service
Mikoleje
Chabówka Rail Museum

Railway locomotives introduced in 1953
Bo′Bo′ locomotives
3000 V DC locomotives
EP02
Pafawag locomotives
Standard gauge locomotives of Poland
Refinishing. In woodworking and the decorative arts, refinishing (also repolishing in the UK)refers to the act of repairing or reapplying the wood finishing on an object. paint, wood finish top coat, wax, lacquer or varnish are commonly used. 

The artisan or restorer is traditionally aiming for an improved or restored and renewed finish. However, there are a great variety of both traditional and modern finishes, including faux finishes, and distressing or antiquing to make pieces look older. While refinishing is often undertaken to improve an old piece of furniture, in the case of antique furniture refinishing can significantly reduce its overall value.

Other types of refinishing 
Refinishing can also be carried out on other surfaces and materials such, glass, metal, plastic and paint.

See also 
 Patina
 Glaze (painting technique)
 Metal leaf
 Faux painting

References

Decorative arts
Furniture
Woodworking
Quantum3D. Quantum3D Inc. is an American computer graphics company. It was founded on 31 March 1997 as a spin-off from 3dfx that was created to bring 3dfx's scalable graphics technologies (the Voodoo family of graphics chips) to the game enthusiast, coin-op/arcade/LBE and visual simulation and training market. Despite its close relationship with 3dfx in its earlier years, it was founded as an independent, venture-backed company.

Founded by 3dfx, Gemini Technology and SGI co-founders, along with former Intel and Sun Microsystems employees including Ross Q. Smith, John Archdeacon, Charles "Herb" Kuta, Dan Downum, Phil Huelson, and Dale Stimson, the company has developed a range of 3dfx and now NVIDIA-based board level and system level products for advanced, realtime 3D graphics and video intensive applications.  Quantum3D was instrumental in bringing advanced graphics products to the PC-game enthusiast market (first SLI graphics boards) and for bringing PC-based, open architecture systems to both the  coin-op/arcade/LBE market (Graphite ArcadePC) and to the visual and sensor simulation and training (VSST) market (AAlchemy PC-IG) for both military and commercial applications. In addition, Quantum3D has also been a pioneer in bringing commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) graphics subsystems into the embedded visual computing (EVC) market for avionics, vetronics and command and control applications.

Concurrent with the sale of 3dfx assets to NVIDIA in 2000, Quantum3D switched to NVIDIA as its primary graphics technology supplier.  Since that date, Quantum3D has introduced a number of VSST and EVC products including the AAlchemy and Independence family of COTS image generators for flight simulation and other training applications as well as the Sentiris PCI Mezzanine Card (PMC), ExpeditionDI dismounted infantry training system, Thermite tactical visual computer and Farsight programs that have resulted in COTS technology being placed in numerous commercial and military avionics and vetronics applications. The company also has a dedicated US Federal subsidiary, CG2, which provides visual computing related services and products to the United States Department of Defense via SBIR and BAA programs.

The company is privately held and had approximately 50 employees as of August 2020.

References

External links
 Quantum3D website

Companies established in 1997
Computer companies of the United States
Computer hardware companies
Software companies based in California
Graphics hardware companies
Companies based in San Jose, California
Nvidia
Software companies of the United States
LinguaStream. LinguaStream is a generic platform for natural language processing, based on incremental enrichment of electronic documents. LinguaStream is developed at the GREYC (French: Groupe de recherche en informatique, image, automatique et instrumentation de Caen) computer science research group (Université de Caen) since 2001. It is available for free for private use and research purposes.

Description
LinguaStream allows complex processing streams to be designed and evaluated, assembling analysis components of various types and levels: part-of-speech, syntax, semantics, discourse or statistical. Each stage of the processing stream discovers and produces new information, on which the subsequent steps can rely. At the end of the stream, several tools allow analysed documents and their annotations to be conveniently visualised.

LinguaStream is a virtual laboratory targeted to researchers in natural language processing. It allows for complex experiments on corpora to be realised conveniently, using various types of declarative formalisms, and reducing considerably the development costs. Its uses range from corpora exploration to the development of fully functional automatic analysers. An integrated environment is provided with the platform, where all the steps of the realisation of an experiment can be achieved.

Technology
As a platform, LinguaStream provides an extensive Java API. For example, it can be integrated with Java EE servers to develop web applications based on processing streams. It is also used for teaching, and provides specific modules dedicated to students.

References

External links 
 Official site

Natural language processing toolkits
Ryan Airline Company. Ryan Airline Company was an airline founded by T. Claude Ryan and Benjamin Franklin "Frank" Mahoney at Dutch Flats Airport in San Diego, California, on April 19, 1925. They had earlier established a scheduled service between San Diego and Los Angeles with a fare of $14.50 one-way and $22.50 round-trip.

Operations
Service was provided by a Standard J-1, a World War I training aircraft (not widely liked by pilots) that they modified with a four-passenger closed cabin in the forward front cockpit area.  The company also bought and modified the Douglas Cloudster (a portmanteau of cloud duster) from Donald Douglas.  They designed the Ryan M-1 for mail and passenger service, building the first of these in the fall of 1925 and 22 more within a year. When orders fell, Ryan and Mahoney ended the partnership in November 1926.  Mahoney bought out Ryan's interest but kept using the name for several months.

Some of the airline's plane manufacturing was done under the name Ryan Aeronautical Company, which under Mahoney built the NYP monoplane for Charles Lindbergh, but this was not the business that later became Teledyne Ryan Aeronautical.  Lindbergh claimed that the name of the company he was dealing with was Ryan Airlines, Incorporated.  In July 1927, shortly after Lindbergh's successful flight in the Spirit of St. Louis, the name of that business was changed to B. F. Mahoney Aircraft Corporation.

See also
 List of defunct airlines of the United States

References

Defunct airlines of the United States
Airlines established in 1925
Volume fraction. In chemistry and fluid mechanics, the volume fraction  is defined as the volume of a constituent Vi divided by the volume of all constituents of the mixture V prior to mixing:

Being dimensionless, its unit is 1; it is expressed as a number, e.g., 0.18. It is the same concept as volume percent (vol%) except that the latter is expressed with a denominator of 100, e.g., 18%.

The volume fraction coincides with the volume concentration in ideal solutions where the volumes of the constituents are additive (the volume of the solution is equal to the sum of the volumes of its ingredients).

The sum of all volume fractions of a mixture is equal to 1:

The volume fraction (percentage by volume, vol%) is one way of expressing the composition of a mixture with a dimensionless quantity; mass fraction (percentage by weight, wt%) and mole fraction (percentage by moles, mol%) are others.

Volume concentration and volume percent

Volume percent is the concentration of a certain solute, measured by volume, in a solution. It has as a denominator the volume of the mixture itself, as usual for expressions of concentration, rather than the total of all the individual components’ volumes prior to mixing:

Volume percent is usually used when the solution is made by mixing two fluids, such as liquids or gases. However, percentages are only additive for ideal gases.

The percentage by volume (vol%, % v/v) is one way of expressing the composition of a mixture with a dimensionless quantity; mass fraction (percentage by weight, wt%) and mole fraction (percentage by moles, mol%) are others.

In the case of a mixture of ethanol and water, which are miscible in all proportions, the designation of solvent and solute is arbitrary. The volume of such a mixture is slightly less than the sum of the volumes of the components. Thus, by the above definition, the term "40% alcohol by volume" refers to a mixture of 40 volume units of ethanol with enough water to make a final volume of 100 units, rather than a mixture of 40 units of ethanol with 60 units of water. The "enough water" is actually slightly more than 60 volume units, since water-ethanol mixture loses volume due to intermolecular attraction.

Relation to mass fraction

Volume fraction is related to mass fraction,

by

where  is the constituent density, and  is the mixture density.

See also

 Alcohol by volume
 Breathalyzer
 Alcohol proof
 Apparent molar property
 For non-ideal mixtures, see Partial molar volume and Excess molar quantity
 Percentage
 Mass fraction (chemistry)

References 

Dimensionless quantities of chemistry
Physical chemistry
Thermodynamics
Analytical chemistry
Pietro Lunardi. Pietro Lunardi (born 19 July 1939) is an Italian politician and engineer.

Career
Born in Parma, he took his degree in civil engineering and transportation at the University of Padua in 1966.

He was Italian Minister for Infrastructure and Transportation from 2001 to 2006, and is the author of more than 130 publications.

References
 La Repubblica.it, Le biografie inglesi di Palazzo Chigi
 Pietro Lunardi, Design and construction of tunnels: analysis of controlled deformation in rocks and soils (ADECO-RS), シュプリンガー・ジャパン株式会社, 2008.

1939 births
Living people
Engineers from Parma
Forza Italia politicians
Transport ministers of Italy
Politicians from Parma
Nav/attack system. A nav/attack system (short for navigation/attack system) is an integrated suite of sensors and navigation equipment that allows a military aircraft to locate and attack specific ground targets or conduct aerial reconnaissance with a high degree of precision.

Since the late 1950s, nav/attack systems helped pilots increase the accuracy of releasing ordnance. A computer program would record the aircraft's velocity and use it to pinpoint their location in relationship with the target's location. Early integrated nav/attack systems suffered from poor reliability. Improvements in digital computing technology, advent of the microchip, have resulted in substantially more sophisticated and effective equipment.

A typical modern nav/attack system is based around an inertial navigation system (INS) that allows the aircrew to locate the target area without relying on active sensors such as radar that might alert enemy combatants. INS can help calculate "drift", changes in course that deviate from the target, the nav/attack system can guide the aircraft to the target or be used as a tool to help guide the pilot to the target.

Modern systems typically provide an automatic weapons release; the aircraft can be programmed to release the ordnance before it misses the target. The aircraft's computer system will release the ordnance unless the pilot chooses to override that command and release it instead. The navigation program accounts for factors such as wind and velocity. Early nav/attack systems were primitive but paved the way for the systems we have today. Today's systems give pilots deadlier accuracy because of technological advances that have developed since the first model.

References

Aircraft instruments