omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Degree (temperature). The term degree is used in several scales of temperature, with the notable exception of kelvin, primary unit of temperature for engineering and the physical sciences. The degree symbol ° is usually used, followed by the initial letter of the unit; for example, "°C" for degree Celsius. A degree can be defined as a set change in temperature measured against a given scale; for example, one degree Celsius is one-hundredth of the temperature change between the point at which water starts to change state from solid to liquid state and the point at which it starts to change from its liquid to gaseous state.

Scales of temperature measured in degrees
Common scales of temperature measured in degrees:
 Celsius (°C)
 Fahrenheit (°F)
 Rankine (°R or °Ra), which uses the Fahrenheit scale, adjusted so that 0 degrees Rankine is equal to absolute zero.

Unlike the degree Fahrenheit and degree Celsius, the kelvin is no longer referred to or written as a degree (but was before 1967). The kelvin is the primary unit of temperature measurement in the physical sciences, but is often used in conjunction with the degree Celsius, which has the same magnitude.

Other scales of temperature:
 Delisle (°D)
 Newton (°N)
 Réaumur (°Ré)
 Rømer (°Rø)
 Wedgwood (°W)

Kelvin
 
The "degree Kelvin" () is a former name and symbol for the SI unit of temperature on the thermodynamic (absolute) temperature scale.  Since 1967, it has been known simply as the kelvin, with symbol K (without a degree symbol). Degree absolute (°A) is obsolete terminology, often referring specifically to the kelvin but sometimes the degree Rankine as well.

Comparisons 
 Boiling point of water: 100.0 °C / 212.0 °F
 Melting point of ice: 0.0 °C / 32.0 °F
 Typical human body temperature: 37.0 °C / 98.6 °F
 Room temperature: 20–25 °C / 68–77 °F

Temperature conversions

All three of the major temperature scales are related through a linear equation, and so the conversion between any of them is relatively straightforward. For instance, any Celsius temperature c °C can be calculated from a corresponding Fahrenheit temperature f °F or absolute temperature k K.

The equations above may also be rearranged to solve for  or , to give

See also 
 Comparison of temperature scales
 International System of Units

References

Units of temperature
Fujitsu VP2000. The VP2000 was the second series of vector supercomputers from Fujitsu. Announced in December 1988, they replaced Fujitsu's earlier FACOM VP Model E Series. The VP2000 was succeeded in 1995 by the VPP300, a massively parallel supercomputer with up to 256 vector processors.

The VP2000 was similar in many ways to their earlier designs, and in turn to the Cray-1, using a register-based vector processor for performance. For additional performance the vector units supported a special multiply-and-add instruction that could retire two results per clock cycle. This instruction "chain" is particularly common in many supercomputer applications.

Another difference is that the main scalar units of the processor ran at half the speed of the vector unit. According to Amdahl's Law computers tend to run at the speed of their slowest unit, and in this case unless the program spent most of its time in the vector units, the slower scalar performance would make it 1/2 the performance of a Cray-1 at the same speed. The reason for this seemingly odd "feature" is unclear.

One of the major complaints about the earlier VP series was their limited memory bandwidth—while the machines themselves had excellent performance in the processors, they were often starved for data. For the VP2000 series this was addressed by adding a second load/store unit to the scalar units, doubling memory bandwidth.

Several versions of the machines were sold at different price points. The low-end VP2100 ran at an 8 ns cycle time and delivered only 0.5 GFLOPS (about 4-8 times the performance of a Cray), while the VP2200 and VP2400 decreased the cycle time to 4 ns and delivered between 1.25 and 2.5 GFLOPS peak. The high-end VP2600 ran at 3.2 ns and delivered 5 GFLOPS. All of the models came in the /10 versions with a single scalar processor, or the /20 with a second, while the 2200 and 2400 also came in a /40 configuration with four. Due to the additional load/store units, adding additional scalar units improved performance by increasing memory bandwidth, as well as allowing several programs to run at the same time and thereby increase the chance there was something to process on the vector unit. Each unit is said to increase performance 1.5 times, allowing the VP2400/40 to match the performance of the earlier VP2600/20.

The machines were supplied with either the Unix-compatible UXP/M or the MVS-compatible VSP/S operating systems, both supplied by Amdahl. The later was used for Fortran programs while the former was typically used for C, and vectorizing compilers were supplied for both languages.

Like most companies, Fujitsu turned to massive parallelism for future machines, and the VP2000 family were not on the market for very long. Nevertheless, over 100 were sold, and in July 1993, there were 180 installed.

References

Vector supercomputers
Fujitsu supercomputers
Fujitsu VP. The Fujitsu FACOM VP is a series of vector supercomputers designed, manufactured, and marketed by Fujitsu. Announced in July 1982, the FACOM VP were the first of the three initial Japanese commercial supercomputers, followed by the Hitachi HITAC S-810 in August 1982 and the NEC SX-2 in April 1983.

Context in the supercomputer market
The FACOM VP were sold until they were replaced by the VP2000 family in 1990. Developed with funding from the Ministry of International Trade and Industry, the FACOM VP was part of an effort designed to wrest control of the supercomputer market from the collection of small US-based companies like Cray Research. The FACOM VP was marketed in Japan by Fujitsu, where the majority of installations were located. Amdahl marketed the systems in the US and Siemens in Europe. The ending of the Cold War during this period made the market for supercomputers dry up almost overnight, and the Japanese firms decided that their mass-production capabilities were better spent elsewhere.

Development
Fujitsu had built a prototype vector co-processor known as the F230-75, which was installed attached to their own mainframe machines in the Japanese Atomic Energy Commission and National Aerospace Laboratory in 1977. The processor was similar in most ways to the famed Cray-1, but did not have vector chaining capabilities and was therefore somewhat slower. Nevertheless, the machines were rather inexpensive, and during the late 1970s supercomputers were seen as a source of national pride, and an effort started to commercialize the design by combining it with a scalar processor to create an all-in-one design.

The result was the VP-100 and VP-200, announced in July 1982. These two models differed primarily in clock rates. Lower-end models were spun off as the VP-30 and VP-50. In 1986 a two-pipeline version was released as the VP-400. The next year the entire series was updated with the addition of a new vector unit that supported a multiply-and-add unit that could retire two results per clock cycle. This resulted in the "E series", VP-30E through VP-400E.

Issues with the design
One problem with the design was the limited memory bandwidth as a result of having only one load-store unit. Even on the top-end VP-400E it could drive only 4.57 GB/s peak, limiting the maximum performance to only 0.5 GFLOPS for 64-bit operands. US designs focused on this problem in the early 1980s, and the contemporary Cray-2 could drive about 2 GB/s per processor, with up to four processors.

References

 
 
 
 R.W. Hockney; C.R. Jesshope (1988). Parallel Computers 2: Architecture, Programming and Algorithms. CRC Press. pp. 191–196.

Computer-related introductions in 1982
1982 in computing
1982 in Japan
Fujitsu supercomputers
MITI projects
Vector supercomputers
Opacifier. An opacifier is a substance added to a material in order to make the ensuing system opaque. An example of a chemical opacifier is titanium dioxide (TiO2), which is used as an opacifier in paints, in paper, and in plastics. It has very high refraction index (rutile modification 2.7 and anatase modification 2.55) and optimum refraction is obtained with crystals about 225 nanometers. Impurities in the crystal alter the optical properties. It is also used to opacify ceramic glazes and milk glass; bone ash is also used.

Opacifiers must have a refractive index (RI) substantially different from the system. Conversely, clarity may be achieved in a system by choosing components with very similar refractive indices.

Glasses
Ancient milk glasses used crystals of calcium antimonate, formed in the melt from calcium present in the glass and an antimony additive. Opaque yellow glasses contained crystals of lead antimonate; bindheimite mineral may have been used as the additive. Under oxidizing condition, lead also forms incompletely dissolved lead pyroantimonate (Pb2Sb2O7). From 2nd century BC tin oxide appears in use as opacifier, likely in the form of cassiterite mineral. Opaque yellow can be produced as lead stannate; the color is paler than the lead antimonate one. Later calcium and sodium phosphates became used; bone ash contains calcium phosphate in a high proportion. Calcium fluoride was also used, especially in China.

For dental ceramics, several approaches are in use. Spodumene or mica crystals can be precipitated. Fluorides of aluminium, calcium, barium, and magnesium can be used with suitable heat treatment. Tin oxide can be used, but zirconia and titania give better results; for titania, the appropriate resulting particle size is between submicron to 20 μm. Another desirable opacifier is zinc oxide.

Opacifiers must also form small particles in the system. Opacifiers are generally inert.

X-ray opacifiers
In context of x-rays, opacifiers are additives with high absorption of x-rays; typically these are particles or compounds of lead, barium (often barium sulfate), tungsten, or other high atomic weight elements. Sometimes opacifiers are added to medical implants to make them visible under X-ray imaging. This is especially true in the case of most polymers which are often unrecognizable in the body when viewed using X-rays.

Rocket propellants
In solid rocket propellants and some translucent smokeless powders, the primary method of heat transfer into the propellant grain from the combustion process is by radiation, and opacifiers such as "lamp black" may be added to the propellant mixture to ensure the heat does not penetrate far below the surface of the grain, which could cause detonation. The opacifiers also prevent sub-surface overheating and localized premature ignition in the grains where imperfections absorbing the thermal radiation are present. Carbon black is commonly used for this purpose; other possible additives are nigrosin, Prussian blue, methylene blue, etc. in amounts ranging commonly between 0.1 and 0.5%.

References

Physical chemistry
Materials science
Best Off Skyranger. 

The Best Off Skyranger is a French-designed two-seat ultralight utility aircraft, produced by Best Off, of Toulouse. It is a high-wing conventional monoplane with tricycle undercarriage, and of fabric-covered tubular construction.

The Skyranger is also manufactured under licence by Aero Bravo in Brazil, SkyRanger Aircraft in the United States (as a kit), Aeros in Ukraine and at least 150 were built by Synairgie in France, too.

Some 900 are flying throughout the world.

Variants
Skyranger
Original model, introduced 1990.
Skyranger Vfun
Renamed original model for the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale microlight class. Standard engines available are the  Rotax 582 two-stroke, the  Rotax 912UL, the  Rotax 912ULS,  Jabiru 2200, the  VW and the  HKS 700E four-stroke powerplants. The aircraft has also been equipped with the JLT Motors Ecoyota engine.
Skyranger Vmax
Improved model for United Kingdom BCAR Section "S" certification, with ventral fin. Standard engines available are the  Rotax 582 two-stroke, the  Rotax 912UL, the  Rotax 912ULS,  Jabiru 2200, the  VW and the  HKS 700E four-stroke powerplants.
Skyranger Swift
Improved model based on the Vmax for the US light-sport aircraft market, with reduced wingspan.
Reusable Bomber Drones
On 26 April 2024, 6 photos surfaced online, taken somewhere in Russia, which appeared to show a crashed Skyranger Swift 2 fitted with a single OFAB-100-120 bomb. Along with other equipment to allow for it to become a “remotely piloted bomber”. Skyranger had been contacted and said it could be an existing aircraft or one built from a kit worth $55,000.00. Ukraine has previously modified a Aeroprakt A-22 Foxbat into a kamikaze drone.

Specifications (Skyranger)

See also

Comparable aircraft 
 Ikarus C42
 Raj Hamsa X-Air "H" Hanuman

Notes

References
 Jackson, Paul. Jane's All The World's Aircraft 2003–2004. Coulsdon, UK: Jane's Information Group, 2003. .

External links

 Official website

1990s French civil utility aircraft
1990s French ultralight aircraft
Skyranger
Single-engined tractor aircraft
High-wing aircraft
Aero Bravo aircraft
Aeros aircraft
Aero Synergie aircraft
Sky Ranger
Aircraft first flown in 1990
Aircraft with fixed tricycle landing gear
Single-engined piston aircraft
Aeros. Aeros is a Ukrainian aircraft manufacturer founded by a group of ex-Antonov engineers in the early 1990s to build hang gliders. It is located in Kyiv.

The firm manufactures and distributes the French Best Off Sky Ranger ultralight under licence.

In the 2010s the company introduced a nanotrike, a lightweight, simple folding ultralight trike design, called the Aeros ANT, that can be packed into a carrying case.

Aircraft

 Aeros-1
 Aeros-2
 Aeros AC-21
 Aeros AL-12
 Aeros Accent
 Aeros Amigo
 Aeros ANT
 Aeros Combat
 Aeros Cross Country
 Aeros Discus
 Aeros Fox
 Aeros Fuego
 Aeros Mister X
 Aeros Phaeton
 Aeros Rival
 Aeros Sky Ranger
 Aeros Stealth
 Aeros Stalker
 Aeros Target
 Aeros Style
 Aeros Virtuoso
 Aeros Vitamin
 Aeros Zig-Zag

Wings
Aeros Combat
Aeros Discus T
Aeros Fox T
Aeros Profi
Aeros Stranger
Aeros Stream
Aeros Still

See also
Aero Nord

References

External links
 Company website

Aircraft manufacturers of Ukraine
Hang gliders
Manufacturing companies based in Kyiv
Ultralight trikes
Taylor Coot. 

The Taylor Coot is a two-seat homebuilt amphibious aircraft designed by Moulton Taylor, famous for his flying car designs. When a market for the Aerocar did not emerge, Taylor turned to more conventional designs. The Coot was nonetheless somewhat unusual for its low wing, a feature uncommon on most seaplanes and flying boats, which conventionally strive to keep their wings as far away from the water as possible. Instead, Taylor designed the Coot's wing roots to act as sponsons to stabilise the craft in the water. The arrangement allowed him to do away with the weight and drag penalties imposed by wingtip floats, and additionally gain ground effect benefits during takeoff. First flown in 1969, the Coot proved very popular with homebuilders, with an estimated 70 aircraft completed by 2007.

The wings and elevator surfaces of the Taylor Coot can be folded for transport and storage.  With wings folded the aircraft is  wide.  Some builders have equipped their aircraft with auxiliary sponsons.  It is equipped with tricycle landing gear:  The nose wheel casters freely and steering on the ground is accomplished with differential braking of the main gear.

The plans and three books about the Coot are available through Richard Steeves of Madison, Wisconsin.

On June 6, 2018, a Taylor Coot Model A registered as N100TN attempted to take off from a lake, but suffered hull loss. The pilot escaped through the canopy. However, the issue was determined to have been caused by the pilot choosing to take off with a known structural issue.

Variants
Coot Model A
Single-tailed version.
Coot Model B 
Two-tailed model

Specifications (Super Coot Model A, 180 hp Franklin engine)

See also

References

 John W. R. Taylor. Jane's All The World's Aircraft 1982–83. London:Jane's Yearbooks, 1982. .

External links 

 

Homebuilt aircraft
Amphibious aircraft
1960s United States civil utility aircraft
Single-engined pusher aircraft
Mid-wing aircraft
Coot
Aircraft first flown in 1969
Cruciform tail aircraft
Molt Taylor. Moulton B. "Molt" Taylor (September 29, 1912 – November 16, 1995) was an American aeronautical engineer famed for his work designing, developing, and manufacturing on a small scale one of the first practical flying cars, the 1949 Aerocar.

Life and career 

Taylor was born in Portland, Oregon and studied engineering at the University of Washington. After graduation, he was accepted into the United States Navy as a Naval Aviator during World War II, and spent much of the war working on the Navy's Gorgon missile program, for which he was awarded the Legion of Merit medal. Shortly after the war, he designed his first flying car, the Aerocar, and founded Aerocar International in Longview, Washington, to develop, manufacture and market the aircraft. Taylor came up with the idea for the Aerocar in 1946, after meeting inventor Robert Edison Fulton Jr. and noticing the flaws in his Airphibian roadable aircraft design. To date, Taylor's Aerocar remains the closest that any such design came to actual mass production, but eventually only six models were built.

Although Taylor continued to push for the viability of the flying car throughout the rest of his life, he also designed a number of only slightly more conventional designs for the homebuilt aircraft market, including the Taylor Coot amphibian and the Aerocar IMP family of light sport planes (which consists of the Mini, Micro and Ultra IMP).

In a 1979 article about the future of flight past the year 2000, Taylor somewhat inaccurately predicted widespread use of flying autos and pusher configurations, however he did accurately predict the mainstream use of carbon materials for lightweight spars and wing ribs.

He also gave frequent help and advice to the Klapmeier brothers throughout the 1980s on their first design, the pusher-propeller homebuilt Cirrus VK-30.

Awards and honors 
He was awarded the Edward Longstreth Medal from the Franklin Institute in 1960. In 1975, he received the Experimental Aircraft Association (EAA) Dr. August Raspet Memorial Award for "significant advancements in the field of light aircraft design". Six days before his death in 1995, Taylor was inducted into the EAA Hall of Fame.

The Kelso-Longview Regional Airport is also known as the "Molt Taylor Field".

References

External links 
 Patent Nr. 2.767.939 at Google patents, granted 23 October 1956
 1990 article about Moulton Taylor in The Seattle Times

1912 births
1995 deaths
Military personnel from Portland, Oregon
American aerospace engineers
University of Washington College of Engineering alumni
People from Longview, Washington
20th-century American engineers
Engineers from Oregon
Engineers from Washington (state)
Aircraft designers
United States Navy personnel of World War II
PC12 minicomputer. PC12 by Artronix was a minicomputer built with 7400-series TTL technology and ferrite core memory.  Computers were manufactured at the Artronix facility in suburban St. Louis, Missouri.

The instruction set architecture was adapted from the LINC, the only significant change was to
expand addressable memory to 4K, which required addition of an origin register.  It was an accumulator machine with 12-bit addresses to manipulate 12-bit data.  Later versions included "origin registers" that were used to extend the addressability of memory.  Arithmetic was ones' complement.

For mass storage it had a LINCtape dual unit. It also used a Tektronix screen with tube memory and an ADC/DAC to capture and display images. There was an optional plotter to draw the results. To speed up the calculations it had a separate floating point unit that interfaced like any other peripheral.

It ran an operating system LAP6-PC with support for assembly language and Fortran programming and usually came with end user software for Radiation Treatment Planning (RTP), for use by a radiation therapist or radiation oncologist, and Hospital Patient Records. Software for implant dosimetry was available for the PC12. With extended hardware it became a multiuser system running MUMPS.
Latter additions included an 8" floppy disk and hard disk of larger capacity.
The PC12 initially controlled the Artronix brain scanner (computed axial tomography), but this was for prototyping.
The PC12 was also the core of an ultrasound system and a gamma camera system.

The PC12 was eventually superseded by the "Modulex" system built by Artronix around the 16-bit Lockheed SUE processor, roughly around 1976.  The PC12 continued in production, but was phased out over time.

Sites which used the Artronix PC12 included the Lutheran Hospital Cancer Center in Moline, Illinois, where it was used to store the medical records of patients undergoing treatment for cancer. A 1974 paper describes the use of a PC12 as a frontend to an IBM 360 mainframe in radiation therapy, in which the PC12 acted as the user interface while the mainframe is used to perform complex calculations.

References

External links
 

Minicomputers
Yuri Artsutanov. Yuri Nikolaevich Artsutanov (; 5 October 1929 – 1 January 2019) was a Russian engineer born in Leningrad.  He was one of the pioneers of the idea of a space elevator.

The February issue of the ISEC Newsletter  is devoted to his life and place in history and features reminisces and photographs from his colleagues in the West, including his attendance at the 2010 ISEC Space Elevator conference.

Biography
Artsutanov was a graduate of Leningrad Technological Institute.  In 1960, he wrote an article "V Kosmos na Electrovoze (en. Into space with the help of an electric locomotive)", where he discussed the concept of the space elevator as an economic, safe and convenient way to access orbit and facilitate space exploration.

Artsutanov developed his idea independently from Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, who in 1895 proposed an idea of building an orbital tower. Artsutanov's concept was based on the linking of geosynchronous satellites to the ground with a cable. He  suggested using the satellite as the base from which to construct the tower since a geosynchronous satellite will remain over a fixed point on the equator. By using a counterweight, a cable would be lowered from the geosynchronous orbit to the surface of Earth while the counterweight was extended from the satellite away from Earth, keeping the center of mass of the cable at the same height above the Earth. The ideas of Tsiolkovsky's compression-structure concept and Artsutanov's tension-structure concept differ in that a compression structure is well outside conceivable future capabilities, while the tension-structure is much easier to build and maintain, and is considered possible with near-future technologies.

Artsutanov later went on to propose other concepts involving space tethers, including the lunar space elevator, and using rotating tethers for space transportation.

See also 
 Arthur C. Clarke

References

Sources 
 Artsutanov, Yuri; V Kosmos na Electrovoze; Komsomolskaya Pravda, July 31, 1960
English translation and recreation of original 1960 Russian article: http://images.spaceref.com/docs/spaceelevator/Artsutanov_Pravda_SE.pdf

External links 
 Spaceward.org Website

1929 births
2019 deaths
Russian aerospace engineers
Engineers from Saint Petersburg
Soviet engineers
20th-century Russian engineers
Saint Petersburg State Institute of Technology alumni