omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Boston Camera. The Boston Camera, also known as Pie Face and officially classified as the K-42 Camera Model, was a prototype airborne photo reconnaissance camera. It was manufactured for the United States Air Force by Boston University in 1951 and was tested on the Convair B-36 and the C-97 Stratofreighter. The model carried on the first ERB-36D (44-92088), had a  focal length, which was achieved using a series of lenses and mirrors. The lens had an f/8 stop and used a 1/400 second shutter speed. It could photograph a golf ball from an altitude of . The camera used  negatives. The camera was installed aboard Boeing C-97A 49-2592 (not an "RC-97" or "EC-97" as often widely quoted) which was used operationally by the 7405th Support Squadron based at Wiesbaden, West Germany, between 1952 and 1962.  It was given to the Air Force Museum in 1964, along with a contact print of a golf ball on a course.

In the words of CIA historian Dino Brugioni:
The lens was designed in 1947 by Dr. James Baker for installation in a camera designed by the Boston University Optical Research Laboratory. The camera weighed about three tons, and eight hundred pounds of lead shot were required to balance it. Supposedly, it was first installed and test-flown in an RB-36, then installed as a left-looking oblique camera in an RC-97. The first photo which Arthur Lundahl and I observed from this project was of New York City. The aircraft was seventy-two miles away, and yet we could see people in Central Park.

The Boston Camera was plagued with problems that caused it to vibrate and produce smearing on the newspaper-sized negative, so that photo interpreters would see several smeared frames along with several clear ones. It is currently displayed at the National Museum of the US Air Force in Dayton, Ohio.

From the display placard: 

This camera, manufactured for the US Air Force by Boston University in 1951, is the largest aerial camera ever built. It was installed in an RB-36D in 1954 and tested for about a year. Later it was used in a C-97 aircraft flying along the air corridor through communist East Germany to Berlin, but a 10,000 ft. (3,000 m) altitude restriction imposed by the communists made the camera less useful than at a higher altitude. It was also used on reconnaissance missions along the borders of Eastern European nations.  The camera made an 18 x 36 inch negative and was so powerful a photo interpreter could detect a golf ball from an altitude of 45,000 feet (14,000 m). Dr. James Baker of Harvard University designed the camera.  

Technical Notes:

Shutter Speed: 1/400 sec

Weight: 6,500 lbs (3 metric ton) (camera and aircraft mount)

References

Aerial cameras
Boston University
Military cartography
Underactuation. Underactuation is a technical term used in robotics and control theory to describe mechanical systems that cannot be commanded to follow arbitrary trajectories in configuration space.  This condition can occur for a number of reasons, the simplest of which is when the system has a lower number of actuators than degrees of freedom.  In this case, the system is said to be trivially underactuated.

The class of underactuated mechanical systems is very rich and includes such diverse members as automobiles, airplanes, and even animals.

Definition
To understand the mathematical conditions which lead to underactuation, one must examine the dynamics that govern the systems in question.  Newton's laws of motion dictate that the dynamics of mechanical systems are inherently second order.  In general, these dynamics can be described by a second order differential equation:

Where:

 is the position state vector   is the vector of control inputs   is time.

Furthermore, in many cases the dynamics for these systems can be rewritten to be affine in the control inputs:

When expressed in this form, the system is said to be underactuated if:

When this condition is met, there are acceleration directions that can not be produced no matter what the control vector is.

Note that  does not explicitly represent the number of actuators present in the system.  Indeed, there may be more actuators than degrees of freedom and the system may still be underactuated.  Also worth noting is the dependence of  on the state .  That is, there may exist states in which an otherwise fully actuated system becomes underactuated.

Examples

The classic inverted pendulum is an example of a trivially underactuated system: it has two degrees of freedom (one for its support's motion in the horizontal plane, and one for the angular motion of the pendulum), but only one of them (the cart position) is actuated, and the other is only indirectly controlled.  Although naturally extremely unstable, this underactuated system is still controllable.

A standard automobile is underactuated due to the nonholonomic constraints imposed by the wheels.  That is, a car cannot accelerate in a direction perpendicular to the direction the wheels are facing. A similar argument can be made for boats, planes and most other vehicles.

See also
 Passive dynamics

References

Further reading
 M. Saliba, and C.W. de Silva, "An Innovative Robotic Gripper for Grasping and Handling Research," IEEE Journal of Robotics and Automation, pp. 975–979, 1991.
 N. Dechev, W.L. Cleghorn, and S. Naumann,  “Multiple Finger, Passive Adaptive Grasp Prosthetic Hand,” Journal of Mechanism and Machine Theory, Vol. 36, No. 10, pp. 1157–1173, 2001.

External links
  Canudas-de-Wit, C. On the concept of virtual constraints as a tool for walking robot control and balancing  Annual Reviews in Control, 28 (2004), pp. 157–166. (Elsevier)
Nonlinear Systems College of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering, Kansas State University

Robot control
Control theory
Aluminium silicate. Aluminum silicate (or aluminium silicate) is a name commonly applied to chemical compounds which are derived from aluminium oxide, Al2O3 and silicon dioxide, SiO2 which may be anhydrous or hydrated, naturally occurring as minerals or synthetic. Their chemical formulae are often expressed as xAl2O3·ySiO2·zH2O. It is known as E number E559.

Main representatives

Andalusite, kyanite, and sillimanite are the principal aluminium silicate minerals.  The triple point of the three polymorphs is located at a temperature of  and a pressure of .  These three minerals are commonly used as index minerals in metamorphic rocks. 
 Al2SiO5, (Al2O3·SiO2), which occurs naturally as the minerals andalusite, kyanite and sillimanite which have distinct crystal structures.
 Al2Si2O7, (Al2O3·2SiO2), called metakaolinite, formed from kaolin by heating at .
 Al6Si2O13, (3Al2O3·2SiO2), the mineral mullite, the only thermodynamically stable intermediate phase in the Al2O3-SiO2 system at atmospheric pressure. This also called '3:2 mullite' to distinguish it from 2Al2O3·SiO2, Al4SiO8 '2:1 mullite'.
 2Al2O3·SiO2, Al4SiO8 '2:1 mullite'.

The above list mentions ternary materials (Si-Al-O). Kaolinite is a quaternary material (Si-Al-O-H). Also called aluminium silicate dihydrate, kaolinite occurs naturally as a mineral. Its formula is Al2Si2O5(OH)4, (Al2O3·2SiO2·2H2O).

Aluminium silicate composite materials, fibres
Aluminium silicate is a type of fibrous material made of aluminium oxide and silicon dioxide, (such materials are also called aluminosilicate fibres). These are glassy solid solutions rather than chemical compounds. The compositions are often  described in terms of % weight of alumina, Al2O3 and silica, SiO2. Temperature resistance increases as the % alumina increases. These fibrous materials can be encountered as loose wool, blanket, felt, paper or boards.

References

External links
Aluminum silicates at the University of Waterloo, Canada

Silicates
Silicates
Orthorhombic minerals
E-number additives
Monte Carlo molecular modeling. Monte Carlo molecular modelling is the application of Monte Carlo methods to molecular problems. These problems can also be modelled by the molecular dynamics method. The difference is that this approach relies on equilibrium statistical mechanics rather than molecular dynamics. Instead of trying to reproduce the dynamics of a system, it generates states according to appropriate Boltzmann distribution. Thus, it is the application of the Metropolis Monte Carlo simulation to molecular systems. It is therefore also a particular subset of the more
general Monte Carlo method in statistical physics.

It employs a Markov chain procedure in order to determine a new state for a system from a previous one. According to its stochastic nature, this new state is accepted at random. Each trial usually counts as
a move. The avoidance of dynamics restricts the method to studies of static quantities only, but the freedom to choose moves makes the method very flexible. These moves must only satisfy a basic condition of
balance in order for the equilibrium to be properly described, but detailed balance, a stronger condition,
is usually imposed when designing new algorithms. An additional advantage is that some systems, such as the Ising model, lack a dynamical description and are only defined by an energy prescription; for these the Monte Carlo approach is the only one feasible.

The great success of this method in statistical mechanics has led to various generalizations such as the method of simulated annealing for optimization, in which a fictitious temperature is introduced and then gradually lowered.

A range of software packages have been developed specifically for the use of the Metropolis Monte Carlo method on molecular simulations. These include:
 BOSS
 CP2K
 MCPro
 Sire
 ProtoMS
 Faunus

See also
 Quantum Monte Carlo
 Monte Carlo method in statistical physics
 List of software for Monte Carlo molecular modeling
 Software for molecular mechanics modeling
 Bond fluctuation model

External links
 https://web.archive.org/web/20220126175020/http://cmm.cit.nih.gov/intro_simulation/node25.html

References

 
 
 

Molecular modelling
Theoretical chemistry
Monte Carlo methods
Stochastic models
SAP NetWeaver Master Data Management. SAP NetWeaver Master Data Management (SAP NW MDM) is a component of SAP's NetWeaver product group and is used as a platform to consolidate, cleanse and synchronise a single version of the truth for master data within a heterogeneous application landscape. It has the ability to distribute internally and externally to SAP and non-SAP applications. SAP MDM is a key enabler of SAP Service-Oriented Architecture. Standard system architecture would consist of a single central MDM server connected to client systems through SAP Exchange Infrastructure using XML documents, although connectivity without SAP XI can also be achieved. There are five standard implementation scenarios: 

 Content Consolidation - centralised cleansing, de-duplication and consolidation, enabling key mapping and consolidated group reporting in SAP BI. No re-distribution of cleansed data.
 Master Data Harmonisation - as for Content Consolidation, plus re-distribution of cleansed, consolidated master data. 
 Central Master data management - as for Master Data Harmonisation, but all master data is maintained in the central MDM system. No maintenance of master data occurs in the connected client systems.
 Rich Product Content Management - Catalogue management and publishing. Uses elements of Content Consolidation to centrally store rich content (images, PDF files, video, sound etc.) together with standard content in order to produce product catalogues (web or print). Has standard adapters to export content to Desktop Publishing packages.
 Global Data Synchronization - provides consistent trade item information exchange with retailers through data hubs (e.g. 1SYNC)

Some features (for example, workflow) require custom development out of the box to provide screens for end users to use.

History 

SAP is currently on its second iteration of MDM software. Facing limited adoption of its initial release, SAP changed direction and in 2004 purchased a small vendor in the PIM space called A2i.  This code has become the basis for the currently shipping SAP MDM 5.5, and as such, most analysts consider SAP MDM to be more of a PIM than a general MDM product at this time.

SAP NetWeaver MDM 7.1 was released in ramp-up shipment in November 2008 and unrestricted shipment in May 2009.  This new version has an enhanced MDM technology foundation to build pre-packaged business scenarios and integration.

References  

 SAP NetWeaver Master Data Management 7.1 Help
 Gartner Magic Quadrant for Master Data Management of Customer Data Solutions

External links 
 SAP NetWeaver MDM discussions, blogs, documents and videos on the SAP Community Network (SCN)
 SAP MDM Page 
 SAP acquires A2i to boost data management capabilities

Master Data Management
Heatwork. Heatwork is the combined effect of temperature and time. It is important to several industries:

Ceramics
Glass and metal annealing
Metal heat treating

While the concept of heatwork is taught in material science courses it is not a defined measurement or scientific concept.

Pyrometric devices can be used to gauge heat work as they deform or contract due to heatwork to produce temperature equivalents. Within tolerances, firing can be undertaken at lower temperatures for a longer period to achieve comparable results. When the amount of heatwork of two firings is the same, the pieces may look identical, but there may be differences not visible, such as mechanical strength and microstructure.

External links 
Temperature equivalents table & description of Bullers Rings.
Temperature equivalents table  & description of Nimra Cerglass pyrometric cones. 
Temperature equivalents table & description of Orton pyrometric cones. 
Temperature equivalents table of Seger pyrometric cones.
Temperature Equivalents, °F & °C  for Bullers Ring.

Glass physics
Pottery
Metallurgy
Ceramic engineering
Center for NanoScience. The Center for NanoScience (CeNS) was founded in 1998 at the Ludwig-Maximilians-University (LMU) in Munich. Its aim is to promote, bundle and join interdisciplinary research in the field of nanoscience in the Munich area. CeNS is an association of working groups from basic research and industry and acts as a network which connects various institutions from a variety of disciplines. The members cooperate in a horizontal structure based on voluntary commitment, and are supported by a small coordination team.

CeNS consolidates research activities at the nanometer scale from physics, chemistry, biochemistry, and medicine. The CeNS network promotes the mutual understanding and the collaboration between these disciplines by joint seminars, workshops, and schools.

References

External links 
Center for NanoScience

Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich
Nanotechnology institutions
1998 establishments in Germany
Research institutes established in 1998
Research institutes in Munich
Galilei number. In fluid dynamics, the Galilei number (Ga), sometimes also referred to as Galileo number (see discussion), is a dimensionless number named after Italian scientist Galileo Galilei (1564-1642).

It may be regarded as proportional to gravity forces divided by viscous forces.  The Galilei number is used in viscous flow and thermal expansion calculations, for example to describe fluid film flow over walls. These flows apply to condensers or chemical columns.

 g: gravitational acceleration, (SI units: m/s2)
 L: characteristic length, (SI units: m)
 ν: characteristic kinematic viscosity, (SI units: m2/s)

See also
Archimedes number

References
VDI-Wärmeatlas; 5., extended Edition; VDI Verlag Düsseldorf; 1988; page Bc 1 (German)
W. Wagner; Wärmeübertragung; 5., revised Edition; Vogel Fachbuch; 1998; page 119 (German)

External links
 Website referring to the Galileo number with calculator
 Table of dimensionless numbers (German)
 Table of dimensionless numbers (German)

Dimensionless numbers of fluid mechanics
Fluid dynamics
SPF/PC. SPF/PC is an MS-DOS-based text editor and file manager designed to have an interface that was familiar to those using mainframe SPF and ISPF.

Later Microsoft Windows-based versions were named SPF/SE and SPF/SE 365. A version for OS/2 named SPF/2 was also offered. SPF/SE and SPF/SE 365 were released as freeware in 2022 after the death of Tim Tetiva, the author of SPF/PC and SPF/SE.

Overview
SPF/PC was introduced by and successors sold by Command Technology Corporation. Similar to IBM's mainframe based ISPF and is able to edit ASCII and EBCDIC text file as a complete integrated applications development environment (IDE). Typically used for editing source code, invoking compilers, linkers, and debuggers, in a variety of programming languages, such as COBOL, Fortran, and C++.

64-bit Windows can't run SPF/PC (Will run under DOSBox), but it can still be used on 32-bit Windows (e.g. Windows XP or Windows 7 in XP Mode).

Features

Macro/Scripting Language
SPF/SE 365 uses a C like macro/scripting language.

All versions of SPF have the ability to call any interpreter (PHP, BASIC, Powershell, etc.) from within the editor allowing text processing and OS command calls. SPF/SE does not have the REXX interface that SPF/PC had.

References

External links
SPF-Editor project on Github
Command Technology Corporation web-site (archived)
List of ISPF-style PC editors.

Windows text editors
Tour Pleyel. Tour Pleyel is a skyscraper of mixed use, both residential and commercial, located in the commune of Saint-Denis in the suburbs of Paris, France.

Built in 1972, the tower is 129 metres tall. At the top is a large turning advertising sign, in place since 1997 (the advertisement was firstly for Philips, then for Siemens from 2006 to 2013, and is currently for Kia Motors). Including that advertising sign, the total height of the tower is 143 m.

The tower has been built at the former location of the Pleyel et Cie factories. Several projects have been proposed since 1959, the one which had been adopted was planning the building of 4 identical towers in the middle of a large urban park of 4 ha. Plans for heliports on the roofs of the towers were even made. Only one of the originally planned towers has been built.

The tower is located nearby the metro station of Carrefour Pleyel on Line 13.

See also 
 Skyscraper
 List of tallest structures in Paris

References 

Pleyel
Buildings and structures completed in 1972
Pleyel
Skyscrapers in France
Pleyel et Cie
Orton Ceramic Foundation. The roots of the Orton Ceramic Foundation date back to the establishment of the "Standard Pyrometric Cone Company" in 1896 by Edward J. Orton, Jr. In 1894, he was appointed the first Chairman of the Ceramic Engineering Department at Ohio State University, the first ceramic engineering school in the United States.

Orton died in 1932. In accordance with his will a charitable trust was created to continue the "Standard Pyrometric Cone Company," now known as the "Edward Orton Jr. Ceramic Foundation", the "Orton Ceramic Foundation" or simply "Orton."  Based in Westerville, Ohio, USA, it has three areas of products and services:

 Produce for monitoring thermal processing.
 Design and build analytical for measuring thermal properties.
 Provide to measure thermal properties.

References

Organizations based in Ohio
Westerville, Ohio
Design companies established in 1896
1896 establishments in Ohio
Dragon (cipher). Dragon is a stream cipher developed at the Information Security Institute by William Millan with some help from Ed Dawson, Kevin Chen, Matt Henricksen, Leonie Simpson, HoonJae Lee, and SangJae Moon.

Dragon is the first published stream cipher to employ a nonlinear feedback for the state update function and a nonlinear function for output, where the long minimum cycle is guaranteed by a clock-like structure. The feedback and output are generated together by a permutation that takes as input data from state words according to a full-positive difference set. These design choices make it difficult to employ standard analysis methods. The permutation uses S-boxes designed using evolutionary search heuristics.

The cipher was a Phase 3 Focus candidate for the eSTREAM project, and satisfied all the requirements for speed and security. The cipher is targeted for fast software implementations and versions with different key lengths exists. The version selected for Phase 3 is Dragon-128. It is not Patented.

Dragon has not been successfully attacked to date, but Cho and Pieprzyk found biases within the primary non-linear component of the cipher. Some have suggested that the security of the cipher is weaker than intended by its designers. However, the methods to detect the biases require such a large amount of data, which would not be generated by any actual use of the algorithm, that an alternative interpretation exists: the published analysis shows that the cipher is quite secure.

Notes

External links
 eSTREAM page on Dragon

Stream ciphers
HC-256. HC-256 is a stream cipher designed to provide bulk encryption in software at high speeds while permitting strong confidence in its security. A 128-bit variant was submitted as an eSTREAM cipher candidate and has been selected as one of the four final contestants in the software profile.

The algorithm is designed by Hongjun Wu, and was first published in 2004. It is not patented.

Function
HC-256 has a 256 bit key and an initialization vector (nonce) of 256 bits.

Internally, it consists of two secret tables (P and Q). Each table contains 1024 32-bit words. For each state update one 32-bit word in each table is updated using a non-linear update function. After 2048 steps all elements of the tables have been updated.

It generates one 32-bit word for each update step using a 32-bit to 32-bit mapping function similar to the output function of the Blowfish cipher. Finally a linear bit-masking function is applied to generate an output word. It uses the two message schedule functions in the hash function SHA-256 internally, but with the tables P and Q as S-boxes.

HC-128 is similar in function, and reduces each of key length, nonce, number of words in the tables P and Q, and number of table updating steps by half.

Performance
The performance of HC-256 is estimated by its author to be about 4 cycles per byte on a Pentium 4 processor. However the initialization phase of the cipher includes expanding the 256-bit key into the tables P, Q and then running the cipher for 4096 steps. The author of HC-256 estimates this process to take around 74,000 cycles.

For HC-128 an encryption speed of about 3 cycles per byte on a Pentium M processor are cited.

The implementation of HC-128 on various computing structures is studied in detail, with significant performance gains compared to naive SW implementation.

References

External links
 eSTREAM page on HC-256 

Stream ciphers
Aircraft Data Network. Aircraft Data Network (ADN), as defined in the Airlines Electronic Engineering Committee (AEEC)'s ARINC 664 specification, is a standardized approach to data networking within commercial aircraft. The specification adapts commercial off-the-shelf networking standards, like those used in everyday computers and the internet, to meet the specific requirements of aviation. ARINC 664 details how common networking devices—such as bridges, switches, routers, and hubs—can be used within an aircraft's network to ensure reliable and efficient data transfer between avionics systems.  This specification leverages established internet and IEEE networking standards and is based on the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, providing a framework for interoperability between different aircraft systems.

Structure 
The specification is organized in multiple parts, as follows:
 Part 1 – Systems Concepts and Overview
 Part 2 – Ethernet Physical and Data-Link Layer Specifications
 Part 3 – Internet-based Protocols and Services
 Part 4 – Internet-based Address Structure and Assigned Numbers
 Part 5 – Network Domain Characteristics and Functional Elements
 Part 6 – Reserved;
 Part 7 – Deterministic Networks
 Part 8 – Upper Layer Protocol Services

External links
 ARINC Web Page

Air traffic control