omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Muscle Shoals Bill. The Muscle Shoals Bill was designed to build a dam in the Tennessee River and sell government-produced electricity. Congress passed bills to harness energy from the Tennessee River, but presidents Coolidge and Hoover insisted that private enterprise should do the job, and vetoed the bills. 

The chief sponsor, Senator George Norris of Nebraska, had blocked a proposal from Henry Ford to develop the dam site.  

Hoover's veto message stated:
I am firmly opposed to the Government entering into any business the major purpose of which is competition with our citizens. There are national emergencies which require that the Government should temporarily enter the field of business, but they must be emergency actions and in matters where the cost of the project is secondary to much higher considerations. There are many localities where the Federal Government is justified in the construction of great dams and reservoirs, where navigation, flood control, reclamation, or stream regulation are of dominant importance, and where they are beyond capacity or purpose of private or local government capital to construct. In these cases power is often a by-product and should be disposed of by contract or lease. But for the Federal Government deliberately to go out to build up and expand such an occasion to the major purpose of a power and manufacturing business is to break down the initiative and enterprise of the American people; it is the negation of the ideals upon which our civilization has been based. 

Norris demanded public power because he distrusted privately owned utilities.  Norris said of Hoover: 
Using his power of veto, he destroyed the Muscle Shoals bill--a measure designated to utilize the great government property at Muscle Shoals for the cheapening of fertilizer for American agriculture and utilization of the surplus power for the benefit of people without transmission distance of the development. The power people want no yardstick which would expose their extortionate rates so Hoover killed the bill after it had been passed by both houses of congress.

The idea for the Muscle Shoals Bill in 1933 became part of the New Deal's  Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA).

Notes

Further reading
 Hubbard, Preston John. Origins of the TVA: the Muscle Shoals controversy, 1920-1932 (Vanderbilt University Press, 1961)
 
 Wengert, Norman. "Antecedents of TVA: The Legislative History of Muscle Shoals." Agricultural History (1952) 26#4 pp: 141-147. in JSTOR
United States proposed federal legislation
Florence–Muscle Shoals metropolitan area
Tennessee River
History of Alabama
Dodge M80. The Dodge M80 was a concept car created by Dodge. It was first introduced at the 2002 North American International Auto Show. It was designed as a modern interpretation of Dodge trucks of the 1930s and 1940s.

Engine and Performance
The M80 has a V6 engine that has regular aspiration and induction. The engine produces about  and  of torque. It can accelerate from 0-60 mph (97 km/h) in 8.0 seconds. The M80 uses a five-speed manual transmission.

Design
The M80's design is loosely based on pickup trucks of the 1930s and 1940s. The M80's tires are up . It features racks that can hold objects as big as an all-terrain vehicle. The interior is very modern, but does give it a classical feeling with the fact that it is rugged and durable.

References
 Dodge.com
 ConceptCarz.com Info About the M80
 http://www.allpar.com/model/ram/m80.html

M80
Retro-style automobiles
Scanned synthesis. Scanned synthesis is a technique for animating wave tables and controlling them in real-time . Developed by Bill Verplank, Rob Shaw, and Max Mathews between 1998 and 1999 at Interval Research, Inc., it is based on the psychoacoustics of how we hear and appreciate timbres and on our motor control (haptic) abilities to manipulate timbres during live performance 

Scanned synthesis involves a slow dynamic system whose frequencies of vibration are below about 15 Hz . The ear cannot hear the low frequencies of the dynamic system. So, to make audible frequencies, the "shape" of the dynamic system, along a closed path, is scanned periodically. The "shape" is converted to a sound wave whose pitch is determined by the speed of the scanning function. Pitch control is completely separate from the dynamic system control. Thus timbre and pitch are independent. This system can be looked upon as a dynamic wave table. The model can be compared to a slowly vibrating string, or a two dimensional surface obeying the wave equation.

The following implementations of scanned synthesis are freely available:

 Csound features the scanu and scans opcodes developed by Paris Smaragdis. This was the first publicly available implementation of scanned synthesis.
 Pure Data features examples of scanned synthesis via the pmpd library
 Common Lisp Music in circular-scanned.clm
 Scanned Synth VST from Humanoid Sound Systems was the first VST implementation of scanned synthesis, first released in March 2006 and still being actively developed. It is available from the Humanoid Sound Systems web site.
 ScanSynthGL is another VST implementation of scanned synthesis by mdsp of Smartelectronix, also first released in March 2006. It is available from the KVRAudio forum. There is an unreleased beta version, some audio samples and a screenshot but no public version has been released yet.

References

Digital audio
Sound synthesis types
Scanning gate microscopy. Scanning gate microscopy (SGM) is a scanning probe microscopy technique with an electrically conductive tip used as  a movable gate that couples capacitively to the sample and probes electrical transport on the nanometer scale. Typical samples are mesoscopic devices, often based on semiconductor heterostructures, such as quantum point contacts or quantum dots. Carbon nanotubes too have been investigated.

Operating principle
In SGM one measures the sample's electrical conductance as a function of tip position and tip potential. This is in contrast to other microscopy techniques where the tip is used as a sensor, e.g., for forces.

Development
SGMs were developed in the late 1990s from atomic force microscopes. Most importantly, these had to be adapted for use at low temperatures, often 4 kelvins or less, as the samples under study do not work at higher temperatures. Today an estimated number of eleven research groups worldwide use the technique.

References 

Scanning probe microscopy
Proofing. Proofing may refer to:

 Proofing (armour), the testing of armour for its defensive ability
 Proofing (baking technique), a rest period during the fermentation of bread dough
 Proofing (prepress), a concept in print production
 Proof testing, a form of stress test to demonstrate the fitness of a load-bearing structure

See also

 Proof (disambiguation)
 Bulletproofing, provision for resisting fired bullets
 Fireproofing, provision for resisting fire
 Waterproofing, provision for resisting water
LPT (disambiguation). LPT is the designation of a parallel port interface on some computer systems.

LPT may refer to:

Finance 
 Listed property trust, an Australian real estate investment trust
 Local property tax (Ireland)

Science and technology 
 Lagrangian particle tracking, in computational fluid dynamics
 Leptotes (plant), an orchid genus
 Line printer, a type of computer printer
 Longest-processing-time-first scheduling, a multi-processor job scheduling method
 Low Power Transceiver experiment, on the Space Shuttle

Other uses 
 East Coast Expressway (Lebuhraya Pantai Timur), Malaysia
 Little Princess Trust, a UK charity
 Life Pro Tip, an informal abbreviation on some Web forums such as Reddit

See also
 LPT1-LPT4, DOS device driver names for parallel printers
Lemon (parser generator). Lemon is a parser generator, maintained as part of the SQLite project, that generates a look-ahead LR parser (LALR parser) in the programming language C from an input context-free grammar. The generator is quite simple, implemented in one C source file with another file used as a template for output. Lexical analysis is performed externally.

Lemon is similar to the programs Bison and Yacc, but is incompatible with both. The grammar input format is different, to help prevent common coding errors. Other distinctive features include a reentrant, thread-safe output parser, and the concept of non-terminal destructors that try to make it easier to avoid memory leaks.

SQLite uses Lemon with a hand-coded tokenizer to parse SQL strings.

Lemon, together with re2c and a re2c wrapper named Perplex, are used in BRL-CAD as platform-agnostic and easily compilable alternatives to Flex and Bison. This combination is also used with STEPcode.

OpenFOAM expression evaluation uses a combination of ragel and a version of lemon that has been minimally modified to ease C++ integration without affecting C integration. The parser grammars are augmented with m4 macros.

Notes

References

External links
 
 Calculator with Lemon and Lex in C++ Example 
 Understanding Lemon generated Parser
 Lemon, bundled with Re2c and Perplex
 Lemon Grove: Lemon along with sibling projects, forks and assets

Parser generators
Public-domain software with source code
Interconnector (North Sea). Interconnector operates the physical, bi-directional gas pipeline between the UK and Belgium, providing 20 bcm/yr of UK export capacity and 25.5 bcm/year of UK import capacity. The operation is located over three sites - commercially in London, and physically from gas terminals at Bacton in the UK, and Zeebrugge in Belgium. Construction of the pipeline was completed in 1998.

The pipeline provides bi-directional transport capability to facilitate energy trading in both the UK and continental European gas markets. The Interconnector pipeline is an important part of the energy supply chain providing economic benefits and promoting security of supply. Interconnector have demonstrated reliability and historically met 99.8% of nominations over a 20 year period.

Economic impact
The pipeline provides not only the physical capability to move gas from one end of the pipe to the other, it has been a key factor in the liberation of energy markets across Europe - enabling energy trading and creating economic activity in the process. Interconnector provides shippers with cost-effective gas transportation products that support gas supply and trading opportunities. Interconnector are continuously working alongside regulators and governments to ensure a fair and competitive environment, to benefit the commercial opportunities for customers.

Shareholders
The company is part of the Fluxys Group and SNAM, who own an equity interest of 76.32% and 23.68% respectively.

See also

BBL Pipeline
Zeebrugge Hub
Nemo link, an electricity interconnector between Belgium and the United Kingdom

References

External links

Belgium–United Kingdom relations
Buildings and structures in Norfolk
Energy infrastructure completed in 1998
Eni
Natural gas pipelines in Belgium
Natural gas pipelines in the United Kingdom
North Sea energy
Pipelines under the North Sea
1998 establishments in Belgium
1998 establishments in England
Ammonium uranyl carbonate. Ammonium uranyl carbonate (UO2CO3·2(NH4)2CO3) is known in the uranium processing industry as AUC and is also called uranyl ammonium carbonate. This compound is important as a component in the conversion process of uranium hexafluoride (UF6) to uranium dioxide (UO2). The ammonium uranyl carbonate is combined with steam and hydrogen at 500–600 °C to yield UO2. In another process aqueous uranyl nitrate, known as uranyl nitrate liquor (UNL) is treated with ammonium bicarbonate to form ammonium uranyl carbonate as a solid precipitate. This is separated from the solution, dried with methanol and then calcinated with hydrogen directly to UO2 to obtain a sinterable grade powder. The ex-AUC uranium dioxide powder is free-flowing, relatively coarse (10 μ) and porous with specific surface area in the range of 5 m2/g and suitable for direct pelletisation, avoiding the granulation step. Conversion to UO2 is often performed as the first stage of nuclear fuel fabrication.

The AUC process is followed in South Korea and Argentina. In the AUC route, calcination, reduction and stabilization are simultaneously carried out in a vertical fluidized bed reactor. In most countries, sinterable grade UO2 powder for nuclear fuel is obtained by the ammonium diuranate (ADU) process, which requires several more steps.

Ammonium uranyl carbonate is also one of the many forms called yellowcake; in this case it is the product obtained by the heap leach process.

References

Further reading
 
 
 

Ammonium compounds
Uranyl compounds
Carbonates
Nuclear materials
Supersonic business jet. A supersonic business jet (SSBJ) is a business jet travelling above the speed of sound: a supersonic aircraft. Some manufacturers are designing or have been designing SSBJs, but none are currently available. Usually intended to transport about ten passengers, proposed SSBJs would be about the same size as subsonic business jets.

Only two commercial supersonic transports entered service: the Aérospatiale/British Aerospace Concorde and the Tupolev Tu-144. Both were designed with government subsidies and did not recoup development costs. They had high operating costs and high noise.

Some manufacturers believe these concerns can be addressed at a smaller scale, offering high speed transport for small groups of high-value passengers, executives or heads of state.
Current proposals include SAI Quiet Supersonic Transport and Spike S-512.
Former proposals include the Aerion SBJ, Aerion AS2, HyperMach SonicStar, Sukhoi-Gulfstream S-21 and Tupolev Tu-444.
Several companies, including Gulfstream Aerospace, work on sonic booms-mitigation technologies like the Quiet Spike.

Timeline

In 1997, Dassault Aviation was considering a Mach 1.8 supersonic business jet powered by three non-afterburning engines derived from subsonic aircraft, with a cabin similar to the Falcon 50, capable of flying between Paris and New York.
With a  MTOW and over  of fuel, it would cover a range of 7,200 km (4,500 nmi).
In September 2004, the European Commission selected the HISAC High Speed Aircraft program, launched with Dassault in 2005 and evaluating the feasibility of a small supersonic aircraft.
By 2019, Dassault was reserved about the prospects for a supersonic business jet.

In January 2018, Vladimir Putin proposed a civil SSBJ variant of the Tu-160 bomber, for a potential market of 20-30 units in Russia alone at $100–120 million each.
UAC previously studied a SSBJ, displaying a scale model at MAKS Air Show 2017, to be designed and built in seven years with an existing engine like the NK-32 and a titanium airframe, a limited production would be worth an expected $150 million price.

In August 2020, Virgin Galactic announced the design of a high speed delta wing aircraft for 9 to 19 people, targeting Mach 3 above , in partnership with Rolls-Royce plc for its propulsion.

Gallery

See also

References

External links
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
Business aircraft
Business jet
James Harder. James Albert Harder, Ph.D., (December 2, 1926 – December 30, 2006) was a professor of civil and hydraulic engineering at the University of California, Berkeley. He was a professor emeritus there.  Harder also had interest in ufology.

Engineering
Harder taught in civil engineering at several levels, including practical aspects like lab experiments relating to the field and model testing.  He produced few papers but was known for their quality.

Harder is notable for his contributions that advanced the field of flow simulations, including before the use of computers became ubiquitous.  A paper he co-authored, Sea Water Intrusion in California, received an American Water Works Association award in 1957. His work was applied at Suisun Bay and the Mekong Delta.  He also studied fish protection facilities.

He eventually studied fluid mechanics in the context of medicine.  He worked on the development of electric artificial hearts and gastrointestinal endoscopes as well as equipment to prevent the need for external bags associated with colostomy.

Ufology

Harder believed Unidentified flying objects to be extraterrestrial beings and testified to the House of Representatives Committee on Science and Astronautics.  He was part of the Aerial Phenomena Research Organization (APRO).

Education
 B.S., 1948,  California Institute of Technology
 M.S., Civil Engineering, 1952, UC Berkeley
 Ph.D., Fluid Mechanics, 1957, UC Berkeley

Career
 U.S. Navy, 1944-45 (electronics technician)
 Design Engineer, soil conservation service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1948–50
 UC Berkeley, Resident engineer, 1952–57
 UC Berkeley, assistant professor, hydraulic engineering, 1957–62
 UC Berkeley, associate professor of civil engineering, 1962–70
 UC Berkeley, professor of civil engineering, 1970–91
 UC Berkeley, professor emeritus (1991)

Organizations

Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)
Fellow of the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
Founding member, Society for Scientific Exploration website

References

External links
1968 House of Representatives Committee on Science and Astronautics, UFO panel, testimony and biography
Interview with Harder on alien abductions
1998 UC Berkeley newspaper article , Harder’s controversial views of a "Galactic Federation" of aliens and alien channeling with humans
Harder’s comments on a famous flying disc photo
University of California Biography
James A. Harder Biography in French 

1926 births
2006 deaths
UC Berkeley College of Engineering faculty
People from Fullerton, California
Ufologists
California Institute of Technology alumni
University of California, Berkeley alumni
Process Specification Language. The Process Specification Language (PSL) is a set of logic terms used to describe processes. The logic terms are specified in an ontology that provides a formal description of the components and their relationships that make up a process. The ontology was developed at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), and has been approved as an international standard in the document ISO 18629.

The Process Specification Language can be used for the representation of manufacturing, engineering and business processes, including production scheduling, process planning, workflow management, business process reengineering, simulation, process realization, process modelling, and project management. In the manufacturing domain, PSL's objective is to serve as a common representation for integrating several process-related applications throughout the manufacturing process life cycle.

Ontology
The foundation of the ontology of PSL is a set of primitive concepts (object, activity, activity_occurrence, timepoint), constants (inf+, inf-), functions (beginof, endof), and relations (occurrence_of, participates_in, between, before, exists_at, is_occurring_at). This core ontology is then used to describe more complex concepts. The ontology uses the Common Logic Interchange Format (CLIF) to represent the concepts, constants, functions, and relations.

This ontology provides a vocabulary of classes and relations for concepts at the ground level of event-instances, object-instances, and timepoints. PSL's top level is built around the following:
 Activity, a class or type of action, such as install-part, which is the class of actions in which parts are installed
 Activity-occurrence, an event or action that takes place at a specific place and time, such as a specific instance of install-part occurring at a specific timestamp
 Timepoint, a point in time
 Object, anything that is not a timepoint or an activity.

See also
 ISO TC 184/SC 4, standards for industrial data
 Process ontology, ontologies for processes

References

Ontology (information science)
ISO 18629
Operating empty weight. Empty weight (EW) is the sum of the ‘as built’ manufacturer's empty weight (MEW), plus any standard items (SI) plus any operator items (OI), EW = MEW + SI + OI. The EW is calculated for each aircraft series and each unique configuration of an aircraft and is confirmed by periodically weighing it.
The "Operating empty weight" (OEW) is the sum of the empty weight and the crew plus their baggage. 

Standard items include all structural modification or configuration orders that may have altered the MEW, including all fluids necessary for operation such as engine oil, engine coolant, water, hydraulic fluid and unusable fuel.
Operator items include fixed, optional equipment added by the operator for service reasons.

The weight added to the aircraft above its OEW for a given flight is variable and includes fuel for the flight and the cargo. Cargo depends upon the type of aircraft; i.e., passengers plus baggage for a transport or commuter airplane, materiel for a cargo airplane, stores for fighters/bombers and service loads such as meals and beverages. Fuel and cargo weights may alter the centre of gravity and flight performance, and require careful calculation before each flight.

Aircraft purchase price by type is a close linear function of EW.

See also
 Maximum takeoff weight
 Aircraft gross weight
Zero-fuel weight

References

Aircraft weight measurements
Equiaxed crystal. Equiaxed crystals are crystals that have axes of approximately the same length.  

Equiaxed grains can in some cases be an indication for recrystallization.

Equiaxed crystals can be achieved by heat treatment, namely annealing and normalizing.

References
  According to Mabuchi, Yamada et al. in "The grain size dependence of strength in the extruded AZ91 M alloy",  in "Magnesium Alloys and their Applications", edited by K.U. Kainer (2000), 

Crystals
Slumping. Slumping is a technique in which items are made in a kiln by means of shaping glass over molds at high temperatures.
The slumping of a pyrometric cone is often used to measure temperature in a kiln.

Technique 
Slumping glass is a highly technical operation that is subject to many variations, both controlled and uncontrolled. When an item is being slumped in a kiln, the mold over which it is being formed (which can be made of either ceramic, sand or metal) must be coated with a release agent that will stop the molten glass from sticking to the mold. Such release agents, a typical one being boron nitride, give off toxic fumes when they are first heated and must be used in a ventilated area.

The glass is cut to the shape of the mold (but slightly larger to allow for shrinkage) and placed on top of it, before the kiln is heated.

The stages of the firing can be varied but typically start to climb at quite a rapid rate until the heat places the glass in an "orange state" i.e., flexible. At that point, gravity will allow the glass to slump into the mold and the temperature is held at a constant for a period that is known as the "soak". Following this stage, the kiln is allowed to cool slowly so that the slumped glass can anneal and be removed from the kiln. If two differing colours of glass are used in a single piece of work, the same CoE (coefficient of thermal expansion) glass must be used, or the finished piece will suffer from fractures as the glass will shrink at differing rates and allow tension to build up to the point of destruction. To compensate for this, many glass manufacturers subscribe to make glass to the same CoE. Examples include Spectrum glass system 96 or uroboros 96 series, and the use of this glass will allow the cooling to remain uniform and ensure that no tension builds up as the work cools.

History 
During the Roman period open vessels, such as bowls and plates, could be produced by forming a glass sheet over a core or former. This technique resulted in vessels with rough surfaces, which could then be ground or polished to a smooth finish. An additional technique, used in the production of Roman pillar-moulded bowls, utilised a slotted tool to impress ribs on the glass sheet prior to slumping. This created a bowl with a ribbed exterior, and these were then polished around the rim and sometimes given horizontal cut lines inside for further decoration.

See also
 Glass art
 Warm glass

References 

Warm glass
Glass art
Glass production