omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
IÉ 2800 Class. The 2800 Class is a type of diesel multiple unit operated on the Irish railway network by Iarnród Éireann, used mainly for short-haul InterCity and Commuter services.

Description

The 2800 Class were built in Japan by Tokyu Car Corporation. Ten were built and entered into service in 2000. Like the 2600, 2700 and 2750 Classes, they were delivered in "Arrow" livery, however the Arrow logo was removed shortly after they entered service and replaced with the National Development Plan logo. The units were rebranded to Commuter livery from 2003. They were  the last of the IÉ railcar fleet to retain the IÉ orange livery, the last unit being repainted into Commuter livery in late 2005. Although rare, the units can operate attached to 2600 class units. The 2800 Class were the first Irish trains to be fitted with PA systems which included both on-board announcements and message boards at either end of the coach.  The 2800 Class underwent  rebranding using a new livery with the silver green Irish Rail livery for use on InterCity routes. Following refurbishment, the cab-end gangways were removed.

Deployment
The 2800 Class was bought for use on the Western Commuter (then Western Suburban) service, where they replaced the Cravens stock then used on the line in conjunction with the 2600 Class. This meant an end to the use of locomotive-hauled stock on the line. Although intended for this service, they were largely redeployed following the introduction of the 29000 Class which now mostly operates the line, along with the 22000 Class, which was introduced on the Western Commuter service in 2012. They now operate on a variety of lines. Because of their design, which allows movement between sets of multiple units working together, they were used on Rosslare line InterCity services where it was possible to run a minimal catering service on the line using these units. They were redeployed back onto Commuter services when the 22000 Class entered service on the Rosslare line. Since the 2800 Class were replaced with the 22000 Class on all Dublin Commuter services, the entire fleet was moved to Limerick. The 2800 Class now operate the following routes:
 Limerick-Ennis-Galway
 Limerick-Nenagh
 Limerick-Ballybrophy
 Limerick-Limerick Junction 
 Manulla Junction-Ballina
They also operate on the Cork Commuter on occasions where they substitute for a 2600 class, but this is not a regular event.
 Cork-Cobh
 Cork-Midleton
 Cork-Mallow

Fleet details

References

External links

 Irish Rail Fleet Information webpage 
 Japan Transport Engineering Company webpage

Iarnród Éireann multiple units
Tokyu Car multiple units
Train-related introductions in 2000
James Warren (engineer). James Warren (18061908) was a British engineer who, around 1848 to 1907 (along with Willoughby Monzoni), patented the Warren-style truss bridge and girder design. This bridge design is mainly constructed by equilateral triangles which can carry both tension and compression. The first suspension bridge to utilise a Warren truss in its design was the Manhattan Bridge in New York City.

The Warren truss design was used in early aviation when biplanes were dominant, the alternating diagonal truss being used for the interplane struts in aircraft such as the Handley Page H.P.42 airliner and the Fiat CR.42 fighter. The Warren truss is one of the most widely used and known bridge styles worldwide.

References

1806 births
1908 deaths
British bridge engineers
British men centenarians
Date of birth missing
Date of death missing
Exhumed river channel. An exhumed river channel is a ridge of sandstone that remains when the softer flood plain mudstone is eroded away. The process begins with the deposition of sand within a river channel (typically a meandering river) and mud on the adjacent floodplain. Eventually the channel is abandoned and over time becomes buried by flood deposits from other channels. Because the sand is porous (grain-to-grain contact leaves spaces between), groundwater flows more easily through the sand than through the mud of the floodplain deposits. 
 
Minerals (typically calcium carbonate) can cement the grains together converting the loose sand into sandstone. Meanwhile, pressure from overlying sediments compresses the floodplain mud converting it to mudstone. Millions of years later, erosion can remove the softer, less cemented mudstone and leave the more resistant sandstone as a sinuous ridge. Thus, an exhumed river channel is a form of inverted relief: what was previously low is now high, and vice versa. Exhumed channels are important indicators for ancient stream flow direction.

Some of the best examples of exhumed river channels occur in the Ruby Ranch Member of the Cretaceous Cedar Mountain Formation southwest of Green River, Utah. Within the Cedar Mountain Formation in this part of Utah, fluvial sandstones filling paleochannels within it are cemented by calcium carbonate. Because of this cementation, the sandstone filling these paleochannels are considerably more resistant to erosion than the shale and mudstone that enclose them. As a result, differential erosion preferentially removes the shale and mudstone and exposes these paleochannels as ridges.

References

See also
Inverted relief

Geomorphology
Erosion landforms
Sedimentology
Charles Chubb (businessman). Charles Chubb (1779 – 1846) was an English lock and safe manufacturer.

Life
Born in Fordingbridge, Hampshire, he trained as a blacksmith who started a hardware business at Winchester then moved to Portsea, Portsmouth. Here he improved on the "detector" lock, originally patented in 1818 by his brother, Jeremiah Chubb.

He soon moved to London and then to Wolverhampton, where he employed 200 workers. In 1835, he patented a process intended to render safes burglar-proof and fireproof, and subsequently established a large safe-factory in London. He died on 16 May 1846, and was succeeded in the business by his son, John Chubb (1816–1872), who patented various improvements in the products of the firm and greatly increased its output. The factories were combined under one roof in a model plant and the business grew to enormous proportions, now Chubb Locks.

Charles Chubb was buried on the 22 May 1846 in the western side of Highgate Cemetery.  His plot (no.1847) is in the dissenters section, immediately behind the family grave of the missionary Elijah Hoole.

References

Attribution

19th-century English businesspeople
Locksmiths
19th-century metalsmiths
19th-century British artisans
English metalsmiths
1779 births
1846 deaths
Burials at Highgate Cemetery
Charles
People from Fordingbridge
W. R. Pidgeon. W. R. Pidgeon developed the pidgeon machine, an electrostatic machine with a unique setup.

Biography
Pidgeon presented his machine to the Physical Society after several years of investigation into influence machines (in the 1890s). The device was later reported in the Philosophical Magazine (December 1898, pg. 564) and the Electrical Review (Vol. XLV, pg. 748). Pidgeon machines possess fixed inductors arranged in a manner that increases the electrical induction effect (and it electrical output is at least double that of typical machines of this type [except when it is overtaxed]). The essential features of the Pidgeon machine are, one, the combination of the rotating support and the fixed support for inducing charge, and, two, the improved insulation of all parts of the machine (but more especially of the generator's carriers). Pidgeon machines are a combination of a Wimshurst machine and Voss machine, with special features adapted to reduce the amount of charge leakage. Pidgeon machines excite themselves more readily than the best of these types of machines. In addition, Pidgeon investigated higher current "triplex" section machines (or "double machines with a single central disk") with enclosed sectors (and would receive British Patent 22517 (1899) for this type of machine).

References
 W. R. Pidgeon," An Influence-Machine". 1897 Proc. Phys. Soc. London 16 253-257 doi 10.1088/1478-7814/16/1/330
 W. R. Pidgeon, "An influence machine", Philosophical Magazine, XXXVI, pp. 267–271, July–December 1893.
 W. R. Pidgeon, "An influence machine", Philosophical Magazine, XLVI, pp. 564–567, July–December 1898.

External articles
 The Electrical Engineer. (1884). London: Biggs & Co. Page 19
 Machine design, lineone.net/~aarekhu.

British electrical engineers
19th-century British engineers
19th-century British inventors
Title 33 of the Code of Federal Regulations. Title 33 is the portion of the Code of Federal Regulations that governs Navigation and Navigable Waters within the United States.  It is available in digital or printed form.

Title 33 and Title 46 of the Code of Federal Regulations are usually consulted by Classification societies, engineering firms, deck officers on oceangoing vessels, and marine engineers.

It is divided into three chapters:
 Chapter I — United States Coast Guard,
 Chapter II — Army Corps of Engineers,
 Chapter IV[sic.] — Great Lakes St. Lawrence Seaway Development Corporation.

Chapter I

Chapter II

Chapter IV

External links
 Title 33 of the Code of Federal Regulations

United States admiralty law
 33
Condosity. Condosity is a comparative measurement of electrical conductivity of a solution.

The condosity of any given solution is defined as the molar concentration of a sodium chloride (NaCl) solution that has the same specific electrical conductance as the solution under test.

By way of example, for a 2 Molar potassium chloride (KCl) solution, the condosity would be expected to be somewhat greater than 2.0. This is because potassium is a better conductor than sodium.

Applications 
The measurement is sometimes used in biological systems to provide an assessment of the properties of bodily or cellular liquids, or the properties of solutes in the physical environment. When measuring the properties of bodily fluids such as urine, condosity is expressed in units of millimoles per litre (mM/L).

References

Solutions
Dirk Brouwer Award (American Astronautical Society). The Dirk Brouwer Award was established by the American Astronautical Society to honor significant technical contributions to space flight mechanics and astrodynamics and to recognize Dirk Brouwer's outstanding role in celestial mechanics and his widespread influence on workers in space flight and astrodynamics.

Recipients
Source: American Astronautical Society

See also 

 List of space technology awards
 Prizes named after people

References

External links
 American Astronautical Society - Dirk Brouwer Award

Awards established in 1972
Awards of the American Astronautical Society
Idhaya Engineering College for Women. The Idhaya Engineering College for Women is an all women's Catholic engineering college founded in 2001 by the Franciscan Sisters of the Immaculate Heart of Mary Congregation, Pondicherry.  Offering Bachelor of Engineering and Bachelor of Technology degrees, the campus is located in Chinnasalem, Kallakurichi district, Tamil Nadu. It is approved by the All India Council for Technical Education and affiliated to Anna University, Chennai.

References

External links

Franciscan universities and colleges
Catholic universities and colleges in India
Women's engineering colleges in India
Women's universities and colleges in Tamil Nadu
Engineering colleges in Tamil Nadu
Education in Viluppuram district
Educational institutions established in 2001
2001 establishments in Tamil Nadu
Butanone (data page). This page provides supplementary chemical data on butanone.

Material Safety Data Sheet  

The handling of this chemical may incur notable safety precautions. It is highly recommend that you seek the Material Safety Datasheet (MSDS) for this chemical from a reliable source and follow its directions.
SIRI
Fisher Scientific
Science Stuff

Structure and properties

Thermodynamic properties

Vapor pressure of liquid

Table data obtained from CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 44th ed.

Spectral data

References 

Chemical data pages
Chemical data pages cleanup
Fokker S.III. The Fokker S.III was a biplane trainer aircraft of the 1920s. It was of conventional configuration, seating the pilot and instructor in tandem, open cockpits. The single-baywings were staggered and of unequal span.

In 1927, Fokker's US subsidiary, Atlantic Aircraft imported a single example, in an attempt to interest the US Army in the type, but this did not result in a sale. The aircraft was eventually purchased by the Wright Aeronautical Corporation and used as an engine testbed until broken up in 1929.

Variants
 S.III : Two-seat primary trainer biplane.
 S-3 : One aircraft imported into the United States by Atlantic Aircraft.

Operators

Royal Danish Air Force - Two aircraft

Royal Netherlands Navy

Specifications (S.III)

References

 
 aerofiles.com

1920s Dutch military trainer aircraft
S.III
Biplanes
Atlantic Aircraft. Atlantic Aircraft Corporation, also known as Fokker-America and Atlantic-Fokker, was a US subsidiary of the Dutch Fokker company, responsible for sales and information about Fokker imports, and eventually constructing various Fokker designs.

History
In 1920 Anthony Fokker had established the Netherlands Aircraft Manufacturing Company of Amsterdam as his American sales office. The company's representatives were Robert B. C. Noorduyn and Frits Cremer, a friend and test pilot for Anthony Fokker since before World War I. They successfully sold aircraft imported from Europe in the United States. But Fokker's typical construction of wooden wings and a steel-tube fuselage, both covered with fabric, also attracted the attention of the US Army. This resulted in an order to equip their De Havilland DH.4s with steel fuselages. The only restriction was that these had to be manufactured in the United States, therefore, Fokker purchased the Wittemann-Lewis factory in 1923 and founded the Atlantic Aircraft Corporation in May 1924. The company was based in Hasbrouck Heights, New Jersey, and Teterboro, New Jersey. Lorillard Spencer became the president and Robert B. C. Noorduyn the general manager.

The Netherlands Aircraft Manufacturing Company was succeeded by the Fokker Aircraft Corporation, which held the license rights of the Fokker designs and remained responsible for selling the aircraft from the Dutch Fokker factory. In September 1925, the Fokker Aircraft Corporation took over the stocks and orders of the Atlantic Aircraft Corporation, which since then had become a full subsidiary of it. In 1925 the company also began to manufacture one of Noorduyn's own designs, the Fokker Universal.

In 1927 the Fokker Aircraft Corporation of America was founded, which took over the Fokker Aircraft Corporation. A factory at Passaic, New Jersey, was added in 1927, and another at Glen Dale, West Virginia, in August 1928. Although the company had changed its name, many of its products continued to be referred to as "Atlantic" or "Atlantic Fokker" for some years.

Fokker Aircraft Company of America became a subsidiary of General Motors which acquired a 40 percent holding in May 1929, but ended operations the following year as a combination of the effect of the Great Depression and bad publicity surrounding the 1931 crash of a Transcontinental & Western Air Fokker F-10 that killed celebrated football coach Knute Rockne. Fokker ended his association with the American company in 1931. General Motors renamed their aviation subsidiary General Aviation Manufacturing Corporation, which in turn became part of North American Aviation in 1934.

Aircraft

References

External links
 aerofiles.com

Defunct aircraft manufacturers of the United States
Fokker
Defunct companies based in New Jersey
Manufacturing companies based in New Jersey
Manufacturing companies established in 1924
Manufacturing companies disestablished in 1931
Former General Motors subsidiaries
1924 establishments in New Jersey
1931 disestablishments in New Jersey
American subsidiaries of foreign companies
AN/ALE-55 fiber-optic towed decoy. The AN/ALE-55 Fiber-Optic Towed Decoy, or ALE-55, is an RF (Radio Frequency) countermeasure under development by BAE Systems Electronic Solutions for the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet.

Overview 

The ALE-55 is an RF countermeasure designed to protect an aircraft from radar-guided missiles. It consists of an aircraft-towed decoy and onboard electronics. It works together with the aircraft's electronic warfare system to provide radar jamming. In addition, it can also be used in a backup mode as a signal repeater, which allows it to lure incoming missiles away from their actual target. It is currently in use with the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet, but can be adapted to a wide variety of platforms with minimal modification.

Defensive techniques 

The ALE-55 provides three layers of defensive jamming against a radar-based threat: preventing radars from tracking, breaking radar locks, and acting as a target for incoming missiles.

Suppression 

The system detects a threat radar in its acquisition mode and tries to prevent it from locking by using jamming techniques.  The onboard electronic warfare package analyzes the threat, while the towed decoy emits the jamming signals to confuse the tracking radar.

Deflection 

In the case that a radar obtains a lock on the aircraft or decoy system, the electronics on board the aircraft analyze the emissions and then determine the optimum jamming technique to break the radar lock. The jamming is done by the decoy. The ALE-55 also possesses the useful ability to send out multiple jamming frequencies if more than one radar is locked on to the decoy or aircraft.

Seduction 

When a missile launch is detected, indicated by the difference in radar signal and type, the ALE-55 runs a last resort attempt to protect the aircraft towing it.  This last resort is becoming the target, rather than the aircraft, by trying to jam the missile or simulating the aircraft's radar signature.

Components 

The ALE-55 consists of two components. An onboard signal conditioning assembly and fiber optic towed decoys.

The onboard electric frequency converter analyzes radar signals detected by the plane's electronic warfare system and calculates an appropriate jamming and spoofing signal, which is then transmitted to the FOTD through a fiber optic cable.

The towed decoy has dual high power traveling-wave tubes (TWTs) to allow for enough power to protect large aircraft. It is launched with the Raytheon Integrated Multi-Platform Launch Controller (IMPLC), which it shares with the towed ALE-50. A braking system allows for fast deployment.

Operators 

 Australia
Royal Australian Air Force

 United States
United States Navy

 Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Royal Saudi Air Force

See also

AN/ALE-50 towed decoy system
List of military electronics of the United States

References

External links
BAE Systems.com - AN/ALE-55 Fiber-Optic Towed Decoy (Archived)

Electronic countermeasures
Military electronics of the United States
Military technology
Towed decoys
Weapons countermeasures
Electronic warfare equipment
Atlas H-10. The Atlas H-10 was the prototype for a four-seat cabin monoplane aircraft, registered N37463, designed by Max Harlow, which was flown in the United States shortly after World War II.

History
The Atlas H-10 had been constructed from the unfinished Harlow PJC-4 sporting monoplane which had been left uncompleted at the outbreak of the conflict. The water heater company Rheem Manufacturing Company briefly invested in the project as the PCC-10 (Pasadena City College Model 10) but did not pursue the business. Pasadena students completed the aircraft, and its first flight was on 4 October 1945 with a 220 hp Lycoming.

It was a low-wing cantilever monoplane of aluminum semi-monocoque configuration with retractable tailwheel undercarriage and powered by a variety of engines throughout its life. Originally powered by a Lycoming O-435, it was re-engined with two Continental O-300s driving contra-rotating propellers through a common gearbox and registered as the Mono-Twin. In turn, this arrangement was replaced with a Franklin 6AB and finally a Lycoming IO-720, each driving a single propeller. The cabin layout was also modified.

Operational history
Only the single H-10 was completed and flown. In the early 1970s it was based at Long Beach Airport in southern California.

As of 2006, the aircraft was reportedly still in existence in a dismantled state in the hands of a Californian collector.

Variants

Harlow PJC-4
Original design
Atlas PCC-10
Test aircraft
Atlas H-10
Redesignated production aircraft
Atlas Mono-Twin
Re-engined prototype with twin radial

Specifications (with Continental engines)

References

 
 aerofiles.com

Harlow aircraft
1940s United States civil utility aircraft
Single-engined tractor aircraft
Low-wing aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1945
Atlas Aircraft. Atlas Aircraft was a short-lived American aircraft manufacturer founded at Hemet, California by J.B. Alexander and Max B. Harlow shortly after World War II. The firm developed a light civil aircraft, the H-10, based on a pre-war design by Harlow but was unable to find buyers for it.

References

 

Hemet, California
Defunct aircraft manufacturers of the United States
Defunct companies based in Greater Los Angeles
Manufacturing in Riverside County, California
Nuclear attribution. Nuclear attribution is the process of tracing the origin of nuclear material that has been used in a nuclear explosion. The problem is not necessarily a straightforward one, for it may be possible to obtain nuclear precursors through the black market, and therefore relatively anonymously. Attribution to the source is desirable due to the trend of nuclear proliferation. Nuclear capability has expanded from only a couple of states, to where a terrorist group could make a bomb with only partial state backing. The United States has demonstrated its interest in nuclear attribution by passing the Nuclear Forensics and Attribution Act, which calls for the development of attribution capabilities.

Nuclear Forensics 
A primary method used in nuclear attribution is nuclear forensics. The first step in this process is field work. Radiation levels can be quickly determined in the field using dosimetry. Reports from local survivors help provide visual evidence. The early data from the field, in addition to seismic data, can be used to establish that the bomb was actually nuclear and estimate its yield. The gathered samples will be shipped to laboratories and analyzed using isotope analysis and other methods. The isotopic signature can then be compared with known isotopic data and the likely history of the nuclear material can be pieced together.

Intelligence 
Another aspect of nuclear attribution is the use of law enforcement and intelligence. This involves the monitoring of lost nuclear material, as well as known or suspected enrichment facilities. The latter is often done with satellite imagery. This data can be compared with the forensic evidence to increase the probability of accuracy.

Problems 
The goal of nuclear attribution is to pinpoint the source of nuclear  material with a credible level of accuracy. This faces a number of practical difficulties. First is that the lab work relies on comparing gathered samples to samples that have already been analyzed. Until there is significant international cooperation to develop a database, it will be difficult to specifically determine the source of the nuclear material. Analysis may consist more of places that are likely not to be the source, than specifically where it is from. This will reduce its usefulness to political leaders who have to make quick decisions. Collecting the samples themselves will be difficult in the event of a nuclear explosion. The local infrastructure will likely be overwhelmed and may not be able to respondly quickly enough to gather fresh data. The environment will likely also be highly radioactive, especially if a dirty bomb is used. Getting trained humans on site could be prohibitively difficult. Another problem is that the process of nuclear attribution takes time. Political pressure could dictate a response from leaders far before the months it may take to conduct a full analysis of the source material.

See also 
 Nuclear terrorism
 Counter-terrorism

References 

Nuclear warfare
Forensic techniques
Counterterrorism