omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
William Gregor. William Gregor (25 December 1761 – 11 June 1817) was a British clergyman and mineralogist who discovered the elemental metal Titanium.

Early years
He was born at the Trewarthenick Estate in Cornwall, the son of Francis Gregor and Mary Copley and the brother of Francis Gregor, MP for Cornwall. He was educated at Bristol Grammar School, where he became interested in chemistry, then after two years with a private tutor entered St John's College, Cambridge, graduating BA in 1784 and MA in 1787. He was ordained in the Church of England. He became vicar of St Mary's Church Diptford near Totnes, Devon. He married Charlotte Anne Gwatkin in 1790 and they had one daughter, Charlotte-Anne Gregor.

Discovery of titanium
After a brief interval at Bratton Clovelly, in 1793 William and his family moved permanently to the rectory of Creed in Cornwall. Here he continued his remarkably accurate chemical analysis of minerals, most of which came from Cornwall, such as the zeolites found in gabbro on The Lizard. He also analysed wavellite, tourmaline, and the uranium minerals torbernite and autunite, the arsenate scorodite, the lead mineral mimetite and the nickel mineral niccolite, and others. But he is best known for one of his earliest discoveries: in 1791, while analysing the minerals in a black sand he had discovered in the Manaccan valley, he isolated the calx of an unknown metal which he named manaccanite. Later in 1791, Martin Heinrich Klaproth discovered what is now known as the transition metal, titanium in the mineral rutile. Believing this to be a new discovery, Klaproth named it titanium after the Titans of Greek Mythology, but eventually it was clarified that Gregor made the discovery first. Gregor was credited with the discovery, but the element kept the name chosen by Klaproth. Gregor later found titanium in corundum from Tibet, and in a tourmaline from a local tin mine.

Death and legacy
Gregor was made an honorary member of the Geological Society of London on its inception in 1807, and was a founding member of the Royal Geological Society of Cornwall in 1814. His friends and correspondents included John Hawkins, Philip Rashleigh and John Ayrton Paris. Never letting his scientific work interfere with his pastoral duties, he was also a distinguished landscape painter, etcher and musician. He died of tuberculosis on 11 June 1817 and was buried at nearby Cornelly church.

References

External links

 

1761 births
1817 deaths
People from Tregony
Geologists from Cornwall
People educated at Bristol Grammar School
Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
19th-century deaths from tuberculosis
Discoverers of chemical elements
Mineralogists from Cornwall
18th-century English Anglican priests
18th-century English chemists
19th-century English chemists
Tuberculosis deaths in England
Hillclimbing (railway). Hillclimbing is a problem faced by railway systems when a load must be carried up an incline. While railways have a great ability to haul very heavy loads, this is only possible when the tracks are fairly level. As soon as the gradients increase, the tonnage that can be hauled is greatly diminished.

History 
Early tramways and railways were laid out with very gentle grades because locomotive and horse haulage were so low in tractive effort. The only exception would be with a line that was downhill all the way for loaded traffic. Brakes were very primitive at this early stage.

Where a railway has to cross a range of mountains, it is important to lower the summit as much as possible, as this reduces the steepness of the gradients on either side. This can be done with a summit tunnel or a deep summit cutting.

A summit tunnel can lower the summit even more, and steeper hills result in shorter tunnels. Also, tunnels cost the same no matter how much overburden there is, while cuttings tend to increase in cost with the square of the overburden.

Care had to be taken with summit tunnels in the early days of steam with designs that suffered from problems with smoke and slippery rail.

Ruling gradient 

The ruling gradient of a section of railway line between two major stations is the gradient of the steepest stretch. The ruling gradient governs the tonnage of the load that the locomotive can haul reliably.

Techniques to overcome steep hills 
Some of the techniques that can be used to overcome steep hills are:

Railway layout to reduce gradient
 Compensation for curvature: the gradient is slightly eased on sharpest curves so that the tractive effort to pull the train is uniform.
 Horseshoe curves
 Spirals
 Zig zags
A descending momentum gradient on the approach to a hill allows a train to increase speed before a climb.

Track type
 Rail surface treatment
 Fell mountain railway system
 Hanscotte centre-rail system
 Rack railway
 Elevators, cable railways, or funicular railways driven by stationary engines (cable haulage up and down inclines)

Motive power
 Using a booster engine, though this is usually limited to starting the heavy train
 Using two-in-one articulated locomotives such as the Fairlie, Garratt or Mallet locomotive
 Replacing the engine with a more powerful heavier engine for the duration of the steep grade
 Attaching additional banking engine(s)
 Using multiple units to divide the load on tractive wheels
 Geared steam locomotives such as a Shay locomotive
 Atmospheric railway

Modifying the load
 Dividing the load or splitting the train, which requires a siding at the summit

References

See also 

 Cable car
 Funicular railway
 Grade (slope)
 Lickey Incline
 Mountain railway
 Rack railway
 Ruling gradient
 Slope
 Steepest gradients on adhesion railways

Rail technologies
Cordtex. Cordtex is a type of detonating cord generally used in mining. "Cordtex" and "Primacord" are two of many trademarks which have slipped into use as a generic term for  detonating cord.

It uses an explosive core of pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN) inside its plastic coating. It is commonly the thickness of electrical extension cord and has a detonation velocity of approximately 6000–7000 metres per second.  It is used to "daisychain" a sequence of explosives together.

It can also be used in short lengths in simple boobytraps and early warning devices.

References

Detonators
Explosives
Radical initiator. In chemistry, radical initiators are substances that can produce radical species under mild conditions and promote radical reactions. These substances generally possess weak bonds—bonds that have small bond dissociation energies. Radical initiators are utilized in industrial processes such as polymer synthesis. Typical examples are molecules with a nitrogen-halogen bond, azo compounds, and organic and inorganic peroxides.

Main types of initiation reaction
Halogens undergo homolytic fission relatively easily. Chlorine, for example, gives two chlorine radicals (Cl•) by irradiation with ultraviolet light. This process is used for chlorination of alkanes.
Azo compounds (R-N=N-R') can be the precursor of two carbon-centered radicals (R• and R'•) and nitrogen gas upon heating and/or by irradiation. For example, AIBN and ABCN yield isobutyronitrile and cyclohexanecarbonitrile radicals, respectively.

Organic peroxides each have a peroxide bond (-O-O-), which is readily cleaved to give two oxygen-centered radicals. The oxyl radicals are unstable and believed to be transformed into relatively stable carbon-centered radicals. For example, di-tert-butyl peroxide (t-BuOOt-Bu) gives two t-butoxy radicals (t-BuO•) and the radicals become methyl radicals (CH3•) with the loss of acetone. Benzoyl peroxide ((PhC)OO)2) generates benzoyloxyl radicals (PhCOO•), each of which loses carbon dioxide to be converted into a phenyl radical (Ph•). Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide is also common, and acetone peroxide is on rare occasions used as a radical initiator, too.
Inorganic peroxides function analogously to organic peroxides. Many polymers are often produced from the alkenes upon initiation with peroxydisulfate salts. In solution, peroxydisulfate dissociates to give sulfate radicals:
[O3SO-OSO3]2−  2 [SO4]−
The sulfate radical adds to an alkene forming radical sulfate esters, e.g. .CHPhCH2OSO3−, that add further alkenes via formation of C-C bonds.  Many styrene and fluoroalkene polymers are produced in this way.

 In atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP), carbon-halides reversibly generate organic radicals in the presence of transition metal catalyst.

Safety
Some radical initiators such as azo compounds and peroxides can detonate at elevated  temperatures so they must be stored cold.

References
DWT. DWT may stand for:

 Discrete wavelet transform, a mathematical procedure in numerical analysis and functional analysis
 Driving While Texting, Is the act of composing, sending, or reading text messages, email, or making other similar use of the internet on a mobile device, while operating a motor vehicle, such as an automobile, truck or train. 
 Dry weight
 D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson, a scholar
 Deadweight tonnage, an expression of a ship's carrying capacity, including the weight of the crew, passengers, cargo, fuel, ballast, drinking water, and stores.
 Deep Web Technologies, a software company that specializes in mining the deep Web
 Detroit–Windsor Tunnel, a highway connecting Michigan with Ontario
 Drowned World Tour, a 2001 concert tour by American entertainer Madonna
 Davis Wright Tremaine, a national business and litigation law firm representing clients in the United States and in China.
 Dangerous World Tour, a 1992–93 concert tour by Michael Jackson
 Dorset Wildlife Trust, a wildlife trust covering the county of Dorset, United Kingdom
 Diamonds World Tour, a concert tour by Rihanna
 Dangerous Woman Tour, a 2017 concert tour by Ariana Grande

dwt may refer to:
 Pennyweight, a unit of mass used in measuring the weight of gold

.dwt is a file extension used by several programs, including:
 Adobe Dreamweaver Template
 Dynamic Web Template, a Microsoft FrontPage feature
 AutoCAD Template/Prototype
Flugan. Flugan (The Fly) was an early aeroplane designed and built by Carl Richard Nyberg outside his home in Lidingö, Sweden. Construction started in 1897 and he kept working on it until 1922. The craft only managed a few short jumps and Nyberg was often ridiculed, however several of his innovations are still in use. He was the first to test his design in a wind tunnel and the first to build a hangar. The reasons for failure include poor wing and propeller design and, allegedly, Nyberg's fear of heights.

The Flugan had a wingspan of 5 meters, and the surface area of the wings was 13 m2. It was powered by a steam engine heated by four blowtorches (UK: blowlamps) and it produced 10 hp (7 kW) at 2000 rpm. The power-to-weight ratio was actually better than the Wright engine. The total weight of the plane was 80 kg. The weight of the engine was 18 kg.

References

Bibliography
 

Single-engined tractor aircraft
Biplanes
Steam-powered aircraft
History of aviation
Aircraft manufactured in Sweden
Unflown aircraft
Euroflag. Euroflag was a collaboration of European aerospace companies formed for the development of the Future Large Aircraft project which was eventually to result in the Airbus A400M Atlas. Development eventually moved under the stewardship of Airbus Defence and Space.

History

Origins
The project began as the Future International Military Airlifter (FIMA) group. A memorandum of understanding (MoU) was set up on 16 December 1982 by France's Aérospatiale, British Aerospace, Lockheed of the United States, and West Germany's Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm to develop a replacement for the C-130 Hercules and C-160 Transall. Varying requirements and the complications of international politics caused slow progress. A new FIMA agreement was created with the four original participants and new members Aeritalia (predecessor of Italy's Alenia Aeronautica) and Spain's Construcciones Aeronáuticas SA (CASA) on 3 December 1987, which was the expiration date of the original FIMA agreement. By May 1989, Lockheed was deep into the planning of a second-generation C-130 that would become a competitor to a FIMA aircraft (the C-130J Super Hercules) despite having invested over US$60 million in FIMA-related studies. On 6 June 1989, Aérospatiale announced that the five European members had formed Euroflag to replace FIMA, and that Lockheed was no longer a participant to create the new military transport because the other members did not want to commit to a specific American partner yet.

Formation
In July 1991, with the addition of Alenia Aeronautica, CASA, OGMA, and TAI of Turkey, the Future International Military Airlifter group became Euroflag, European future large aircraft group. a joint-venture company based in Rome.

Succession
1995 saw the FLA military transport project in charge of requirement-definition and selection processes, with Airbus Military eventually taking over the project.

Participants
Aerospatiale (France)
Alenia Aeronautica (Italy)
British Aerospace (United Kingdom)
CASA (Spain)
Deutsche Airbus (Germany)
OGMA (Portugal)
SONACA (Belgium)
SABCA (Belgium)
TAI (Turkey)

References

Sources

 
 
 

Multinational aircraft manufacturers
Unode. Unode is a short form of underground node: a script or program that combines other programs for creating a decentralized anonymous encrypted communication network. Other programs include: Entropy, Mixmaster, GPG, NEWSPOST, plus Plugins for more.

Unode is a project to create a set of bash scripts to help Activists communicate without revealing their IP, or other personal data.

Some of these scripts are used to forward email lists to the newsgroup alt.activism.underground. By doing this, activists can read important action alerts and other information without being included on the servers email lists that run the lists. Email headers are removed from these posts, as well as email addresses themselves are altered to help avoid spam.

Unix bash scripts are used because it is easy for other to alter or correct errors in the scripts, and because it is an easy way to try out new ideas. It is used as a rough draft, before the eventual move to stable binary programs.

References

External links 
http://newspost.unixcab.org/
http://www.freelists.org/list/unode
http://unode.8m.com

Anonymity networks
Internet Protocol based network software
Van Arkel–Ketelaar triangle. Bond triangles or Van Arkel–Ketelaar triangles (named after Anton Eduard van Arkel and J. A. A. Ketelaar) are triangles used for showing different compounds in varying degrees of ionic, metallic and covalent bonding.

History 

In 1941 Van Arkel recognised three extreme materials and associated bonding types. Using 36 main group elements, such as metals, metalloids and non-metals, he placed ionic, metallic and covalent bonds on the corners of an equilateral triangle, as well as suggested intermediate species. The bond triangle shows that chemical bonds are not just particular bonds of a specific type. Rather, bond types are interconnected and different compounds have varying degrees of different bonding character (for example, covalent bonds with significant ionic character are called polar covalent bonds).

Six years later, in 1947, Ketelaar developed van Arkel's idea by adding more compounds and placing bonds on different sides of the triangle.

Many people developed the triangle idea. Some (e.g. Allen's quantitative triangle) used electron configuration energy as an atom parameter, others (Jensen's quantitative triangle, Norman's quantitative triangle) used electronegativity of compounds. Nowadays, electronegativity triangles are mostly used to rate the chemical bond type.

Usage 

Different compounds that obey the octet rule (sp-elements) and hydrogen can be placed on the triangle. Unfortunately, d-elements cannot be analysed using van Arkel-Ketelaar triangle, as their electronegativity is so high that it is taken as a constant. Using electronegativity - two compound average electronegativity on x-axis and electronegativity difference on y-axis, we can rate the dominant bond between the compounds. Example is here

On the right side (from ionic to covalent) should be compounds with varying difference in electronegativity. The compounds with equal electronegativity, such as Cl2 (chlorine) are placed in the covalent corner, while the ionic corner has compounds with large electronegativity difference, such as NaCl (table salt). The bottom side (from metallic to covalent) contains compounds with varying degree of directionality in the bond.

At one extreme is metallic bonds with delocalized bonding and the other are covalent bonds in which the orbitals overlap in a particular direction. The left side (from ionic to metallic) is meant for delocalized bonds with varying electronegativity difference.

See also 
 Covalent bonding
 Ionic bonding
 Metallic bonding
 Atomic orbitals
 Hund's rules
 Ternary plot

External links 
Van Arkel–Ketelaar Triangles of Bonding

Chemical bonding
LPX. LPX can mean:

 Landing Platform eXperimental, a classification of warship characterized by the South Korean LPX Dokdo
 Liepāja International Airport
 LPX (form factor), motherboard standard
 Lean Packet Exchange protocol, an Ethernet protocol used to communicate with the variant Network Direct Attached Storage (NDAS) of NetDisk.
 LPX, a musician solo project by Lizzy Plapinger
Atime. ATIME can refer to one of the following:

 Asociación de Trabajadores Inmigrantes Marroquíes en España, Association of Moroccan Immigrant Workers in Spain 
 atime, a file's last 'access time', part of the stat (system call) in Unix
 ATIME(f(n)) is the class of problems solvable by an alternating Turing machine in time f(n)
Ralph Freeman (civil engineer, born 1880). Sir Ralph Freeman (27 November 1880 – 11 March 1950) was an English structural engineer, responsible for the design of several of the world's most impressive bridges.

Born in London, England, he studied at The Haberdashers' Aske's Boys' School and the City and Guilds of London Institute, and in 1901 joined Douglas Fox & Partners, a firm of consulting engineers specialising in the design of steel bridges. He rose to become senior partner and in 1938 the firm changed its name to Freeman Fox & Partners.

Sir Ralph is best remembered for his design work on the Sydney Harbour Bridge and the Birchenough Bridge in the Chipinge area of Zimbabwe.

His son, also called Ralph Freeman, was also an engineer, senior partner at Freeman Fox & Partners, and President of the Institution of Civil Engineers. He had been responsible for the design of the Humber Suspension Bridge. His grandson, Ralph Anthony Freeman, was also an engineer who worked on numerous bridges including The RAMA IX Bridge in Bangkok.

References 

1880 births
1950 deaths
Engineers from London
British structural engineers
British bridge engineers
People educated at Haberdashers' Boys' School
Cascade converter. A cascade converter is a type of motor-generator which was patented in 1902 by J. L. la Cour and O. S. Bragstad.

It consists of an induction motor driving a dynamo through a shaft.  In addition, the rotor of the induction motor is electrically connected to the armature of the dynamo.

When the machine is running, half the power is transmitted mechanically through the shaft while the other half is transmitted electrically.  

The advantage of this arrangement is that the machine can be smaller than a conventional motor-generator of the same power.

The British manufacturing rights for the cascade converter were held by Bruce Peebles & Co. Ltd. of Edinburgh.

Sources
 The Electrical Year Book 1937, published by Emmott and Company Limited, Manchester, England, pp 105-106

See also 
 Rotary converter
 Rotary phase converter

Electric power systems components
Guy Maunsell. Guy Anson Maunsell (1 September 1884 – 20 June 1961) was the British civil engineer responsible for the design of the  Maunsell Forts used by the United Kingdom for the defence of the Thames and Mersey estuaries during World War II.

Early life
Maunsell was born in 1884 in Srinagar, Kashmir in British India, one of three children of a military family. His father, Edward Henry Maunsell (1837–1913) was of Anglo-Irish ancestry, and was a captain in the 5th Dragoon Guards and 15th Hussars. His mother, Rosalie Harriet Anson (1852–1922), was born in Guernsey; the couple had married in Bombay Cathedral in 1878. He was related distantly to General Sir Frederick Richard Maunsell (1828–1916) of the Royal Bengal Engineers. Young Guy was sent to school in England at Eastbourne College between 1897 and 1903, and studied civil engineering at the Central Institution of the City & Guilds of London Institute, South Kensington.

Although he graduated with first class honours in 1906, he did not find immediate employment and travelled the country making watercolour paintings. The next year, he became an assistant to Swiss engineer Adrien Palaz (1863–1930), professor of Industrial Electricity at the University of Lausanne, where he learned the latest techniques associated with reinforced concrete. In 1909 he secured a job with Easton Gibb & Son who were engaged in the construction of the Rosyth Dockyard. In July 1914, Maunsell moved to R. Thorburn and Sons as their chief agent and was responsible for building two TNT factories for the British Government.

World War I
In 1917, Maunsell was conscripted as a commissioned officer in the Royal Engineers and spent a year on the Western Front. Recalled to England, he worked as chief engineer at John Ver Mehr's yard in Shoreham, engaged with the construction of concrete tugs and barges known as the Shoreham Creteships. He was also involved with the concrete and steel towers for the Admiralty M-N Scheme, which were intended to close the Strait of Dover to U-boats. A single tower remains today as the lighthouse Nab Tower.

In 1955 he founded the business G. Maunsell & Partners in the United Kingdom which pioneered the use of pre-stressed concrete for major bridges. The Hammersmith Flyover, completed in 1961, made early use of this new construction method and many more such structures followed. The company expanded to Australia, Hong Kong and the Middle East and in time merged with Oscar Faber & Partners to form Faber Maunsell, and ultimately became part of the US-based AECOM Group.

He died at Tunbridge Wells, Kent, England on 20 June 1961.

References

External links
Pictures of the Sea Forts designed by Maunsell
 Article on the Sea Forts
Maunsell Army Sea Forts
Maunsell Sea Forts
Maunsell | AECOM

1884 births
1961 deaths
Irish civil engineers
Reinforced concrete
British people in colonial India
British expatriates in Switzerland
Guy
Door knocker. A door knocker is an item of door furniture that allows people outside a house or other dwelling or building to alert those inside to their presence.  A door knocker has a part fixed to the door, and a part (usually metal) which is attached to the door by a hinge, and may be lifted and used to strike a plate fitted to the door, or the door itself, making a noise. The struck plate, if present, would be supplied and fitted with the knocker. Door knockers are often ornate, but may be no more than a simple fitting with a metal bob, or ring.

Types
German professor Franz Sales Meyer distinguished three kinds of door knocker: the "ring", the "hammer", and an ornate category which could take the shape of an animal or another figure. High demand for antique door knockers in the early 20th century in the United States caused forged versions to emerge.

Gallery

See also
 Doorbell

References

External links

Automatic Glass Door
 Heurtoir - French architecture

Ironmongery
Door furniture
ARRC. ARRC may stand for:
 Advanced Radar Research Center, University of Oklahoma, Oklahoma, USA
 Advanced Institute for Research on Religion and Culture, Hyderabad, India
 Advanced Rocket Research Center, NCTU, Taiwan
 Allied Rapid Reaction Corps, based in Gloucestershire, England
 Associate Royal Red Cross, a UK military nursing decoration
 Asia Road Racing Championship, a motorcycle championship in Asia
 ARrC, South Korean boy group