omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
BFW M.20. The BFW M.20 (also known as the Messerschmitt M.20 after the designer's surname) was a German single-engine, high-wing monoplane ten-seat passenger transport aircraft, developed in the late 1920s and early 1930s. Deutsche Luft Hansa used it throughout the 1930s on a variety of routes.

Design and development
The M 20 was designed by Willy Messerschmitt at Bayerische Flugzeugwerke, primarily for use with Luft Hansa which had ordered two in advance of the first flight. It was a development of the BFW M.18d eight-seater, equipped with a single 375 kW (500 hp) upright inline water-cooled BMW VIa engine. It had a high, cantilever wing based around a robust D-section box formed from a single dural spar and dural skin, forward to the leading edge. The fuselage was all-metal, with a mostly dural frame, covered with metal sheeting providing rectangular cross-section accommodation, with four square windows each side, for eight passengers. The single-axle main undercarriage was strutted vertically to the wing.

The aircraft made its maiden flight on 26 February 1928, but was lost when pilot Hans Hackmack bailed out at low altitude and was killed, after the surface stripped from part of the wing. A second M.20 was flown on 3 August 1928, and became the first of two M.20a series to fly with Luft Hansa.

Encouraged by their performance, Luft Hansa ordered 12 more, enlarged, M.20b aircraft. These carried ten passengers in a fuselage with five windows each side. It had dihedral on the wing and a more rounded vertical tail.

Operational history

The Luft Hansa M.20s entered service in 1929 on routes that went from Switzerland via Germany to the Netherlands and from Stuttgart via Marseille to Barcelona. From the mid-1930s, they were operating German internal and holiday routes. Two were still flying such routes in 1942.

One former Luft Hansa airframe went to Brazil in 1937, flying with Varig as PP-VAK, until it crashed on 7 March 1948, the only M.20 to survive the war

The Messerschmitt-Milch relationship
Hans Hackmack, who died in the first flight of the M 20, was a close friend of Erhard Milch, the head of Luft Hansa and the German civil aviation authorities. Milch was upset by the lack of response from Messerschmitt and this led to a lifelong hatred towards him. Milch eventually cancelled all contracts with Messerschmitt and forced BFW into bankruptcy in 1931. However, the German rearmament programs and Messerschmitt's friendship with Hugo Junkers prevented a stagnation of the careers of himself and BFW, which was started again in 1933. Milch still prevented Messerschmitt's takeover of BFW until 1938, hence the designation "Bf" of early Messerschmitt designs.

Variants
M.20a
 The first two eight-seater aircraft for Luft Hansa.
M.20b
 Twelve ten-seaters built for Luft Hansa.
M.20b-2
 Upgraded with a 480 kW (640 hp) BMW VIu engine.

Operators

Luft Hansa

Varig

Specifications (M.20b)

See also

References

1920s German airliners
M 20
David Thurston. David Thurston (20 September 1918 – 10 December 2013) was an American aircraft designer noted for his work on small amphibious aircraft, including the Colonial Skimmer, Lake Buccaneer, Thurston Teal and AeroMarine Seafire. He also wrote three books about light airplane design: Design for Flying, Design for Safety, and Homebuilt Aircraft.

Biography
Thurston was born in Mineola, New York. In June 1940 he received a degree in Aeronautical Engineering from New York University- NYU.  His first employment was with Brewster Aeronautical Corporation where he was a design engineer from May 1940.

In May 1942 he joined Grumman Aircraft.  After World War II, Thurston was involved in the development of three personal type aircraft directly under the Grumman president, Leroy Grumman. The aircraft included the G-65 Tadpole amphibian, as well as the G-63 and G-72 Kitten sport airplanes. None of these aircraft entered production, when the post-war personal aircraft market did not boom as predicted.

Thurston became design group leader for the G-79 naval jet fighter, designated F9F Panther by US Navy.  From December 1947 to June 1953 Thurston was in charge of Grumman Rigel guided missile development program  followed by the F11F Tiger naval jet fighter.  At his resignation from Grumman in January 1955, Thurston was in charge of the design and development of propeller driven aircraft at Grumman, being a senior member of a staff responsible for the operation of a 1500-man engineering department.

Thurston died at South Portland, Maine on 10 December 2013.

References

External links
 Thurston. - Steinar's Hangar.

American aircraft designers
1918 births
2013 deaths
Rosenmund–von Braun reaction. The Rosenmund–von Braun synthesis is an organic reaction in which an aryl halide reacts with cuprous cyanide to yield an aryl nitrile.

The reaction was named after Karl Wilhelm Rosenmund who together with his Ph.D. student Erich Struck discovered in 1914 that aryl halide reacts with alcohol water solution of potassium cyanide and catalytic amounts of cuprous cyanide at 200 °C. The reaction yields the carboxylic acid,  not the nitrile, but Rosenmund speculated that the intermediate should be the nitrile, since nitriles on aromatic rings can react to form carboxylic acids. Independently Alfred Pongratz and  improved the reaction by changing the reaction conditions to higher temperatures and used no solvent for the reaction. Further improvement of the reaction was done in the following years, for example the use of ionic liquids as solvent for the reaction.

See also
Kolbe nitrile synthesis a similar reaction for the synthesis of alkyl nitrile
Sandmeyer reaction
Von Braun reaction

References

Substitution reactions
Name reactions
Keating model. In physics, The Keating Model is a model that theoretical physicist Patrick N. Keating introduced in 1966 to describe forces induced on neighboring atoms when one atom moves in a solid.

The term most often applies to the forces on first- and second-nearest neighboring atoms that arise when an atom is moved in tetrahedrally-bonded solids, such as diamond, silicon, germanium, and a number of other covalent crystals with the diamond or zinc blende structures.

Crystalline solids generally consist of an ordered array of interconnected atoms, generated by repetition of a unit cell in three dimensions, and are of two extreme types—ionic crystals, and covalent crystals. Others are intermediate: partly ionic and partly covalent. Ionic crystals are made up of quite different ions, such as Na+ and Cl− in common salt, for example, while covalent crystals such as diamond are made up of atoms that share electrons in a covalent bond.

In either case, attractive and repulsive forces resist moving an atom/ion or a set of them from their equilibrium positions, thus giving solids their rigidity against compressive, tensile, and shear stresses. The nature and strength of these forces is important for the scientific understanding of solids since they determine the way the solid responds to these stresses (elastic constants), the velocity of sound waves in it, its infra-red absorption, and many other properties.

Description

The Keating model is the result of a general method proposed to ensure that the elastic strain energy satisfies the requirement that it is invariant under a simple rotation of the crystal, without deformation. It is a formalism for the way adjacent and close-by atoms respond when one or more atoms move in covalently bonded crystals. It is also a specific parameterization of this response for diamond, silicon, and germanium. (see the article listed under "Further Reading").

The general method is applicable for small atomic displacements to all crystal structures. It has been extended by P. N. Keating to include anharmonic effects (and calculate third-order elastic constants), and many other researchers have extended it to include forces between the covalent bonds, and augment it in other ways.

The key paper that introduced the model was one of the 50 highest-impact papers over a century of Physical Review publications ). The model has been, and is, used by many research scientists for calculating elastic constants, lattice dynamics, band structure, dislocation strains, atomic configurations at surfaces and interfaces, and other purposes for a wide range of solids, including amorphous (i.e., non-crystalline) materials.

References

Further reading

Chemical bonding
Framsticks. Framsticks is a 3D freeware Artificial Life simulator.  Organisms consisting of physical structures ("bodies") and control structures ("brains") evolve over time against a user's predefined fitness landscape (for instance, evolving for speed), or spontaneously coevolve in a complex environment. Evolution of organisms occurs primarily through artificial selection, where an intelligent selector chooses the selection parameters and mutation rates. Also the organisms rate of crossing-over can be chosen thus reflecting the sharing of genes by mating in nature. The simulated organisms have genetic scripts inspired by DNA found in living organisms in nature. A user can isolate a particular organism in the gene pool and edit its genotype. Framsticks allows users to design organisms or manually edit the living genetic code of an organism. Users have the ability to seed the environment with energy orbs that the organisms convert to energy and material. Depending on how the organism does in its lifespan determines the future of the virtual gene pool. Gene pools can be exported and shared.

Bodies
The bodies are made up of various building blocks that are assembled according to a genetic script. Building blocks include: a rotator, hinge, muscle, structure, and receptor.

Brains
The brains are basic neural networks that show up as a network of firing neurons. The genetic script serves as the blueprints for the exact assembly and functioning of the neural network.

World
The world or ‘universe’ can be set to height-field editable as blocks and/or steep planes, ‘water’, flat, or a combination of all these and be edited by user as map in simple text-format. It has adjustable gravitation and water-level.

See also
Digital organism
Artificial life
List of other Alife Simulators

External links
 Framsticks home page
 Worlds and Organisms sample gallery
 Comparison of Different Encodings for Simulated 3D Agents

Artificial life
Artificial life models
Agent-based software
Beckmann thermometer. A Beckmann thermometer is a device used to measure small differences of temperature, but not absolute temperature values.  It was invented by Ernst Otto Beckmann (1853 – 1923), a German chemist, for his measurements of colligative properties in 1905. Today its use has largely been superseded by platinum PT100 resistance thermometers and thermocouples.

A Beckmann thermometer's length is usually 40 – 50 cm.  The temperature scale typically covers about 5 °C and it is divided into hundredths of a degree.  With a magnifier it is possible to estimate temperature changes to 0.001 °C.  The peculiarity of Beckmann's thermometer design is a reservoir (R on diagram) at the upper end of the tube, by means of which the quantity of mercury in the bulb can be increased or diminished so that the instrument can be set to measure temperature differences at either high or low temperature values.  In contrast, the range of a typical mercury-in-glass thermometer is fixed, being set by the calibration marks etched on the glass or the marks on the printed scale.

Calibration 
In setting the thermometer, a sufficient amount of mercury must be left in the bulb and stem to give readings between the required temperatures. First, the thermometer is inverted and gently tapped so that the mercury in the reservoir lodges in the bend (B) at the end of the stem. Next, the bulb is heated until the mercury in the stem joins the mercury in the reservoir. The thermometer is then placed in a bath one or two degrees above the upper limit of temperatures to be measured.

The upper end of the tube is gently tapped with the finger, and the mercury suspended in the upper part of the reservoir will be jarred down, thus separating it from the thread at the bend (B). The thermometer will then be set for readings between the required temperatures.

See also 
 Thermometer

References

Further reading

 
 
 - From which much of this article was taken
 
 

Thermometers
1905 introductions
1905 in Germany
1905 in science
Carbonyl metallurgy. Carbonyl metallurgy is used to manufacture products of iron, nickel, steel, and other metals. Coatings are produced by vapor plating using metal carbonyl vapors. These are metal-ligand complexes where carbon monoxide is bonded to individual atoms of metals .

Iron carbonyl is stable as iron pentacarbonyl, where five carbon monoxide molecules are pendently bonded to the iron atom, while nickel carbonyl is stable as nickel tetracarbonyl, which has four carbon monoxide molecules pendantly bonded to the nickel atom. Both can be formed by the exposure of the powdered metal to carbon monoxide gas at temperatures of around 75 degrees Celsius. Both the metal carbonyls decompose near 175 °C, resulting in a vapor plated metallic coating. The thickness of the vapor plated deposit can be increased to desired thicknesses by controlling the amount of metal carbonyl used and the duration of the plating process.

Vale Inco produces over 100 million pounds (ca. 45000 tonnes) of nickel metal annually by the carbonyl process. The carbonyl process has been used to produce molds in custom shapes for industry. Such molds have been used in plastic molding and other manufacturing techniques.
William Jenkin developed many of the techniques and procedures used in carbonyl metallurgy.

Carbonyl metallurgy is useful as a low-temperature metal coating technique that may find many applications in the future.

See also
 Chemical vapor deposition

Further reading
 Iron recovery and steel manufacture using carbonyl chemistry - http://www.space-mining.com/IRONRECOVERY.htm (archived: https://web.archive.org/web/20120210151936/http://www.space-mining.com/IRONRECOVERY.htm)
 Beneficiation of asteroidal iron by carbonyl metallurgy - http://www.space-mining.com/beneficiation.html (archived: https://web.archive.org/web/20120210152024/http://www.space-mining.com/beneficiation.html)
 William Jenkin inventor of numerous carbonyl processes - https://web.archive.org/web/20080511182043/http://www.wcjenkin.com/
 Preparation of Iron Carbonyl - 
 Preparation of metallic shaped bodies - http://www.patentstorm.us/patents/5802437-claims.html

Chemical processes
Coatings
Metallurgy
DIANA (intermediate language). DIANA (Descriptive Intermediate Attributed Notation for Ada) is an intermediate language used to represent the semantics of an Ada program.

History
It was originally designed as an interface between the compiler front end (syntactic analysis) and middle end (semantic analysis) of the compiler on the one hand and the compiler back end (code generation and optimization) on the other.  It is also used as an internal representation (IR) by other language tools.

DIANA is also used by PL/SQL, which is based on Ada.

DIANA is an abstract data type; its concrete implementations are defined using the IDL specification language.

DIANA descends from TCOL and AIDA, earlier representations of Ada programs.

The Ada-0 subset of Ada at Karlsruhe (1980) was first using AIDA, but later AIDA got replaced by DIANA.
The full Karlsruhe Ada compilation system used DIANA as well and the IDL External Representation for marshalling between the middle-end and the code generating back-end.

References

Footnotes

General
 
 DIANA Reference Manual, Draft Revision 4: http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a272792.pdf 

Programming language implementation
Ada (programming language)
Defence Bioengineering and Electromedical Laboratory. The Defence Bioengineering and Electromedical Laboratory is an Indian defence laboratory of the Defence Research and Development Organisation. Located in Bangalore, its main function is the research and development of technologies and products in the areas of life support, medical and physiological protection systems for the Indian Armed Forces. The laboratory is organised under the Life Sciences Directorate of the Defence Research and Development Organisation. Its present director is Dr T M Kotresh.

History
The Defence Bioengineering and Electromedical Laboratory was formed in April 1976 by bringing together the Aero Electroengineering Unit of Aeronautical Development Establishment and the Electromedical Instrumentation Division of the Electronics and Radar Development Establishment, located nearby. Since 23 June 1992, the facility has been functioning at its own independent premises located at the Aeronautical Development Establishment campus.

It is one of the few Defence Research and Development Organisation laboratories dedicated to research and development work for the services and also spin off use to the civilian population.

Areas of work

Products 
 Indian Army advanced uniforms
 Indian Navy advanced and safe under water suits
 Indian Space Research Organisation suits for Gaganyaan mission

Projects and products 

HAPO Bag for high altitudes with light weight automation unit

Battery heated gloves, insoles, jackets and trousers

Combat paratroopers jump suit

Pilot's dress for LCA

Anti G suit

Smart vest

Technologies for civilian use 

Oxycare system that regulates the oxygen supply by monitoring the blood oxygen level of the patient.

References

External links 
 Defence Bioengineering and Electromedical Laboratory Home Page

1982 establishments in Karnataka
Government agencies established in 1982
Defence Research and Development Organisation laboratories
Research and development in India
Research institutes established in 1982
Research institutes in Bengaluru
Garrett STAMP. The Garrett STAMP (Small Tactical Aerial Mobility Platform) was a two-person aircraft prototype made by a division of AiResearch Manufacturing Co. of Phoenix, Arizona, for the United States Marine Corps STAMP program, in the early 1970s.

Development
The prototype took off and manoeuvred by means of a ducted fan, much like the Harrier. Unlike the Harrier it had no wings and had to depend on the fan's thrust for lift at all times. This gave it an expected range of 30 miles (48 km) at a speed of 75 mph (120 kph). The power came from a Garrett TSE-231 turbine normally used to power helicopters. The turbine gave 1050 pounds (476kg) of thrust by running at 6000 rpm. Two persons sat in a closed cockpit adapted from an OH-6 helicopter.

The prototype was successfully tested in tethered flight on December 21, 1973 inside a hangar at Marine Corps Air Station El Toro in California.  Its competitor in the STAMP program was a one-person open-cockpit craft called the Williams Aerial Systems Platform (WASP), made by Williams International.

See also
Personal air vehicle
List of personal air vehicles
List of VTOL aircraft
Flying platform
Williams X-Jet

References

Further reading
Wahl, Paul. Jet Flight With No Wings. Popular Science. April 1974. pp. 88–89, 152

External links
 Dedicated article on planehistoria.com/
 AFWAL-TR-86-3071 pp. 3-70 to 3-90

1970s United States experimental aircraft
VTOL aircraft
Cancelled military aircraft projects of the United States
Naval Materials Research Laboratory. Naval Materials Research Laboratory (NMRL) is an Indian defence laboratory of the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO). Located at Ambernath, in Thane district, Maharashtra. It develops materials and alloys for Naval use, and is a single-window agency for all materials requirement of the Indian Navy. NMRL is organized under the Naval Research & Development Directorate of DRDO. The present director of NMRL is Shri Prashant T Rojatkar.

History
NMRL was established in 1953 as the Naval Chemical and Metallurgical Laboratory, an in-house laboratory of the Navy, located at the Naval Dockyard, Mumbai. It was brought under the administrative control of DRDO  in the early 1960s. The laboratory is located in its own technical-cum residential complex at Ambernath, Maharashtra. The laboratory still has its erstwhile infrastructure intact in Naval Dockyard, Mumbai, without any physical scientific or administrative presence.

Areas of work
 Fuel Cell Power Pack Technology
 Advanced Protection Technology in Marine Environment
 Electrochemistry & Electrochemical Processes                         
 Polymer and Elastomer Science and Technology including Stealth Material
 Processing Technologies for Speciality Metallic and Non-metallic Materials
 Chemical and Biological Control of Marine Environment

Facilities

Projects and products

Technologies for military use 

 Air independent propulsion (AIP) - for use in submarines of the Indian Navy.

Technologies for civilian use
 Bio-emulsifier - for Bio-remediation of floating oil.
 Arsenic removal kit - NMRL has developed a low-cost arsenic removal filter to remove arsenic from contaminated drinking water. The filter is made of stainless steel, and the filter medium is a processed waste of the steel industry. The filter works on the principle of co-precipitation and adsorption, which is followed by filtration through treated sand. The complete filter costs Rs. 500, has a life of 5 years and does not require any electricity to run. After six months of testing in 24 Paraganas District in West Bengal, the technology was given to NGOs for productionizing.

References

External links
 NMRL Home Page

See also

Defence Research and Development Organisation laboratories
Research institutes in Maharashtra
Materials science institutes
Research and development in India
Ambarnath
1953 establishments in Bombay State
Research institutes established in 1953
Heinkel He 42. The Heinkel HD 42 50, later designated the Heinkel He 42 was a German two-seat biplane seaplane originally designed for the Deutsche Verkehrsfliegerschule, and later built for the German Luftwaffe. The aircraft was used until the end of World War II as a trainer for maritime pilots.

Design and development
In 1929, Heinkel developed a biplane, the HD 42, for use with the covert military-training organization Deutsche Verkehrsfliegerschule (DVS). Its fuselage was constructed out of a welded steel tube truss and had a rectangular cross-section with a rounded top. The engine covers were made out of light-weight metal, while the rest of the fuselage was covered in fabric. The aircraft was equipped with floats.

The HD 42 model received good feedback from the Swedish Navy, who had purchased the aircraft, as well as from the famous pilot Gunther Plüschow (who was the first airman to fly over the Patagonian mountains of Chile and Argentina at Tierra del Fuego). The prototype was equipped with a BMW Va engine, but the later versions came with a Junkers L5G engine.

Ten aircraft had been manufactured by 1932, when a new version, the He 42C was rolled out. Series production began with the He 42D model (14 manufactured) which were intended for the German Air Force, which at the time was illegal. A further 189 He 42Es were built in 1934 and these aircraft were used by various flying schools until the end of World War II

Variants
HD 42Prototype aircraft
He 42C
He 42DFirst series produced model, 14 built
He 42ESecond series produced model, 189 built

Operators

Bulgarian Air Force

Luftwaffe

Swedish Air Force

Royal Romanian Naval Aviation

Specifications (He 42C-2)

See also

References

1930s German military trainer aircraft
Biplanes
He 042
Single-engined tractor aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1929