omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Potassium sodium tartrate. Potassium sodium tartrate tetrahydrate, also known as Rochelle salt, is a double salt of tartaric acid first prepared (in about 1675) by an apothecary, Pierre Seignette, of La Rochelle, France. Potassium sodium tartrate and monopotassium phosphate were the first materials discovered to exhibit piezoelectricity. This property led to its extensive use in crystal phonograph cartridges, microphones and earpieces during the post-World War II consumer electronics boom of the mid-20th century. Such transducers had an exceptionally high output with typical pick-up cartridge outputs as much as 2 volts or more. Rochelle salt is deliquescent so any transducers based on the material deteriorated if stored in damp conditions.

It has been used medicinally as a laxative. It has also been used in the process of silvering mirrors. It is an ingredient of Fehling's solution (reagent for reducing sugars). It is used in electroplating, in electronics and piezoelectricity, and as a combustion accelerator in cigarette paper (similar to an oxidizer in pyrotechnics).

In organic synthesis, it is used in aqueous workups to break up emulsions, particularly for reactions in which an aluminium-based hydride reagent was used. Sodium potassium tartrate is also important in the food industry. 

It is a common precipitant in protein crystallography and is also an ingredient in the Biuret reagent which is used to measure protein concentration. This ingredient maintains cupric ions in solution at an alkaline pH.

Preparation

The starting material is tartar with a minimum 68% tartaric acid content. This is first dissolved in water or in the mother liquor of a previous batch. It is then basified with hot saturated sodium hydroxide solution to pH 8, decolorized with activated charcoal, and chemically purified before being filtered. The filtrate is evaporated to 42 °Bé at 100 °C, and passed to granulators in which Seignette's salt crystallizes on slow cooling. The salt is separated from the mother liquor by centrifugation, accompanied by washing of the granules, and is dried in a rotary furnace and sieved before packaging. Commercially marketed grain sizes range from 2000 μm to < 250 μm (powder).

Larger crystals of Rochelle salt have been grown under conditions of reduced gravity and convection on board Skylab.
Rochelle salt crystals will begin to dehydrate when the relative humidity drops to about 30% and will begin to dissolve at relative humidities above 84%.

Piezoelectricity

In 1824, Sir David Brewster demonstrated piezoelectric effects using Rochelle salts, which led to him naming the effect pyroelectricity.

In 1919, Alexander McLean Nicolson worked with Rochelle salt, developing audio-related inventions like microphones and speakers at Bell Labs.

References

Potassium compounds
Organic sodium salts
Piezoelectric materials
Ferroelectric materials
Tartrates
Food acidity regulators
Food antioxidants
Double salts
E-number additives
Deliquescent materials
FastCAD. FastCAD (and EasyCAD, a 2D-only subset) is a type of computer-aided design (CAD) program for DOS and Microsoft Windows operating systems. It is also the basis for the map-drawing software Campaign Cartographer. It uses the file format extension FCW for its files.

The latest FastCAD release, version 7, is a full professional tool, including 3D modeling and rendering, symbol definition editing, and advanced abilities to work with multiple drawings and overlays. FastCAD is written in x86 assembly language and runs well on basic hardware.

FastCAD was written by Mike Riddle, the author of Interact for the Marinchip 9900 released in 1979, one of the first CAD programs to run on a personal computer (PC). In time, Interact became the architectural basis for early versions of AutoCAD.

External links
 

Computer-aided design software
Sigma 7. Sigma 7 may refer to:
 the callsign of the spacecraft used in the 1962 Mercury-Atlas 8 mission
 the SDS Sigma 7 computer, made by Scientific Data Systems (SDS), later known as Xerox Data Systems (XDS)
 Sigma Seven, a Japanese company
 Sigma 7 (video game), 1987 computer game by Durell Software
 Sigma 7 AC servo drive series from Yaskawa Electric Corporation
Human-readable medium and data. In computing, a human-readable medium or human-readable format is any encoding of data or information that can be naturally read by humans, resulting in human-readable data. It is often encoded as ASCII or Unicode text, rather than as binary data. 

In most contexts, the alternative to a human-readable representation is a machine-readable format or medium of data primarily designed for reading by electronic, mechanical or optical devices, or computers. For example, Universal Product Code (UPC) barcodes are very difficult to read for humans, but very effective and reliable with the proper equipment, whereas the strings of numerals that commonly accompany the label are the human-readable form of the barcode information. Since any type of data encoding can be parsed by a suitably programmed computer, the decision to use binary encoding rather than text encoding is usually made to conserve storage space. Encoding data in a binary format typically requires fewer bytes of storage and increases efficiency of access (input and output) by eliminating format parsing or conversion.

With the advent of standardized, highly structured markup languages, such as Extensible Markup Language (XML), the decreasing costs of data storage, and faster and cheaper data communication networks, compromises between human-readability and machine-readability are now more common-place than they were in the past. This has led to humane markup languages and modern configuration file formats that are far easier for humans to read.
In addition, these structured representations can be compressed very effectively for transmission or storage.

Human-readable protocols greatly reduce the cost of debugging.

Various organizations have standardized the definition of human-readable and machine-readable data and how they are applied in their respective fields of application, e.g., the Universal Postal Union.

Often the term human-readable is also used to describe shorter names or strings, that are easier to comprehend or to remember than long, complex syntax notations, such as some Uniform Resource Locator strings.

Occasionally "human-readable" is used to describe ways of encoding an arbitrary integer into a long series of English words.
Compared to decimal or other compact binary-to-text encoding systems,
English words are easier for humans to read, remember, and type in.

See also
 Self-documenting code – source code that is both machine-readable and human-readable
 Human-readable code
 Machine-Readable Documents
 Machine-readable data
 Data (computing)
 Data conversion
 Hellschreiber
 Human–computer interaction
 Human factors
 Plain text
 Quoted printable

References

Optical character recognition
Robopsychology. Robopsychology is the study of the personalities and behavior of intelligent machines. The term was coined by Isaac Asimov in the short stories collected in I, Robot, which featured robopsychologist Dr. Susan Calvin, and whose plots largely revolved around the protagonist solving problems connected with intelligent robot behaviour. The term has been also used in some academic studies from the field of psychology and human–computer interactions, and it refers to the study of the psychological consequences of living in societies where the application of robotics is becoming increasingly common.

In real life

Andrea Kuszewski, a self-described robopsychologist gives the following examples of potential responsibilities for a robopsychologist in Discover.

"Assisting in the design of cognitive architectures
Developing appropriate lesson plans for teaching  AI targeted skills
Create guides to help the AI through the learning process
Address any maladaptive machine behaviors
Research the nature of ethics and how it can be taught and/or reinforced
Create new and innovative therapy approaches for the domain of computer-based intelligences"
 
There is a robopsychology research division at Ars Electronica Futurelab.

The term "robopsychology" has been proposed to indicate a "sub-discipline in psychology to systematically study the psychological corollaries of living in societies where the application of robotic and artificial intelligence (AI) technologies is becoming increasingly common." According to proponents of robopsychology, such a discipline does not currently exist: a systematic review of scientific literature shows that in 2022 there was no psychological sub-discipline dedicated to the study of the effects robots have on people's lives.

A.V. Libin and E.V. Libin define the term as follows: "[it is] a systematic study of compatibility between people and artificial creatures on many different levels [...]. Robotic psychology studies individual differences in people’s interactions with various robots, as well as the diversity of the robots themselves, applying principles of differential psychology to the traditional fields of human factors and human–computer interactions. Moreover, robopsychologists study psychological mechanisms of the animation of the technological entity which result in a unique phenomenon defined as a robot’s “personality.”"

In fiction
As described by Asimov, robopsychology appears to be a mixture of detailed mathematical analysis and traditional psychology, applied to robots. Human psychology is also a part, covering human interaction with robots. This includes the "Frankenstein complex" – the irrational fear that robots (or other creations) will turn on their creator.

See also
 Cybernetics
 Human-robot interaction
 Psychohistory
 Three Laws of Robotics

References

Foundation universe
Fictional science
Cybernetics
Robotics
Human–computer interaction
List of sound chips. Sound chips come in different forms and use a variety of techniques to generate audio signals. This is a list of sound chips that were produced by a certain company or manufacturer, categorized by the sound generation of the chips.

Programmable sound generators (PSG)

Wavetable synthesis

Frequency modulation (FM) synthesis

Pulse-code modulation (PCM) sampling

See also
List of sound card standards
List of Yamaha sound chips
Sound recording and reproduction

References

External links
Sound generators of the 1980s home computers - Has a list of chips, pictures, datasheets, etc. (Archive.org)

 
Video game music technology
Sarah Flannery. Sarah Flannery (born 1982, County Cork, Ireland) was, at sixteen years old, the winner of the 1999 Esat Young Scientist Exhibition for her development of the Cayley–Purser algorithm, based on work she had done with researchers at Baltimore Technologies during a brief internship there. The project, entitled "Cryptography – A new algorithm versus the RSA", also won her the EU Young Scientist of the Year Award in 1999.

Biography
Flannery's education included a primary all-girls school and secondary education at Scoil Mhuire Gan Smál in Blarney.

Following the competition win, in 2001 Flannery co-authored In Code with her father, mathematician David Flannery (1952-2023). It tells the story of the making and breaking of the Cayley-Purser algorithm, as well as the enjoyment she got from solving mathematical puzzles while growing up. She dedicates many of her accomplishments in the fields of mathematics and cryptography to her father's support during her childhood.

She studied computer science at Peterhouse, a college of the University of Cambridge, graduating in 2003, and, as of 2006, worked for Electronic Arts as a software engineer. She worked at TirNua as a "Chief Scientist". She developed the virtual economy in a game and the back-end web services that powered the game features. She has also worked at RockYou, and several other institutions involved in software development and computer science.

Before working at TirNua, Flannery was software engineer working directly with then Electronic Arts Worldwide Chief Technology Officer, Scott Cronce, and, later, with many fellow Tirnua founders on her first virtual world.

At EA, she successfully set up the EA Open Source program using the Essential Project. Flannery created data visualizations on software architecture and game content creation which were used to directly impact the quality of both. She also successfully ran and turned around the virtual economy within EA-Land (formerly The Sims Online).

Previously, she worked on the technical and scientific computing software product Mathematica for Wolfram Research.

The lights on St. Patrick's Street, one of the main thoroughfares of Flannery's home city of Cork, are named after her.

Flannery is the sister of the singer and songwriter Mick Flannery.

Bibliography
 (2000) Sarah Flannery and David Flannery. In Code: A Mathematical Journey 271 pages, Pub. London : Profile, 
 (2002) Sarah Flannery and David Flannery. In Code: A Mathematical Journey revised, 341 pages, Pub. Chapel Hill, N.C. : Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, 
 Cryptography – A new algorithm versus the RSA.

See also
 Intel International Science and Engineering Fair
 Linear algebra
 Cryptography
 Cayley–Purser algorithm

References

External links
 Mathematica and the Science of Secrecy 
 Sarah's cracking algorithm
 homepage at TirNua

1982 births
Living people
Alumni of Peterhouse, Cambridge
Amateur mathematicians
Irish women mathematicians
Scientists from County Cork
Young Scientist and Technology Exhibition
20th-century Irish mathematicians
21st-century Irish mathematicians
DJGPP. DJ's GNU Programming Platform (DJGPP) is a software development suite for Intel 80386-level and above, IBM PC compatibles which supports DOS operating systems. It is guided by DJ Delorie, who began the project in 1989. It is a port of the GNU Compiler Collection (GCC), and mostly GNU utilities such as Bash, find, tar, ls, GAWK, sed, and ld to DOS Protected Mode Interface (DPMI). Supported languages include C, C++, Objective-C/C++, Ada, Fortran, and Pascal.  It was originally called DJGCC, and was later renamed from DJGCC to DJGPP when C++ support was added, though the "PP" was said to stand for "Programming Platform" rather than "Plus Plus".

Overview 
The compiler generates 32-bit code, which runs natively in 32-bit protected mode while switching back to 16-bit DOS calls for basic OS support. However, unlike the Open Watcom C/C++ compiler, it is not a zero-based flat model due to preferring NULL pointer protection for better stability. It is currently based upon a variant of the COFF format. It can access up to 4 GB of RAM in pure DOS when using a suitable DPMI host (e.g., CWSDPMI r7 or HDPMI32).

, main components of DJGPP 2 include:
 GNU Compiler Collection 9.3.0 (10.2.0 is also available)
 Autoconf 2.5.9
 Automake 1.9.4
 Binutils 2.34
 GNU Bash 4.1.17
 GNU Bison 2.4.1, Flex 2.5.4
 GNU Emacs 24.5
 GNU MPC 1.1.0, MPFR 4.1.0

It is also possible to use DJGPP to cross-compile software to DOS, for example on UNIX / Linux. Both the DJGPP libraries and the programs can be compiled this way, linked and then deployed to machines with DOS or DOS emulators.

Compatibility 
DJGPP presents the programmer an interface which is compatible with the ANSI C and C99 standards, DOS APIs, and an older POSIX-like environment. Compiled binaries are long filename (LFN) aware and can handle such names under most 32-bit Windows by default, but they cannot use the Win16 or Win32 APIs that graphical programs on Windows need. terminate-and-stay-resident (TSR) programs to support LFNs under plain DOS or Windows NT 4 are available.

While DJGPP runs in 32-bit protected mode, its stub and library heavily rely on many 16-bit DOS and BIOS calls. Because the x86-64 versions of Windows lack support for 16-bit programs, there is no NTVDM, and DJGPP applications cannot be run. Under x86-64 systems these applications function only through emulation (e.g. DOSBox), x86 virtualization (e.g. VirtualBox), or similar (e.g. Linux's DOSEMU). This problem arises because in long mode x86-64 processors do not support the virtual 8086 mode used to run 16-bit code in IA-32 processors. Newer x86 CPUs with VT-x do support paged real mode and unrestricted guest mode execution.

See also 

 FreeDOS
 Cygwin - a UNIX compatibility layer with many ported libraries and applications
 EMX - a POSIX implementation for DOS (and OS/2, too)
 GnuWin32
 MinGW - a port of the GNU toolchain for Windows, designed to require minimal runtime support
 Open Watcom C/C++ compiler
 Allegro
 Windows Subsystem for Linux

References

External links 
 
 DJ Delorie's webpage

1989 software
C (programming language) compilers
DOS extenders
Free and open source compilers
Free integrated development environments
TenDRA Compiler. The TenDRA Compiler is a C/C++ compiler for POSIX-compatible operating systems available under the terms of the BSD license.

It was originally developed by the Defence Evaluation and Research Agency (DERA) in the United Kingdom. In the beginning of 2002 TenDRA was actively developed again by Jeroen Ruigrok van der Werven and offered as a BSD-licensed open source project through the website tendra.org.  In the third quarter of 2002 the one-man effort was expanded to a small team.

The TDF technology behind TenDRA has an academic history dating back to work on algebraic code validation in the 1970s.

In August 2003 TenDRA split into two projects, TenDRA.org and Ten15.org. Both projects seemed to have disappeared from the web around 2006–2007, but actually they are still active.

The goals of TenDRA.org are:
to continuously produce correct code,
to ensure code correctness through various means, and
to continuously improve the performance of the compiler and resulting code, unless it would jeopardize the points above.

The goals of Ten15.org added:
to be a friendly competitor to GCC in order to get a best-of-breed compiler.

Features of both compilers include good error reporting with respect to standards compliance and a smaller code size than the same programs compiled on gcc. C++ support never got as developed as C support, and there was no STL supporting release. TenDRA uses the Architecture Neutral Distribution Format (ANDF), a specification created by the Open Group, as its intermediate language.

At a point, most of the Alpha OSF/1 kernel could be built with TenDRA C and afterwards there was also a similar effort to port the FreeBSD kernel.

Documentation
TenDRA.org has a comprehensive set of documentation available online at http://www.tendra.org/docs

Manual pages for references to programs and file formats are available at http://www.tendra.org/man

See also

 TenDRA Distribution Format

References

External links

The TenDRA Project
Page on GitHub
bitbucket copy of the TenDRA src repository

TenDRA in the FreeBSD ports collection
TenDRA in Debian
mirror of the original TenDRA web page from DERA

Compilers
C (programming language) compilers
C++ compilers
Free and open source compilers
History of computing in the United Kingdom
Science and technology in Hampshire
Software using the BSD license
Unix programming tools
Franz Xaver Reimspieß. Franz Xaver Reimspieß (1900-1979) was an Austrian engineer. He was born in Wiener Neustadt in Austria.

In 1915 he began his training as an engineering draughtsman with Austro-Daimler. At the end of the 1920s, after completing his engineering studies, he designed the Daimler armoured car.
Franz Xaver Reimspieß was remarkable for his precise work and his wealth of ideas. In 1934 he joined the Porsche construction office and developed the air-cooled opposed four-cylinder engine for the Volkswagen basing his design on Kales’s opposed four-cylinder engine for the NSU prototype. For the Auto Union P racing car Reimspiess designed new brakes and altered the rear axle to shaft suspension.

During the war Reimspieß was chief designer at the tank development centre within the Nibelungen plant at St Valentin. Thus the plans for the German 'Tiger' tank originated from Reimspieß.
Then at Porsche he was in charge of undercarriage design, a position which he held until his retirement in 1966.

At Porsche Reimspieß patented around ten inventions for the independent wheel-suspension system and for engines. His most famous patent applications were related to his inventions for the Volkswagen engine.

It is claimed that Reimspieß designed the Volkswagen logo and received a one-off payment of one hundred Reichsmark for his design. However, competing claims assert that the logo was created by graphic designer Nikolai Borg or the German artist Martin Freyer.

External links
Erwin Komenda Porsche Designer

Reimspieß, Franz Xaver
Reimspieß, Franz Xavier
Reimspieß, Franz Xaver
Reimspieß, Franz Xaver
Bochs. Bochs (pronounced "box") is a portable IA-32 and x86-64 IBM PC compatible emulator and debugger mostly written in C++ and distributed as free software under the GNU Lesser General Public License. It supports emulation of the processor(s) (including protected mode), memory, disks, display, Ethernet, BIOS and common hardware peripherals of PCs.

Many guest operating systems can be run using the emulator including DOS, several versions of Linux, Xenix, Microsoft Windows, BSDs and Rhapsody OS (precursor of Mac OS X Public Beta). Bochs runs on many host operating systems, including Android OS, Linux, macOS, PlayStation 2, Windows, and Windows CE along with its derivatives.

Bochs is mostly used for operating system development (when an emulated operating system crashes, it does not crash the host operating system, so the emulated OS can be debugged) and to run other guest operating systems inside already running host operating systems. It can also be used to run older software — such as PC games — which will not run on non-compatible, or too fast computers.

History
Bochs started as a program with a commercial license, at the price of US$25, for use as-is.  If a user needed to link it to other software, that user would have to negotiate a special license. That changed on 22 March 2000, when Mandrakesoft (later Mandriva) bought Bochs from lead developer Kevin Lawton and released it for Linux under the GNU Lesser General Public License.  Support for hosting on Windows XP ended with version 2.6.10.

Use
Bochs emulates the hardware needed by PC operating systems, including hard drives, CD drives, and floppy drives. It doesn't utilize any host CPU virtualization features, therefore is slower than most virtualization (as opposed to emulation) software. It provides additional security by completely isolating the guest OS from the hardware. Bochs also has extensive debugging features. It is widely used for OS development, as it removes the need for constant system restarts (to test code).

BFE, described as a "Graphical Debugger Interface for the Bochs PC Emulator", is a graphical interface for the debugger within the Bochs PC emulator that makes it possible to debug software step-by-step at the instruction and register level, much like Borland's Turbo Debugger.

Emulated hardware

References

1994 software
Cross-platform software
Formerly proprietary software
Free emulation software
Free software programmed in C++
Linux emulation software
MacOS emulation software
Pocket PC software
Windows emulation software
X86 emulators
Software using the GNU Lesser General Public License