omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Infomorph. An infomorph is a virtual body of information that possesses self-awareness and sentience. The term was coined in Charles Platt's 1991 novel The Silicon Man, where it refers to a single biological consciousness transferred into a computer through a process of mind transfer. In the book, a character defines an infomorph as "intelligence held in a computer memory", and an "information entity".

In the 2002 game Transhuman Space, an infomorph is any form of sentient or near-sentient computer program, which may exist either only in the computer networks or occupy a physical body: robot, android, a living thing ("wetware", "bioshell"). They may be of two main types: mind emulations (mind-uploaded human intelligencies) and "native" artificial intelligencies. These types are further classified into subtypes.

In EVE Online, players are posthuman entities known as capsuleers: immortal spacecraft commanders who can cheat death by scanning and transferring their consciousness into remote clones. "Infomorph Psychology" and "Advanced Infomorph Psychology" are neural enhancement skills for pilots using "jump clones" to alleviate the unsettling effect of the detaching of one's consciousness and transferring it into a remote clone.

See also
 Ascension (Stargate)
 Mind uploading
 Omega Point
 Simulated reality

References

Science fiction themes
Transhumanism
Posthumanism
1991 neologisms
Johan Petter Johansson. Johan Petter Johansson (December 12, 1853 – August 25, 1943), sometimes known as JP, was a Swedish inventor and industrialist. He invented a modern adjustable spanner (patents in 1891 and 11 May 1892). He obtained over 100 patents in total.

He was born in Vårgårda in western Sweden, the oldest of six children in a crofter's family. His first employment was as an assistant operator of a steam engine at a local peat factory. He left Vårgårda at age 19, in 1873, for Motala to work as a navvy. Following military service in 1874, he moved to Eskilstuna where he worked for the Bolinder-Munktell factory, and in 1878 he moved to Västerås where he found employment at a mechanical workshop. Following that, he worked as a blacksmith at a nearby farm.

At this time, he had made a decision to leave Sweden for the United States. This never happened; he was instead offered a more esteemed job by his former employer Munktells, and the offer changed his mind.

In 1886 he decided to start his own business and relocated to Enköping where he started Enköpings Mekaniska Verkstad (the Mechanical Workshop of Enköping), which quickly became a successful venture. It was during the years in his workshop that he invented the adjustable spanner and the plumber wrench. In 1890, B.A. Hjorth & Company agreed to distribute his tools worldwide under the "Bahco" trademark. The Bahco tools are still in production, having over 100 million wrenches manufactured to date.

Johansson transferred the then-large enterprise to his son, Hannes Brynge, and the B.A. Hjorth & Company in 1916. He started experimenting with Armature (electrical) and in 1919 opened a new factory, Triplex, which manufactured electrical pendulums and various devices.

He died at the age of 89 after having been productive for most of his life.

References

External links
 The J.P. Johansson Museum 
 Skiftnyckelns Vänner. Johan Petter Johansson. (Retrieved February 25, 2005.)
 Nationalencyklopedin. Johan Petter Johansson.
 Official Bahco website

1853 births
1943 deaths
19th-century Swedish businesspeople
19th-century Swedish inventors
Swedish blacksmiths
20th-century Swedish businesspeople
Opisometer. An opisometer, also called a curvimeter, meilograph, or map measurer, is an instrument for measuring the lengths of arbitrary curved lines.

Explanation 
A simple opisometer consists of a toothed wheel of known circumference on a handle. The wheel is placed in contact with the curved line to be measured and run along its length. By counting the number of teeth passing a mark on the handle while this is done, the length of the line can be ascertained:

line length = wheel circumference × teeth counted/teeth on wheel.

In more sophisticated models, sometimes called a chartometer, the wheel is connected via gearing to a rotary dial from which the line length can be directly read.

The instrument is most commonly used to measure the lengths of roads, rivers and other line features on maps.  Opisometers designed for this purpose provide scales reading the measured distance in kilometers and miles.

History of the opisometer 
Early versions of this instrument were patented in 1873 by the English engineer Edward Russell Morris. The instruments he produced were initially described as a Patent Chartometer although later versions were sold under the curious name of Wealemefna. Writing in 1881, Morris described how he had created a wholly original name in an attempt to outwit his imitators; he also refused to disclose the origin of the word.

See also 
 Planimeter
 Steinhaus longimeter
 Surveyor's wheel

References

Length, distance, or range measuring devices
Cartography
Navigational equipment
Nibbler. A nibbler, or nibblers, is a tool for cutting sheet metal with minimal distortion. They may be used for nibbling. One type operates much like a punch and die, with a blade that moves in a linear fashion against a fixed die, removing small bits of metal and leaving a kerf approximately  wide.  Another type operates similar to tin snips, but shears the sheet along two parallel tracks  apart, rolling up the waste in a tight spiral as it cuts.  Nibblers may be manual (hand operated) or powered.

Power nibblers are often powered by compressed air, though electrical types also exist. A common DIY nibbler tool is an electric drill attachment, which converts the rotary motion of the drill into a reciprocating motion of the jaw.

References 

Cutting tools

Metalworking cutting tools
Fabrication (metal)
Temporary file. A temporary file is a file created to store information temporarily, either for a program's intermediate use or for transfer to a permanent file when complete. It may be created by computer programs for a variety of purposes, such as when a program cannot allocate enough memory for its tasks, when the program is working on data bigger than the architecture's address space, or as a primitive form of inter-process communication.

Auxiliary memory 
Modern operating systems employ virtual memory, however programs that use large amounts of data (e.g. [[Video editing software|video #) may need to create temporary file(s).

Inter-process communication 
Most operating systems offer primitives such as pipes, sockets or shared memory to pass data among programs, but often the simplest way (especially for programs that follow the Unix philosophy) is to write data into a temporary file and inform the receiving program of the location of the temporary file.

Creation 
Operating systems and programming languages typically provide functions for obtaining unique temporary file names.

On POSIX systems, temporary files can be safely created with the mkstemp or  library functions.  Some systems provide the former POSIX (now removed)  program.  These files are typically located in the standard temporary directory, /tmp on Unix machines or %TEMP% (which is log-in specific) on Windows machines.

A temporary file created with  is deleted automatically when the program exits or the file is closed.  To generate a temporary file name that will survive past the lifespan of the creating program,  (POSIX) or GetTempFileName(...) (Windows) can be used.

Issues 
Some programs create temporary files and then leave them behind - they do not delete them. This can happen because the program crashed or the developer of the program simply forgot to add the code needed to delete the temporary files after the program is done with them. The temporary files left behind can accumulate over time and consume a lot of disk space.

Temporary files may be deleted manually. Operating systems may clear out the temporary directory on a reboot, and they may have "cleaner" scripts that remove files if they have not been accessed in a certain amount of time. Also, memory-based filesystems, such as tmpfs, inherently do not preserve files across a reboot.

See also
Temp File Cleaner
Temporary folder
Temporary filesystem
Temporary variable

References

Computer file systems
Trusted operating system. Trusted Operating System (TOS) generally refers to an operating system that provides sufficient support for multilevel security and evidence of correctness to meet a particular set of government requirements.

The most common set of criteria for trusted operating system design is the Common Criteria combined with the Security Functional Requirements (SFRs) for Labeled Security Protection Profile (LSPP) and mandatory access control (MAC). The Common Criteria is the result of a multi-year effort by the governments of the U.S., Canada, United Kingdom, France, Germany, the Netherlands and other countries to develop a harmonized security criteria for IT products.

Examples
Examples of certified trusted operating systems are:
 Apple Mac OS X 10.6 (Rated EAL 3+) 
 HP-UX 11i v3 (Rated EAL 4+)
 Some Linux distributions (Rated up to EAL 4+)
 Microsoft Windows 7 and Microsoft Server 2008 R2 (Rated EAL 4+)
 AIX 5L with PitBull Foundation (Rated EAL 4+)
 Trusted Solaris
 Trusted UNICOS 8.0 (Rated B1)
 XTS-400 (Rated EAL5+)
 IBM VM (SP, BSE, HPO, XA, ESA, etc.) with RACF

Examples of operating systems that might be certifiable are:
 FreeBSD with the TrustedBSD extensions 
 SELinux (see FAQ)

Companies that have created trusted operating systems include:
 Addamax (BSD, SVR3, SVR4, HP/UX)
 Argus Systems Group (Solaris, AIX, Linux)
 AT&T (System V)
 BAE Systems (XTS Unix)
 Bull (AIX)
 Data General (DG/UX)
 Digital Equipment Corporation (Ultrix)
 Forcepoint (Hardened SELinux)
 Gemini Computers (GEMSOS)
 General Dynamics C4 Systems (Linux)
 Harris Corporation (SVR3, SVR4)
 Hewlett-Packard (HP/UX)
 Honeywell (Multics)
 IBM (OS/390, AIX)
 SCO (SCO Unix)
 Secure Computing Corporation (LOCK, Mach, BSD)
 SecureWare (Apple A/UX, HP/UX, SCO)
 Sequent Computer Systems (Dynix/ptx)
 Silicon Graphics (IRIX)
 Sun Microsystems (SunOS, Solaris)
 Trusted Information Systems (Xenix, Mach)

See also 
Common Criteria
Comparison of operating systems
Security-evaluated operating system
Security-focused operating system

References

External links 
 Common Criteria Portal - certified products
 NSA FAQ on SELinux
 Argus Systems

Operating system security
Compile farm. A compile farm is a server farm, a collection of one or more servers, which has been set up to compile computer programs remotely for various reasons. Uses of a compile farm include:

 Cross-platform development: When writing software that runs on multiple processor architectures and operating systems, it can be infeasible for each developer to have their own machine for each architecture — for example, one platform might have an expensive or obscure type of CPU.  In this scenario, a compile farm is useful as a tool for developers to build and test their software on a shared server running the target operating system and CPU.  Compile farms may be preferable to cross-compilation as cross compilers are often complicated to configure, and in some cases compilation is only possible on the target, making cross-compilation impossible.
 Cross-platform continuous integration testing: in this scenario, each server has a different processor architecture or runs a different operating system; scripts automatically build the latest version of a source tree from a version control repository.  One of the difficulties of cross-platform development is that a programmer may unintentionally introduce an error that causes the software to stop functioning on a different CPU/OS platform from the one they are using.  By using a cross-platform compile farm, such errors can be identified and fixed.
 Distributed compilation: Building software packages typically requires operations that can be run in parallel (for example, compiling individual source code files).  By using a compile farm, these operations can be run in parallel on separate machines.  An example of a program which can be used to do this is distcc.

One example of a compile farm was the service provided by SourceForge until 2006.  The SourceForge compile farm was composed of twelve machines of various computer architectures running a variety of operating systems, and was intended to allow developers to test and use their programs on a variety of platforms before releasing them to the public.  After a power spike destroyed several of the machines it became non-operational some time in 2006, and was officially discontinued in February 2007.

Other examples are:
 GCC Compile Farm https://gcc.gnu.org/wiki/CompileFarm
 OpenSUSE Build Service
 FreeBSD reports service which lets package maintainers test their own changes on a variety of versions and architectures.
 Launchpad Build Farm https://launchpad.net/builders
 Mozilla has a build farm, but it is not public https://wiki.mozilla.org/ReleaseEngineering
 Debian has a build farm https://buildd.debian.org/
 OpenCSW build farm for Solaris x86 and Sparc

References

Cluster computing
Servers (computing)
Windage. Windage is a term used in aerodynamics, firearms ballistics, and automobiles that mainly relates to the effects of air (e.g., wind) on an object of interest. The term is also used for the similar effects of liquids, such as oil.

Usage

Aerodynamics 
Windage is a force created on an object by friction when there is relative movement between air and the object. Windage loss is the reduction in efficiency due to windage forces.

For example, electric motors are affected by friction between the rotor and air. Large alternators have significant losses due to windage. To reduce losses, hydrogen gas may be used, since it is less dense.

There are two causes of windage:
 The object is moving and being slowed by resistance from the air.
 A wind is blowing, producing a force on the object.

The term can refer to:
 The effect of the force, for example the deflection of a missile or an aircraft by a cross wind.
 The area and shape of the object that make it susceptible to friction, for example those parts of a boat that are exposed to the wind.

Aerodynamic streamlining can be used to reduce windage.

There is a hydrodynamic effect similar to windage, hydrodynamic drag.

Ballistics 
In firearms parlance, the word windage refers to the sight adjustment used to compensate for the horizontal deviation of the projectile trajectory from the intended point of impact due to wind drift or Coriolis effect. By contrast, the adjustment for the vertical deviation is the elevation.

The colloquial term "Kentucky windage" refers to the practice of holding the aim to the upwind side of the target (also known as deflection shooting or "leading" the wind) to compensate for wind drift, without actually changing the existing adjustment settings on the gunsight.

In muzzleloading firearms, windage also refers to the difference in diameter between the bore and the ball, especially in muskets and cannons. The bore gap allows the shot to be loaded quickly, but reduces the efficiency of the weapon's internal ballistics, as it allows gas to leak past the projectile. It also reduces the accuracy, as the ball takes a zig-zag path along the barrel, emerging out of the muzzle at an unpredictable angle.

Automobiles 
In automotive parlance, windage refers to parasitic drag on the crankshaft due to sump oil splashing on the crank train during rough driving, as well as dissipating energy in turbulence from the crank train moving the crankcase gas and oil mist at high RPM. Windage may also inhibit the migration of oil into the sump and back to the oil pump, creating lubrication problems. Some manufacturers and aftermarket vendors have developed special scrapers to remove excess oil from the counterweights and windage screens to create a barrier between the crankshaft and oil sump.

See also
Deflection (ballistics)
Drag (physics)

References

Navigation
Ballistics
Nautical terminology
Engines
HOOD method. HOOD (Hierarchic Object-Oriented Design) is a detailed software design method. It is based on hierarchical decomposition of a software problem. It comprises textual and graphical representations of the design.

HOOD was initially created for the European Space Agency and is used in such varied domains as aerospace (Eurofighter Typhoon, Helios 2 Earth Observation ground control, Ariane 5 on-board computer), ground transportation, and nuclear plants.

HOOD main target languages are Ada, Fortran and C.

External links 

 Introduction to HOOD HOOD page at ESA
 ESA's HOOD user manual, gzipped postscript

Software design
Data modeling languages
Specification languages
Windstar. Windstar may be:

 Ford Windstar, a minivan
 Windstar Cruises, a cruise line
 Wind Star (ship), one of Windstar's sailing vessels
 Windstar Foundation, an environmental education organization founded by John Denver and Thomas Crum 
 Windstar Records, a record label founded by John Denver
 Windstar turbine, a vertical axis wind turbine
 Zero Gravity Windstar, a South Korean paraglider design
Control logic. Control logic is a key part of a software program that controls the operations of the program. The control logic responds to commands from the user, and it also acts on its own to perform automated tasks that have been structured into the program.

Control logic can be modeled using a state diagram, which is a form of hierarchical state machine.  These state diagrams can also be combined with flow charts to provide a set of computational semantics for describing complex control logic. This mix of state diagrams and flow charts is illustrated in the figure on the right, which shows the control logic for a simple stopwatch.  The control logic takes in commands from the user, as represented by the event named “START”, but also has automatic recurring sample time events, as represented by the event named “TIC”.

References

Computing terminology
Amagat's law. Amagat's law  or the law of partial volumes describes the behaviour and properties of mixtures of ideal (as well as some cases of non-ideal) gases. It is of use in chemistry and thermodynamics. It is named after Emile Amagat.

Overview
Amagat's law states that the extensive volume  of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of volumes  of the  component gases, if the temperature  and the pressure  remain the same:

This is the experimental expression of volume as an extensive quantity.

According to Amagat's law of partial volume, the total volume of a non-reacting mixture of gases at constant temperature and pressure should be equal to the sum of the individual partial volumes of the constituent gases. So if  are considered to be the partial volumes of components in the gaseous mixture, then the total volume  would be represented as

Both Amagat's and Dalton's law predict the properties of gas mixtures. Their predictions are the same for ideal gases. However, for real (non-ideal) gases, the results differ. Dalton's law of partial pressures assumes that the gases in the mixture are non-interacting (with each other) and each gas independently applies its own pressure, the sum of which is the total pressure. Amagat's law assumes that the volumes of the component gases (again at the same temperature and pressure) are additive; the interactions of the different gases are the same as the average interactions of the components.

The interactions can be interpreted in terms of a second virial coefficient  for the mixture. For two components, the second virial coefficient for the mixture can be expressed as

where the subscripts refer to components 1 and 2, the  are the mole fractions, and the  are the second virial coefficients. The cross term  of the mixture is given by

 for Dalton's law

and

 for Amagat's law.

When the volumes of each component gas (same temperature and pressure) are very similar, then Amagat's law becomes mathematically equivalent to Vegard's law for solid mixtures.

Ideal gas mixture

When Amagat's law is valid and the gas mixture is made of ideal gases,

where:
  is the pressure of the gas mixture,
  is the volume of the i-th component of the gas mixture,
  is the total volume of the gas mixture,
  is the amount of substance of i-th component of the gas mixture (in mol),
  is the total amount of substance of gas mixture (in mol),
  is the ideal, or universal, gas constant, equal to the product of the Boltzmann constant and the Avogadro constant,
  is the absolute temperature of the gas mixture (in K),
  is the mole fraction of the i-th component of the gas mixture.

It follows that the mole fraction and volume fraction are the same. This is true also for other equation of state.

References

Eponymous laws of physics
Gas laws
Gases
Parking pawl. A parking pawl is a device fitted to a motor vehicle's automatic transmission that locks up the transmission when the transmission shift lever selector is placed in the Park position. "Park" is the first position of the lever (topmost on a column shift, frontmost on a floor shift) in all cars sold in the United States since 1965 (when the order was standardised by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)) through SAE J915, and in most other vehicles worldwide.

Design and operation
The parking pawl locks the transmission's output shaft to the transmission casing by engaging a pawl (a pin) that engages in a notched wheel on the shaft, stopping it (and thus the driven wheels) from rotating. The main components of a parking pawl mechanism are the parking gear, parking pawl, actuator rod, cam collar, cam plate, pivot pin, and parking pawl return spring. The mechanism assembly is designed so that the parking pawl tooth collides and overrides the parking gear teeth (ratchets) until a safe engagement speed for the vehicle is reached. Software controls are put in place to avoid this condition and engage the pawl only when the vehicle has come to a standstill.

Applicable standards
FMVSS 114 – Theft Protection and Rollaway Prevention, Keyless Ignition Systems 
SAE J2208 – Park Standard for Automatic Transmissions.

See also
 Electronic parking brake
 Park by wire
 Transmission brake

External links
 Automatic transmission parking pawl for the 2004 Subaru Impreza
 Design Requirements for Parking Pawl
 Video of Parking Pawl in an automatic transmission

References

Automotive transmission technologies
Vehicle braking technologies
Center for E-Commerce Infrastructure Development. Founded in January 2002, the Center for E-Commerce Infrastructure Development (CECID) is a research and development center in the University of Hong Kong committed to promoting e-commerce infrastructure development and standardization. A member of OASIS, W3C, RosettaNet, and the ebXML Asia Committee, CECID actively takes part in the development and implementation of international standards, such as Universal Business Language, Web Services, and RosettaNet. Through participation in these international and regional standards bodies, CECID follows closely the latest developments in e-commerce technology standards and promotes Hong Kong's e-commerce technology to technical communities overseas. 

CECID's operation is primarily financed by R&D grants from the Innovation and Technology Commission of the Hong Kong Government for its two flagship research projects, namely Project Phoenix and Project Pyxis. In its completed Project Phoenix, CECID has produced several software packages that implement major  specifications. These software packages include Hermes Message Service Handler, , and  and are currently released under open source licenses on the freebXML.org website that CECID established in 2002. Commenced in 2004, Project Pyxis targets to develop enabling technology for e-business interoperability between trading partners and within large enterprises using various complementary and competing Web Services standards.

References

External links 
 CECID homepage

University of Hong Kong