omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Adaptive optimization. Adaptive optimization is a technique in computer science that performs dynamic recompilation of portions of a program based on the current execution profile. With a simple implementation, an adaptive optimizer may simply make a trade-off between just-in-time compilation and interpreting instructions. At another level, adaptive optimization may take advantage of local data conditions to optimize away branches and to use inline expansion to decrease the cost of procedure calls.

Consider a hypothetical banking application that handles transactions one after another. These transactions may be checks, deposits, and a large number of more obscure transactions.  When the program executes, the actual data may consist of clearing tens of thousands of checks without processing a single deposit and without processing a single check with a fraudulent account number. An adaptive optimizer would compile assembly code to optimize for this common case.  If the system then started processing tens of thousands of deposits instead, the adaptive optimizer would recompile the assembly code to optimize the new common case. This optimization may include inlining code.

Examples of adaptive optimization include HotSpot and HP's Dynamo system.

In some systems, notably the Java Virtual Machine, execution over a range of bytecode instructions can be provably reversed.  This allows an adaptive optimizer to make risky assumptions about the code.  In the above example, the optimizer may assume all transactions are checks and all account numbers are valid. When these assumptions prove incorrect, the adaptive optimizer can 'unwind' to a valid state and then interpret the byte code instructions correctly.

See also

 Profile-guided optimization
 Hot spot (computer programming)

References

External links
 CiteSeer for "Adaptive Optimization in the Jalapeño JVM (2000)" by Matthew Arnold, Stephen Fink, David Grove, Michael Hind, Peter F. Sweeney.  Contains links to the full paper in various formats.

Compiler optimizations
Restricted airspace. Restricted airspace is an area of airspace typically used by the military in which the local controlling authorities have determined that air traffic must be restricted or prohibited for safety or security concerns.  It is one of many types of special use airspace designations and is depicted on aeronautical charts with the letter "R" followed by a serial number.

According to the United States Federal Aviation Administration (FAA): "Restricted areas denote the existence of unusual, often invisible, hazards to aircraft such as artillery firing, aerial gunnery, or guided missiles. Penetration of restricted areas without authorization from the using or controlling agency may be extremely hazardous to the aircraft and its occupants."

Restricted airspace zones may not be active ("hot")  at all times; in such cases there are typically schedules of local dates and times available to aviators specifying when the zone is active, and at other times, the airspace is subject to normal VFR/IFR operation for the applicable airspace class. A few zones are activated by NOTAM; an example is R-2503D over Camp Pendleton in southern California, between San Diego and Los Angeles. This particular zone, beginning at 2000ft above sea level over most of southern Camp Pendleton, can be active only for a certain number of days per year, thus allowing small planes to fly a direct route between the two metro areas instead of being diverted offshore or into mountainous terrain further inland.

See also
Controlled airspace
Prohibited airspace
No-fly zone

References 
FAA Aeronautical Information Manual (13Mb PDF)

Special use airspaces
D86. D86  may refer to:
 D86 (debugger), a debugger associated with the A86 software
 HMS Agincourt (D86), a Royal Navy Battle class destroyer
 HMS Birmingham (D86), a Royal Navy Type 42 destroyer
 HMS Hawkins (D86), a Royal Navy Hawkins class cruisers
 Sequoia Field airport FAA location identifier
Grünfeld Defence, Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings code
 A method for automated distillation by ASTM
Benjamin Maillefert. Professor Benjamin S. H. Maillefert (November 11, 1813 – August 8, 1884) was an engineer who specialized in underwater blasting.  He developed torpedoes used by the Union naval forces during the American Civil War.

Maillefert was born in Barcelona, Spain and was responsible for several attempts a blasting to improve navigation through Hell Gate in New York City's  East River.  His obituary from the August 12, 1884 The New York Times reads:

Prof. Benjamin S. H. Maillefert was a member of the firm of B. Maillefert & Co., who obtained a reputation in their experiments with surface blasting, which was applied by them to the Hell Gate work. He was engaged in this work as far back as 1851-1854. Their implements for surface blasting consisted simply of a boat and iron rod, to feel the bottom with and to let down charges with an electric battery. Later, the firm obtained a contract to clear away Pot Rock and Sheldrake Reef, the contract ending on January 1, 1870. The result of their labor was not entirely satisfactory, as during the summer the rock was blown away only so as to give a depth from 12 to 20 feet, while the contract called for 25 feet. The Government then took charge of the work under Gen. Newton. Prof. Maillefert since then led a quiet life, not engaging in any business.

References
Civil War Naval History: FEBRUARY 1864
 Refrigeration and airconditioning patents
New York State Patents 1850-1854
Exhibition of the modus operandi of sub-marine blasting
Siege of Charleston expedition
The Conquest of Hell Gate
Biography from Greater Astoria Historical Society: Hell Gate Rock Blaster

1813 births
1884 deaths
People of New York (state) in the American Civil War
Ionic potential. Ionic  potential is the ratio of the electrical charge (z) to the radius (r) of an ion.

As such, this ratio is a measure of the charge density at the surface of the ion; usually the denser the charge, the stronger the bond formed by the ion with ions of opposite charge.

The ionic potential gives an indication of how strongly, or weakly, the ion will be electrostatically attracted by ions of opposite charge; and to what extent the ion will be repelled by ions of the same charge. 

Victor Moritz Goldschmidt, the father of modern geochemistry found that the behavior of an element in its environment could be predicted from its ionic potential and illustrated this with a diagram (plot of the bare ionic radius as a function of the ionic charge). For instance, the solubility of dissolved iron is highly dependent on its redox state.  with a lower ionic potential than  is much more soluble because it exerts a weaker interaction force with  ion present in water and exhibits a less pronounced trend to hydrolysis and precipitation. Under reducing conditions Fe(II) can be present at relatively high concentration in anoxic water, similar to these encountered for other divalent species such as  and . However, once anoxic ground water is pumped from a deep well and is discharged to the surface, it enters in contact with atmospheric oxygen. Then  is easily oxidized to  and this latter rapidly hydrolyzes and precipitates because of its lower solubility due to a higher z/r ratio. 

Millot (1970) also illustrated the importance of the ionic potential of cations to explain the high, or the low, solubility of minerals and the expansive behaviour (swelling/shrinking) of clay materials.

The ionic potential of the different cations (, ,  and ) present in the interlayer of clay minerals also contribute to explain their swelling/shrinking properties. The more hydrated cations such as  and  are responsible for the swelling of smectite while the less hydrated  and  cause the collapse of the interlayer. In illite, the interlayer is totally collapsed because of the presence of the poorly hydrated . 

Ionic potential is also a measure of the polarising power of a cation.

Ionic potential could be used as a general criterion for the selection of efficient adsorbents for toxic elements.

See also

 Ionization energy
 Metal ions in aqueous solution
 Surface charge

References

Binding energy
Chemical properties
Ions
Physical chemistry
Electrochemical potentials
Atomic radius
Junkers Ju 352. The Junkers Ju 352 Herkules ("Hercules" in German) was a German World War II transport aircraft that was developed from the Junkers Ju 252.

Design and development
During the late spring of 1942, the Junkers-Dessau project office was instructed by the Reich Air Ministry (RLM) to investigate the possibility of redesigning the structure of the Junkers Ju 252 transport to make maximum use of non-strategic materials, replacing the Junkers Jumo 211F engines of the Ju 252 with Bramo 323R radial engines. The result followed closely the aerodynamic design of the Ju 252 but was an entirely new aircraft. The wing of the Ju 352 was similar in outline to that of the Ju 252 but, mounted further aft on the fuselage, was entirely of wooden construction. The Ju 352 also had a similar Trapoklappe ("Transportklappe", rear loading ramp) to that of the Ju 252. The ramp allowed the loading of vehicles or freight into the cargo hold while holding the fuselage level.

In general, the Ju 352 was considered a major improvement over the original Junkers Ju 52 but noticeably inferior to the Junkers Ju 252. Deliveries of the Ju 352 had only just begun to get into their stride when, during the summer of 1944, the worsening war situation resulted in the decision to abandon further production of transport aircraft. In September the last two Ju 352As rolled off the assembly line, 10 pre-production Ju 352s and 33 production Ju 352s having been manufactured. Several developments of the basic design were proposed before production was halted, these including the Ju 352B with more powerful engines and increased defensive armament.

Operators

Czechoslovakian Air Force (Postwar)
 
Luftwaffe

One Letov-built aircraft was presented to the Soviet Union in 1946.

Specifications (Ju 352A-1)

Notes

See also

References

1940s German military transport aircraft
Ju 352
Trimotors
Low-wing aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1943
Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program. The Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program was a program run by the United States Bureau of Mines to create the technology to produce synthetic fuel from coal and oil shale. It was initiated in 1944 during World War II. The Synthetic Liquid Fuels Act approved on April 5, 1944 authorized the use of US$30 million over a five-year period for

History
The Bureau of Mines first studied the extraction of oil from oil shale between 1925 and 1928.

Between 1928 and 1944, the Bureau experimented with coal liquefaction by hydrogenation using the Bergius process. A small-scale test unit constructed in 1937 had a 100-pound per day continuous coal feed.

Between 1945 and 1948, new laboratories were constructed near Pittsburgh. A synthetic ammonia plant Louisiana, Missouri (Missouri Ordnance Works) was transferred from the Army to the program in 1945. The plant was converted into a coal hydrogenation test facility. By 1949 the plant could produce  of oil a day using the Bergius process.

Part of the personnel were German scientists, who had been extracted from Germany by Operation Paperclip.

In 1948, the program was extended to eight years and funding increased to US$60 million. A second facility was constructed at the Louisiana plant, this time using the Fischer–Tropsch process. Completed in 1951, the plant only produced  of fuel.

In 1953 the new Republican-led House Appropriations Committee ended funding for the research and the Missouri plant was returned to the Department of the Army.  After the 1973 oil crisis the need for domestic syncrude production (as well as substitute natural gas) was recognized and ERDA (subsequently DOE) embarked on a demonstration plants program, which included plants for the SRC-I and SRC-2 processes.

In 1979, after the second oil crisis, the U.S. Congress approved the Energy Security Act forming the Synthetic Fuels Corporation and authorized up to $88 million for synthetic fuels projects. This program focused on implementation of commercially available processes such as Lurgi gasification of lignite and Texaco gasification of coal to feed a gas turbine/combined cycle electric generating system.

In 1986, following the 1985 oil glut, President Reagan signed into law the Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1985 which among other things abolished the Synthetic Fuels Corporation.  It is estimated that over 40 years the cost of the various efforts at creating synthetic fuels may have totaled as much as $8 billion.

See also
 Jennings Randolph
 Carbon neutral fuel
 Unconventional oil
 Future energy development

References
 The Early Days of Coal Research at the U.S. Department of Energy site.
 You Don’t Need Oil To Make Fuel
 Review on Oil shale data
 German Synthetic Fuels Scientists
 The Bureau of Mines Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program 1944-55 Part 1 Oil From Coal
 A magic way to make billions (TIME Magazine, February 2006)
 CRS Report for Congress Oil Shale: History, Incentives, and Policy

United States federal energy legislation
Synthetic fuels
United States Bureau of Mines
SAPI. SAPI may stand for:
 Speech Application Programming Interface, an API produced by Microsoft for speech recognition and speech synthesis
 Server application programming interface, an API used to interface with web servers such as Apache
 Small Arms Protective Insert, a military ballistic protection system
 Systém automatického pořizování informací (system for automatic gathering of information): SAPI-1, a computer produced in former Czechoslovakia by Tesla
 Network Service Access Point Identifier, an identifier used in GPRS (cellular data) networks.
 SaPI, a family of pathogenicity islands found in Staphylococcus aureus

Sapi may refer to:
 Sapi Safari Area, included in UNESCO World Heritage Site Mana Pools National Park, Sapi and Chewore Safari Areas
 Sapi, a nickname for the name Sapna found in the Hindi language. Usage has been documented in North Eastern Ohio.
 Bull in Indonesian, such as in the Karapan sapi event or various dishes in Indonesian cuisine

See also
 Sappi, a South African pulp and paper company
Zincmelanterite. Zincmelanterite is a mineral, a sulfate of zinc, copper and iron with the chemical formula . It is a soft monoclinic yellow green mineral with Mohs hardness of 2 and a specific gravity of 2.02. 

It was discovered in 1920 in the Vulcan mining district of Gunnison County, Colorado, United States, and is named for its zinc content and its resemblance to melanterite.

References

Zinc minerals
Copper(II) minerals
Iron(II) minerals
Sulfate minerals
Monoclinic minerals
Minerals in space group 14
Lewis Archer Boswell. Lewis Archer Boswell (May 9, 1834 – November 26, 1909) was an early aviation pioneer who some believe made the first powered heavier-than-air flight, before the Wright Brothers.

Biography
Born May 9, 1834 in Lunenburg County, Virginia, Boswell went to study at Thomas Jefferson University and later Johns Hopkins University, earning his medical degree.  During the Civil War, he worked as a Confederate surgeon in Richmond, Virginia.

In 1868 Boswell began experimenting in aeronautics, but supposedly threw his small model into the Yazoo River that same year.  It is unknown why he did this, although speculation points to the purpose of hiding his plans or ending local ridicule.  He moved to Eastaboga, Alabama in 1869 with his new wife, where he was granted a patent for an  in 1874.

While he continued his study until his death on November 26, 1909, it is unknown if he ever built a full-scale model and attempted flight.   In 1900, he wrote a letter to the Secretary of War, asking for funding and promising results, but it was rejected.   Locals in his area have made claims that he actually did fly in November 1902, beating the Wright Brothers by a year.  In fact, at the time of his death, Boswell was pursuing  lawsuit against them, but this action was never carried through by his estate.  Other stories tell that he made a short flight after being rolled off a barn roof back in the mid-1890s.  However, no conclusive proof has surfaced to support these claims.

Legacy
In 2002, the local airport in Talladega, Alabama was renamed Boswell Field in honor of the local aviator, and according to the Airport Board Chairman, if Boswell made the first heavier than air flight, that would make Boswell Field the first airport.

See also
Wright Brothers
Early flying machines

References
Alabama Aviator
Talladega Daily Home
Anniston Star
Service in Civil War

External links

1834 births
1909 deaths
Aviation inventors
19th-century American inventors
People from Lunenburg County, Virginia
People from Eastaboga, Alabama
Confederate States Army surgeons
Exner equation. The Exner equation describes conservation of mass between sediment in the bed of a channel and sediment that is being transported. 
 
It states that bed elevation increases (the bed aggrades) proportionally to the amount of sediment that drops out of transport, and conversely decreases (the bed degrades) proportionally to the amount of sediment that becomes entrained by the flow.
It was developed by the Austrian meteorologist and sedimentologist Felix Maria Exner, from whom it derives its name.
It is typically applied to sediment in a fluvial system such as a river. 

The Exner equation states that the change in bed elevation, , over time, , is equal to one over the grain packing density, , times the negative divergence of sediment flux, ,

 

Note that  can also be expressed as , where  equals the bed porosity.

Good values of  for natural systems range from 0.45 to 0.75. A typical value for spherical grains is 0.64, as given by random close packing. An upper bound for close-packed spherical grains is 0.74048 (see sphere packing for more details); this degree of packing is extremely improbable in natural systems, making random close packing the more realistic upper bound on grain packing density.

Often, for reasons of computational convenience and/or lack of data, the Exner equation is used in its one-dimensional form. This is generally done with respect to the downstream direction , as one is typically interested in the downstream distribution of erosion and deposition though a river reach

 

where  is scalar sediment flux in the downstream direction.

References

Geomorphology
Sedimentology
Partial differential equations
Conservation equations
Schmidt hammer. A Schmidt hammer, also known as a Swiss hammer or a rebound hammer or concrete hammer test, is a device to measure the elastic properties or strength of concrete or rock, mainly surface hardness and penetration resistance. It was invented by Ernst Heinrich Wilhelm Schmidt, a Swiss engineer.

The hammer measures the rebound of a spring-loaded mass impacting against the surface of a sample. The test hammer hits the concrete at a defined energy. Its rebound is dependent on the hardness of the concrete and is measured by the test equipment. By reference to a conversion chart, the rebound value can be used to determine the concrete's compressive strength. When conducting the test, the hammer should be held at right angles to the surface, which in turn should be flat and smooth. The rebound reading will be affected by the orientation of the hammer: when used oriented upward (for example, on the underside of a suspended slab), gravity will increase the rebound distance of the mass, and vice versa for a test conducted on a floor slab. Schmidt hammer measurements are on an arbitrary scale ranging from 10 to 100.

Schmidt hammers are available from manufacturers in several different energy ranges, including (i) Type L-0.735 Nm impact energy, (ii) Type N-2.207 Nm impact energy, and (iii) Type M-29.43 Nm impact energy.

The test is also sensitive to other factors:
Local variation in the sample. To minimize this, it is recommended to take a selection of readings and take an average or median value.
Water content of the sample; a saturated material will give different results from a dry one.

Prior to testing, the Schmidt hammer should be calibrated using a calibration test anvil supplied by the manufacturer. Twelve readings should be taken, dropping the highest and lowest, and then taking the average of the ten remaining. This method of testing is classed as indirect as it does not give a direct measurement of the strength of the material. It simply gives an indication based on surface properties, and as such is suitable only for making comparisons between samples.

This method for testing concrete is governed by ASTM C805. A European standard for testing concrete in structures is EN 12504-2. ASTM D5873 describes the procedure for testing of rock.

References

External links 
 Screening Eagle Technologies Schmidt Hammer
 Savoie Maintenance Service revendeur et réparateur SCHMIDT Hammer 

Concrete
Geological tools
Geomorphology
Hardness instruments
Nondestructive testing
Liquefied gas. Liquefied gas (sometimes referred to as liquid gas) is a gas that has been turned into a liquid by cooling or compressing it.  Examples of liquefied gases include liquid air, liquefied natural gas, and liquefied petroleum gas.

Liquid air

At the Lister Institute of Preventive Medicine, liquid air has been brought into use as an agent in biological research. An inquiry into the intracellular constituents of the typhoid bacillus, initiated under the direction of Doctor Allan Macfadyen, necessitated the separation of the cell-plasma of the organism. The method at first adopted for the disintegration of the bacteria was to mix them with silver-sand and churn the whole up in a closed vessel in which a series of horizontal vanes revolved at a high speed. But certain disadvantages attached to this procedure, and accordingly some means was sought to do away with the sand and triturate the bacilli per se. This was found in liquid air, which, as had long before been shown at the Royal Institution, has the power of reducing materials like grass or the leaves of plants to such a state of brittleness that they can easily be powdered in a mortar. By its aid a complete trituration of the typhoid bacilli has been accomplished at the Jenner Institute, and the same process, already applied with success also to yeast cells and animal cells, is being extended in other directions.

When air is liquefied the oxygen and nitrogen are condensed simultaneously. However, owing to its greater volatility the latter boils off the more quickly of the two, so that the remaining liquid becomes gradually richer and richer in oxygen.

Liquefied natural gas

Liquefied natural gas is natural gas that has been liquefied for the purpose of storage or transport. Since transportation of natural gas requires a large network of pipeline that crosses through various terrains and oceans, a huge investment and long term planning are required. Before transport, natural gas is liquefied by pressurization. The liquefied gas is then transported through tankers with special airtight compartments. When the tanks are opened and the liquid exposed to atmospheric pressure, the liquid boils off from the latent heat of the air or its container.

References

See also
Liquid oxygen
Liquid nitrogen
Liquid hydrogen
Liquid helium

Laboratory techniques
Cryogenics
JUNET. Japan University NETwork (JUNET) was a computer network established by three universities, Tokyo University, Tokyo Institute of Technology and Keio University in October 1984 for test and research purposes. At its height it connected 700 machines. Comparable to the model of the American Usenet, it employed a UUCP implementation over telephone line. JUNET played an important role in the development of the Internet in Japan. It was made obsolete with the development and growing popularity of the WIDE Project, and was discontinued in October 1994.

Size and Growth of the Network

JUNET grew from a few organizations in 1984 to over 250 nodes in 87 organizations by July 1987.

References

External links
 The history of the WIDE project

Science and technology in Japan
Internet in Japan
Internet properties established in 1984
Internet properties disestablished in 1994