omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Philip Eaton. Philip E. Eaton (June 2, 1936 – July 21, 2023) was an American chemist. He served as Professor Emeritus of Chemistry at the University of Chicago. Eaton and his fellow researchers were the first to synthesize the "impossible" cubane molecule in 1964.

Working with Mao-Xi Zhang he is reported as having been the first to make octanitrocubane (their paper was published in the year 2003). Because of its eight nitro groups and highly strained C-C bonds, octanitrocubane is a very powerful high explosive.

Early life and education
Philip E. Eaton was born on June 2, 1936 in Brooklyn, New York. When Eaton was seven his family relocated to Budd Lake, New Jersey. Here he began attending Roxbury Grammar School and later Roxbury High School. It was during these high school years that he began to find his passion for science. It was the support of his parents and teachers that he decided to study chemistry.

Eaton attended Princeton University seeking a major in chemistry. Eaton received his B.A. in 1957 before attending Harvard University and earning his M.A. in 1960 and Ph.D. in 1961. During his time in school he became familiar with cage chemistry, specifically Kepone.

Teaching experience
Upon graduating from Harvard Eaton accepted an assistant professorship position at the University of California, Berkeley. During this time he taught introductory organic chemistry. In 1962, he transferred to the University of Chicago where he remained as Professor Emeritus until his death in 2023.

Research
After arriving at University of Chicago Eaton began his research which he is now most well known for, cubane synthesis. In 1964 Eaton and Thomas W. Cole Jr. synthesized the "impossible" cubane molecule. It was given this name because of its unusual cubic geometry. Many scientists believed that the 90 degree bond-angles would be too strained to allow this molecule to form. He later studied larger prismanes.

Death
Philip Eaton died on July 21, 2023, at the age of 87.

Awards
 Alfred P. Sloan Foundation Fellow (1963)
 Research Award, Rohm and Haas Company (1975)
 Alexander von Humboldt Prize (1985)
 Alan Berman Research Rublication Award, Naval Research Laboratory, U.S. Navy (1995)
 Arthur C. Cope Scholar Award, American Chemical Society (1997)

References

External links
 
 
 Home page at Chicago University
 http://www.synarchive.com/syn/14
 http://chronicle.uchicago.edu/000302/octa.shtml

1936 births
2023 deaths
University of Chicago faculty
American organic chemists
Harvard University alumni
Princeton University alumni
Scientists from Brooklyn
Bradford (computer program). Bradford was a computer program written and sold in the 1980s by Aaron Contorer and his firm, Contorer Computing. It was one of the first programs sold using the shareware marketing model. 

Available for both CP/M and MS-DOS operating systems, it greatly increased the quality of printing on a dot matrix printer and included a range of fonts.

Though popular for several years, Bradford, along with similar products, became obsolete as Windows 3.1 included much more powerful support for attractive printing.

References

External links
 The open letter from Contorer describing the business model (text file)

Utilities for Windows
Verein für Raumschiffahrt. The Verein für Raumschiffahrt ("VfR", ) was a German amateur rocket association prior to World War II that included members outside Germany.  The first successful VfR test firing with liquid fuel (five minutes) was conducted by Max Valier at the Heylandt Works on January 25, 1930; and additional rocket experiments were conducted at a farm near Bernstadt, Saxony.

Space travel and rocketry gained popularity in Germany after the June 1923 publication of Herman Oberth's book Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen () and the expanded 1929 work Wege zur Raumschiffahrt (Ways to Spaceflight).

The VfR was founded in 1927 by Johannes Winkler, with Max Valier and Willy Ley after their participation as expert advisers for Fritz Lang's early science fiction film Frau im Mond (The Woman in the Moon). Ley and Hermann Oberth had hoped to receive funding from Lang for a real-life experimental rocket launch coinciding with the movie's premiere. Valier had assisted in Fritz von Opel's rocket-powered publicity stunts for the Opel company.

In September 1930, before Hitler came to power, the VfR requested funding from the German army. Rockets were one of the few types of military development not restricted by the Versailles treaty at the end of World War I, 11 years earlier. They received permission from the municipality to use an abandoned ammunition dump at Reinickendorf, the Berlin rocket launching site (). For three years the VfR launched increasingly powerful rockets of their own design from this location. Following the unsuccessful Mirak rockets, the most powerful rocket of the Repulsor series (named for a spaceship in a German novel by Kurd Lasswitz) reached altitudes over 1 km (3,000 ft).

In the spring of 1932, Capt Walter Dornberger, his commander (Captain Ritter von Horstig), and Col Karl Heinrich Emil Becker viewed a (failed) VfR launch, and Dornberger subsequently issued a contract for a demonstration launch. Wernher von Braun, who was then a young student and had joined the group two years earlier, was in favor of the contract  The group eventually rejected the proposal and the dissension caused during its consideration contributed to the society dissolving itself in January 1934. The society's demise was also the result of an inability to find funding, and Berlin's civic authorities becoming concerned with rocketry experiments so close to the city.

The only known VfR rocket artifact is a rejected aluminium Repulsor nozzle which member Herbert Schaefer took to the US when he emigrated in 1935 and which he donated to the Smithsonian Institution in 1978.

References 

1927 establishments in Germany
1933 disestablishments in Germany
History of Wrocław
History of spaceflight
Scientific organizations established in 1927
Organizations disestablished in 1933
Weimar culture
Base metal. A base metal is a common and inexpensive metal, as opposed to a precious metal such as gold or silver.  In numismatics, coins often derived their value  from the precious metal content; however, base metals have also been used in coins in the past and today.

Specific definitions
In contrast to noble metals, base metals may be distinguished by oxidizing or corroding relatively easily and reacting variably with diluted hydrochloric acid (HCl) to form hydrogen. Examples include  iron, nickel, lead and zinc. Copper is also considered a base metal because it oxidizes relatively easily, although it does not react with HCl.

In mining and economics, the term base metals refers to industrial non-ferrous metals excluding precious metals. These include copper, lead, nickel and zinc.

The U.S. Customs and Border Protection agency is more inclusive in its definition of commercial base metals. Its list includes—in addition to copper, lead, nickel, and zinc—the following metals: iron and steel (an alloy), aluminium, tin, tungsten, molybdenum, tantalum, cobalt, bismuth, cadmium, titanium, zirconium, antimony, manganese, beryllium, chromium, germanium, vanadium, gallium, hafnium, indium, niobium, rhenium, and thallium, and their alloys.

Other uses
In the context of plated metal products, the base metal underlies the plating metal, as copper underlies silver in Sheffield plate.

See also
London Metal Exchange
Philosopher's stone
Pot metal
Reactivity series

References

External links
 Non-ferrous metal price charts

Currency production
Metals
FD. FD or similar may refer to:

Science and technology
Canon FD lens mount, a standard for connecting a lens to a camera
Familial dysautonomia, a disorder of the autonomic nervous system 
Fermi–Dirac statistics (F–D statistics), in quantum statistics
Ferredoxin, iron–sulfur proteins 
File descriptor, in Unix and related computer operating systems
Freedesktop.org (fd.o), an interoperability project
Functional dependency, a constraint in a relation from a database
Nissan FD engine, for trucks and buses

Transportation
Thai AirAsia, IATA airline code FD
Mazda RX-7 (FD), a car
FD Phantom, original name for the FH Phantom jet fighter
Russian locomotive class FD
Flight director (aeronautics), a flight instrument 
Flying Dutchman (dinghy)

Other uses
Formula Drift, an American motorsport series
Fidei defensor (Latin, 'Defender of the Faith'), part of the full style of many English/British monarchs
Fixed deposit, a financial instrument 
Finance Director, or chief financial officer, in a company
Fire Department, providing firefighting services
Force of the Right (Forța Dreptei), a Romanian political party
Financial Dynamics, a UK business services and lobbying firm acquired by FTI Consulting in 2006

See also

 Floppy disk drive (FDD) in early computers
XC. XC may refer to:

Science and technology
 XC (programming language), a concurrent programming language developed by XMOS
 Capacitive reactance or XC, a property of a capacitor
 Exact cover problem, in theoretical computer science
 Xeno-canto, citizen science website for bird calls
 Xerox copy, in correspondence
 Xylene cyanol, a color marker used in gel electrophoresis

Sport

 Cross-country running
 Cross-country skiing
 Cross-country cycling
 Cross-country equestrianism
 Cross-country gliding

Symbols
 90 (number), in Roman numerals
 Christogram, a mongram for Jesus Christ

Transport

Aviation
 Corendon Airlines, Turkey (founded 2004;  IATA designator: XC)
 KD Air, Canada (1990–2019; obsolete IATA designator: XC)
 Wills Wing XC, an American hang glider design
 XC, a Mexican government aircraft registration prefix

Land transport
 Ford Falcon (XC), an Australian series of car models
 XC Trains Limited (trading as: CrossCountry), a British rail operator

Other uses
 Xenoblade Chronicles, a series of video games developed by Monolith Soft
 Xavier College, a school in Melbourne, Australia

See also
 10C (disambiguation)
 Cross country
Mindpixel. Mindpixel was a web-based collaborative artificial intelligence project which aimed to create a knowledgebase of millions of human validated true/false statements, or probabilistic propositions. It ran from 2000 to 2005.

Description
Participants in the project created one-line statements which aimed to be objectively true or false to 20 other anonymous participants. In order to submit their statement they had first to check the true/false validity of 20 such statements submitted by others. Participants whose replies were consistently out of step with the majority had their status downgraded and were eventually excluded. Likewise, participants who made contributions which others could not agree were objectively true or false had their status downgraded.  A validated  true/false statement is called a mindpixel.

The project enlisted the efforts of thousands of participants and claimed to be "the planet's largest artificial intelligence effort".

The project was conceived by Chris McKinstry, a computer scientist and former Very Large Telescope operator for the European Southern Observatory in Chile, as MISTIC (Minimum Intelligent Signal Test Item Corpus) in 1996. Mindpixel was developed out of this program, and started in 2000 and had 1.4 million mindpixels in January 2004. The database and its software is known as GAC, which stands for "Generic Artificial Consciousness" and is pronounced Jak.   

McKinstry believed that the Mindpixel database could be used in conjunction with a neural net to produce a body of human "common sense" knowledge which would have market value. Participants in the project were promised shares in any future value according to the number of mindpixels they had successfully created.

On 20 September 2005 Mindpixel lost its free server and is no longer operational. It was being rewritten by Chris McKinstry as Mindpixel 2 and was intended to appear on a new server in France.

Chris McKinstry died of suicide on 23 January 2006 and the future of the project and the integrity of the data is uncertain. 

Some Mindpixel data have been utilized by Michael Spivey of Cornell University and Rick Dale of The University of Memphis to study theories of high-level reasoning and continuous temporal dynamics of thought. McKinstry, along with Dale and Spivey, designed an experiment that has now been published in Psychological Science in its January, 2008 issue. In this paper, McKinstry (as posthumous first author), Dale, and Spivey use a very small and carefully selected set of Mindpixel statements to show that even high-level thought processes like decision making can be revealed in the nonlinear dynamics of bodily action.

Other similar AI-driven knowledge acquisition projects are Never-Ending Language Learning and Open Mind Common Sense (run by MIT), the latter being also hampered when its director died of suicide.

See also
 Never-Ending Language Learning
 Cyc

References

External links
 Mindpixel Home page (Currently points to a "Mindpixel IQ test" using the Mindpixel Db of validated statements)

Artificial intelligence
Knowledge bases
IME. IME or ime may refer to:

Organizations
 Institution of Mechanical Engineers, British engineering society
 Instituto Militar de Engenharia (Military Institute of Engineering), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
 Instituto de los Mexicanos en el Exterior, Mexican government institute
 Iran Mercantile Exchange

Science and technology
 Input method editor, allowing the entry of characters not physically present on a computer keyboard
 In-Movie Experience, to view bonus content on HD-DVD and Blu-ray Disc
 Intel Management Engine, for Intel Active Management Technology 
 Intron-mediated enhancement, a biological process

Medicine
 Independent medical examination, by a health professional not involved in a patient's treatment
 Indirect Medical Education, a type of Medicare payment issued to teaching hospitals

People
 Ime Akpan (born 1972), retired female track and field athlete from Nigeria
 Ime Udoka (born 1977), Nigerian-American basketball coach and former player
 Ime Bishop Umoh, Nigerian actor and comedian

Places
Ime, a village in Norway

Entertainment
I Me or iMe, a multinational girl group from China and Thailand
I Mother Earth, a Canadian alternative rock band

See also
 I Am Me (disambiguation)
 
 
 Imes (disambiguation)

African given names
Unisex given names
Free energy. Free energy may refer to:

Science

 Free energy perturbation, a method based on statistical mechanics used in computational chemistry
 Free energy principle, a variational formulation of self-organisation in biological systems, applied in particular to neuroscience
 Free-energy relationship, a relationship in physical organic chemistry 
 Principle of minimum energy, a thermodynamic formulation based on the second law
 Thermodynamic free energy, the energy in a physical system that can be converted to do work, including:
 Gibbs free energy
 Landau free energy (also known as grand potential)
 Helmholtz free energy
 Variational free energy, a construct from information theory that is used in variational Bayesian methods

Pseudoscience
 Free energy device, a hypothetical perpetual motion device that is supposedly capable of drawing energy from a hidden free energy field, which is unknown in science
 Free energy suppression conspiracy theory, in which advanced energy technologies are suppressed by governments or special interest groups
 History of perpetual motion machines, history of devices supposedly capable of drawing unlimited energy

Other uses
 In economics, energy from sources that do not require an input which has to be paid for (usually a sub-set of renewable energy)
 Free Energy (band), a 5-piece rock band on DFA Records
Information Module Profile. IMP stands for the Information Module Profile. It is a specification put out by Sun Microsystems for the use of Java on embedded devices with very limited displays. It is a subset of the Mobile Information Device Profile.

IMP is part of the Java ME framework.

Noteworthy Limitations 

 No API for displays

General APIs 

The core APIs are defined by the underlying Configuration CLDC.

javax.microedition.io 

Contains the Java 2 Platform, Micro Edition specific classes used for I/O operations.

javax.microedition.rms 

Provides a form of persistent storage for Java 2 Platform, Micro Edition.

javax.microedition.midlet 

Contains the base classes for Java 2 Platform, Micro Edition applications.

External links 

The IMP Specification

Java device platform
Sun Microsystems software
Foot-pound (energy). The foot-pound force (symbol: ft⋅lbf,   ft⋅lbf, or ft⋅lb ) is a unit of work or energy in the engineering and gravitational systems in United States customary and imperial units of measure. It is the energy transferred upon applying a force of one pound-force (lbf) through a linear displacement of one foot.  The corresponding SI unit is the joule, though in terms of energy, one joule is not equal to one foot-pound.

Usage
The term foot-pound is also used as a unit of torque (see pound-foot (torque)).  In the United States this is often used to specify, for example, the tightness of a fastener (such as screws and nuts) or the output of an engine.  Although they are dimensionally equivalent, energy (a scalar) and torque (a Euclidean vector) are distinct physical quantities. Both energy and torque can be expressed as a product of a force vector with a displacement vector (hence pounds and feet); energy is the scalar product of the two, and torque is the vector product.

Although calling the torque unit "pound-foot" has been academically suggested, both are still commonly called "foot-pound" in colloquial usage.  To avoid confusion, it is not uncommon for people to specify each as "foot-pound of energy" or "foot-pound of torque" respectively.

In small arms ballistics and particularly in the United States, the foot-pound is often used to specify the muzzle energy of a bullet.

Conversion factors

Energy
1 foot pound-force is equivalent to:
  joules
  ergs
 about  British thermal units
  calories
  eV =  EeV =  GeV

Power
1 foot pound-force per second is equivalent to:
 1.3558179483314 watts
  horsepower

Related conversions:
 1 watt ≈  ft⋅lbf/min =  ft⋅lbf/s
 1 horsepower (mechanical) = 33,000 ft⋅lbf/min = 550 ft⋅lbf/s

See also
 Conversion of units
 Pound-foot (torque)
 Poundal
 Slug (unit)
 Units of energy

References

Customary units of measurement in the United States
Imperial units
Units of energy
System camera. A system camera or camera body is a camera with interchangeable components that constitutes the core of a system. Early representatives include Leica I Schraubgewinde (1930), Exakta (1936) and the Nikon F (1959). System cameras are often single-lens reflex (SLR) or twin-lens reflex (TLR) but can also be rangefinder cameras or, more recently, mirrorless interchangeable-lens cameras. Voice coil motors (VCMs) are used to control the lens movement to achieve fast and accurate autofocus. The VCM moves the lens elements to focus the light onto the sensor with high precision.

Systems are usually named for the lens mount, such Nikon F-mount, Canon EF mount, and M42 mount (a non-proprietary mount using a  screw thread).

Even point-and-shoot cameras usually include a tripod socket. A system camera includes at the very least a camera body and separate, interchangeable lenses, whence the alternative name interchangeable-lens camera (ILC). In addition it often includes:
 Electronic flash units matching the camera's capabilities.
 PC socket or tripod-adapter mounts for external flash units, rather than just a hot shoe
 Mechanical, electric, or IR/RF remote shutter release.
 Extensive supplementary equipment for macro photography and photomicrography.
 Adapters for third-party or legacy lenses, including tilt-shift adapters
 For film cameras, a motor drive to advance the film automatically.
 For film cameras, different camera backs, e.g. large capacity for bulk film, or data back or datebacks for recording exposure and date information.
 Add-on correction or magnifying lenses to help focusing or composition through the viewfinder.
 Interchangeable viewfinders, including interchangeable focusing screens in the case of SLRs. Viewfinders and focusing screens could give different metering options.
 Extra-capacity battery packs, often in the form of a "battery grip" (a second, portrait-oriented handgrip), but also including fully external packs with cable interface
 AC adapters with dummy-battery interfaces for studio or other stationary work
 Sockets and matching cables for direct output, e.g., to a television
 Depth of field preview
 Global navigation satellite system receivers, e.g. (GPS) for geotagging
 Bluetooth or Wi-Fi networking modules

While some early mechanical interfaces are standardized across brands, optical and electronic interfaces are often proprietary. Hot shoes have a common interface for basic flash functions, but often contain proprietary contacts inside for advanced flashes and data modules.

References

Cameras by type
Technology systems
Mechanical efficiency. In mechanical engineering, mechanical efficiency is a dimensionless ratio that measures the efficiency of a mechanism or machine in transforming the power input to the device to power output.  A machine is a mechanical linkage in which force is applied at one point, and the force does work moving a load at another point.  At any instant the power input to a machine is equal to the input force multiplied by the velocity of the input point, similarly the power output is equal to the force exerted on the load multiplied by the velocity of the load.  The mechanical efficiency of a machine (often represented by the Greek letter eta η) is a dimensionless number between 0 and 1 that is the ratio between the power output of the machine and the power input

Since a machine does not contain a source of energy, nor can it store energy, from conservation of energy the power output of a machine can never be greater than its input, so the efficiency can never be greater than 1.

All real machines lose energy to friction; the energy is dissipated as heat.  Therefore, their power output is less than their power input

Therefore, the efficiency of all real machines is less than 1.  A hypothetical machine without friction is called an ideal machine; such a machine would not have any energy losses, so its output power would equal its input power, and its efficiency would be 1 (100%).

For hydropower turbines the efficiency is referred to as hydraulic efficiency.

See also
 Mechanical advantage
 Thermal efficiency
 Electrical efficiency
 Internal combustion engine
 Electric motor
 Velocity ratio

References

Mechanisms (engineering)
Energy conversion
Mechanical quantities

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