omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
How Buildings Learn. How Buildings Learn: What Happens After They're Built is an illustrated book on the evolution of buildings and how buildings adapt to changing requirements over long periods. It was written by Stewart Brand and published by Viking Press in 1994. In 1997 it was turned into a 6-part TV series on the BBC.

Book
Brand asserts that the best buildings are made from low-cost, standard designs that people are familiar with, and easy to modify. In this way people can gradually change their buildings to meet their needs. One of his examples is Building 20 at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Brand states that a supply of simple, low-cost, easily modified buildings is key to innovation and economic growth. He implies that an expanding property-value market may actually slow innovation and produce a less human-centered community. Among other things, the book details the notion of Shearing layers.

Criticism of the architect Richard Rogers was removed from the UK edition but remains in the US edition.

TV series
The book inspired a 6-part TV series by the BBC, produced by James Runcie, executive producer Roly Keating, which was screened in July 1997.

In the BBC series, Brand is highly critical of the entire modernist approach to architecture. He fully rejects the "center out" approach of design, where a single person or group designs a building for others to use, in favor of an evolutionary approach where owners can change a building over time to meet their needs. He focuses specific criticisms on modernist innovators like Buckminster Fuller for making round buildings that do not allow any kind of additions or internal divisions, Frank Gehry for making buildings that were hard to maintain, and Le Corbusier for making buildings that did not take into consideration the needs of families. Brand was also critical of French development during the 1980s which did not take local conditions into account and ended up not serving their purpose, like the central Library which had to take money away from buying new books to deal with the heat produced by so many windows.

Brand stresses the value of an organic kind of building, based on four walls, which is easy to change and expand and grow as the ideal form of building.

See also
 The Timeless Way of Building

Notes

External links 
 Extract from the book on Stewart Brand's website
 Detailed notes by Phil Gyford
 
 How Buildings Learn uploaded to YouTube by Stewart Brand

1994 non-fiction books
Architecture books
Viking Press books
ARGE-SH. ARGE-SH - the Institute for Sustainable Constructions in Germany has been publishing specialized books on building construction and house building since 1947.
(in German: “Arbeitsgemeinschaft für zeitgemäßes Bauen e. V.“)

It was founded in 1946 as a Research Institute for Cob-buildings, and for group-organized and subsidized self-help-construction of home buildings in Kiel, Germany.  (Schleswig-Holstein)

ARGE-SH is an official Institute for Rationalization of housebuilding in Germany accredited by the Ministry of Interior of Schleswig-Holstein since 1972.

The main tasks are Consulting and research on sustainable and innovative constructions and building materials and the education and training of engineers, architects and companies of the building sector.

One of the current national projects is the Innovative Technologies of Thermal insulation
Network, in international projects for example ARGE-SH is partner of the BEEN-Project (Baltic Energy Efficiency Network).

References
 Publications of the Arbeitsgemeinschaft für zeitgemäßes Bauen e.V. in the German National Library
 Selk, Dieter [Hrsg.]: 50 Jahre Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Zeitgemäßes Bauen e. V., Kiel : ein Rückblick; 1946 - 1996; Kiel 1996

External links

Innovative Technologies of Insulation Network

Research institutes in Germany
Housing in Germany
VS-MK2 mine. The VS-MK-2 is a plastic bodied scatterable anti-personnel blast mine manufactured by the now-defunct Valsella Meccanotecnica, SpA, an Italian high-tech defence contractor that specialized in the development and production of area denial systems. The mine is extremely difficult to detect because of its low metal content i.e. it is a minimum metal mine. Additionally, it is resistant to blast overpressure due to a pneumatic system in the fuze. The mine will also function in up to 1 metre of water. An electrically fused anti-handling version of the mine was also produced designated VS-MK-2-EL, VS-MK-2-E or VS-MK2 AR-AN to hinder clearance attempts. Although Italy has ceased production of this mine it may still be found in uncleared minefields located in Angola, Sudan and the Western Sahara.

Description
The mine is circular and normally olive green or sand colored. The top of the mine has a black neoprene plunger/pressure plate, which rests on a small spring. The mine is internally divided into two sections separated by a small air bleed hole. When the plunger is compressed, air is forced through the bleed hole equalizing pressure in the upper and lower section. When the mine experiences sudden overpressure an air bladder inflates caused by the differential in pressure between the upper and lower sections, this prevents the activation of the mine. When constant pressure is applied the pressure equalizes gradually and the mine is activated, a firing pin is flipped sideways by the plunger into a stab-detonator, which fires the horseshoe-shaped main explosive charge.

The amount of explosive in a VS-Mk 2 mine is comparatively small in relation to other anti-personnel mines because it is designed to disable victims, not kill them. Although the blast wound from an VS-Mk 2 is unlikely to be fatal (assuming that prompt emergency medical care is provided) it usually destroys a significant part of the victim's foot, thereby leading to some form of permanent disability regarding their gait. However, in situations where the victims are barefoot or wearing sandals, the blast wounds are more severe.

Specifications
 Weight: 135 g
 Explosive content: 33 g of RDX phlegmatized with paraffin wax.
 Diameter: 90 mm
 Height: 32 mm
 Operating pressure: 12 kg

See also
VS-50 mine
TS-50 mine
TC/6 mine

References
 Jane's Mines and Mine Clearance 2005-2006

Anti-personnel mines
Land mines of Italy
Protocol-based intrusion detection system. A protocol-based intrusion detection system (PIDS) is an intrusion detection system which is typically installed on a web server, and is used in the monitoring and analysis of the protocol in use by the computing system.  A PIDS will monitor the dynamic behavior and state of the protocol and will typically consist of a system or agent that would typically sit at the front end of a server, monitoring and analyzing the communication between a connected device and the system it is protecting.

A typical use for a PIDS would be at the front end of a web server monitoring the HTTP (or HTTPS) stream.  Because it understands the HTTP relative to the web server/system it is trying to protect it can offer greater protection than less in-depth techniques such as filtering by IP address or port number alone, however this greater protection comes at the cost of increased computing on the web server.

Where HTTPS is in use then this system would need to reside in the "shim" or interface between where HTTPS is un-encrypted and immediately prior to it entering the Web presentation layer.

Monitoring dynamic behavior
At a basic level a PIDS would look for, and enforce, the correct use of the protocol. 

At a more advanced level the PIDS can learn or be taught acceptable constructs of the protocol, and thus better detect anomalous behavior.

See also
 Application protocol-based intrusion detection system (APIDS)
 Host-based intrusion detection system (HIDS)
 Intrusion detection system (IDS)
 Network intrusion detection system (NIDS)
 Tripwire (software) – a pioneering HIDS
 Trusted Computing Group
 Trusted platform module

References

Intrusion detection systems
Web server management software

es:PIDS
ko:호스트 기반 침입 탐지 시스템
it:Protocol intrusion detection system
Application protocol-based intrusion detection system. An application protocol-based intrusion detection system (APIDS) is an intrusion detection system that focuses its monitoring and analysis on a specific application protocol or protocols in use by the computing system.

Overview 
An APIDS will monitor the dynamic behavior and state of the protocol and will typically consist of a system or agent that would typically sit between a process, or group of servers, monitoring and analyzing the application protocol between two connected devices.

A typical place for an APIDS would be between a web server and the database management system, monitoring the SQL protocol specific to the middleware/business logic as it interacts with the database.

Monitoring dynamic behavior 
At a basic level an APIDS would look for, and enforce, the correct (legal) use of the protocol.

However at a more advanced level the APIDS can learn, be taught or even reduce what is often an infinite protocol set, to an acceptable understanding of the subset of that application protocol that is used by the application being monitored/protected.

Thus, an APIDS, correctly configured, will allow an application to be "fingerprinted", thus should that application be subverted or changed, so will the fingerprint change.

See also
 Intrusion detection system (IDS)
 Web application firewall (WAF)

References

Intrusion detection systems

es:APIDS
Atomistix. Atomistix A/S was a software company developing tools for atomic scale modelling. It was headquartered in Copenhagen, Denmark, with a subsidiary for Asia Pacific in Singapore and for the Americas in California. In September 2008 Atomistix A/S went bankrupt, but in December 2008 the newly founded company QuantumWise announced that they had acquired all assets from the Atomistix estate and would continue the development and marketing of the products Atomistix ToolKit and Atomistix Virtual NanoLab. QuantumWise was then acquired by Synopsys in 2017.

History 

The company was founded in October 2003 by Dr. Kurt Stokbro, Dr. Jeremy Taylor and Dr. Thomas Magnussen. Dr. Stokbro and Dr. Taylor are co-authors on the article introducing the electron transport method and program TranSIESTA (based on the SIESTA program) for academic research. This method, and methods used in Dr. Taylor Ph.D. research, was the starting point for Atomistix first product, TranSIESTA-C. The C refers to the program being written in the C programming language as opposed to Fortran in which TranSIESTA was written. This code had been completely reengineered and further developed into the commercial products marketed by the company today.
    
Since the very beginning the company had been working in close collaboration with the Nano-Science Center at the Niels Bohr Institute of Copenhagen University, to enhance the product development, and had instituted cooperations with leading nanotechnology centers, experts and private companies around the world.

Business 

The management team consisted of:
Børge Witthøft, President and Chief Executive Officer (CEO).
Dr. Jeremy Taylor, co-founder and Chief Technical Officer (CTO).
Klaus Melchior, Chief Operating Officer (COO) and Chief Financial Officer (CFO).
Niels Nielsen, Vice President (VP) Sales and Marketing.

Products 

Atomistix A/S provided the following products:

Atomistix ToolKit (ATK)
Atomistix Virtual NanoLab (VNL)

Legacy Products:
IView
TranSIESTA-C

These products represented a package of integrated software modules for quantum chemistry modelling, providing a user-friendly graphical interface interaction to complex computational methods.

From the usability point of view, the setup of the computation is done through Atomistix Virtual NanoLab, a metaphoric interface, mimicking in silico the approach of an experiment in a real laboratory. The underlying computational engine is the Atomistix ToolKit (ATK) which is the next generation of TranSIESTA-C. ATK also has a Python based interface NanoLanguage and a text file interface.

The methods used in the software products are based primarily on density functional theory (DFT) and non-equilibrium Green's function (NEGF) techniques and also all the underlying quantum mechanics.

See also
Semiconductor
Nanotechnology
Molecular modelling
Software for molecular modeling

References

Sources

External links
QuantumWise website

Danish companies established in 2003
Nanotechnology companies
Software companies based in Copenhagen
2008 disestablishments in Denmark
Software companies established in 2003
Software companies disestablished in 2008
2008 mergers and acquisitions
Nonlinear management. Linear management is the application of reductionism to management problems, often relying on the ability to predict, engineer and control outcomes by manipulating the component parts of a business (organization, operation, policy, process and so on). Business process reengineering (BPR) is a popular example of linear management at work. The key defining characteristic of linear management is that order is imposed – usually from above.

Nonlinear management (NLM) is a superset of management techniques and strategies that allows order to emerge by giving organizations the space to self-organize, evolve and adapt, encompassing Agile, "evolutionary" and "lean" approaches, flextime, time banking, as well as many others. Key aspects of NLM, including holism, evolutionary design or delivery, and self-organization are diametrically opposite to linear management thinking.

Examples of nonlinear management at work
Agile software development

References
H. Richard Priesmeyer. ORGANIZATIONS AND CHAOS: Defining the Methods of Nonlinear Management. Quorum Books. 1992.
Margaret J. Wheatley. Leadership & The New Science: Discovering Order In A Chaotic World. Berrett-Koehler. 2001.

External links
What Disaster Response Management Can Learn From Chaos Theory – H. Richard Priesmeyer & Edward G. Cole

Management by type
Electrorheological clutch. An electrorheological clutch (ER clutch) comprises drive and driven members, generally parallel to each other, that can be selectively engaged by the application of a voltage to an electrorheological (ER) fluid. The ER fluid is used as the coupling between the input and the output (drive and driven members). The clutch acts as a power amplifier and the effect is fast (of the order of milliseconds) and reversible.

See also 
 Electromagnetic clutch

References

External links 
 HowStuffWorks has a detailed explanation of the working of a clutch.

Clutches
Automotive transmission technologies
German submarine U-961. German submarine U-961 was a Type VIIC U-boat built for Nazi Germany's Kriegsmarine during World War II. U-961 was constructed at Hamburg during 1942 and 1943, completing her working-up cruises in the Baltic Sea in the spring of 1944. Due to extensive modifications and shortages of supplies during her construction and training, U-961 took nearly two years to be ready for active service, an exceptionally long time.

Design
German Type VIIC submarines were preceded by the shorter Type VIIB submarines. U-961 had a displacement of  when at the surface and  while submerged. She had a total length of , a pressure hull length of , a beam of , a height of , and a draught of . The submarine was powered by two Germaniawerft F46 four-stroke, six-cylinder supercharged diesel engines producing a total of  for use while surfaced, two Brown, Boveri & Cie GG UB 720/8 double-acting electric motors producing a total of  for use while submerged. She had two shafts and two  propellers. The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to .

The submarine had a maximum surface speed of  and a maximum submerged speed of . When submerged, the boat could operate for  at ; when surfaced, she could travel  at . U-961 was fitted with five  torpedo tubes (four fitted at the bow and one at the stern), fourteen torpedoes, one  SK C/35 naval gun, 220 rounds, and one twin  C/30 anti-aircraft gun. The boat had a complement of between forty-four and sixty.

Service history

War patrol
U-961 departed on her only war patrol on 23 March 1944, under the command of Oberleutnant zur See Klaus Fischer, a veteran submariner. After leaving Marvika at Kristiansand in Norway, U-961 headed directly for the North Atlantic Ocean, the main battleground of the Battle of the Atlantic. By 1944 however, the region had become a U-boat graveyard, as drastic improvements in submarine detection and destruction had been made, both by surface shipping and by allied aircraft.

Fate
The patrol lasted just seven days, ending during an attack on convoy JW 58  north of the Faroe Islands on 29 March. As U-961 approached the convoy, she was discovered underwater by the detection equipment on the convoy escort  and immediately destroyed with depth charges, at position . The boat never even managed to surface, sinking to the bottom with all 49 sailors on board.

References

Bibliography

External links

World War II submarines of Germany
German Type VIIC submarines
World War II shipwrecks in the Norwegian Sea
U-boats commissioned in 1943
U-boats sunk in 1944
1942 ships
Ships built in Hamburg
U-boats sunk by depth charges
U-boats sunk by British warships
Submarines lost with all hands
Maritime incidents in March 1944
Rockdust. Rock dust is a pulverized rock, usually limestone, sprayed on walls inside underground coal mines to prevent coal dust explosions. The dust acts as a heat sink, keeps coal dust levels down, and also prevents the incidence of black lung disease. Rock dust has been used since the early 1900s, but technological improvements have occurred.

U.S. federal regulations require that rock dust be applied in all underground coal mine areas to mitigate the propagation of a coal dust explosion. Before September 2010, U.S. federal regulation  mandated that the nation's coal mines maintain a total incombustible content (TIC) of at least 65% in nonreturn entries and at least 80% in the return airways. In September 2010, the U.S. Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) published an emergency temporary standard increasing the total incombustible requirement in intake airways to 80%, effective June 21, 2011.  The 65% TIC requirement was based on an average particle size termed "mine-size dust," which was based on an average of representative samples collected from mines in the 1920s. To determine compliance with federal regulation, mine inspectors systematically collect dust samples from sections of underground coal mines and send the samples to the MSHA National Air and Dust Laboratory at Mount Hope, West Virginia for analysis of incombustible content.

References 

Calcium minerals
Coal mining
Remote field testing. Remote field testing (RFT) is a method of nondestructive testing using low-frequency AC. whose main application is finding defects in steel pipes and tubes. RFT is also referred to as remote field eddy current testing (RFEC or RFET). RFET is sometimes expanded as remote field electromagnetic technique, although a magnetic, rather than electromagnetic field is used. An RFT probe is moved down the inside of a pipe and is able to detect inside and outside defects with approximately equal sensitivity (although it can not discriminate between the two). Although RFT works in nonferromagnetic materials such as copper and brass, its sister technology eddy-current testing is preferred.

The basic RFT probe consists of an exciter coil (also known as a transmit or send coil) which sends a signal to the detector (or receive coil). The exciter coil is pumped with an AC current and emits a magnetic field. The field travels outwards from the exciter coil, through the pipe wall, and along the pipe. The detector is placed inside the pipe two to three pipe diameters away from the exciter and detects the magnetic field that has travelled back in from the outside of the pipe wall (for a total of two through-wall transits). In areas of metal loss, the field arrives at the detector with a faster travel time (greater phase) and greater signal strength (amplitude) due to the reduced path through the steel. Hence the dominant mechanism of RFT is through-transmission.

Main features
 commonly applied to examination of boilers, heat exchangers, cast iron pipes, and pipelines.
 no need for direct contact with the pipe wall
 probe travel speed around 30 cm/s (1 foot per second), usually slower in pipes greater than 3 inch diameter.
 less sensitive to probe wobble than conventional eddy current testing (its sister technology for nonferromagnetic materials)
 because the field travels on the outside of the pipe, RFT shows reduced accuracy and sensitivity at conductive and magnetic objects on or near the outside of the pipe, such as attachments or tube support plates.
 two coils generally create two signals from one small defect

The main differences between RFT and conventional eddy-current testing (ECT) is in the coil-to-coil spacing. The RFT probe has widely spaced coils to pick up the through-transmission field. The typical ECT probe has coils or coil sets that create a field and measure the response within a small area, close to the object being tested.

See also
Internal rotary inspection system

References and sources 
 ASTM E 2096 – 00 Standard Practice for In Situ Examination of Ferromagnetic Heat-Exchanger Tubes Using Remote Field Testing
 Outline of RFT

Specific

Nondestructive testing
PBIST. Programmable Built-In Self-Test (PBIST) is a memory DFT feature that incorporates all the required test systems into the chip itself. The test systems implemented on-chip are as follows:
 algorithmic address generator
 algorithmic data generator
 program storage unit
 loop control mechanisms
PBIST was originally adopted by large memory chips that have high pin counts and operate at high frequencies, thereby exceeding the capability of production testers.
The purpose of PBIST is to avoid developing and buying more sophisticated and very expensive testers. The interface between PBIST, which is internal to the processor, and the external tester environment is through 
the standard JTAG TAP controller pins. Algorithms and controls are fed into the chip through the TAP controller's Test Data Input (TDI) pin. The final result of the PBIST test is read out through the Test Data Output (TDO) pin. 
PBIST supports the entire algorithmic memory testing requirements imposed by the production testing methodology. In order to support all of the required test algorithms, PBIST must have the capability to store the required programs locally in the device. It must also be able to perform different address generation schemes, different test data pattern generation, looping schemes, and data comparisons.

Work on most of programmable memory BIST approaches concerns the programmability of the memory test algorithm. The programmable memory BIST proposed has several advantages:

•	It enables programming both test algorithms and test data.

•	It implements test algorithm programmability at low cost, by extracting the different levels of hierarchy of the test algorithm and associating a hardware bloc to each of them, resulting on low cost hardware

•	It enables low-cost implementation of full-data programmability by adapting the transparent memory test approach in a manner that uses the memory under test for programming the test data.

Part of the Built-in self-test.

Electronic design automation
Hardware testing