omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
David Pettifor. David Godfrey Pettifor  (9 March 1945 – 16 October 2017) was the Isaac Wolfson Professor of Metallurgy at the University of Oxford from 1992 to 2011. He was also a Fellow of St Edmund Hall, Oxford.

He was the author of a book entitled Bonding and Structure of Molecules and Solids (Oxford University Press).  He created "structure maps" which determine which crystal structure an alloy will form. He was a world authority on materials modelling and helped established the Oxford Materials Modelling Laboratory.

He held a BSc from the University of Witwatersrand in South Africa and a PhD from the University of Cambridge, supervised by Volker Heine.

He was made a CBE in  the Queen's Birthday Honours in 2005. In 1999, he received the Royal Society Armourers and Brasiers' Medal. Other awards include the William Hume-Rothery Award and the Hume-Rothery Prize.

He died on 16 October 2017.

Bibliography

References

External links
 Home page 

Fellows of the Royal Society
Fellows of St Edmund Hall, Oxford
Isaac Wolfson Professors of Metallurgy
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
British metallurgists
1945 births
2017 deaths
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
Stonemason's hammer. A stonemason's hammer, also known as a brick hammer, has one flat traditional face and a short or long chisel-shaped blade. It can thus be used to chip off edges or small pieces of stone, cut brick or a concrete masonry unit, without using a separate chisel. The chisel blade can also be used to rapidly cut bricks or cinder blocks. This type of hammer is also used by geologists when collecting rock and mineral samples and is one of several types of geologist's hammer.

References

Hammers
Stonemasonry tools
Fisc (disambiguation). Fisc may refer to:

fisc, taxes paid in kind, especially those of the Frankish kings, or a knight's money holder

As an acronym, FISC may refer to:
 Farm and Industry Short Course, a farmer-based program through the University of Wisconsin-Madison College of Agricultural and Life Sciences
 fast instruction set computer, a term used in computer science describing a CPU where the notion of complex instruction set computing (CISC) and reduced instruction set computing (RISC) have become deprecated
 Fleet and Industrial Supply Center, an archaic name for an installation of a NAVSUP Fleet Logistics Center maintained by the Naval Supply Systems Command of the United States Navy 

 United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court (also known as the FISA Court), a U.S. federal court

See also
fiscus, the personal treasury of the emperors of Rome
Degree of ionization. The degree of ionization (also known as ionization yield in the literature) refers to the proportion of neutral particles, such as those in a gas or aqueous solution, that are ionized. For electrolytes, it could be understood as a capacity of acid/base to ionize itself. A low degree of ionization is sometimes called partially ionized (also weakly ionized), and a high degree of ionization as fully ionized. However, the term fully ionized is also used to describe an ion that has no electrons left.

Ionization refers to the process whereby an atom or molecule loses one or several electrons from its atomic orbital, or conversely gains an additional one, from an incoming free electron (electron attachment). In both cases, the atom or molecule ceases to be a neutral particle and becomes a charge carrier. If the species has lost one or several electrons, it becomes positively charged and is called a positive ion, or cation. On the contrary, if the species has gained one or several additional electrons, it becomes negatively charged and is called a negative ion, or anion. Individual free electrons and ions in a plasma have very short lives typically inferior to the microsecond, as ionization and recombination, excitation and relaxation are collective continuous processes.

Chemistry usage

The degree of dissociation α (also known as degree of ionization), is a way of representing the strength of an acid. It is defined as the ratio of the number of ionized molecules and the number of molecules dissolved in water. It can be represented as a decimal number or as a percentage. One can classify strong acids as those having ionization degrees above 30%, weak acids as those with α below 30%, and the rest as moderate acids, at a specified molar concentration.

Physics usage
In plasma physics, the degree of ionization  refers to the proportion of neutral particles that are ionized:

where  is the ion density and  the neutral density (in particles per cubic meter). It is a dimensionless number, sometimes expressed as a percentage.

The terms fractional ionization and ionization fraction are also used to describe either the proportion of neutral particles that are ionized or the proportion of free electrons.

When referred to an atom, "fully ionized" means that there are no bound electrons left, resulting in a bare nucleus.
A particular case of fully ionized gases are very hot thermonuclear plasmas, such as plasmas artificially produced in nuclear explosions or naturally formed in the Sun and all stars in the universe. Regular stars largely contain hydrogen and helium that are fully ionized into protons (H+) and alpha-particles (He2+).

History
Ionized matter was first identified in a discharge tube (or Crookes tube), and so described by Sir William Crookes in 1879 (he called it "radiant matter"). The nature of the Crookes tube "cathode ray" matter was subsequently identified by English physicist Sir J.J. Thomson in 1897, and dubbed "plasma" by Irving Langmuir in 1928, perhaps because it reminded him of a blood plasma.

Footnotes

Plasma parameters
Ions
Physical chemistry
Edgewood Chemical Activity. The Edgewood Chemical Activity (abbreviated ECA) was a U.S. Army site located in Edgewood, Maryland that stored chemical weapons. Its construction was started by Ordnance Corps in November 1917 and completed in less than a year. The arsenal was to employ about 10,000 civilian and military personnel in fabrication of chemical weapons and filling gas shells with phosgene, chlorpicrin, chlorine and mustard gas.  Since 1941, the U.S. Army stored approximately five percent of the nation's original chemical agent in steel ton containers, at the Edgewood Area of Aberdeen Proving Ground.

Aberdeen Chemical Agent Disposal Facility
Construction of the Aberdeen Chemical Agent Disposal Facility was completed in 2002, and agent destruction operations began in April 2003. Destruction was completed in February 2006, with 1,622 tons (1,472 metric tons) of agent destroyed. This facility used neutralization followed by bio-treatment to destroy mustard gas agent (HD) drained from ton containers. The facility's permit was officially closed in June 2007.

See also
Edgewood Arsenal experiments
United States Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense

References

External links
Official site

Buildings and structures in Harford County, Maryland
United States chemical weapons depots
Military Superfund sites
Superfund sites in Maryland
1918 establishments in Maryland
Cscope. cscope is a programming tool which works in console mode, text-based interface, that allows computer programmers or software developers to search source code of the programming language C, with some support for C++ and Java. It is often used on very large projects to aid code comprehension to find source code, functions, declarations, definitions, and regular expression. cscope is free and released under a BSD license. The original developer of cscope is Joe Steffen.

History
Joe Steffen began writing cscope in 1980, as an aid to his programming word on a PDP-11. The tool became very popular within Bell Labs, as fellow employees requested more features and improvements. The tool was later made part of the AT&T Unix distribution. It is still used by developers today, some of whom are most accustomed to using vi or other text-based editors, instead of GUI editors. The functions in cscope are available to varying degrees in modern graphical text editors.

Usage
cscope is used in two phases. First, a developer builds the cscope database of the source code. The developer can often use find or other Unix tools to get the list of filenames needed to index into a file called cscope.files. The developer then builds a database using the command cscope -b -q -k. The k flag is intended to build a database for an operating system or C library source code. It will not look in /usr/include. Second, the developer can now search those files using the command cscope -d. An index must be rebuilt whenever changes are made to indexed files.

cscope was created to search content within C code, but it can also be used (with some caveats) for C++ and Java code.

Derived software
 KScope runs on KDE and integrates the Kate text editor. The KScope project is no longer being maintained.
 Seascope runs on PyQt4 and integrates the Scintilla text editor.
 Gscope is based on GTK2 and GTK3 and integrates with multiple text editors.
 CCTree is a native Vim plugin that integrates with the Vim editor and offers functions similar to KScope and Seascope.
 Csope is a fork with an altered TUI.

See also
ctags
Cross-reference (X-Ref)
LXR Cross Referencer, Web-based source code browsing with hyperlinks
OpenGrok

References

External links

Source code navigation tools

Code comprehension tools
Code navigation tools
Static program analysis tools
Linux programming tools
Unix programming tools
Software using the BSD license
Pine Bluff Chemical Activity. Pine Bluff Chemical Activity (abbreviated PBCA) is a subordinate organization of the United States Army Chemical Materials Agency located at Pine Bluff Arsenal in Pine Bluff, Arkansas.  The U.S. Army stored approximately twelve percent of its original chemical weapons at the Pine Bluff Arsenal since 1942. Destruction of the last chemical weapons occurred on November 12, 2010.

Manufacture and storage
Pine Bluff Arsenal stored 90,409 M55 GB rockets, 19,608 M55 VX rockets, 9,378 M23 VX landmines and 3,705 mustard ton containers. It was also the home for the Binary Chemical Weapons Facility. The facility created one of the two toxic agents that would combine to form sarin.  Construction of the diphenylcyanoarsine (DC) facility began in the mid-1980s and a classified number of canisters were produced.  A facility was also planned to produce DC, but it was never constructed.

A facility was planned to produce QL (diisopropyl aminoethylmethyl phosphonite), a precursor to the nerve agent VX. Construction began in the late 1980s, but it was mothballed prior to completion in the early 1990s as part of the chemical weapons treaties. Only partial construction of the Bigeye Bomb (BLU-80) fill and close facility at the Pine Bluff Integrated Production Facilities (IBPF) was completed and no filling of the air-delivered binary bomb ever took place. The Army only produced a few of these bombs. They remained empty or filled with a safe, simulated chemical for test purposes. International treaty inspectors witnessed the destruction of all these bombs in the summer of 1999.

Decommissioning
The Pine Bluff Chemical Agent Disposal Facility was completed in 2002, and the Army began weapons disposal in March 2005.  By May 2007, the facility had destroyed all of its GB (sarin)-containing rockets and began processing VX-containing munitions. In February 2008 they processed their last VX-containing rocket and in May 2008 began processing VX landmines. Landmine processing was completed in June 2008 and the facility changed over to processing ton containers of mustard gas, the last remaining chemical weapons on site. Workers began destruction of mustard agent-filled ton containers in December 2008. The facility reached 100% destruction of its total chemical stockpile of 3,850 metric tons on November 12, 2010. The facility and Pine Bluff Chemical Activity finalized closure in January 2014.

References

External links
Official site

United States chemical weapons depots
Buildings and structures in Pine Bluff, Arkansas
Aleste. is a vertically scrolling shooter developed by Compile, originally published by Sega in 1988 for the Master System and then by CP Communications for the MSX2. The Master System version was released outside Japan as Power Strike. The game spawned the Aleste and Power Strike franchises.

Plot
The story of Aleste concerns the manmade supercomputer DIA 51, which has been infected by a hybrid virus that is spreading like wildfire, eventually leading DIA 51 to eliminate the human race. When Yuri, Ray's girlfriend, gets injured in DIA's assault, Raymond Waizen has all the reason in the world to get rid of DIA 51 once and for all in his Aleste fighter.

Releases
The game was originally released for the Master System in February 1988. This version was released outside Japan, as Power Strike. The US release was initially a mail-only limited edition, however it did later see some retail distribution at Toys R' Us and other chains in North America. The European release was a regular retail package.

An MSX2 version was released in July of that year, featuring two new stages, lowered difficulty, and a series of cutscenes.

A version of the game has been released on phones by Square Enix, presumably based on the MSX2 version. The MSX2 version has been re-released on Nintendo's Wii Virtual Console service in Japan. It along with Aleste 2 had also been rereleased through the now-defunct WOOMB service.

Reception
The Master System version called Power Strike received positive reviews. Computer and Video Games scored it 86% in 1989. Console XS scored it 90% in 1992.

Aleste series

Aleste was followed by several sequels:
 Aleste Gaiden (MSX2, 1989)
 Aleste 2 (MSX2, 1989)
 Musha Aleste (Mega Drive, 1990)
 GG Aleste (Game Gear, 1991)
 Super Aleste (SNES, 1992)
 Dennin Aleste (Mega-CD, 1992)
 GG Aleste II (Game Gear, 1993)
 GG Aleste 3 (Game Gear Micro, 2020)
 Senjin Aleste (Arcade, 2021)
 Aleste Branch  (TBA)

Cancelled games 
 Dennin Aleste 2 (Mega-CD, cancelled)

Related games
There is also a number of similar games, some of which various Aleste entries are based on; for example, Gunhed would inspire Super Aleste on the SNES. Zanac is the game that set down the template for the Aleste series and nearly all of Compile's future shooters. Finally, it is known that around 1993, various employees left Compile and joined Raizing, where they made some similar games.

 Zanac (MSX, FDS, NES, 1986)
 The Guardian Legend (NES, 1988)
 Gunhed (PC Engine, 1989)
 Gun-Nac (NES, 1990)
 Seirei Senshi Spriggan (PC Engine CD, 1991)
 Spriggan Mark 2: Re-Terraform Project (PC Engine CD, 1992)
 Mahou Daisakusen (Arcade, 1993)
 Power Strike II (Master System, 1993)
 Sylphia (PC Engine CD, 1993)
 Spriggan Powered (Super Famicom, 1996)

References

External links
 

1988 video games
Compile (company) games
Macrospace games
Master System games
MSX2 games
Sega video games
Single-player video games
Square Enix games
Vertically scrolling shooters
Video game franchises introduced in 1988
Video games developed in Japan
Video games set in the 21st century
Virtual Console games
Vacuum insulated evaporator. A vacuum insulated evaporator (VIE) is a form of pressure vessel that allows the bulk storage of cryogenic liquids including oxygen, nitrogen and argon for industrial processes and medical applications.

The purpose of the vacuum insulation is to prevent heat transfer between the inner shell, which holds the liquid, and surrounding atmosphere. Without functioning insulation, the stored liquid will rapidly warm and undergo a phase transition to gas, increasing significantly in volume and potentially causing a catastrophic failure to the vessel due to an increase in pressure. To combat such an event, VIEs are installed with a pressure safety valve.

To remain a liquid, the vessel contents must be kept at or below its critical temperature. The critical temperature of oxygen is −118 °C; above this temperature, applying more pressure will not result in a liquid, but rather a supercritical fluid.

References

Pressure vessels
Medical equipment
XDR2 DRAM. XDR2 DRAM was a proposed type of dynamic random-access memory that was offered by Rambus. It was announced on July 7, 2005 and the specification for which was released on March 26, 2008. Rambus has designed XDR2 as an evolution of, and the successor to, XDR DRAM.  

XDR2 DRAM is intended for use in high-end graphics cards and networking equipment.

As a fabless semiconductor company, Rambus only produces a design; it must make deals with memory manufacturers to produce XDR2 DRAM chips, and there has been a notable lack of interest in doing so.

Changes from XDR DRAM

Signaling
In addition to a higher clock rate (up to 800 MHz), the XDR2 differential data lines transfer data at 16 times the system clock rate, transferring 16 bits per pin per clock cycle.  This "Hexadecimal Data Rate" is twice XDR's 8× multiplier.  The basic burst size has also doubled.

Unlike XDR, memory commands are also transmitted over differential point-to-point links at this high data rate.  The command bus varies between 1 and 4 bits wide.  Even though each bit requires 2 wires, this is still less than the 12-wire XDR request bus, but it must grow with the number of chips addressed.

Micro-threading
There is a basic limit to how frequently data can be fetched from the currently open row.  This is typically 200 MHz for standard SDRAM and 400–600 MHz for high-performance graphics memory.  Increasing interface speeds require fetching larger blocks of data in order to keep the interface busy without violating the internal DRAM frequency limit.  At 16×800 MHz, to stay within a 400 MHz column access rate would require a 32-bit burst transfer.  Multiplied by a 32-bit wide chip, this is a minimum fetch of 128 bytes, inconveniently large for many applications.
 
Typical memory chips are internally divided into 4 quadrants, with left and right halves connected to different halves of the data bus, and top or bottom halves being selected by bank number.  (Thus, in a typical 8-bank DRAM, there would be 4 half-banks per quadrant.)  XDR2 permits independently addressing each quadrant, so the two halves of the data bus can fetch data from different banks.  Additionally, the data fetched from each half-bank is only half of what is needed to keep the data bus full; accesses to an upper half-bank must be alternated with access to a lower half-bank.

This effectively doubles the number of banks and reduces the minimum data access size by a factor of 4, albeit with the limitation that accesses must be spread uniformly across all 4 quadrants.

References

External links
XDR2 DRAM in Rambus Home page
Rambus Unveils Next Generation XDR(TM) Memory Interface; 8GHz XDR2 DRAM with Micro-Threading Enables Unprecedented Graphics Capabilities
Rambus XDR2

SDRAM
Seeadler. Seeadler (German for White-tailed eagle, resp. the Genus Haliaeetus) may refer to:

Vessels 
 DFS Seeadler, German flying boat sailplane
 , patrol vessel of the Papua New Guinean Maritime Component
 , German cruiser
 , German merchant raider

Other uses
Seeadler Harbor, a harbor on Manus Island, Papua New Guinea

See also
Seeadler-class fast attack craft
George Bliss (pedicab designer). George Bliss is a bicycle designer living, working and teaching in Manhattan, New York City. He has taught bike frame welding at Parsons The New School for Design.

Bliss coined the cycling term "Critical Mass" in the Ted White documentary Return of the Scorcher (1992) to describe the way cars, bicycles and pedestrians negotiate uncontrolled busy intersections in China.

He pioneered the niche bicycle industry in Manhattan, specifically custom designed cargo bikes including the "Dump Trike" and the smaller "Pick-Up Trike" and pedicabs. From 1995 to 2015, Bliss owned and operated a pedicab rental business (The Hub Station) in SoHo and then in the West Village. The business also sold and repaired recumbent bicycles, folding bicycles, electric bicycles, kick scooters and Xootrs with electric motors attached. Facing rent increases, and competition from the Citi Bike bike share, Bliss closed his retail location.

Later he opened a traditional bike store in the West Village, near the Hudson River Greenway, HUB, (Hudson Urban Bicycles).

See also
Adam Purple
Cycling advocacy
Max Cantor
Rivington School

References
Thomas Beller's article in Slate
Bicycle Chic Gains Speed The New York Times
Transportation: Quadriceps for Hire New York Magazine
Three-wheelin': pedicabs make inroads on city streets Columbia
Additional Uses for Freight Cycles Transportation Alternatives
Not fare, says bike taxi owner forced to sell fleet  Downtown Express
Tricycles the answer to NYC gridlock? The Christian Science Monitor

References

Living people
Cycle designers
Year of birth missing (living people)
Place of birth missing (living people)
Sodium bis(trimethylsilyl)amide. Sodium bis(trimethylsilyl)amide is the organosilicon compound with the formula . This species, usually called NaHMDS (sodium hexamethyldisilazide), is a strong base used for deprotonation reactions or base-catalyzed reactions. Its advantages are that it is commercially available as a solid and it is soluble not only in ethers, such as THF or diethyl ether, but also in aromatic solvents, like benzene and toluene by virtue of the lipophilic TMS groups.

NaHMDS is quickly destroyed by water to form sodium hydroxide and bis(trimethylsilyl)amine.

Structure
Although the Na–N bond is polar covalent as a solid, when dissolved in nonpolar solvents this compound is trimeric, consisting of a central  ring.

Applications in synthesis
NaHMDS is used as a strong base in organic synthesis. Typical reactions:
To deprotonate ketones and esters to generate enolate derivatives.
Generate carbenes by dehydrohalogenation of halocarbons. These carbene reagents add to alkenes to give substituted cyclopropanes and cyclopropenes.
To deprotonation of phosphonium salts, generating Wittig reagents.

NaHMDS deprotonates compounds containing weakly acidic O–H, S–H, and N–H bonds. These include cyanohydrins and thiols.

NaHMDS converts alkyl halides to amines in a two step process that begins with N-alkylation followed by hydrolysis of the N–Si bonds:

where X is a halogen and R is an alkyl.

This method has been extended to aminomethylation via the reagent , which contains a displaceable methoxy group –.

See also
 Metal bis(trimethylsilyl)amides

References

Bis(trimethylsilyl)amides
Sodium compounds
Non-nucleophilic bases