omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
River Leam. The River Leam () is a river in England which rises at Hellidon Hill in Northamptonshire then flows through Warwickshire, including the town of Leamington Spa, named after it. It then flows into the River Avon near Warwick, which flows into the River Severn.

Toponymy
The name is first recorded in 956 as Limenan, and derives from British Lemanā, meaning "elm-tree river".

Tributaries 
Its major tributaries are Rains Brook, River Itchen, River Stowe and Radford Brook.

Water quality
The Environment Agency measures the water quality of the river systems in England. Each is given an overall ecological status, which may be one of five levels: 'high', 'good', 'moderate', 'poor' or 'bad'. There are several components that are used to determine this, including biological status, which looks at the quantity and varieties of invertebrates, angiosperms and fish. Chemical status, which compares the concentrations of various chemicals against known safe concentrations, is rated 'good' or 'fail'.

Water quality of the River Leam in 2019:

See also
Rivers of the United Kingdom

References

External links
 The Manor of Hunningham

Leam
Leamington Spa
1Leam
Aphanite. Aphanites (adj. aphanitic; ) are igneous rocks that are so fine-grained that their component mineral crystals are not visible to the naked eye (in contrast to phanerites, in which the crystals are visible to the unaided eye). This geological texture results from rapid cooling in volcanic or hypabyssal (shallow subsurface) environments. As a rule, the texture of these rocks is not the same as that of volcanic glass (e.g., obsidian), with volcanic glass being non-crystalline (amorphous), and having a glass-like appearance.

Aphanites are commonly porphyritic, having large crystals embedded in the fine groundmass, or matrix.  The larger inclusions are called phenocrysts. They consist essentially of very small crystals of minerals such as plagioclase feldspar, with hornblende or augite, and may contain also biotite, quartz, and orthoclase.

Common rocks that can be aphanitic
 Andesite
 Basalt
 Basanite
 Dacite
 Felsite
 Phonolite
 Rhyolite
 Trachyte

References

Aphanitic rocks
Igneous petrology
Volcanic rocks
Subvolcanic rocks
Extrusive rock. Extrusive rock refers to the mode of igneous volcanic rock formation in which hot magma from inside the Earth flows out (extrudes) onto the surface as lava or explodes violently into the atmosphere to fall back as pyroclastics or tuff. In contrast, intrusive rock refers to rocks formed by magma which cools below the surface.

The main effect of extrusion is that the magma can cool much more quickly in the open air or under seawater, and there is little time for the growth of crystals. Sometimes, a residual portion of the matrix fails to crystallize at all, instead becoming a natural glass like obsidian.   

If the magma contains abundant volatile components which are released as free gas, then it may cool with large or small vesicles (bubble-shaped cavities) such as in pumice, scoria, or vesicular basalt. Other examples of extrusive rocks are rhyolite and andesite.

Texture 
The texture of extrusive rocks is characterized by fine-grained crystals indistinguishable to the human eye, described as aphantic. Crystals in aphantic rocks are small in size due to their rapid formation during eruption.  Any larger crystals visible to the human eye, called phenocrysts, form earlier while slowly cooling in the magma reservoir. When igneous rocks contain two distinct grain sizes, the texture is porphyritic, and the finer crystals are called the groundmass. The extrusive rocks scoria and pumice have a vesicular, bubble-like, texture due to the presence of vapor bubbles trapped in the magma.

Extrusive bodies and rock types 
Shield volcanoes are large, slow forming volcanoes that erupt fluid basaltic magma that cools to form the extrusive rock basalt. Basalt is composed of minerals readily available in the planet's crust, including feldspars and pyroxenes.

Fissure volcanoes pour out low viscosity basaltic magma from fissure vents to form the extrusive rock basalt.

Composite or stratovolcanoes often have andesitic magma and typically form the extrusive rock andesite. Andesitic magma is composed of many gases and melted mantle rocks.

Cinder or scoria cones violently expel lava with high gas content, and due to the vapor bubbles in this mafic lava, the extrusive basalt scoria is formed.

Lava domes are formed by high viscosity lava that piles up, forming a dome shape. Domes typically solidify to form the rich in silica extrusive rock obsidian and sometimes dacite domes form the extrusive rock dacite, like in the case of Mount St. Helens.

Calderas are volcanic depressions formed after an erupted volcano collapses. Resurgent calderas can refill with an eruption of rhyolitic magma to form the extrusive rock rhyolite like the Yellowstone Caldera.

Submarine volcanoes erupt on the ocean floor and produce the extrusive rock pumice. Pumice is a light-weight glass with a vesicular texture that differs from scoria in its silicic composition and therefore floats.

See also

 Intrusive suite
 Seamount

References

External links

Igneous and volcanic textures - images
Vesicular and Amygdaloidal Textures

Igneous petrology 
Igneous rocks
EMD. EMD may refer to:

Finance and commerce 
 Earnest money deposit, in the United States, a security deposit, especially for real estate

Medicine 
 Electromagnetic diaphragm 
 Electromechanical dissociation
 Emergency medical dispatcher
 Enamel matrix derivative
 Esophageal motility disorder
 Merck Group, known as EMD in Canada and the United States, a German pharmaceutical company

Science and technology 
 Electrolytic manganese dioxide
 Emerin
 Empirical mode decomposition
 Equilibrium mode distribution
 ReadyBoost, disk-caching software

Transport 
 East Midlands Parkway railway station, in England
 Electro-Motive Diesel, an American locomotive manufacturer
 Electronic Miscellaneous Document in the airline industry
 Emerald Airport, in Queensland, Australia

Other uses 

 Schneider Electric EMD an Armenian-Serbian electric company
 EMD (band), a Swedish band
 Earth mover's distance
 European Marketing Distribution, a European purchasing organization for grocery stores
 European Maritime Day
 Engineering and Manufacturing Development, a U.S. defense acquisition phase associated with detailed design and subsequent testing to verify requirements; previously called Full-Scale Development (FSD)
NAMD. Nanoscale Molecular Dynamics (NAMD, formerly Not Another Molecular Dynamics Program) is computer software for molecular dynamics simulation, written using the Charm++ parallel programming model (not to be confused with CHARMM). It is noted for its parallel efficiency and is often used to simulate large systems (millions of atoms). It has been developed by the collaboration of the Theoretical and Computational Biophysics Group (TCB) and the Parallel Programming Laboratory (PPL) at the University of Illinois Urbana–Champaign.

It was introduced in 1995 by Nelson et al. as a parallel molecular dynamics code enabling interactive simulation by linking to the visualization code VMD. NAMD has since matured, adding many features and scaling beyond 500,000 processor cores.

NAMD has an interface to quantum chemistry packages ORCA and MOPAC, as well as a scripted interface to many other quantum packages. Together with Visual Molecular Dynamics (VMD) and QwikMD, NAMD's interface provides access to hybrid QM/MM simulations in an integrated, comprehensive, customizable, and easy-to-use suite.

NAMD is available as freeware for non-commercial use by individuals, academic institutions, and corporations for in-house business uses.

See also 
 Charm++
 Comparison of software for molecular mechanics modeling

References

External links 

 , at TCB website
 NAMD page at the PPL website
 NAMD on GPUs

Molecular dynamics software
Science software
Archibald Scott Couper. Archibald Scott Couper (; 31 March 1831 – 11 March 1892) was a Scottish chemist who proposed an early theory of chemical structure and bonding.  He developed the concepts of tetravalent carbon atoms linking together to form large molecules, and that the bonding order of the atoms in a molecule can be determined from chemical evidence.

Life and work 
Couper was the only surviving son of a wealthy textile mill owner near Glasgow.  He studied at the universities of Glasgow and Edinburgh and intermittently in Germany during the years 1851-54.  He began the formal study of chemistry at the University of Berlin in the autumn of 1854, then in 1856 entered Charles Adolphe Wurtz's private laboratory at the Faculty of Medicine in Paris (now the University of Paris V: René Descartes).

Couper published his "New Chemical Theory" in French in a condensed form on 14 June 1858, then in detailed papers simultaneously in French and English in August 1858.  Couper's idea that carbon atoms can link to each other following valence regularities was independent of a paper by August Kekulé proposing the same concept. (Kekulé had already proposed the tetravalence of carbon in 1857.)  However, through a misunderstanding with Wurtz, Kekulé's paper appeared in print first, in May 1858, and so Kekulé captured the priority for the discovery of the self-linking of carbon atoms.  When Couper angrily confronted Wurtz, Wurtz expelled him from the laboratory.

In December 1858, Couper received an offer of an assistantship from the University of Edinburgh.  However, Couper's health began to decline after his disappointment.  In May 1859 he suffered a nervous breakdown, and entered an institution as a private patient.  Released in July 1859, he almost immediately suffered a relapse—it was said to have been from sunstroke—and was treated again until November 1862.  But his health was now broken, and he did no more serious work, spending the last 30 years of his life in the care of his mother.

Couper's research differed from Kekulé's in several ways.  He was open to the idea of divalent carbon, which Kekulé was not.  He provided many more resolved formulas in his paper than Kekulé had, and in two cases even suggested (hetero)cyclical formulas, which could have influenced Kekulé in his later suggestion of the benzene ring.  Couper adopted the atomic weight of oxygen as 8 rather than 16, so there are twice as many oxygen atoms in Couper's formulas as in those of Kekulé.  Finally, Couper used dotted lines or dashes between the atoms in his formulas, approximating the appearance of later formula styles.  In this respect, his work was probably influential on the early structural theorists Aleksandr Butlerov and Alexander Crum Brown.

See also
History of the molecule

References 

1831 births
1892 deaths
Scottish chemists
British organic chemists
Scottish scholars and academics
Alumni of the University of Glasgow
University of Paris alumni
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
People from Kirkintilloch
British expatriates in France
CDO. CDO may refer to:

Chemistry 
 Cysteine dioxygenase, an enzyme
 CDO, trade name of chlordiazepoxide
 CdO, cadmium oxide

Computing 
 Climate Data Operators, climate data software
 Collaboration Data Objects, a Microsoft API for data access
 Connected Data Objects, a free implementation of a distributed shared model

Places 
 Cagayan de Oro, a city in Mindanao, Philippines
 Canyon del Oro High School, Arizona, USA
 Cañada del Oro, a watershed channel in Oro valley, Arizona, USA
 Cardonald railway station, Train station in Cardonald (CDO), Glasgow, UK

People

Job titles 
 Chief data officer
 Chief Dental Officer (United Kingdom)
 Chief design officer
 Chief digital officer
 Chief diversity officer
 Navy command duty officer

Other uses 
 CDO Foodsphere, a Philippine meat processing company
 Central dense overcast, in a tropical storm
 Collateralized debt obligation, a structured finance product
 Community dial office, a telephone switching system for small communities
 Continuous duty overnight, a regional airline crew scheduling term
 ISO-639 code for the Eastern Min branch of Chinese
 Conservative Democratic Organisation, an organization associated with the UK Conservative Party

See also

 
 Chief Dental Officer (disambiguation)
Apache (missile). The Arme Planante À Charges Éjectables or Apache ( , ) is a French-developed, air-launched, anti-runway cruise missile manufactured by MBDA France. The SCALP EG missile is based on it, notably featuring similar aerodynamics and stealth. However, the latter has a different propulsion system and carries a single high-penetration warhead instead of the Apache's cluster submunitions.

See also

References

MBDA Apache
Cruise missiles of France
Anti-runway weapons
Cluster munitions
Henri Gouraud (computer scientist). Henri Gouraud (born 1944) is a French computer scientist. He is the inventor of Gouraud shading used in computer graphics. He is the great-nephew of general Henri Gouraud.

During 1964–1967, he studied at École Centrale Paris. He received his Ph.D. from the University of Utah College of Engineering in 1971, working with Dave Evans and Ivan Sutherland, with his dissertation titled Computer Display of Curved Surfaces.

In 1971, Gouraud made the first computer graphics geometry capture and representation of a human face in wire-frame model, and applied his shader to produce the famous human face images showing the effect of his shading, which were done using his wife Sylvie Gouraud as the model.

Original publications
 H. Gouraud, "Continuous shading of curved surfaces," IEEE Transactions on Computers, C-20(6):623–629, 1971.
 H. Gouraud, Computer Display of Curved Surfaces, Doctoral Thesis, University of Utah, United States, 1971.
 H. Gouraud, Continuous shading of curved surfaces. In Rosalee Wolfe (editor), Seminal Graphics: Pioneering efforts that shaped the field, ACM Press, 1998. .

References

1944 births
École Centrale Paris alumni
Computer graphics professionals
Computer graphics researchers
French computer scientists
Living people
University of Utah alumni
SLE (disambiguation). SLE may refer to:

Medicine
 Systemic lupus erythematosus, an autoimmune disease
 St. Louis encephalitis, a mosquito-borne disease

Science and mathematics
 Semiconductor luminescence equations
 Sea level equation, following post-glacial rebound
 Schramm–Loewner evolution in statistical mechanics

Transportation
 McNary Field, airport in Salem, Oregon, US, IATA code
 Seletar Expressway, Singapore
 Sleeper Either Class, a type of railway car
 Shore Line East commuter rail service in Connecticut, USA

Other
 Sara Lee Corporation, NYSE symbol
 Separate legal entity in US
 Single loss expectancy for risk on an asset
 Societas Linguistica Europaea, a linguistics society
 Sri Lankan English
 Sierra Leone, ISO-3166-1 alpha-3 country code
 Sierra Leonean leone currency code
 Spearhead Land Element of UK armed forces
 Supported leading edge kite, a type of power kite
 SuSE SLE operating system
 Sensory Logical Extrovert in  socionics
 The Space Link Extension of CCSDS
Spacer. A spacer can refer to something used to separate two parts in an assembly.

Spacer can also refer to:

Arts and entertainment
 "Spacer", a song by Sheila and B. Devotion from the 1980 album King of the World
 Spacer (album), 2011 jazz album by Jason Adasiewicz
 Spacers, a fictional sociocultural group in Isaac Asimov's Robot series of novels and short stories

Science and technology

Biology and medicine
 Asthma spacer, medical equipment
 Orthodontic spacer
 Spacer DNA, in genetics
 Spacer in joint replacement

Other uses in science and technology
 Spacer, an element in HTML web design
 Spacers and standoffs, unthreaded pieces of rigid tubing, often used in electronic equipment
 Rebar spacer, in concrete construction

Oil and gas industry

 Spacer, a viscous fluid used to remove drilling fluids ahead of cement slurry. The spacer is made up with specific fluid attributes, such as viscosity and density that are designed to prohibit the interaction between the mud and cement slurry.

Other uses
 Spacer (self-storage), an Australian online market for self storage
 Spacer or flesh tunnel, a type of body piercing

See also
 Space (disambiguation)
 Spacing (disambiguation)
 Placeholder (disambiguation)
PLT. PLT may stand for:
 Patent Law Treaty
 Plantronics, stock symbol
 Platelet count, in blood test reports
 Power line communication or power line telecommunications
 Princeton Large Torus, a nuclear fusion reactor
 Programming language theory, in computer science
 PLT Scheme, a programming language
 PrettyLittleThing, fashion brand
 Procedure Linkage Table, a programming concept related to GOT.
CRP. CRP may refer to:

Science and technology
 C-reactive protein, an acute phase protein produced by the liver
 cAMP receptor protein (catabolite gene activator protein)
 Cysteine-rich protein, a class of small proteins
 Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers
 Chinese restaurant process, in probability theory
 Chronic relapsing polyneuropathy, an acquired disorder of the nervous system
 Confluent and reticulated papillomatosis, a skin condition
 Conducting redox polymer, an organic polymer that combines the properties of conducting polymers and redox active polymers

Computing
 Common reuse principle, in software design
 Conference room pilot, in software validation

Organizations
 Calgary Regional Partnership, for planning, Alberta, Canada
 Center for Responsive Politics, a research group based in Washington, D.C., US, now part of OpenSecrets
 Chicana Rights Project, to protect Mexican-American women's rights
 Committee for the Re-Election of the President, for US president Richard Nixon
 CRP-Bangladesh, Centre for the Rehabilitation of the Paralysed
 Critical Role Productions, a multimedia production company based in California, US

Transport
 Aerotransportes Corporativos (Aerotranscorp, ICAO code), Mexico; see Airline codes-A
 Central Railroad of Pennsylvania (reporting mark), US
 Community rail Community rail partnership, UK
 Contra-rotating propellers, with a common axis
 Counter-rotating propellers, with separate axes
 Corpus Christi International Airport (IATA code), Texas, US

Other uses
 Chestnut Ridge people, a mixed-race community of Barbour County, West Virginia, US
 Cape Roberts Project, a 1997–1999 geological drilling project in Antarctica
 Conservation Reserve Program, of US Department of Agriculture
 Cost per rating point, of an advertising campaign
 , an ISO 639-2 code for two languages:
 Creole language
 Pidgin
Amir Pnueli. Amir Pnueli (; April 22, 1941 – November 2, 2009) was an Israeli computer scientist and the 1996 Turing Award recipient.

Biography
Pnueli was born in Nahalal, in the British Mandate of Palestine (now in Israel) and received a Bachelor's degree in mathematics from the Technion in Haifa, and  Ph.D. in applied mathematics from the Weizmann Institute of Science (1967). His thesis was on the topic of "Calculation of Tides in the Ocean". He switched to computer science during a stint as a post-doctoral fellow at Stanford University. His works in computer science focused on temporal logic and model checking, particularly regarding fairness properties of concurrent systems.

He returned to Israel as a researcher; he was the founder and first chair of the computer science department at Tel Aviv University. He became a professor of computer science at the Weizmann Institute in 1981. From 1999 until his death, Pnueli also held a position at the Computer Science Department of New York University, New York, U.S. He's also served as an associate professor at the University of Pennsylvania and the Joseph Fourier University.

Pnueli also founded two startup technology companies during his career. He had three children and, at his death, had four grandchildren.

Pnueli died on November 2, 2009, of a brain hemorrhage.

Awards and honours
 In 1996, Pnueli received the Turing Award for seminal work introducing temporal logic into computing science and for outstanding contributions to program and systems verification.
 On May 30, 1997, Pnueli received an honorary doctorate from the Faculty of Science and Technology at Uppsala University, Sweden.
 In 1999, he was inducted as a Foreign Associate of the U.S. National Academy of Engineering.
 In 2000, he was awarded the Israel Prize, for computer science. 
 In 2007, he was inducted as a Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery.
 The Weizmann Institute of Science presents a memorial lecture series in his honour.

See also
 List of Israel Prize recipients

References

External links
 New York University homepage
 Short biography
 Weizmann Institute homepage
 Profile
 

1941 births
2009 deaths
2007 fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
Formal methods people
Israeli Jews
Israeli computer scientists
Israel Prize in computer sciences recipients
Jewish scientists
Members of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities
Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences faculty
People from Nahalal
Programming language researchers
Technion – Israel Institute of Technology alumni
Academic staff of Tel Aviv University
Theoretical computer scientists
Turing Award laureates
Academic staff of Weizmann Institute of Science
Polytechnic Institute of New York University faculty
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Engineering
Import (disambiguation). Import is the act of bringing goods into a country.

Import may also refer to:

import and export of data, in computing
import tariff, a tax on imported goods
import quota, a type of trade restriction
Import substitution industrialization, an economic policy
Import scene, a subculture that centers on modifying imported brand cars
The #Import directive in Objective-C
The import keyword in Java

See also
 Export (disambiguation)
CTOL. A conventional take-off and landing (CTOL), also known as horizontal take-off and landing (HTOL) is the process whereby conventional fixed-wing aircraft (such as passenger aircraft) take off and land, involving the use of runways.

During takeoff, the aircraft will accelerate along the runway, resting on its wheels, until its takeoff speed is reached, at which point the pilot manipulates the flight controls to make the aircraft pivot around the axis of its main landing gear while still on the ground, this increases the lift from the wings and effects takeoff.

During landings, a commercial passenger-carrying aircraft will arrive over the runway while still at flight speed. The landing consists of the final approach phase, the flare, the touchdown, and roll-out phase.

Seaplanes and amphibious aircraft, instead of using runways, use water.

See also
 British Aerospace HOTOL
Index of aviation articles
Takeoff and landing

References

Types of take-off and landing
Payload fraction. In aerospace engineering, payload fraction is a common term used to characterize the efficiency of a particular design. The payload fraction is the quotient of the payload mass and the total vehicle mass at the start of its journey. It is a function of specific impulse, propellant mass fraction and the structural coefficient. In aircraft, loading less than full fuel for shorter trips is standard practice to reduce weight and fuel consumption. For this reason, the useful load fraction calculates a similar number, but it is based on the combined weight of the payload and fuel together in relation to the total weight.  

Propeller-driven airliners had useful load fractions on the order of 25–35%. Modern jet airliners have considerably higher useful load fractions, on the order of 45–55%.

For orbital rockets the payload fraction is between 1% and 5%, while the useful load fraction is perhaps 90%.

Examples

For payload fractions and fuel fractions in aviation, see Fuel Fraction.

See also
 Tsiolkovsky rocket equation

References

Astrodynamics
Aerospace engineering