omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
SIMH. SIMH is a free and open source, multi-platform multi-system emulator. It is maintained by Bob Supnik, a former DEC engineer and DEC vice president, and has been in development in one form or another since the 1960s.

History 
SIMH was based on a much older systems emulator called MIMIC, which was written in the late 1960s at Applied Data Research. SIMH was started in 1993 with the purpose of preserving minicomputer hardware and software that was fading into obscurity.

In May 2022, the MIT License of SIMH version 4 on GitHub was unilaterally modified by a contributor to make it no longer free software, by adding a clause that revokes the right to use any subsequent revisions of the software containing their contributions if modifications that "influence the behaviour of the disk access activities" are made. As of 27 May 2022, Supnik no longer endorses version 4 on his official website for SIMH due to these changes, only recognizing the "classic" version 3.x releases.

On 3 June 2022, the last revision of SIMH not subject to this clause (licensed under BSD licenses and the MIT License) was forked by the group Open SIMH, with a new governance model and steering group that includes Supnik and others. The Open SIMH group cited that a "situation" had arisen in the project that compromised its principles.

Emulated hardware 

SIMH emulates hardware from the following companies.

Advanced Computer Design 
 PDQ-3

AT&T 
 3B2

BESM 
 BESM-6

Burroughs 
 B5500

Control Data Corporation 
 CDC 1700

Data General 
 Nova
 Eclipse

Digital Equipment Corporation 
 Alpha
 PDP-1
 PDP-4
 PDP-7
 PDP-8
 PDP-9
 PDP-10
 PDP-11
 PDP-15
 VAX Family Systems
 MicroVAX I, VAXStation I
 MicroVAX II, VAXStation II
 MicroVAX 3900
 VAX 11/730
 VAX 11/750
 VAX 11/780
 VAX 8600

GRI Corporation 
 GRI-909

Hewlett-Packard 
 2116
 2100
 21MX
 3000

Honeywell 
 H316
 H516

Hobbyist projects 
 N8VEM

IBM 
 650
 701
 704
 1401
 1620
 1130
 7010
 7070
 7080
 7090/7094
 System/3

Intel 
 Intel systems 8010 and 8020

Interdata 
 16-bit series
 32-bit series

Lincoln Labs – MIT Research Lab 
 TX-0

Manchester University 
 Baby, or SSEM

MITS 
 Altair 8800 both Intel 8080 and Zilog Z80 versions

Norsk Data 
 Nord-100

Royal-Mcbee 
 LGP-30
 LGP-21

Sage Computer Technology 
 Sage II

Scientific Data Systems 
 SDS 940

SWTPC 
 SWTPC 6800

Systems Engineering Laboratories 
 SEL-32 both Concept-32 and PowerNode systems

Xerox Data Systems 
 Sigma

References

External links 
 
 
 Additional VAX/MicroVAX models for SIMH
 Running VAX/VMS Under Linux Using SIMH
 Debian Package
 FreeBSD Port
 UNIX: Old School.  Using SIMH to explore UNIX history - Matthew Hoskins
 SCSI tape drive emulation for the Raspberry Pi with support for SIMH tape image files

1993 software
Free emulation software
Linux emulation software
MacOS emulation software
Windows emulation software
Emulation software
Multi-emulators
Bioshelter. A bioshelter is a solar greenhouse managed as an indoor ecosystem.  The word bioshelter was coined by the New Alchemy Institute and solar designers Sean Wellesley-Miller and Day Chahroudi. The term was created to distinguish their work in greenhouse design and management from twentieth century petro-chemical fuelled monoculture greenhouses. 

New Alchemy's pioneering work in ecological design is documented in their published Journals and Reports. In 1976 the Alchemists built the Cape Cod Ark bioshelter and her sister The Prince Edward Island Ark.  For the next 15 years the New Alchemy Institute studied and reported on the use of these prototype food producing ecosystems.

A bioshelter (life-shelter) involves two fields of knowledge and design.  The first is architecture designed to nurture an ecosystem within. A bioshelter structure uses glazing to contain and protect the living biology inside, control air exchange and absorb energy.  The building exchanges nutrients, gases and energy with the surrounding environment, produces crops, and recycles waste organic material into the soil.  Solar energy is stored as heat energy in thermal mass such as water, stone, masonry, soil and plant biomass.    

The second is the biology inside the bioshelter. Earle Barnhart of the New Alchemy Institute has compared a bioshelter to a contained ecosystem.   Solar heat is absorbed and stored in thermal mass to moderate air temperatures and provide heat for later use.  Water moves from rainfall to fishponds to soil to plants and finally to water vapor. Year-round habitat is provided for beneficial insects . Ecological relationships between pests and their predators reduce the number of pests. Gases are exchanged among the animals, insects, micro-organisms, soil and plants. Nutrient cycles are developed between fish, plant & soil. Within the bioshelter are a variety of microclimates.  The south areas receive the most direct sunlight.  The east and west areas can be shaded for a portion of the day. Higher levels in a growing space will be warmer.  A well-designed bioshelter, managed by human intelligence, can shelter a community of people, food crops, edible fish, and a diverse ecosystem of plants, animals and soil life.

References

External links
 New Alchemy Institute

Greenhouses
Artificial ecosystems
Strike cruiser. The strike cruiser (proposed hull designator: CSGN) was a proposal from DARPA for a class of cruisers in the late 1970s. The proposal was for the Strike Cruiser to be a guided missile attack cruiser with a displacement of around , armed and equipped with the Aegis combat system, the SM-2, Harpoon anti-ship missile, the Tomahawk missile, and the Mk71 8-inch gun.

A prototype strike cruiser was to be the refurbished ; at a cost of roughly $800 million, however this never came to pass.

Originally, eight to twelve strike cruisers were projected. The class would have been complemented by the Aegis-equipped fleet defense (DDG-47) version of the . Plagued with design difficulties and escalating cost, the project was canceled in the closing days of the Ford administration. After the cancellation of the class, the Aegis destroyers were expanded into the  (CG-47) Aegis cruiser program.

See also
 Arsenal ship
 DD21
 CG(X)
  (CGN-42 variant)
 
 
 Cruiser Baseline
 List of cruisers of the United States Navy

Notes

External links
 Letters to Antiwar.com
 Strike Cruiser (CSGN)- GlobalSecurity.org
 Statement by Ronald O'Rourke before the House Armed Services Committee, 6 April 2006
 CSGN-1 "Strike Cruiser" class - Harpoon HQ
 Shipbucket.com:
 USS Long Beach CSGN Refit 
 CGN-42-class CSGN 
 CGN-42-class CSGN 
 1974 CSGN 
 1974 CSGN 
 1976 CSGN 
 Photobucket - Shipbucket:
 USS Long Beach CSGN Refit
 Virginia-class CSGN
 Virginia-class CSGN
 1974 CSGN
 1974 CSGN
 1976 CSGN
 CSGN Chart

Ship types
Cancelled ships of the United States Navy
Cold War cruisers of the United States
Canadian Forces Maritime Experimental and Test Ranges. The Canadian Forces Maritime Experimental and Test Ranges (CFMETR) is a maritime test facility on the east side of Vancouver Island, at Nanoose Bay.

The ranges operated by CFMETR are located over an area of the Strait of Georgia—known as Area WG—that is several hundred metres deep, several dozen kilometres long and several kilometres wide over a seabed composed of soft mud and free of underwater obstacles.  The facility employs a three-dimensional sonar tracking system for monitoring the performance and position of objects in these waters for real-time tracking.  During periods of activity, the range area is closed off from all civilian maritime traffic as a safety measure. 

Equipment tested at the facility consists of a variety of devices, including sonobuoys, sonar systems (ship and aircraft),  torpedoes and the repair and overhaul of the dipping sonar used on Canada's Sikorsky CH-148 Cyclone helicopter fleet. No explosives are used.

This facility is unique in the Canadian Forces as it staffed by active military personnel from the Royal Canadian Navy and Department of National Defence civilian employees, as well as a small number of U.S. Navy civilian employees from Naval Base Kitsap. The facility is operationally controlled as a field unit of Department of National Defence Headquarters.  There is a joint funding agreement between the Canadian and United States governments.

During the Salmon War of 1997, in an attempt to leverage the US into quitting the fishing of salmon runs in Canadian waters, Premier Glen Clark of British Columbia threatened to close the base by terminating the lease for use of the seabed, which is owned by the province and leased to the Canadian military. This brought quick rebuttal from the federal government, saying that it would expropriate the area if needed.

References

Nanoose Bay
Nanoose Bay
Mid Vancouver Island
Incongruent melting. Incongruent melting occurs when a solid substance being partially melted does not melt uniformly, so that the chemical composition of neither the resulting liquid nor the resulting solid is the same as that of the original solid. For example, melting of orthoclase (KAlSi3O8) produces leucite (KAlSi2O6) in addition to a melt. The melt produced is richer in silica (SiO2). The proportions of leucite and melt formed can be recombined to yield the bulk composition of the starting feldspar. Another mineral that can melt incongruently is enstatite (Mg2Si2O6), which produces forsterite (Mg2SiO4) in addition to a melt richer in SiO2  when melting at low pressure. Enstatite melts congruently at higher pressures between 2.5 and 5.5 kilobars.

See also
 Congruent melting
 Incongruent transition
 Phase diagram

References

 Incongruent melting from Eric Weisstein's World of Physics

Materials science
Phase transitions
Geochemistry
Taenite. Taenite is a mineral found naturally on Earth mostly in iron meteorites.  It is an alloy of iron and nickel, with a chemical formula of  and nickel proportions of 20% up to 65%.

The name is derived from the Greek ταινία for "band, ribbon". Taenite is a major constituent of iron meteorites. In octahedrites it is found in bands interleaving with kamacite forming Widmanstätten patterns, whereas in ataxites it is the dominant constituent. In octahedrites a fine intermixture with kamacite can occur, which is called plessite.

Taenite is one of four known Fe-Ni meteorite minerals: The others are kamacite, tetrataenite, and antitaenite.

Properties
It is opaque with a metallic grayish to white color. The structure is isometric-hexoctahedral (cubic). Its density is around 8 g/cm3 and hardness is 5 to 5.5 on the Mohs scale. Taenite is magnetic, in contrast to antitaenite. The structure is isometric-hexoctahedral (cubic). The crystal lattice has the c≈a=. The Strunz classification is I/A.08-20, while the Dana classification is 1.1.11.2.

Meteorite localities with taenite
 Campo del Cielo strewn field in Argentina.
 Henbury Meteorites Conservation Reserve in Australia.
 Canyon Diablo in Arizona.

See also
 Glossary of meteoritics
 List of minerals

References 

Mason B., 1962: Meteorites. J. Wiley & Sons, New York 

Iron minerals
Nickel minerals
Meteorite minerals
Magnetic minerals
Cubic minerals
Minerals in space group 225
Native element minerals
Nickel alloys
Ferroalloys
Make the Cowboy Robots Cry. Make the Cowboy Robots Cry is an EP by American alt-country band Beachwood Sparks, released in 2002, which featured the return of drummer Jimi Hey.

Track listing
"Drinkswater" – 7:12
"Hibernation" – 3:27
"Ponce de Leon Blues" – 6:55
"Sing Your Thoughts" – 3:52
"Galapagos" – 4:17
"Ghost Dance 1492" – 2:58

References

Beachwood Sparks albums
2002 EPs
Sub Pop EPs
Plessite. Plessite is a meteorite texture consisting of a fine-grained mixture of the minerals kamacite and taenite found in the octahedrite iron meteorites. It occurs in gaps (its name is derived from the Greek "plythos" meaning "filling") between the larger bands of kamacite and taenite which form Widmanstätten patterns.

Many types of plessite exist and vary in formation mechanism and morphology.  Some types of plessite as named by Buchwald's "Iron Meteorites" and Massalski's "Speculations about Plessite" are:
acicular or type I plessite
black or type II plessite
cellular or type III plessite
comb plessite
net plessite
pearlitic plessite
spheroidized plessite

See also
 Glossary of meteoritics

References 

Goldstein, J. I. Michael, J. R.,  2006, "The formation of plessite in meteoritic metal",  Meteoritics & Planetary Science Vol 41; No. 4, pages 553-570. Full text online.

Meteorite minerals
Meteorite mineralogy and petrology
Pressure experiment. Pressure experiments are experiments performed at pressures lower or higher than atmospheric pressure, called low-pressure experiments and high-pressure experiments, respectively. Pressure experiment are necessary because substances behave differently at different pressures. For example, water boils at a lower temperature at lower pressures. The equipment used for pressure experiments depends on whether the pressure is to be increased or decreased and by how much. A vacuum pump is used to remove the air out of a vacuum vessel for low-pressure experiments. High-pressures can be created with a piston-cylinder apparatus, up to  () and . The piston is shifted with hydraulics, decreasing the volume inside the confining cylinder and increasing the pressure. For higher pressures, up to , a multi-anvil cell is used and for even higher pressures the diamond anvil cell. The diamond anvil cell is used to create extremely high pressures, as much as a million atmospheres (), though only over a small area. The current record is , but the sample size is confined to the order of tens of micrometres ().

References

See also 
 Orders of magnitude (pressure)

Physics experiments
Paramount Cars. Paramount Cars was a British company which produced the Paramount automobile between 1950 and 1956. Founded by WA Hudson and S Underwood from Derbyshire, the company initially manufactured cars in Swadlincote with production moving shortly after to Melbourne (again in Derbyshire) and then to Leighton Buzzard. Two models were produced, the Paramount Ten and the Paramount 1½-Litre.

History 
The Paramount had an aluminium over wood frame body with BMW like grille and was mounted on a separate tubular steel chassis with front transverse and rear semi elliptical leaf springs. It was originally intended to have Alvis engine and suspension but to reduce cost the production versions used Ford 10 components including the 1172 cc side valve engines, but fitted with twin SU carburettors, which resulted in poor performance. The car was listed in both 2 and 4 seat versions.

In 1953, the company was bought by Camden Motors and production moved to Leighton Buzzard and the Ford Consul 1,508 cc engine was an option in a longer chassis as also was a Wade or Shorrock supercharger. The price was now an uncompetitive £1009 and production ceased in 1956 after about 70 cars had been made.

After the end of car production the remaining chassis were sold off and several were fitted with Rochdale glass fibre bodies.

There was no connection with the two separate American Paramount Car companies of Azusa, California (1923-1924) and New York City (1927-1931).

Performance

A 1500 cc car tested by the British magazine The Motor in 1956 had a top speed of  and could accelerate from 0- in 31.2 seconds. A fuel consumption of  was recorded. The test car cost £1013 including taxes.

Gallery

See also
 List of car manufacturers of the United Kingdom

References

Bibliography
 Lawrence, Mike. (1991). AZ of Sports Cars since 1945 - page 252. Bay View Books. 
 Sedgwick, Michael. (1985) CARS OF THE FIFTIES AND SIXTIES - page 225. AB nordbook. 
 Georgano, G.N. (1973) The Complete Encyclopedia of Motorcars1885 to the present - page 536. Ebury Press.

External links
Paramount Cars at cartype.com

Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of England
Companies based in Derbyshire
Companies based in Bedfordshire
Low-pressure discharge. Low-pressure discharges exist within Gas-discharge lamps. The electric discharges in gases are made under gas pressures from a few millitorr to a little less than atmospheric.

Description

They are most often used in industry to generate plasma. Less power is required to sustain the discharge at lower pressures as volume-recombination rates are lower. It is also easier to achieve uniform discharges at low pressure. 

Normally, the system is pumped down and only necessary plasma gases are then flown into the plasma chamber. Argon is a typical background gas because it has low ionization potential and therefore is easier to break down and sustain.

Most discharges used in the semiconductor industry employ low-pressure plasmas.

See also

References

Gas discharge lamps
Camphorsulfonic acid. Camphorsulfonic acid, sometimes abbreviated CSA or 10-CSA is an organosulfur compound. Like typical sulfonic acids, it is a relatively strong acid that is a colorless solid at room temperature and is soluble in water and a wide variety of organic substances.

This compound is commercially available. It can be prepared by sulfonation of camphor with sulfuric acid and acetic anhydride:

Although this reaction appears to be a sulfonation of an unactivated methyl group, the actual mechanism is believed to involve a retro-semipinacol rearrangement, deprotonation next to the tertiary carbocation to form an alkene, sulfonation of the alkene intermediate, and finally, semipinacol rearrangement to re-establish the ketone function.

In organic synthesis, CSA and its derivatives can be used as resolving agents for chiral amines and other cations.  The synthesis of osanetant was an example of this. 3-bromocamphor-8-sulfonic acid was used in the synthesis of enantiopure devazepide.

Camphorsulfonic acid is also being used for the synthesis of quinolines. Camphorsulfonic acid is used in some pharmaceutical formulations, where is it referred to as camsilate or camsylate, including trimetaphan camsilate and lanabecestat camsylate. Some studies (c.f. Lednicer) support that D-CSA was used for the resolution of Chloramphenicol.

References

Sulfonic acids
Third phase. Third phase is the term for a stable emulsion which forms in a liquid–liquid extraction when the original two phases (aqueous and organic) are mixed.

The third phase can be caused by a detergent (surfactant) or a fine solid. While third phase is a term for an unwanted emulsion, a stable emulsion is wanted in emulsion polymerization all the things which can be used to make a stable 'emulsion' for a latex synthesis can prove to encourage a third phase to form.

One term for the third phase found in PUREX plants is crud (Chalk River Unknown Deposit). One common crud is formed by the reaction of zirconium salts (from fission) with degraded tributyl phosphate (TBP). The TBP degrades into dibutyl hydrogen phosphate and then into butyl dihydrogen phosphate. The dibutyl hydrogen phosphate and the zirconium can form polymeric solid which is very insoluble.

Colloidal chemistry
Xcon. The R1 (internally called XCON, for eXpert CONfigurer) program was a production-rule-based system written in OPS5 by John P. McDermott of Carnegie Mellon University in 1978 to assist in the ordering of DEC's VAX computer systems by automatically selecting the computer system components based on the customer's requirements.

Overview
In developing the system, McDermott made use of experts from both DEC's PDP/11 and VAX computer systems groups. These experts sometimes even disagreed amongst themselves as to an optimal configuration. The resultant "sorting it out" had an additional benefit in terms of the quality of VAX systems delivered.

XCON first went into use in 1980 in DEC's plant in Salem, New Hampshire. It eventually had about 2500 rules. By 1986, it had processed 80,000 orders, and achieved 95–98% accuracy. It was estimated to be saving DEC $25M a year by reducing the need to give customers free components when technicians made errors, by speeding the assembly process, and by increasing customer satisfaction.

Before XCON, when ordering a VAX from DEC, every cable, connection, and bit of software had to be ordered separately. (Computers and peripherals were not sold complete in boxes as they are today.) The sales people were not always very technically expert, so customers would find that they had hardware without the correct cables, printers without the correct drivers, a processor without the correct language chip, and so on. This meant delays and caused a lot of customer dissatisfaction and resultant legal action. XCON interacted with the sales person, asking critical questions before printing out a coherent and workable system specification/order slip.

XCON's success led DEC to rewrite XCON as XSEL—a version of XCON intended for use by DEC's salesforce to aid a customer in properly configuring their VAX (so they would not, say, choose a computer too large to fit through their doorway or choose too few cabinets for the components to fit in). Location problems and configuration were handled by yet another expert system, XSITE.

McDermott's 1980 paper on R1 won the AAAI Classic Paper Award in 1999. Legendarily, the name of R1 comes from McDermott, who supposedly said as he was writing it, "Three years ago I couldn't spell knowledge engineer, now I are one."

See also
 MYCIN

References

The AI Business: The commercial uses of artificial intelligence, ed. Patrick Winston and Karen A. Prendergast.

External links
"Configuration with R1/XCon (1978)"
"AAAI Classic Paper Award"
"R1-SOAR: A Research Experiment in Computer Learning"

Expert systems
Business software
Information systems
History of artificial intelligence
Leonard Lee. Leonard G. Lee CM (July 17, 1938 – July 7, 2016) was a Canadian entrepreneur and founder of Lee Valley Tools and Canica Design. Lee was born in 1938 in Wadena, Sask., and grew up in a log cabin without electricity or running water.

He received a diploma in civil engineering from Royal Roads Military College and a Bachelor of Economics degree in 1963 from Queen's University. He worked for the federal government for sixteen years as a topographical surveyor, member of the Canadian Foreign Service and civil servant in the Department of Industry.

In 1978, he founded Lee Valley Tools, a Canadian woodworking and gardening tools mail-order business which has since grown into a multimillion-dollar enterprise. In 1985, he founded Veritas Tools. In 1991, he founded Algrove Publishing. In 1998, with his son Robin running Lee Valley Tools, Lee started a new business, Canica Design, a medical/surgical instrument company, headquartered in Almonte, Ontario.

In 2002, he was made a Member of the Order of Canada for "being a successful entrepreneur." In 2007, he was granted an honorary degree from the Royal Military College of Canada in Kingston, Ontario. In 2011, he was granted an honorary doctorate from the University of Ottawa. Lee died on July 7, 2016, from effects of vascular dementia.

Bibliography
The Complete Guide to Sharpening. Taunton Press, 1995.  (hard cover)  (soft cover).

References

Canadian businesspeople
Members of the Order of Canada
Queen's University at Kingston alumni
Deaths from dementia in Canada
Deaths from vascular dementia
1938 births
2016 deaths