omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Ideal machine. The term ideal machine refers to a hypothetical mechanical system in which energy and power are not lost or dissipated through friction, deformation, wear, or other inefficiencies.  Ideal machines have  the theoretical maximum performance, and therefore are used as a baseline for evaluating the performance of real machine systems.

A simple machine, such as a lever, pulley, or gear train, is "ideal" if the power input is equal to the power output of the device, which means there are no losses.  In this case, the mechanical efficiency is 100%.

Mechanical efficiency is the performance of the machine compared to its theoretical maximum as performed by an ideal machine.  The mechanical efficiency of a simple machine is calculated by dividing the actual power output by the ideal power output.  This is usually expressed as a percentage.

Power loss in a real system can occur in many ways, such as through friction, deformation, wear, heat losses, incomplete chemical conversion, magnetic and electrical losses.

Criteria
A machine consists of a power source and a mechanism for the controlled use of this power.  The power source often relies on chemical conversion to generate heat which is then used to generate power.  Each stage of the process of power generation has a maximum performance limit which is identified as ideal.

Once the power is generated the mechanism components of the machine direct it toward useful forces and movement.  The ideal mechanism does not absorb any power, which means the power input is equal to the power output.

An example is the automobile engine (internal combustion engine) which burns fuel (an exothermic chemical reaction) inside a cylinder and uses the expanding gases to drive a piston.  The movement of the piston rotates the crank shaft.  The remaining mechanical components such as the transmission, drive shaft, differential, axles and wheels form the power transmission mechanism that directs the power from the engine into friction forces on the road to move the automobile.

The ideal machine has the maximum energy conversion performance combined with a lossless power transmission mechanism that yields maximum performance.

See also
Mechanics
Energy
Conservation of energy
Entropy

References 

Mechanics
Linkages (mechanical)
Calculus of broadcasting systems. Calculus of broadcasting systems (CBS) is a CCS-like calculus where processes speak one at a time and each is heard instantaneously by all others. Speech is autonomous, contention between speakers being resolved nondeterministically, but hearing only happens when someone else speaks. Observationally meaningful laws differ from those of CCS. The handshake communication of CCS is changed to broadcast communication in CBS. This allows several additional features:

 Priority, which attaches only to autonomous actions, is simply added to CBS in contrast to CCS, where such actions are the result of communication.
 A CBS simulator runs a process by returning a list of values it broadcasts. This permits a powerful combination, CBS with the host language. It yields several elegant algorithms. Only processes with a unique response to each input are needed in practice, so weak bi simulation is a congruence.
 CBS subsystems are interfaced by translators; by mapping messages to silence, these can restrict hearing and hide speech. Reversing a translator turns its scope inside out. This permits a new specification for a communication link – the environment of each user should behave like the other user.

See also
 Alternating bit protocol
 Bisimulation
 Calculus of communicating systems (CCS)
 Communicating sequential processes (CSP)
 Pi-calculus

References
 K. V. S. Prasad: A Calculus of Broadcasting Systems, Science of Computer Programming, 25, 1995.
 K. V. S. Prasad: Programming with broadcasts, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol. 715, CONCUR, 1993, Springer-Verlag.
 K. V. S. Prasad: Broadcasting in time, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Vol. 1061, COORDINATION, 1996, Springer-Verlag.

External links
 Citations from CiteSeer
 A TCBS-Implementation on C++ - A Laboratory for the Course "Parallelism"

Process calculi
Parallel computing
Advanced multi-mission operations system. The advanced multi-mission operations system (AMMOS) is a common set of services and tools created by the Interplanetary Network Directorate, a division of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, for use in JPL's operation of spacecraft. These tools include a means by which mission planning and analysis can be undertaken, as well as developing pre-planned command sequences for the spacecraft. AMMOS also provides a means by which downlinked data can be displayed and manipulated, including key mission telemetry such as readings of temperature, pressure, power, and other critical indicators. This common toolset allows space missions to minimize the cost of developing operations infrastructure, which is very important in light of recent restricted spending by space agencies.

References

External links
 Official website

Aerospace engineering
Johannes Winkler. Johannes Winkler (29 May 1897 – 27 December 1947) was a German rocket pioneer who co-founded with Max Valier of Opel RAK the first German rocket society "Verein für Raumschiffahrt" and launched, after Friedrich Wilhelm Sander's successful Opel RAK liquid-rocket launches in 1929, one of the first successful liquid-fuelled rocket in Europe.

In 1915 during World War I, he joined the German army and was wounded in action the following year, leading to a lengthy hospitalisation. After his recovery, he studied as a machinist at the Danzig technical college and found a job at Junkers.

On 5 July 1927, he was one of the founders the Verein für Raumschiffahrt (VfR – "Spaceflight Society").  He also was the society's first president and editor of the VfR's Die Rakete journal.

On 14 March 1931 at 4:45 pm, he launched the Hückel-Winkler I (HW-I)  at the Gross Kühnau drill field near Dessau.  According to his account, it was planned to reach an altitude of 500 meters, but it turned and flew horizontally, landing 200 meters from the pad.  The maximum altitude of the rocket was not recorded.  It was powered by liquid oxygen and liquid methane.

Eighteen months after the HW-I flight, Winkler launched the HW-II' on 6 October 1932 in a public demonstration, which included invited officials from the Königsberg council. Unfortunately, the rocket exploded within seconds of ignition because of a faulty fuel valve.

Winkler designed a number of other rockets and JATO units for Junkers and then a government aviation research institute, but none left the drawing board.

Honours
The Winkler crater, a small impact crater on the far side of the Moon, is named after Johannes Winkler.

References and notes

1897 births
1947 deaths
German aerospace engineers
German people of World War II
German rocket scientists
German spaceflight pioneers
People from Namysłów County
People from the Province of Silesia
People from the German Empire
People from the Weimar Republic
Line doubler. A line doubler is a device or algorithm used to deinterlace video signals prior to display on a progressive scan display.

The main function of a deinterlacer is to take an interlaced video frame which consists of 60 two-field interlaced fields of an NTSC analogue video signal or 50 fields of a PAL signal, and create a progressive scan output. 
 
Cathode ray tube (CRT) based displays (both direct-view and projection) are capable of directly displaying both interlaced and progressive video, and therefore the line-doubling process is an optional step to enhance picture quality. Other types of displays are fixed pixel displays, including LCD displays, plasma displays, DLP projectors, and OLED displays, which are not scanned from top left to bottom right corners and generally cannot accept an interlaced signal directly, and so require some kind of deinterlacing. Often, this is built in to the display and transparent to the user. Progressive scan DVD players also feature a deinterlacer.

Line doubling is a literal way to deinterlace an interlaced signal, although the method used may differ. Typically the use of the term "line doubler" refers to a simple repeat of a scanline so that the lines in a field match the lines of a frame. However, this produces a "bobbing" effect and has led to this method of deinterlacing being referred to as "bob deinterlacing". An iteration on bob deinterlacing is to average adjacent scanlines of two frames which can produce a smoother, although blurrier, image. This technique is referred to as "blend deinterlacing".

Some line doublers are capable of using the former technique in moving areas and the latter in static areas (to avoid the "bob" effect), which improves overall sharpness.

Even if a line doubler employs the merging method it cannot be considered an inverse telecine device if a frame rate of 60p other than the original 24p is obtained. From this aspect of view some hyped progressive scan technologies (including Pioneer's PureCinema Progressive Scan) bearing an inverse telecine insignia are thus overstated.

Line doublers have been replaced recently by video scalers which incorporate 3:2 pulldown removal and the ability to scale the image to the various screen resolutions used on modern projectors and displays. However, line doublers such as the Open Source Scan Converter have been developed to convert signals from older video game consoles and have found popularity among retro gaming enthusiasts due to their minimal contribution to input lag.

See also
 3:2 Pulldown
 Deinterlacing

References

Film and video technology
Kim Yong-san. Kim Yong-san (October 13, 1922 – July 14, 2011) was a South Korean businessman. He was born in Siheung, Keiki-dō, Korea, Empire of Japan. He is a pioneer in the industrialization of South Korea, specifically the construction business. In 1948 he founded the Kukdong Business Group, one of the largest construction companies in South Korea. His company has built many famous projects which include;  KLCC Building in Kuala Lumpur (currently the third tallest building in the world), Korea World Trade Center, as well as many other projects, both domestically and internationally.

See also
Hyundai
 Economy of South Korea

References

1922 births
2007 deaths
20th-century South Korean businesspeople
Texture. Texture may refer to:

Science and technology
 Image texture, the spatial arrangement of color or intensities in an image
 Surface texture, the smoothness, roughness, or bumpiness of the surface of an object
 Texture (roads), road surface characteristics with waves shorter than road roughness
 Texture (cosmology), a theoretical topological defect in the structure of spacetime
 Crystallographic texture, distribution of crystallographic orientations in a polycrystalline material
 Texture (geology), a physical appearance or character of a rock
 Texture mapping, a bitmap image applied to a surface in computer graphics
 Soil texture, a relative proportion of grain sizes of a soil
 Scalar field

Arts
 Texture (visual arts), an element of design and its application in art

Music
 Texture (music), an overall sound created by the interaction of aspects of a piece of music
 Textures (album), a 1989 album by Brian Eno
 Textures (band), a metal band from the Netherlands, who formed in 2001 in Tilburg

Other uses
 Texture (app), a digital app giving access to magazines
 Food texture or mouthfeel

See also
Rur (disambiguation). The Rur is a river mostly in Germany.

Rur or RUR may also refer to:

Organisations 
 Royal Ulster Rifles, a British Army regiment  (1793–1968)
 Rugby Union of Russia, a sports governing body (founded 1936)

Technology 
 Eric (robot) or R.U.R., a 1928 British humanoid robot
 RUR-PLE, a 2004 educational Python programming tool

Other uses 
 R.U.R., a 1920 Czech sci-fi play by Karel Čapek
 Russian ruble, a currency (pre-1998 ISO 4217 code: RUR)
 Ohaw, or rur, a Japanese soup dish
 Rur., an abbreviation for "rural"

See also 
RIR (disambiguation)
Roar (disambiguation)
Röhr (disambiguation)—including another German river
 Ruhr (disambiguation)—including another German river
List of British Rail classes. This article lists the wide variety of locomotives and multiple units that have operated on Great Britain's railway network, since Nationalisation in 1948.

British Rail used several numbering schemes for classifying its steam locomotive types and other rolling stock, before settling on the TOPS computer system in the late 1960s. TOPS has remained in use ever since.

Steam locomotives

 Steam locomotives in use after 1968: Class 98

Diesel and electric locomotives

 Diesel locomotives: Classes 01–70
 DC electric and electro-diesel locomotives: Classes 70–79
 AC electric locomotives: Classes 80–96
 Departmental locos (those not in revenue-earning use): Class 97
 Miscellaneous locomotives, including builders' demonstrators.

Shipping fleet
British Rail's shipping fleet:

Diesel multiple units

 Units with mechanical or hydraulic transmission: Classes 100-199
 Units with electric transmission: Classes 200–299

Electric multiple units

 Overhead AC and Dual-voltage EMUs: Classes 300–399 and 700-799
 Southern Region DC third rail EMUs: Classes 400–499
 Other DC EMUs: Classes 500–599
 High-speed EMUs: Classes 800-899

Alternative Fuel multiple units 

 British Rail Class 600
 British Rail Class 614

Departmental multiple units

 Classes 900-999

See also 
 British Rail coach type codes
 List of British Railways steam locomotives as of 31 December 1967
 List of British Railways shed codes
 British Rail train classes

British Rail
British Rail classes
British Rail rolling stock
IBM RAD6000. The RAD6000 radiation-hardened single-board computer, based on the IBM RISC Single Chip CPU, was manufactured by IBM Federal Systems. IBM Federal Systems was sold to Loral, and by way of acquisition, ended up with Lockheed Martin and is currently a part of BAE Systems Electronic Systems. RAD6000 is mainly known as the onboard computer of numerous NASA spacecraft.

History
The radiation-hardening of the original RSC 1.1 million-transistor processor to make the RAD6000's CPU was done by IBM Federal Systems Division working with the Air Force Research Laboratory.

, there are 200 RAD6000 processors in space on a variety of NASA, United States Department of Defense and commercial spacecraft, including:
 Mars Exploration Rovers (Spirit and Opportunity)
 Deep Space 1 probe
 Mars Polar Lander and Mars Climate Orbiter
 Mars Odyssey orbiter
 Spitzer Infrared Telescope Facility
 MESSENGER probe to Mercury
 STEREO Spacecraft
 IMAGE/Explorer 78 MIDEX spacecraft
 Genesis and Stardust sample return missions
 Phoenix Mars Polar Lander
 Dawn Mission to the asteroid belt using ion propulsion
 Solar Dynamics Observatory, Launched Feb 11, 2010 (flying both RAD6000 and RAD750)
 Burst Alert Telescope Image Processor on board the Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission 
 DSCOVR Deep Space Climate Observatory spacecraft

The computer has a maximum clock rate of 33 MHz and a processing speed of about 35 MIPS. In addition to the CPU itself, the RAD6000 has 128 MB of ECC RAM. A typical real-time operating system running on NASA's RAD6000 installations is VxWorks.  The Flight boards in the above systems have switchable clock rates of 2.5, 5, 10, or 20 MHz.

Reported to have a unit cost somewhere between US$200,000 and US$300,000, RAD6000 computers were released for sale in the general commercial market in 1996.

The RAD6000's successor is the RAD750 processor, based on IBM's PowerPC 750.

See also
 IBM RS/6000
 PowerPC 601, a consumer chip with similar computing capabilities to the RAD6000

References

External links
Software on Mars rovers 'space qualified' – By Matthew Fordahl/AP, 23 January 2004
AFRL Rad6000 fact sheet
Software Behind the Mars Phoenix Lander (Audio Interview)
 The CPUs of Spacecraft Computers in Space

Avionics computers
RAD6000
Radiation-hardened microprocessors
American inventions
Computer-related introductions in 1996
Electron spiral toroid. Electron Power Systems, Inc. of Acton, Massachusetts, United States, claims to have developed a technology for maintaining small stable plasma toroids called electron spiral toroids (ESTs) which remain stable in Earth's atmosphere without the use of any special magnetic fields. They claim to have created these toroids in the laboratory, and to have developed a mathematical model for them that is similar to some explanations for ball lightning. An EST may be a special case of a spheromak.

Because of EST's claimed lack of need for an external stabilizing magnetic field, EPS hope to be able to create small efficient fusion reactors by colliding magnetically accelerated ESTs together at speeds high enough to induce ballistic nuclear fusion.

Their model for their reported toroidal phenomena was extensively criticised by a December 2000 technical report commissioned by NASA. , EPS claim to have met the criticisms of the NASA report, and to have demonstrated that their model is mathematically sound, and state that they are ready to proceed with development of their technology.

References 

 Jean-Luc Cambier and David A. Micheletti. Theoretical Analysis of the Electron Spiral Toroid Concept NASA/CR-2000-210654.
  C. Chen, R. Pakter, and D. C. Seward. Equilibrium and stability properties of self-organized electron spiral toroids.  Physics of Plasmas Vol 8(10) pp. 4441–4449. October 2001.

External links
Electron Power Systems: The official web site of Electron Power Systems.

Plasma technology and applications
Foil. Foil may refer to:

Materials
 Foil (metal), a quite thin sheet of metal, usually manufactured with a rolling mill machine
 Metal leaf, a very thin sheet of decorative metal
 Aluminium foil, a type of wrapping for food
 Tin foil, metal foil made of tin, the direct predecessor to  aluminium foil
 Transparency (projection), a thin sheet of transparent flexible material, placed on an overhead projector for display to an audience

Fluid dynamics
 Foil (fluid mechanics)
 Airfoil, a foil operating in air
 Hydrofoil, a foil operating in water
 Parafoil, a non-rigid airfoil, inflated during use
 Foil bearing, a type of fluid bearing

Arts and culture
 Foil (architecture), decorative device derived from cusps of circles
 Foil stamping, a printmaking technique
 Foil (fencing), one of the three weapons used in modern fencing
 Foil (fiction), a subsidiary character who emphasizes the traits of a main character
 Comedic or comic foil, the straight man in a comedy double act
 "Foil" (song), "Weird Al" Yankovic's parody of Lorde's song "Royals"

Navigation
 Hydrofoil, a type of high-powered motorboat that uses underwater foils to lift its hull above the water when moving at high speeds
 Bruce foil, a foil used on an outrigger to prevent a boat from heeling
 Centreboard, a movable keel that functions as a foil
 Foilboard, a surfboard using a hydrofoil

Other uses
 People in a police lineup
 First-order inductive learner – a rule-based learning algorithm
 The FOIL method, a mnemonic in algebra, to expand the product of two first-degree polynomials ("linear factors")
 FOIL (programming language), either of two now-defunct computer programming languages
 Forum of Indian Leftists, a political group of Indian intellectuals
 Freedom of information legislation or Freedom of Information Law (FOIL)
 Ultrasonic foil (papermaking), a type of high-frequency vibrating foil involved in papermaking
 Split tally, in ancient financial accounting, the part of a split tally stick given to the recipient in a transaction
Plastic arts. Plastic arts are art forms which involve physical manipulation of a plastic medium, such as clay, wax, paint or even plastic in the modern sense of the word (a ductile polymer) to create works of art.  The term is used more generally to refer to the visual arts (such as painting, sculpture, ceramics, architecture, film and photography), rather than literature and music.  Materials for use in the plastic arts, in the narrower definition, include those that can be carved or shaped, such as stone or wood, concrete, glass, or metal.

History
The word "plastic" draws from the Greek word "plastikos," which means "to mold" or "to shape." It has long preceded its dominant modern meaning as a synthetic material. The term "plastic arts" has been used historically to denote visual art forms (painting, sculpture, and ceramics) as opposed to literature or music. 

The related terms plasticity and plasticism became more widely used in the early 20th century by critics discussing modern painting, particularly the works of Paul Cézanne.
 
The oldest known "plastic art" dates back to 30,000–34,000 BP.

Application to literature
In contrast to the limiting of 'plastic arts' to sculpture and architecture by Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling in 1807, the German critic August Wilhelm Schlegel (1767–1845) applied the concept not only to visual arts, but also poetry.

Classical poetry lines he saw using plastic isolation, and rhyme falling under the Romantic (domain).

In Schlegel's Viennese lectures (1809–1811), published in 1827 as On the Theory and History of the Plastic Arts, he contrasted the plasticism of Classical Art with picturesque Romanticism:

Gallery

See also

 
 
 
  (according to Mondrian)

References

Further reading
 Barnes, A. C., The Art in Painting, 3rd ed., 1937, Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc., NY.  
 Bukumirovic, D. (1998). Maga Magazinovic. Biblioteka Fatalne srpkinje knj. br. 4. Beograd: Narodna knj.
 Fazenda, M. J. (1997). Between the pictorial and the expression of ideas: the plastic arts and literature in the dance of Paula Massano. N.p.
 Gerón, C. (2000). Enciclopedia de las artes plásticas dominicanas: 1844–2000. 4th ed. Dominican Republic s.n.
 Schlegel, August Wilhelm., (1966) Vorlesungen uber dramatische Kunst und Literatur, Stuttgart: Kohlhammer Verlag, 1966, p. 21f.

External links
Vincent Rijmen. Vincent Rijmen (; born 16 October 1970) is a Belgian cryptographer and one of the two designers of the Rijndael, the Advanced Encryption Standard. Rijmen is also the co-designer of the WHIRLPOOL cryptographic hash function, and the block ciphers Anubis, KHAZAD, Square, NOEKEON and SHARK.

In 1993, Rijmen obtained a degree in electronics engineering at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven. Afterwards, he was a PhD student at the ESAT/COSIC lab of the K.U.Leuven. In 1997, Rijmen finished his doctoral dissertation titled Cryptanalysis and design of iterated block ciphers.

After his PhD he did postdoctoral work at the COSIC lab, on several occasions collaborating with Joan Daemen. One of their joint projects resulted in the algorithm Rijndael, which in October 2000 was selected by the National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST) to become the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES).

Since 1 August 2001, Rijmen has been working as chief cryptographer at Cryptomathic where he cooperated with cryptographers such as Peter Landrock. From 2001 to 2003, Rijmen was a visiting professor at the Institute for Applied Information Processing and Communications at Graz University of Technology (Austria), and a full professor there from 2004 to 2007. Since October 2007, Rijmen has worked again with the COSIC lab and currently holds a professor position (gewoon hoogleraar) at K.U.Leuven. Since January 2019 he is also an adjunct professor at Selmer Center (the secure communication group at the University of Bergen, Norway).

In 2002, he was named by the MIT Technology Review TR100 as one of the top 100 innovators in the world under the age of 35.

In 2019, he was named a Fellow of the International Association for Cryptologic Research for "co-designing AES, contributions to the design and cryptanalysis of symmetric primitives, and service to the IACR."

In 2020, he received, with Joan Daemen, the RSA Award for Excellence in Mathematics from the hands of Ron Rivest.

In 2023, he received the Levchin Prize for his work on AES.

References

External links
 
 
 
 

1970 births
Living people
Belgian cryptographers
Academic staff of the Graz University of Technology
Modern cryptographers
Catholic University of Leuven alumni
Scientists from Leuven