omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Adolf Eugen Fick. Adolf Eugen Fick (3 September 1829 – 21 August 1901) was a German-born physician and physiologist.

Early life and education
Fick began his work in the formal study of mathematics and physics before realising an aptitude for medicine. He then earned his doctorate in medicine from the University of Marburg in 1851. As a fresh medical graduate, he began his work as a prosector. He died in Flanders at age 71.

Career
In 1855, he introduced Fick's laws of diffusion, which govern the diffusion of a gas across a fluid membrane. In 1870, he was the first to measure cardiac output, using what is now called the Fick principle.

Fick managed to double-publish his law of diffusion, as it applied equally to physiology and physics. His work led to the development of the direct Fick method for measuring cardiac output.

Anecdotal
Fick's nephew, Adolf Gaston Eugen Fick, invented the contact lens.

References

External links
 Short biography and bibliography in the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science
 Science Quotes by Adolf Eugen Fick (todayinsci.com)

1829 births
1901 deaths
Alldeutscher Verband members
German biophysicists
German physiologists
Physicians from Kassel
People from the Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel
University of Marburg alumni
Academic staff of the University of Würzburg
Academic staff of the University of Zurich
Recipients of the Cothenius Medal
Secure Communication based on Quantum Cryptography. Secure Communication based on Quantum Cryptography (SECOQC) is a project that aims to develop quantum cryptography (see there for further details). The European Union decided in 2004 to invest 11 million EUR in the project as a way of circumventing espionage attempts by ECHELON. Christian Monyk, the coordinator of SECOQC, said people and organizations in Austria, Belgium, the United Kingdom, Canada, the Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, Sweden, and Switzerland would participate in the project.

On October 8, 2008 SECOQC was launched in Vienna.

Limitations of classical quantum cryptography 
Quantum cryptography, usually known as quantum key distribution (QKD) provides powerful security. But it has some limitations. Following no-cloning theorem, QKD only can provide one-to-one connections. So the number of links will increase  as  represents the number of nodes. If a node wants to participate into the QKD network, it will cause some issues like constructing quantum communication line. To overcome these issues, SECOQC was started.

Brief architecture of SECOQC network 
SECOQC network architecture can be divided into two parts: trusted private networks and quantum networks connected via QBBs (quantum backbones). The private networks are conventional networks with end-nodes and a QBB. Each QBB enables quantum channel communication with another QBB and consists of a number of QKD devices that are connected with other QKD devices over one-to-one connections.

From this, SECOQC can provide easier registration of new end-nodes in a QKD network, and quick recovery from threats on quantum channel links.

See also 
 Quantum cryptography

References 
 Andreas Poppe, Momtchil Peev, Oliver Maurhart, "Outline of the SECOQC Quantum-Key-Distribution Network in Vienna", Apr 2008,  International Journal of Quantum Information
 Peev M., Pacher C., Alleaume, R., Happe A., Lorunser T., Poppe A., Themel T., Zeilinger A, "The SECOQC quantum key distribution network in Vienna", July 2009, New Journal of Physics, Volume 11
 Dianati, M. Alleaume, R., "Transport Layer Protocols for the Secoqc Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) Network, Local Computer Networks", 2007. LCN 2007. 32nd IEEE Conference on

External links 

 E.U. seeks quantum cryptography response to Echelon ITworld

Cryptography organizations
IBM VNET. VNET is an international computer networking system deployed in the mid-1970s and still in current, but highly diminished use. It was developed inside IBM and provided the main email and file-transfer backbone for the company throughout the 1980s and 1990s. Through it, a number of protocols were developed to deliver email amongst time sharing computers over alternative transmission systems.

VNET was first deployed as a private host to host network among CP/67 and VM/370 mainframes beginning before 1975. It was based on RSCS, a virtual machine–based communications program and an inter machine protocol developed in IBM's Advanced Systems Development Division's Remote Service System (RSS) prototype which produced some of the technology in the IBM Tivoli product. RSCS used the Binary Synchronous Communications (BSC) protocol, not SNA/SDLC, to support file to file transfer among virtual machine users. The first several nodes included Scientific Centers and Poughkeepsie, New York lab sites.

RSCS-compatible communications code was subsequently developed for MVT/HASP, MVT/ASP and MVS mainframe operating systems. By September 1979, the network had grown to include 285 mainframe nodes in Europe, Asia, and North America. Unlike the Internet, VNET switched files among mainframes using a store and forward technique. Many of the early connections operated over dial-up phone lines at speeds of 1200 to 2400 bits per second. The addition of a 19.2 kbit/s trans-Atlantic satellite circuit in late 1977 was considered a major step forward.

End users typically sent files between 100 and 100,000 bytes in length. The user could expect delivery within one minute to several hours. File delivery was acknowledged on a hop by hop basis but there was no end to end delivery confirmation. However, by the late 1970s an email application was developed that provided delivery confirmation as well as message archiving. What began as a research activity among engineers and scientists became, by 1980, a valuable business asset for many organizations within IBM.

The first widely disruptive computer worm, "Christmas Tree EXEC" in December 1987, originated on BITNET and spread to this network.

See also
 BITNET
 RSCS
 Tivoli

External links
 Interview with VNET creator Edson Hendricks

IBM
Wide area networks
VM (operating system)
Argus Motoren. Argus Motoren was a German manufacturing firm known for their series of small inverted-V engines and the Argus As 014 pulsejet for the V-1 flying bomb.

History
Started in Berlin in 1906 as a subsidiary of Henri Jeannin's automobile business, Argus Motoren company spun off entirely in November 1906.
Their early products were car and boat engines, but later that year they were contracted to produce engines for the French airship, Ville de Paris, supplying them with a converted boat motor. They turned increasingly to the aviation market, and were widely used by 1910, receiving an order from Sikorsky for one of his large airplanes under construction in Russia. During World War I Argus produced engines for the German army and air corps.

After World War I the company manufactured automobile engines and acquired a majority interest in Horch Automobile in 1919. In 1926 they resumed aircraft engine design, producing a series of inverted inline and V engines. Although all were at the "low-power" end of the market by the start of World War II, they saw extensive use in training aircraft and other utility roles. Most famous of these designs are the Argus As 10, used in the Fieseler Fi 156 Storch, in the Arado Ar 66 and in the Focke-Wulf Fw 56 Stösser; and the Argus As 410, used on many German trainers, including the Arado Ar 96 and the Focke-Wulf Fw 189.

Argus provided also disc brakes, patented by Hermann Klaue (1912-2001), for the Arado Ar 96 landing gear and the Tiger I tank drive train.

The Berlin-Reinickendorf subcamp of Sachsenhausen concentration camp provided labor for the Argus-Werke.

Argus aircraft engines
Pre-War
Argus 1908 4-cylinder:
Argus As I: 4-cylinder, 100 hp, year 1913
World War I
Argus As II: 6-cylinder  upright inline, 120 hp, year 1914
Argus As IIa: 140 hp, particulars unknown
Argus As III: 6-cylinder upright inline, 180 hp
Argus As IV (1916): 6-cylinder upright inline 250 hp, production uncertain
Argus As IV: 8-cylinder upright V, 225 hp, limited production
Post-World War I
Argus As 5: double W, 3+3 banks of 4 cylinders each; never materialised
Argus As 7: 9R 700 hp
Argus As 8: 4-cylinder inverted inline
Argus As 10: 8-cylinder inverted V
Argus As 12: 16H 550 hp
Argus As 16: 4-cylinder inverted inline 40 hp
Argus As 17: 6-cylinder inverted inline 225 hp / 285 hp
Argus As 401: development and renumbering of the As 10
Argus As 402:
Argus As 403: radial engine project, not built.
Argus As 410: 12-cylinder inverted V
Argus As 411: 12-cylinder inverted V
Argus As 412: 24-cylinder H-block, prototyped
Argus As 413: similar to 412, never built
Argus 109-014: pulse jet engine for V-1 flying bomb and Tornado boat
Argus 109-044: Pulse jet similar to the Argus 109-014, but with "square intake" main valve bank at front

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
Argus As 292
Argus Fernfeuer

See also
 List of aircraft engines

References

Bibliography

Defunct aircraft engine manufacturers of Germany
Companies of Prussia
Manufacturing companies based in Berlin
Manufacturing companies established in 1906
Manufacturing companies disestablished in 1945
1906 establishments in Germany
Digital raster graphic. A digital raster graphic (DRG) is a digital image resulting from scanning a paper USGS topographic map for use on a computer.  DRGs created by USGS are typically scanned at 250 dpi and saved as a TIFF.  The raster image usually includes the original border information, referred to as the "map collar".  The map file is UTM projected and georeferenced to the surface of the Earth.  DRG's are regularly used in GIS applications. DRGs were first produced in 1995.

See also
GeoTIFF

External links

 Libre Map Project 
 All 50 States USGS Topographic Maps on the Internet Archive
 USGS Topographic Maps of ALL 50 States
 USGS Sites
 Digital Raster Graphics 
 Earth Explorer (GeoTIFFs)
 Map Locator (GeoPDFs)
Kentucky Raster Graphics Image Download Center 
 Montana State Library Digital Raster Graphics download page
 Pennsylvania Spatial Data Access sites
 Digital Raster Graphics for PA (free)
 Digital raster graphics without collar info for PA (free)
 FTP site, DRGs for West Virginia (free)
 FTP site, DRGs for New York (free)
 FTP site, DRGs for Virginia (free)
 FTP site, DRGs for Maryland (free)
 FTP site, DRGs for Washington DC (free)
 FTP site, DRGs for Delaware (free)
 FTP site, DRGs for North Carolina (free)
Texas Natural Resources Information System
 DRGs without collars organized by county

Cartography
GIS raster file formats
United States Geological Survey
TurboSilver. TurboSilver was one of the original 3D raytracing software packages available for the Amiga and for personal computers in general.

It was first revealed by its creator Impulse at the October 1986 AmiEXPO. November 1987 saw the release of version 2.0. Version 3.0 was released in January 1988.

Impulse created a replacement for it, named Imagine in 1990.

See also 

Sculpt 3D

References

3D graphics software
Amiga raytracers
Artic. Artic or ARTIC  may refer to:

Places
Artic, Washington, an unincorporated community

Transportation
 Anaheim Regional Transportation Intermodal Center, a transit hub in Anaheim, California
 Articulated lorry, a common term for a semi-trailer truck
 Volvo Gran Artic 300, a proposed bi-articulated bus chassis manufactured by Volvo
 Škoda Artic, an articulated low-floor Transportation tram manufactured by Škoda Transtech Oy

 "Artic" is the radio call sign for Canadian North Airlines

Other uses
 Art Institute of Chicago
 Artic Computing, a defunct video game developer

See also

 
 Artik (disambiguation)
 Arctic (disambiguation)
Nondeterministic algorithm. In computer science and computer programming, a nondeterministic algorithm is an algorithm that, even for the same input, can exhibit different behaviors on different runs, as opposed to a deterministic algorithm.

Different models of computation give rise to different reasons that an algorithm may be non-deterministic, and different ways to evaluate its performance or correctness:
A concurrent algorithm can perform differently on different runs due to a race condition. This can happen even with a single-threaded algorithm when it interacts with resources external to it. In general, such an algorithm is considered to perform correctly only when all possible runs produce the desired results.
A probabilistic algorithm's behavior depends on a random number generator called by the algorithm. These are subdivided into Las Vegas algorithms, for which (like concurrent algorithms) all runs must produce correct output, and Monte Carlo algorithms which are allowed to fail or produce incorrect results with low probability. The performance of such an algorithm is often measured probabilistically, for instance using an analysis of its expected time.
In computational complexity theory, nondeterminism is often modeled using an explicit mechanism for making a nondeterministic choice, such as in a nondeterministic Turing machine. For these models, a nondeterministic algorithm is considered to perform correctly when, for each input, there exists a run that produces the desired result, even when other runs produce incorrect results. This existential power makes nondeterministic algorithms of this sort more efficient than known deterministic algorithms for many problems. The P versus NP problem encapsulates this conjectured greater efficiency available to nondeterministic algorithms. Algorithms of this sort are used to define complexity classes based on nondeterministic time and nondeterministic space complexity. They may be simulated using nondeterministic programming, a method for specifying nondeterministic algorithms and searching for the choices that lead to a correct run, often using a backtracking search.

The notion of nondeterminism was introduced by Robert W. Floyd in 1967.

References

Further reading

Computational complexity theory
Theory of computation
Serializing tokens. In computer science, serializing tokens are a concept in concurrency control arising from the ongoing development of DragonFly BSD.  According to Matthew Dillon, they are most akin to SPLs, except a token works across multiple CPUs while SPLs only work within a single CPU's domain.

Serializing tokens allow programmers to write multiprocessor-safe code without themselves or the lower level subsystems needing to be aware of every single entity that may also be holding the same token.

Comparison with mutual exclusion (mutex) 

Tokens and mutual exclusion (mutex) mechanisms are locks. Unlike mutexes, tokens do not exclude other threads from accessing the resource while they are blocked or asleep. A thread sharing resources with other threads can be stopped and started for a variety of reasons:
 Timeslicing: the user space (US) scheduler tries to ensure that all threads get a fair chance to run, so it runs each thread for a brief period of time (a timeslice) and then switches to another thread.
 Concurrent execution: in multiprocessor computers, a thread may be run at exactly the same time as another thread on a different CPU.
 Preemption: a thread may preempt a lower-priority thread, such as a hardware interrupt or Light Weight Kernel Threads.
 Voluntary blocking: a thread may sleep if it has to wait for something, has no work to do, or calls a function that blocks. Even the call to acquire a lock can block.

The following table summarizes the properties of tokens and mutexes.

Issues such as deadlock and priority inversion can be very difficult to avoid, and require coordination at many levels of the kernel. Because locking with tokens does not deadlock and acquired tokens need not be atomic when later operations block, it allow much simpler code than mutexes.

Example  
The following pseudocode and explanations illustrate how serializing tokens work.

Prior art in the Darwin kernel 
Mac OS X's Darwin kernel uses a similar technique (called a funnel) to serialize access to the BSD portion of the kernel.

See also 
 Lock-free and wait-free algorithms

References  
 A mailing list thread where Matthew Dillon explains tokens in great detail 
 Darwin Threading Architectures

Concurrency control
Hover. Hover may refer to:

 Levitation (physics), the process by which an object or person is suspended by a physical force against gravitation without solid physical contact
 Hover (behaviour), to remain stationary or float in the air, exhibited by some winged animals

Computing
Hover (domain registrar)
Mouse hover or mouseover, a gesture made with the pointer in computer user interfaces

Transport
Hover (helicopter), nearly stationary flight in a helicopter
Hovercraft, vehicles capable of traveling and being stationary over land, water, mud or ice
Hovertrain, a type of high-speed train
Great Wall Hover, a Sport utility vehicle produced by Great Wall Motors
Johan E. Høver, a Norwegian aircraft designer, most noted for the Høver M.F. 11

Other uses
Hover (EP), a 2005 EP by Hair Peace Salon
Hover (film), a 2018 American science fiction film
Hover Chamber Choir, an Armenian choir
Hover!, a computer game for Microsoft Windows
 A partial squatting position often used by women to urinate without sitting

See also

Hoover (disambiguation)
Windhover (disambiguation), various meanings including the Common Kestrel
Command history. Command history is a feature in many operating system shells, computer algebra programs, and other software that allows the user to recall, edit and rerun previous commands.  

Command line history was added to Unix in Bill Joy's C shell of 1978; Joy took inspiration from an earlier implementation in Interlisp.  It quickly became popular because it made the C shell fast and easy to use.  History has since become a standard feature in other shells, including ksh, Bash and Microsoft's cmd.exe.  History addressed two important scenarios:

 Executing the same command or a short sequence of commands over and over.  An example might be a developer frequently compiling and running a program.
 Correcting mistakes or rerunning a command with only a small modification.

In Joy's original C shell, the user could refer to a previous command by typing an exclamation, !, followed by additional characters to specify a particular command, only certain words, or to edit it in some way before pasting it back into the command line.  For example:

!! meant the entire previous command.
!$ meant just the last word of the previous command.
!abc meant the command that started with abc.

The usual implementation today is to combine history with command-line editing.  The cursor keys are used to navigate up and down through the history list and left or right to anyplace on the line, where the user can simply type a desired change.  But some implementations are menu-based: The user presses a certain function key which displays a menu of recent commands, which the user can select one by typing a number.

Some implementation such as Bash support to record command history to a file (history command).

See also
Command-line completion
Autocomplete
IntelliSense
HISTORY (CONFIG.SYS directive)
DOSKEY
Comparison of command shells

References

User interfaces
Avanti. Avanti (in Italian, meaning 'ahead', 'forward', or 'before', and also an unrelated Sanskrit name) may refer to:

Vehicles
 Studebaker Avanti, a model of automobile built by Studebaker
 Avanti II, a successor model made by Avanti Motor Corporation
 Avanti Kart, a racing go-kart manufactured in Italy by JM Racing
 DC Avanti, Indian designed sports car from DC Design
 Piaggio P.180 Avanti, a business aircraft

Companies
Avanti (bicycle company), a New Zealand-based bicycle manufacturer
Avanti Communications, a satellite broadband provider
Avanti Corporation, an electronic design automation company
Avanti West Coast, a British train operating company which operates the West Coast Main Line franchise
Vertriebscenter Avanti, an Austrian chain of gas stations

Culture
 Avanti (label), a sub-label from Black Hole Recordings
 Avanti (magazine), a German women's magazine
 Avanti, a 2012 album by Biel Ballester Trio
 Avanti!, a 1972 film
 Avanti! Chamber Orchestra, a Finnish chamber orchestra
 Avanti! (newspaper), the official newspaper of the Italian Socialist Party
 Avanti! Avanti!, a German educational television series
Avanti un altro!, an Italian game show, and Avanti ¡que pase el siguiente!, the name of the Spanish, Chilean and Paraguayan versions

Places
 Avanti (region), a historic kingdom in India
 Ujjain, also known as Avanti, the capital of the Avanti Kingdom
 Avanti kingdom (Mahabharata), a kingdom mentioned in the Mahabharata.

Other
 Avanti (project), a UK Government-sponsored construction collaboration project
 Avanti Racing Team, an Australian UCI Continental cycling team
 Avanti Schools Trust, a sponsor of state-funded Hindu schools in the UK

See also

Avantika (disambiguation)
Zark. Zark may refer to:
 An imaginary literary character from the children's adventure story ZARK
 Zarquon, a character in The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy
 An imaginary planet in Bill Watterson's comic strip Calvin and Hobbes
 7-Zark-7, a robot character in the American animated series Battle of the Planets
 Zark Rifle, a sniper rifle mod for the Unreal Tournament computer game series
 In The Paging Game, what you do with a thing is to zark it. Everybody takes turns zarking.
Zark the Squeezer, protagonist of bara comic collection Zark the Squeezer by artist Rokudenashi.
Mark Zuckerberg