omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Russell Ohl. Russell Shoemaker Ohl (January 30, 1898 – March 20, 1987) was an American scientist who is generally recognized for patenting the modern solar cell (, "Light sensitive device").
Ohl was a notable semiconductor researcher prior to the invention of the transistor. He was also known as R.S. Ohl.

Russell Ohl’s specialized area of research was into the behavior of certain types of crystals. He worked on materials research in the 1930s at AT&T's Bell Labs’ Holmdel facility, investigating diode detectors suitable for high-frequency wireless, broadcasting, and military radar. His work was only understood by a handful of scientists in the organization, one of whom was Dr. Walter Brattain (one of the trio who invented the germanium bipolar transistor in 1947, and who would be awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1956).

Ohl, in 1939, discovered the PN barrier (or as it became known, the “P–N junction”). At the time hardly anyone knew anything about the impurities within these crystals, but Russell Ohl discovered the mechanism by which it worked.  It was the impurities which made some sections more resistant to electrical flow than others, and thus it was the "barrier" between these areas of different purity that made the crystal work. Ohl later found that super-purifying germanium was the key to making repeatable and usable semiconductor material for diodes. All diodes (incl. LEDs, laser diodes etc.) are descendants of Ohl's work. His work with diodes led him later to develop the first silicon solar cells.

See also
 Battery
 Solar cell
 Transistor

References

Further reading

 Crystal Fire: The Birth of the Information Age, by Michael Riordan and Lillian Hoddeson; Chapter 6 covers his discover of the P-N junction in some detail

External links
  -- "Light sensitive device"
 IEEE History Center: Oral History of Russell Ohl
 Oral history interview with Dr. Russell Ohl on 19 August 1976, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives - Session I, interview conducted by Lillian Hoddeson in Vista, California
 Oral history interview with Dr. Russell Ohl on 20 August 1976, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives - Session II
 Russell Ohl - Longer biography at the Engineering and Technology History Wiki 
 PBC Biography of Russell Ohl

1898 births
1987 deaths
Arx. Arx, ARX, or ArX may refer to:

ARX (Algorithmic Research Ltd.), a digital security company
ARX (gene), Aristaless related homeobox
ARX (operating system), an operating system
Arx (Roman), a Roman citadel, and in particular:
The northern hump of the two forming the Capitoline Hill of ancient Rome
Arx, Landes, a commune of the Landes département in France
Arx Fatalis, a first person role-playing game developed by Arkane Studios in 2002
Arx, a sculpture by Lars Vilks
Americas Rallycross Championship, also known as ARX Rallycross
Add-Rotate-XOR; see block cipher
 (1922-1988), mycologist from the Netherlands

See also
Beretta ARX160, an assault rifle
ObjectARX, a software API for AutoCAD
Hidden transformation. The hidden transformation reformulates a constraint satisfaction problem in such a way all constraints have at most two variables. The new problem is satisfiable if and only if the original problem was, and solutions can be converted easily from one problem to the other.

There are a number of algorithms for constraint satisfaction that work only on constraints that have at most two variables. If a problem has constraints with a larger arity (number of variables), conversion into a problem made of binary constraints allows for execution of these solving algorithms. Constraints with one, two, or more variables are called unary, binary, or higher-order constraints. The number of variables in a constraint is called its arity.

The hidden transformation converts an arbitrary constraint satisfaction problem into a binary one. The transformation is similar to that generating the dual problem. The problem is added new variables, one for each constraint of the original problem. The domain of each such variable is the set of satisfying tuples of the corresponding constraint. The constraints of the new problem enforce the value of the original variables to be consistent with the values of the new variables. For example, if the new variables , corresponding to the old constraint  can assume values  and , two new constraints are added: the first one enforces  to take value  if  value  if , and vice versa. The second condition enforces a similar condition for variable .

The graph representing the result of this transformation is bipartite, as all constraints are between a new and an old variable. Moreover, the constraints are functional: for any given value of a new variable, only one value of the old variable may satisfy the constraint.

References

Constraint programming
Don Box. Don Box is a former Microsoft Technical Fellow.

Before joining Microsoft in 2002, Box was a contributing editor and columnist at Microsoft Systems Journal, which later became MSDN Magazine, and was one of the founders of DevelopMentor, a software training company; he left DevelopMentor to join Microsoft.

Box led the Xbox One platform development team from its inception through launch on November 22, 2013. Prior to that, Box led the development team that produced the Xbox SmartGlass platform (which was the basis for what is now known as Project Rome), worked on Brad Lovering's team working on model-driven runtime and tool support at Microsoft including "Oslo", and was an architect on Windows Communication Foundation (formerly known as "Indigo") and related technologies.

In 2017–2021, Box was Vice President of Engineering for Mixed Reality, where he led the engineering team that builds HoloLens, Windows Mixed Reality, Windows Hello, and other initiatives that live at the edge of the physical and digital worlds.

In 2014–2017, he led the Silicon, Graphics and Media development team in the Windows and Devices Group, and was responsible for driving silicon/hardware/software co-engineering across the Windows product line. Leading up to the launch of Windows 10, Box drove the initiative to converge Windows, Windows Phone, Xbox, and HoloLens onto a common set of components known as OneCore.

On March 31, 2021, Box announced that he would be leaving Microsoft in May.

On May 3, 2021, Box joined Meta as VP of Engineering, AR Glasses.

Along with Bob Atkinson, Mohsen Al-Ghosein, and Dave Winer, Box was one of the original four designers of SOAP, a basic messaging layer for web services. At 2001 TechEd Europe, Box performed a talk about XML and SOAP from a bathtub.

Box was a conspicuous figure in the Component Object Model (COM) community, where he coined the phrase "COM is love". He is also a series editor for Addison Wesley where he launched two successful series targeting the Microsoft developer audience.

Books 
 Essential .NET, Volume I: The Common Language Runtime, with Chris Sells
 Essential COM
 Essential XML: Beyond MarkUp
 Effective COM: 50 Ways to Improve Your COM and MTS-based Applications, with Keith Brown, Tim Ewald and Chris Sells

References

External links 

 Biographical interview with Don Box 
 NET Rocks! interview, Don Box and Chris Sells talk to Carl and Richard

Microsoft employees
Microsoft technical fellows
Microsoft evangelists
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Place of birth missing (living people)
A1B reactor. The A1B reactor is developed by the United States Navy for the Gerald R. Ford-class nuclear-powered aircraft carriers. Each ship will be powered by two A1B reactors. The new reactor was named A1B, following the Navy's reactor-designation scheme of type, generation, and manufacturer: A for aircraft carrier, 1 for the maker's first reactor plant design, and B for Bechtel, the company making the reactor.  

As Navy planners developed requirements for the Gerald R. Ford class, they concluded that the A4W reactors that powered the previous Nimitz-class aircraft carriers offer too little power for current and anticipated future shipboard needs, and decided to commission a new reactor design from Bechtel Corporation, which has "performed engineering and/or construction services on more than 80 percent of [land-based] nuclear plants in the United States." The A1B reactor is more efficient, more adaptable, smaller, and lighter than the A4W design. It also has improved operator interfaces.

Nuclear reactors power aircraft carriers by the fission of enriched uranium to boil water, causing turbines to turn and generate electricity. This process is largely the same as in land-based nuclear power stations, but with one notable difference. Naval reactors directly use turboshaft power for turning the ship's screws. Over decades of development several other design differences have emerged between naval reactors and the usually much larger power station reactors.

It is estimated that the thermal power output of each A1B will be around 700 MWth, some 25% more than provided by the A4W. Improved efficiency in the total plant is expected to provide improved output to both propulsion and electrical systems. Using A4W data with a 25% increase in thermal power, the A1B reactors are likely to produce enough steam to generate  of electricity, plus  from just one reactor to power the four propeller shafts. 

The greater electrical generation capacity will allow for elimination of service steam on the ship, reducing staffing requirements for maintenance. In addition, the use of electromagnetic aircraft catapults (EMALS) will free the ship's air wing from the constraints of pressurized steam, used aboard the Nimitz-class carriers.

See also

 Nuclear power in the United States

References 

United States naval reactors
Input kludge. In computer programming, an input kludge is a type of failure in software (an anti-pattern) where simple user input is not handled. For example, if a computer program accepts free text input from the user, an ad hoc algorithm will mishandle many combinations of legal and illegal input strings. Input kludges are usually difficult for a programmer to detect in a unit test, but very easy for the end user to find. The evidence exists that the end user can easily crash software that fails to correctly handle user input.  Indeed, the buffer overflow security hole is an example of the problems caused.

To remedy input kludges, one may use input validation algorithms to handle user input. A monkey test can be used to detect an input kludge problem. A common first test to discover this problem is to roll one's hand across the computer keyboard or to 'mash' the keyboard to produce a large junk input, but such an action often lacks reproducibility. Greater systematicity and reproducibility may be obtained by using fuzz testing software.

See also
 Garbage in, garbage out
 Guard (computer science)
 Kludge

Anti-patterns
Software bugs
Rail Splitter. Rail splitter or railsplitter may refer to:
 A person who splits logs for building fences
Nickname for Abraham Lincoln, U.S. President
 Lincoln Memorial Railsplitters, the athletic program of Lincoln Memorial University, an NCAA Division II school in Harrogate, Tennessee named for President Lincoln
 Rail Splitter Wind Farm, a 100-MW generating complex located in Illinois and named in honor of President Lincoln
 Edward R. Madigan State Fish and Wildlife Area, formerly known as Railsplitter State Park.
 84th Division (United States), World War I and II unit nicknamed the "railsplitters"
Voltage divider, an electric circuit. Typically with the intent to establish a virtual ground.
Namco System 22. The Namco System 22 is the successor to the Namco System 21 arcade system board. It debuted in 1992 with Sim Drive in Japan, followed by a worldwide debut in 1993 with Ridge Racer.

The System 22 was designed by Namco. The main CPU provides a scene description to the TR3 graphics processing unit and a bank of DSP chips which perform 3D calculations.

A variant of the system, called the Super System 22, was released in 1995. The hardware was largely similar to the System 22, but with a slightly higher polygon rate and more special effects possible.

System 22 Specifications

Main CPU: Motorola 68020 32-bit @ 24.576 MHz
DSP: 2x Texas Instruments TMS32025 @ 49.152 MHz (exact number of DSPs may vary)
GPU: Namco's in-house developed GPU (Texture Mapping, Real-Time, Real-Visual, Rendering System)
Features: Texture mapping, Gouraud shading,  transparency effects, depth cueing, 16.7 million colors, 240,000 polygons/second
Sound CPU: Mitsubishi M37702 (System 22 Games) or M37710 (Super System 22 Games) @ 16.384 MHz
Sound Chip: Namco C352 (32 voices, 4 channels @ 16-bit, support for 8-bit linear or μ-law PCM samples)
 + Namco Custom Chips

List of System 22 / Super System 22 Games

References

External links
System 22 at System16 - The Arcade Museum

Namco arcade system boards
Clostridium acetobutylicum. Clostridium acetobutylicum, ATCC 824, is a commercially valuable bacterium sometimes called the "Weizmann Organism", after Jewish Russian-born biochemist Chaim Weizmann. A senior lecturer at the University of Manchester, England, he used them in 1916 as a bio-chemical tool to produce  at the same time,  jointly, acetone, ethanol, and n-butanol from starch. The method has been described since as the ABE process,  (Acetone Butanol Ethanol fermentation process), yielding 3 parts of acetone, 6 of n-butanol, and 1 of ethanol. Acetone was used in the important wartime task of casting cordite. The alcohols were used to produce vehicle fuels and synthetic rubber.

Unlike yeast, which can digest only some sugars into alcohol and carbon dioxide, C. acetobutylicum and other Clostridia can digest whey, sugar, starch, cellulose and perhaps certain types of lignin, yielding  n-butanol, propionic acid, ether, and glycerin.

In genetic engineering
In 2008, a strain of Escherichia coli was genetically engineered to synthesize butanol; the genes were derived from Clostridium acetobutylicum. In 2013, the first microbial production of short-chain alkanes was reported - which is a considerable step toward the production of gasoline. One of the crucial enzymes - a fatty acyl-CoA reductase - came from Clostridium acetobutylicum.

See also
 ABE
 Acetone
 Butanol 
 Clostridium beijerinckii
 Ethanol

References

Further reading

External links
 ATCC reference organism 824 C.Acetobutylicum. 
 findarticles.com: Bacteria speeds drug to tumors - use of Clostridium acetobutylicum enzyme to activate cancer drug CB 1954.
 EPA Clostridium acetobutylicum Final Risk Assessment
 Genetic Engineering of Clostridium acetobutylicum for Enhanced Production of Hydrogen Gas: Penn State University.
 Pathema-Clostridium Resource
 Chaim Weizmann
 Type strain of Clostridium acetobutylicum at BacDive -  the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase

Biofuels
Gram-positive bacteria
acetobutylicum
Wilhelm von Opel. Wilhelm von Opel (15 May 1871 – 2 May 1948), known as Wilhelm Opel before being ennobled in 1917, was one of the founders of the German automobile manufacturer Opel. He introduced the assembly line to the German automobile industry.

His father, Adam Opel, had founded the family firm as a manufacturer of sewing machines, and later diversified into bicycle manufacturing. Wilhelm studied engineering at Technische Hochschule Darmstadt and received his doctorate in 1912 from the university. After Adam's death in 1895, control of the company passed to his wife and five sons. In 1898, Wilhelm and his brother Fritz brought Opel into the automobile industry with the purchase of the small Lutzmann automobile factory at Dessau.

In 1917, Wilhelm and his brother Heinrich Opel were raised to the nobility of the Grand Duchy of Hesse. Their brother Carl was raised to the same rank the following year. Wilhelm had one son and one daughter, Fritz von Opel and Eleonore von Opel.

In 1933, Opel joined the Nazi Party and soon became an active supporter of it, making financial contributions to the SS and being awarded the title of Patron.

In January 1947, he was found guilty by a denazification court and had to pay a large fine. He died the following year.

Opel is the grandfather of Rikky von Opel and Gunter Sachs.

See also

 Adam Opel
 Sophie Opel
 Carl von Opel
 Fritz von Opel
 Rikky von Opel
 Opel

References

Opel from AutoMedia Online
Wilhelm von Opel at die.net

 

Wilhelm
1871 births
1948 deaths
German automotive pioneers
Förderndes Mitglied der SS
Technische Universität Darmstadt alumni
Engineers from Hesse
Beilstein test. The Beilstein test is a simple qualitative chemical test for organic halides. It was developed by Friedrich Konrad Beilstein.

A copper wire is cleaned and heated in a Bunsen burner flame to form a coating of copper(II) oxide. It is then dipped in the sample to be tested and once again heated in a flame. A positive test is indicated by a green flame caused by the formation of a copper halide.  The test does not detect fluorine/fluorides.

This test is no longer frequently used. One reason why it is not widely used is that it is possible to generate the highly toxic chloro-dioxins if the test material is a polychloroarene.

An alternative wet test for halide is the sodium fusion test — this test converts organic material to inorganic salts include the sodium halide. Addition of silver nitrate solution causes any halides to precipitate as the respective silver halide.

References

Chemical tests
Bioerosion. Bioerosion describes the breakdown of hard ocean substrates – and less often terrestrial substrates – by living organisms. Marine bioerosion can be caused by mollusks, polychaete worms, phoronids, sponges, crustaceans, echinoids, and fish; it can occur on coastlines, on coral reefs, and on ships; its mechanisms include biotic boring, drilling, rasping, and scraping. On dry land, bioerosion is typically performed by pioneer plants or plant-like organisms such as lichen, and mostly chemical (e.g. by acidic secretions on limestone) or mechanical (e.g. by roots growing into cracks) in nature.

Bioerosion of coral reefs generates the fine and white coral sand characteristic of tropical islands. The coral is converted to sand by internal bioeroders such as algae, fungi, bacteria (microborers) and sponges (Clionaidae), bivalves (including Lithophaga), sipunculans, polychaetes, acrothoracican barnacles and phoronids, generating extremely fine sediment with diameters of 10 to 100 micrometres. External bioeroders include sea urchins (such as Diadema) and chitons. These forces in concert produce a great deal of erosion. Sea urchin erosion of calcium carbonate has been reported in some reefs at annual rates exceeding 20 kg/m2.

Fish also erode coral while eating algae. Parrotfish cause a great deal of bioerosion using well developed jaw muscles, tooth armature, and a pharyngeal mill, to grind ingested material into sand-sized particles. Bioerosion of coral reef aragonite by parrotfish can range from 1017.7±186.3 kg/yr (0.41±0.07 m3/yr) for Chlorurus gibbus and 23.6±3.4 kg/yr (9.7 10−3±1.3 10−3 m2/yr) for Chlorurus sordidus (Bellwood, 1995).

Bioerosion is also well known in the fossil record on shells and hardgrounds (Bromley, 1970), with traces of this activity stretching back well into the Precambrian (Taylor & Wilson, 2003).  Macrobioerosion, which produces borings visible to the naked eye, shows two distinct evolutionary radiations.  One was in the Middle Ordovician (the Ordovician Bioerosion Revolution; see Wilson & Palmer, 2006) and the other in the Jurassic (see Taylor & Wilson, 2003; Bromley, 2004; Wilson, 2007).  Microbioerosion also has a long fossil record and its own radiations (see Glaub & Vogel, 2004; Glaub et al., 2007).

Gallery

See also

Marine biogenic calcification

References

Further reading

External links

Bioerosion Website at The College of Wooster

Erosion
Biogeomorphology
Case School of Engineering. The Case School of Engineering is the engineering school of Case Western Reserve University, a private research university in Cleveland, Ohio. It traces its roots to the 1880 founding of the Case School of Applied Science. The school was endowed by Leonard Case, Jr. in 1877 and became the Case Institute of Technology in 1947 until merging with Western Reserve University in 1967. It was officially named the Case School of Engineering in 1992.

Departments

 Biomedical Engineering
 Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering
 Civil And Environmental Engineering
 Computer & Data Sciences
 Electrical, Computer And Systems Engineering
 Macromolecular Science & Engineering
 Materials Science & Engineering
 Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering

Notable Alumni

 Paul Buchheit (BS '98, MS '98) - 23rd Google employee and creator of Gmail
 Herbert H. Dow (BS 1888) - Founder of Dow Chemical
 Siegfried Hecker (BS '65, MS '67, PhD '68) - Former director of Los Alamos National Laboratory and co-recipient of the 2009 Enrico Fermi Award
 Robert J. Herbold (MS '66, PhD '88) - Former executive vice president and COO of Microsoft
 Samuel Hibben (BS '10) - Pioneer in blacklight technology and lighting display designer for the Statue of Liberty, Washington Monument, and other United States monuments
 Elizabeth Cosgriff-Hernandez – Professor of Biomedical Engineering at The University of Texas at Austin who works on scaffolds for tissue regeneration  
 Alexander Kummant (BS '82) - Former president and CEO of Amtrak
 Craig Newmark (BS '75, MS '77) - Founder of Craigslist
 Joseph B. “J.B.” Richey II (BS '62) - Developer of the first commercially available full-body CT scan
 Frank Rudy (BS '50) - Inventor of the Nike Air Sole

References

External links
Official site

Case Western Reserve University
Engineering schools and colleges in the United States
Engineering universities and colleges in Ohio
Universities and colleges established in 1881
1881 establishments in Ohio
Klaus von Storch. Klaus Bernhard von Storch Krüger (born February 20, 1962) is a Chilean aerospace engineer and astronaut trainee.

Von Storch was born in Osorno, in southern Chile. In 1992, he was selected by the Chilean Space Agency for the preparation for the flight on the Space Shuttle.  In 2001, he was considered as candidate for that flight aboard a Russian spacecraft during a taxi flight to the ISS in 2003 but in September 2002 the medical board at the IMBP was not passed.  , Von Storch aspires to fly into space in the future. He is also brother-in-law to Alternative for Germany politician Beatrix von Storch, who is married with his brother Sven.

References

External links
Spacefacts biography of Klaus von Storch

1962 births
Living people
Chilean Air Force officers
Chilean military aviators
Astronaut candidates
Chilean people of German descent
People from Osorno, Chile
Chilean engineers
20th-century Chilean military personnel
21st-century Chilean military personnel
Spanish Royal Academy of Naval Engineers. The Spanish Royal Academy of Naval Engineers is a military naval academy in Ferrol, Spain, founded in 1772, during the reign Charles III of Spain. The purpose of this Royal Academy was to train the future members of the 1770 newly created Professional Body.

See also
 School of Naval and Industrial Engineers,  Ferrol, 1963

References

1772 establishments in Spain
Educational institutions established in 1772
Spanish Navy
Spanish Naval Engineers
Charles III of Spain