omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Platinum(II) chloride. Platinum(II) chloride describes the inorganic compounds with the formula PtCl2. They are precursor used in the preparation of other platinum compounds. Platinum(II) chloride exists in two crystalline forms (polymorphs), but the main properties are somewhat similar: dark brown, insoluble in water, diamagnetic, and odorless.

Structure
The structures of PtCl2 and PdCl2 are similar. These dichlorides exist in both polymeric, or "α", and hexameric, or "β" structures. The β form converts to the α form at 500 °C. In the β form, the Pt-Pt distances are 3.32–3.40 Å, indicative of some bonding between the pairs of metals. In both forms of PtCl2, each Pt center is four-coordinate, being surrounded by four chloride ligands. Complementarily, each Cl center is two-coordinate, being connected to two platinum atoms. The structure of α-PtCl2 is reported to be disordered and contain edge- and/or corner-sharing square-planar PtCl4 units.

Preparation
β-PtCl2 is prepared by heating chloroplatinic acid to 350 °C in air.

H2PtCl6 → PtCl2 + Cl2 + 2 HCl

This method is convenient since the chloroplatinic acid is generated readily from Pt metal. Aqueous solutions of H2PtCl6 can also be reduced with hydrazinium salts, but this method is more laborious than the thermal route of Kerr and Schweizer.

Although PtCl2 can form when platinum metal contacts hot chlorine gas, this process suffers from over-chlorination to give PtCl4. Berzelius and later Wöhler and Streicher showed that upon heating to 450 °C, this Pt(IV) compound decomposes to the Pt(II) derivative:

PtCl4 → PtCl2 + Cl2

Transformations such as this are "driven" by entropy, the free energy gained upon the release of a gaseous product from a solid. Upon heating to still higher temperatures, PtCl2 releases more chlorine to give metallic Pt. This conversion is the basis of the gravimetric assay of the purity of the PtCl2 product.

Reactions
Most reactions of PtCl2 proceed via treatment with ligands (L) to give molecular derivatives. These transformations entail depolymerization via cleavage of Pt-Cl-Pt linkages:
PtCl2 + 2 L → PtCl2L2
Addition of ammonia gives initially "PtCl2(NH3)2", "Magnus's green salt", also described as [Pt(NH3)4][PtCl4].

Many complexes have been described, the following are illustrative:
pink K2PtCl4, a widely employed water-soluble derivative.
colorless cis-PtCl2(NH3)2, better known as cisplatin.
colorless cis-PtCl2(P(C6H5)3)2, a common precursor to other complexes of the type PtX(Cl)(P(C6H5)3)2 (X = H, CH3, etc.).
yellow trans-PtCl2(P(C6H5)3)2, a metastable relative of the cis- isomer.
colorless dichloro(cycloocta-1,5-diene)platinum(II) (Pt(cod)Cl2), an "organic-soluble" compound containing a labile organic ligand.

Several of these compounds are of interest in homogeneous catalysis in the service of organic synthesis or as anti-cancer drugs.

See also
 Platinum(IV) chloride

References

Chlorides
Chlorides,2
Platinum group halides
Mitsubishi Model A. The Mitsubishi Model A is the only car built by the Mitsubishi Shipbuilding Company, a member of the Mitsubishi corporate group which would eventually evolve into Mitsubishi Motors, and the first series production automobile manufactured in Japan. It was the brainchild of Koyata Iwasaki, Mitsubishi's fourth president and the nephew of founder Yataro Iwasaki, who foresaw the vast potential of motorized vehicles and the role they would play in the economic development of Japan. Envisioned as a luxury vehicle for high echelon government officials and top executives, the Model A had to be reliable, comfortable, and a showcase of Japanese craftsmanship. After the war in 1964, Mitsubishi would use this approach again to build an exclusive sedan for government officials and top level executives with the Mitsubishi Debonair.

Based on the Fiat Tipo 3, it was a four-door seven-seat sedan using a town car body style  powered by a front-mounted  2.8-litre straight-4 engine driving the rear wheels, and was capable of speeds up to . 22 were built at the company's Kobe shipyard, including prototypes, between 1917 and 1921.

Because it was expensive to produce—it was built entirely by hand, with the interior rear compartment furnished with lacquered white cypress—it could not compete with cheaper American and European competition, and Mitsubishi halted production after four years. Concentrating instead on its successful Fuso commercial vehicles, the Model A would be the company's last passenger car until the Mitsubishi 500 of 1960.

At Mitsubishi's Auto Gallery (a museum of the company's most historically significant vehicles, established at their R&D Center in Okazaki in 1989) there is a replica on display, assembled in 1972 using materials of the time. It has a slightly shorter wheelbase, and uses a water-cooled 977 cc four-cylinder OHV engine instead of the larger 2.8-litre original.

References and external links
Model A replica at Mitsubishi Auto Gallery
Mitsubishi Model A specifications at Carfolio.com (these differ slightly from Mitsubishi's own figures)
"The Greatest Japanese Cars Of All Time", Michael Frank, Forbes.com, 23 April 2001

Model A
First car made by manufacturer
Cars introduced in 1917
1920s cars
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles
Sedans
Cars discontinued in 1921
Hardness comparison. A variety of hardness-testing methods are available, including the Vickers, Brinell, Rockwell, Meyer and Leeb tests. Although it is impossible in many cases to give an exact conversion, it is possible to give an approximate material-specific comparison table for steels.

Hardness comparison table

References

Further reading
 ISO 18265: "Metallic materials — Conversion of hardness values" (2013)
 ASTM E140-12B(2019)e1: "Standard Hardness Conversion Tables for Metals Relationship Among Brinell Hardness, Vickers Hardness, Rockwell Hardness, Superficial Hardness, Knoop Hardness, Scleroscope Hardness, and Leeb Hardness" (2019)

External links
Hardness Conversion Table – Brinell, Rockwell,Vickers – Various steels . (Archived) (archived November 11, 2011)
Rockwell to Brinell conversion chart (Brinell, Rockwell A,B,C)
Struers hardness conversion table (Vickers, Brinell, Rockwell B,C,D)

 
Scientific comparisons
ArmaLite AR-5. The ArmaLite AR-5 is a lightweight bolt-action takedown rifle chambered for the .22 Hornet cartridge and adopted as the MA-1 aircrew survival rifle by the United States Air Force. It was developed by ArmaLite, a division of Fairchild Engine and Airplane Corporation in 1954.

History
The U.S. Air Force needed a compact, lightweight, accurate rifle for the new XB-70 manned bomber aircrew's survival kits. Since the M4 and M6 aircrew survival weapons were no longer in manufacture, the Air Force put out a request for a new survival weapon. Shortly after Fairchild established the ArmaLite division in 1954, ArmaLite designed and submitted the AR-5 in response. The Air Force officially adopted the AR-5 as the MA-1 in 1956. Due to the cancellation of the XB-70 fleet, though, the Air Force never received funding to buy more than the original 12 test models. The M4 and M6 aircrew survival weapons already in inventory were judged to be sufficient for existing Air Force needs. However, adoption of the MA-1 established ArmaLite as a recognized firearms company, leading to several other rifle designs of varying success (e.g., the AR-7, AR-10 and AR-15).

Design

The earlier M6 Aircrew Survival Weapon is a superposed ("over-under") break action combination gun with a .22 Hornet single-shot rifle barrel over a .410 shotgun barrel. While there is versatility to such a combination, the AR-5's detachable box magazine-fed bolt action has the advantage of rapid-fire capability. The AR-5, like the M4 Survival Rifle and M6 US Air Force survival rifles, used the .22 Hornet cartridge which has 2.3 times the muzzle velocity and 7 times the energy of the common .22 Long Rifle (when comparing 40 gr bullets), and yet still has a light recoil in such a light rifle (2.5 lbs.).

Designed to be stowed in cramped aircraft cockpits, the rifle had a takedown design and was primarily made from lightweight plastics and aluminum alloys. The AR-5 was unique for being able to be disassembled with all working parts, plus a basic survival kit, stored within the stock, which was  long and thus able to fit in Air Force bailout packs. Additionally, the rifle was able to float in water, whether it was assembled or stowed.

Armalite used the research and tooling for the AR-5/MA-1 to develop the Armalite AR-7, an eight-shot semi-automatic takedown rifle chambered for the .22 Long Rifle cartridge. Released in 1959 as a civilian survival weapon and in continuous production since then, the AR-7 is related to the AR-5 in terms of its overall layout and retains the same modular takedown, storage in stock, and the ability to float.

See also
List of ArmaLite rifles
M4 Survival Rifle
M6 Aircrew Survival Weapon
Marble Game Getter
List of individual weapons of the U.S. Armed Forces
List of firearms

References

External links
 Design patent #179499 (January 01, 1957) George C. Sullivan (Inventor), United States Patent & Trademark Office, AR-5's gunstock design patent

Rifles of the United States
Survival guns
AIDA (computing). Abstract Interfaces for Data Analysis (AIDA) is a set of defined interfaces and formats for representing common data analysis objects. The project was instigated and is primarily used by researchers in high-energy particle physics.

History
The goals of the AIDA project were to define abstract interfaces for common physics analysis objects, such as histograms, ntuples (or data trees), fitters, I/O etc. The importance of the interface concept is that a variety of different tools with different implementations can all support a uniform interface: this encourages modular design in data analysis packages and enables users to use their preferred implementation of a certain functionality without having to re-write existing code.

An additional benefit of AIDA is the specification of an XML representation format for data objects, which can be written and read by AIDA-compliant applications. AIDA implementations exist for C++ (OpenScientist), Java (Java Analysis Studio) and Python. Usage of AIDA interfaces can be found in the Geant4 examples.

As of 2011, the projects seems dormant, with last "recent news" on the project homepage dating from 2005.

References

External links
 AIDA home page
 "Abstract Interfaces for Data Analysis - Component Architecture for Data Analysis Tools", G.Barrand, P.Binko, M.Donszelmann, A.Johnson, A.Pfeiffer
 "AIDA - Abstract Interfaces for Data Analysis, Andreas Pfeiffer", CERN/IT

Experimental particle physics
Physics software
J1. J1, J01, J.I, J-I or J-1 may refer to:

Vehicles

Aircraft
 AEG J.I, a World War I German ground attack aircraft
 Albatros J.I, a 1917 German ground-attack single-engine biplane aircraft
 Junkers J 1, a 1916 German aircraft
 Junkers J.I, a 1917 German aircraft
 Lawrance J-1, an early 1920s engine used in American aircraft

Locomotives
 LB&SCR J1 class, a British LB&SCR locomotive
 LNER Class J1, a class of British steam locomotives
 PRR J1, an American PRR steam locomotive

Other vehicles
 J-I rocket, a Japanese solid rocket expendable launch vehicle
 J1 type submarine, a World War II Imperial Japanese Navy cruiser submarines class
 HMS J1, a 1915 World War I British submarine
 JAC J1, a subcompact car
 Al Fahd 300 (J-1), an Iraqi surface-to-surface missile project

In arts and entertainment
 J-1 World Heavyweight Championship, a professional wrestling competition
 J1 World Tour, a concert tour by Taiwanese singer Jolin Tsai
 J1 Live Concert, a 2005 live album by Taiwanese singer Jolin Tsai
 "J1" (song), a 2008 song by Mallu Magalhães
 J.I the Prince of N.Y, American rapper also known as J.I.

In mathematics and science
 ATC code J01, Antibacterials for systemic use, a subgroup of the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System
 Haplogroup J1 (Y-DNA), a Y-DNA haplogroup
 Janko group J1, in mathematics
 S/2003 J 1, a former name for Eukelade, a satellite of Jupiter
 First-order Bessel function of the first kind, denoted 
 J01, the ICD-10 code for acute sinusitis, a medical condition
 J1, the Johnson solid notation for an equilateral square pyramid

Other uses
 J-1 visa, a type of U.S. visa for exchange visitors
 The J1 League, the top division of Japanese association football
 Samsung Galaxy J1, a smartphone
 J1, abbreviation, reference to the director staff of the Joint Chiefs of Staff

See also
1J (disambiguation)
Cold vapour atomic fluorescence spectroscopy. Cold vapour atomic fluorescence spectroscopy (CVAFS) is a subset of the analytical technique known as atomic fluorescence spectroscopy (AFS).

Use for mercury detection
Used in the measurement of trace amounts of volatile heavy metals such as mercury, cold vapour AFS makes use of the unique characteristic of mercury that allows vapour measurement at room temperature.  Free mercury atoms in a carrier gas are excited by a collimated ultraviolet light source at a wavelength of 253.7 nanometres.  The excited atoms re-radiate their absorbed energy (fluoresce) at this same wavelength.  Unlike the directional excitation source, the fluorescence is omnidirectional and may thus be detected using a photomultiplier tube or UV photodiode.

Gold coated traps may be used to collect mercury in ambient air or other media.  The traps are then heated, releasing the mercury from the gold while passing argon through the cartridge.  This preconcentrates the mercury, increasing sensitivity, and also transfers the mercury into an inert gas.

Transportable analysers
A number of companies have commercialized mercury detection via CVAFS and produced transportable analysers capable of measuring mercury in ambient air.  These devices can measure levels in the low parts per quadrillion range (10−15).

EPA-approved methods
Various analytical methods approved by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) for measuring mercury in wastewater are in common use. EPA Methods 245.7 and 1631 are commonly used for measurement of industrial wastewater using CVAFS.

See also
Other analytical techniques suitable for analyzing heavy metals in air or water:
Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry
Atomic absorption spectroscopy

References

Spectroscopy
Fluorescence techniques
Walter Tollmien. Walter Tollmien (13 October 1900, in Berlin – 25 November 1968, in Göttingen) was a German fluid dynamicist.

Life
Walter Tollmien studied mathematics and physics for the winter semester in 1920–1921 with Ludwig Prandtl in Göttingen and then from 1924 onwards worked under Prandtl at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute. After some research in Germany, he went to the United States and stayed there between 1930 and 1933. He became a professor in 1937 at Technische Hochschule Dresden. In 1957, he took over the post of director at the Max-Planck Institute for fluid mechanics research.

Achievements
Through his pioneering work as a researcher and a teacher, Walter Tollmien brought fluid mechanics into the lime light and as an inter disciplinary science of extreme importance. He theoretically demonstrated that the transition from laminar flow to turbulence results in Tollmien–Schlichting waves, which were named after him and Hermann Schlichting.

Work
 Tollmien, Walter (1929): Über die Entstehung der Turbulenz. 1. Mitteilung, Nachr. Ges. Wiss. Göttingen, Math. Phys. Klasse 1929: 21ff
 Tollmien, Walter (1931): Grenzschichttheorie, in: Handbuch der Experimentalphysik IV,1, Leipzig, S. 239–287.

References

External links
 

German fluid dynamicists
1900 births
1968 deaths
Max Planck Institute directors
Academic staff of TU Dresden
W3C MMI. The Multimodal Interaction Activity is an initiative from W3C aiming to provide means (mostly XML) to support Multimodal interaction scenarios on the Web.

This activity was launched in 2002. The Multimodal Interaction Framework Working group has already produced :
 the Multimodal Interaction Framework, providing a general framework for multimodal interaction, and the kinds of markup languages being considered.
 A set of use cases.
 A set of core requirements, which describes the fundamental requirements to address in the future specifications.

The set of devices that are considered are mobile phones, automotive telematics, PCs connected on the Web.

Current work
The following XML specifications (currently in advanced Working draft state) are already addressing various parts of the Core Requirements :
 EMMA (Extensible Multi-Modal Annotations):  a data exchange format for the interface between input processors and interaction management systems.  It will define the means for recognizers to annotate application specific data with information such as confidence scores, time stamps, input mode (e.g. key strokes, speech or pen), alternative recognition hypotheses, and partial recognition results etc.
 InkML – an XML language for digital ink traces: an XML data exchange format for ink entered with an electronic pen or stylus as part of a multimodal system.
 Multimodal architecture: A loosely coupled architecture for the multimodal interaction framework that focuses on providing a general means for components to communicate with each other, plus basic infrastructure for application control and platform services.
Emotion Markup Language: EmotionML will provide representations of emotions and related states for technological applications.

See also
 Multimodal Interaction
 VoiceXML – the W3C's standard XML format for specifying interactive voice dialogues between a human and a computer.
 SSML – Speech Synthesis Markup Language
 CCXML – Call Control eXtensible Markup Language
 SCXML – an XML language that provides a generic state-machine based execution environment

Useful Links
 Multimodal Interaction Activity on W3C site
 The W3C Multimodal Architecture, Part 1: Overview and challenges on IBM DeveloperWorks

MMI
XML-based standards
Multimodal interaction
Operation ROBOT. Operation ROBOT was an economic policy devised by HM Treasury in 1952 under Chancellor of the Exchequer R. A. Butler but which was never implemented. It was named after three of its civil servant advocates, Sir Leslie ROwan, Sir George BOlton and OTto Clarke.

During the winter of 1951–52 in Britain there was anxiety over the balance of payments and the reduction of Britain's gold reserves. R. A. Butler, the Chancellor, advocated floating the exchange rate and allowing sterling to find its own level and to be convertible. Butler acknowledged that his proposals would end the Keynesian full employment policies of the previous twelve years but claimed that the burden would fall not on Britain's precarious gold reserves but on the exchange rate. British exports would become cheaper, imports would become more expensive, food prices would rise, as would the prices of raw materials and possibly unemployment would also rise under the scheme. Clarke claimed that a free exchange rate would be 'painful' but would impose severe discipline upon British industry because of its exposure to the world markets.

The most prominent of those who urged for its rejection were a Treasury under-secretary, E. R. Coplestone, and Lord Cherwell, the Paymaster General. Cherwell argued that unemployment would rise to one million and inflation could increase if the plan was implemented. He also argued that it would be political suicide, which would end in disaster. Both the Governor (Lord Cobbold) and the deputy governor (Sir George Bolton) of the Bank of England, as well as the Colonial Secretary Oliver Lyttelton, were in favour of implementing it.

In February 1952 the Cabinet rejected it as too risky.

References

Barnett, Correlli (2002). The Verdict of Peace. London: Pan.

Morgan, Kenneth O. (2001). Britain since 1945: The People's Peace. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

1952 in the United Kingdom
Political history of the United Kingdom
Solvent (disambiguation). Solvent may refer to:
Solvent, a liquid that dissolves another material
Solvent (producer), the stage name of electronic musician Jason Amm
Solvent (film), a 2024 horror film by Johannes Grenzfurthner
Solvency, a company's capability to meet its financial obligations
"Solvent", a song on the 1984 Skinny Puppy album Remission
"solvent", a song on the 2013 Skinny Puppy album Weapon

See also 

Solvation
Solvent cabinet
Solvent exposure
Solvent extraction
Command queue. In computer science, a command queue is a queue that determines when a command is executed, usually by order of priority or on a first-in first-out basis. Instead of waiting for each command to be executed before sending the next one, a program will put all its commands in the command queue, freeing it to perform other functions while the queue is processed by the operating system. 

This delegation not only frees the program from handling the queue but can also help optimize execution. For instance, when handling multiple requests from several users, a network server's hard drive can reorder the requests in its queue using the elevator algorithm, which minimizes mechanical movement.

Examples
 Native Command Queuing (NCQ) in Serial ATA (SATA)
 Tagged Command Queuing (TCQ) in Parallel ATA and SCSI

See also
Batch processing
Burst mode (computing)
Command pattern
Job queue
Job scheduler

Job scheduling
Total boron. The total boron (BT) is the sum of boron species in a solution. In the environment these species usually include boric acid and borate, for example:

BT = [] + []

where

BT is the total boron concentration
[] is the dihydrogen borate concentration
[] is the boric acid concentration

Importance

Total boron is an important quantity when determining alkalinity due to borate's contribution to a solution's acid neutraling capacity. Total boron is a conservative element in seawater, and can thus be calculated by simply knowing the salinity.

See also
 Total organic carbon
 Total Alkalinity(AT) 
 pH

Chemical oceanography
Analytical chemistry
Boron
Hawthorn M-class destroyer. The Hawthorn M (or Mansfield) Class were a class of two destroyers built for the Royal Navy under the pre-war 1913-14 Programme for World War I service.

They were similar to the Admiralty M class, but completed to a modified design by Hawthorn Leslie and Company, Hebburn on Tyne. They had four funnels instead of the three funnels of the Admiralty design; as a consequence, they were the last four-funnelled destroyers (apart from Leaders) to be built for the Royal Navy. The midships 4 inch gun was shipped between the second and third funnels. Both ships were laid down on 9 July 1914 and completed in 1915. Both survived the war and were scrapped in 1921,

Hawthorn Leslie subsequently received orders for two further M class destroyers as part of the large batch of orders placed in May 1915, but these two - Pidgeon and Plover - were built to the Admiralty M class design.

Ships 
 , launched 21 August 1914, completed January 1915, sold for breaking up 9 May 1921 to Thos. W. Ward at Hayle.
 , launched 3 December 1914, completed April 1915, sold for breaking up 26 October 1921 to Barking Ship Breaking Company.

Bibliography
 Destroyers of the Royal Navy, 1893-1981, Maurice Cocker, 1983, Ian Allan 
 Jane's Fighting Ships, 1919, Jane's Publishing

M class destroyer Hawthorn
 
Ship classes of the Royal Navy