omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Newton scale. The Newton scale is a temperature scale devised by Isaac Newton in 1701. He called his device a "thermometer", but he did not use the term "temperature", speaking of "degrees of heat" () instead. Newton's publication represents the first attempt to introduce an objective way of measuring (what would come to be called) temperature (alongside the Rømer scale published at nearly the same time). Newton likely developed his scale for practical use rather than  for a theoretical interest in thermodynamics; he had been appointed Warden of the Mint in 1695, and Master of the Mint in 1699, and his interest in the melting points of metals are likely inspired by his duties in connection with the Royal Mint.

Newton used linseed oil as thermometric material  and measured its change of volume against his reference points. He set as 0 on his scale "the heat of air in winter at which water begins to freeze" (), reminiscent of the standard of the modern Celsius scale (i.e. 0 °N = 0 °C), but he has no single second reference point; he does give the "heat at which water begins to boil" as 33, but this is not a defining reference; the values for body temperature and the freezing and boiling point of water suggest a conversion factor between the Newton and the Celsius scale of between about 3.08 (12 °N = 37 °C) and 3.03 (33 °N = 100 °C) but since the objectively verifiable reference points given result in irreconcilable data (especially for high temperatures), no unambiguous "conversion" between the scales is possible.

The linseed thermometer could be used up to the melting point of tin. For higher temperatures, Newton used a "sufficiently thick piece of iron" that was heated until red-hot and then exposed to the wind. On this piece of iron, samples of metals and alloys were placed, which melted and then again solidified on cooling. Newton then determined the "degrees of heat" of these samples based on the solidification times, and tied this scale to the linseed one by measuring the melting point of tin in both systems. This second system of measurement led Newton to derive his law of convective heat transfer, also known as Newton's law of cooling.

In his publication, Newton gives 18 reference points (in addition to a range of meteorological air temperatures), which he labels by two systems, one in arithmetic progression and the other in geometric progression, as follows:

See also
 Outline of metrology and measurement
 Comparison of temperature scales
 List of obsolete units of measurement

References

External links
 Photo of an antique thermometer backing board c. 1758marked in four scales; the first is Newton's.

Obsolete units of measurement
Scales of temperature
Dalton (program). Dalton (named after John Dalton) is an ab initio quantum chemistry computer program suite, consisting of the Dalton and LSDalton programs. The Dalton suite is capable of calculating various molecular properties using the Hartree–Fock, MP2, MCSCF and coupled cluster theories. Version 2.0 of DALTON added support for density functional theory calculations. There are many authors, including Trygve Helgaker, Poul Jørgensen and Kenneth Ruud.

Dalton switched to the open source GNU LGPL licence in August 2017.

See also 
 Quantum chemistry software
 Centre for Theoretical and Computational Chemistry

External links
 Dalton project homepage

References

Computational chemistry software
Yefim and Miron Cherepanov. Yefim Alekseyevich Cherepanov (; 1774 – 1842), and his son Miron Yefimovich Cherepanov (; 1803 – 1849) were Russian inventors and industrial engineers. They were serfs of the Demidovs – a famous family of factory owners.

In 1810s Yefim built a progressive machine-building plant, equipped with a full range of innovative metal-cutting lathes (such as screw-cutters, gear-cutting serrating machines and others). From 1822 until his death, Yefim was chief mechanic for all the factories in the town of Nizhny Tagil. Miron was his apprentice and in 1819 was appointed his deputy. Miron became chief mechanic after his father's death.

Innovations

Industrial machinery
The Cherepanovs significantly improved the machinery that had been used in blast-furnace and gold-mining industries, iron and copper works, sawmills, and flourmills.

Steam engines
The most interesting aspect of the Cherepanovs' work were steam engines which they tried to introduce into industrial production. From 1820, the Cherepanovs built about 20 steam engines that ranged from 2 to 60 hp.

Railroad

In 1833-34 they built the first Russian steam locomotive. They also built a cast-iron railroad from one of their factories to a copper mine. Track gauge was 5 ft 6 in (1670 mm). In 1835, they built a second locomotive that they sent to Saint Petersburg. Despite the successful performance and operation of their locomotives, the Cherepanovs' invention found no support outside the factory and, subsequently, horse traction replaced their steam locomotives.

See also
 Russian Railway Museum, Saint Petersburg
 Stephenson's Rocket
 Planet (locomotive)
 Bury Bar Frame locomotive

References

Inventors from the Russian Empire
Locomotive builders and designers
Russian serfs
Richard Deeley. Richard Mountford Deeley (24 October 1855 – 19 June 1944) was an English engineer, chiefly noted for his five years as Chief Mechanical Engineer (CME) of the Midland Railway. Richard Deeley is recorded as being born in Derby His father had been an accountant with the Midland Railway and Richard attended grammar school in Chester.

Career
In 1873 he became a pupil of B. Ellington at the Hydraulic Engineering Co in Chester, and two years later he became a pupil of Samuel Waite Johnson at Derby Works. In March 1890 he became chief of the testing department at Derby, then progressed to the position of Inspector of Boilers, Engines and Machinery (March 1893), and to Derby Works Manager in January 1902, adding the post of Electrical Engineer a year later. In July 1903 he also became Assistant Locomotive Superintendent, subsequently replacing Johnson as Locomotive Superintendent on 1 January 1904.

Compound locomotives
He made significant contributions to compounding, adopting Smith's system for his Midland Compound 4-4-0 locomotives. However, the refusal of the company's board to sanction development of larger locomotives, and friction with the new senior managers, led him to resign his post at the end of 1909. After this he continued to work and publish on engineering problems in both railway and non-railway applications.

Patents
  GB190516372, published 28 June 1906, Improvements in valve gear for locomotives or similar coupled steam engines
 GB190604729, published 31 January 1907, Improvements in locomotive superheaters
 GB190605839, published 7 March 1907, Combined spark arrester and ash ejector for locomotive engines    
 GB190910561, published 30 September 1909, Improvements in locomotive boiler stays and the like
 GB190923872  (with Walter Reuben Preston), published 13 October 1910, Improvements in slide valves for motive power engines

References

External links
 
 Richard Deeley at Worldcat

Engineers from Derby
English mechanical engineers
Locomotive builders and designers
Midland Railway people
English railway mechanical engineers
1855 births
1944 deaths
Hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene. Hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB) is an oligomer of butadiene terminated at each end with a hydroxyl functional group. It reacts with isocyanates to form polyurethane polymers.

HTPB is a translucent liquid with a color similar to wax paper and a viscosity similar to corn syrup. The properties vary because HTPB is a mixture rather than a pure compound, and it is manufactured to meet customers' specific requirements. A typical HTPB is R-45HTLO.  This product consists of oligomeric units typically containing 40–50 butadiene molecules bonded together, with each end of the chain terminated with a hydroxyl [OH] group: 

R-45HTLO has a functionality of 2.4-2.6, which means that there is (approximately) one additional hydroxyl group located along the chain for every two oligomeric units.  This provides side-to-side linkage for a stronger cured product.  HTPB is usually cured by an addition reaction with di- or poly-isocyanate compounds.

Uses

Materials production
Polyurethanes prepared from HTPB can be engineered for specific physical properties; polyurethanes may be highly elastic or tough and rigid. Some products include: rigid foam insulation panels; durable elastomeric wheels and tires (used for roller coasters, escalators, skateboards, etc.); automotive suspension bushings; electrical potting compounds; high-performance adhesives; surface coatings and surface sealants; synthetic fibers (e.g., Spandex); carpet underlay; hard-plastic parts (e.g., for electronic instruments).

Rocket propellant

An important application of HTPB is in solid rocket propellant. It binds the oxidizing agent, fuel and other ingredients into a solid but elastic mass in most composite propellant systems. The cured polyurethane acts as a fuel in such mixtures. For example, HTPB is used in all 3/4 stages of the Japanese M-5 launch vehicles and in 1/3 stages of Indian PSLV launch vehicle. JAXA describes the propellant as "HTPB/AP/Al=12/68/20", which means, proportioned by mass, HTPB plus curative 12% (binder and fuel), ammonium perchlorate 68% (oxidizer), and aluminum powder 20% (fuel).

Similar propellants, often referred to as APCP (ammonium perchlorate composite propellant) are used in larger model rockets.  A typical APCP propellant mixture produces 2–3 times the specific impulse of the black powder propellant used in most smaller rocket motors.

HTPB is also used as a hybrid rocket fuel. With N2O (nitrous oxide, or "laughing gas") as the oxidizer, it is used to power the SpaceShipTwo hybrid rocket motor developed by SpaceDev. The land speed record attempt Bloodhound SSC  was to have used HTPB with a high-test peroxide oxidizer, but that plan was altered in 2017.

See also
Polybutadiene acrylonitrile

References

External links

US Patent 5159123 description of synthesis and other details.

Polyols
Organic polymers
Rocket fuels
S7 (Berlin). S7 is a line on the Berlin S-Bahn. It operates from Ahrensfelde to Potsdam over:
the Wriezen Railway, completed on 1 May 1898 and electrified to Marzahn in 1976, to Mehrower Allee in 1980 and to Ahrensfelde in 1982,
a section of the Outer ring, completed in the early 1940s as part of the Outer freight ring and electrified in 1976,
a section of the Prussian Eastern line, opened on 1 October 1866 and electrified on 6 November 1928,
the Stadtbahn, opened on 7 February 1882 and electrified on 11 June 1928,
a section of the Berlin-Blankenheim line, opened west of Grunewald in 1879 and further east in 1882 and electrified in 1928 and
a section of the Berlin-Potsdam-Magdeburg line, opened in 1838 and electrified in 1928.

Service history
The S7 was created on 2 June 1991, replacing the Red route of the East Berlin S-Bahn between Alexanderplatz and , with the western terminus extended to Friedrichstraße.

Gallery

References

Berlin S-Bahn lines
Transport in Potsdam
Software Automatic Mouth. Software Automatic Mouth, or S.A.M. (sometimes abbreviated as SAM), is a speech synthesis program developed by Mark Barton and sold by Don't Ask Software. The program was released for the Atari 8-bit computers, Apple II, and Commodore 64. Released in 1982, it was one of the first commercial all-software voice-synthesis programs.

Don't Ask Software also sold PokerSAM, a poker game with speech, and also licensed out the S.A.M. engine for use with other games, such as Tales of the Arabian Nights for the Commodore 64.

Technology  
The Apple version uses an included expansion card which contains an 8-bit DAC, although hackers created a modified version of S.A.M. which can instead use the computer's one-bit audio output (with the addition of much distortion) if the card is not present. The Atari version makes use of the embedded POKEY audio chip. Speech playback on the Atari normally disables interrupt requests and shuts down the ANTIC chip during vocal output. The audible output is extremely distorted speech when graphic and text display is turned on. The Commodore 64 makes use of the 64's embedded SID audio chip's 4-bit volume DAC, reducing its quality significantly vs the Apple and Atari versions. When producing speech, the Commodore 64 version blanks the screen as the program accesses memory, although a "light" mode can be activated that leaves the screen active, producing a "gravelly" voice. Active sprites also cause a deterioration in the quality of voice output.

Legacy
S.A.M. was used as the basis for the original MacInTalk speech synthesis software.

The technology was recreated for the voice of the character of "SAM" in the software Chipspeech.

References

External links
 Speech Synthesizers for Atari and Apple magazine review
 Spelling.SAM an Atari BASIC spelling program
 SAM manual reproduction of the Atari version manual
 Analysis of SAM translated version to C and executable for Windows
 Run SAM in the Browser translated version to native JavaScript
  SAM as JAVA class file for the JVM
 2020 Interview with Mark Barton about S.A.M.

1982 software
Apple II software
Atari 8-bit computer software
Commodore 64 software
Speech synthesis software
Scratchpad. Scratchpad may refer to:

 A pad of paper, such as a notebook, for preliminary notes, sketches, or writings
 Scratchpad memory, also known as scratchpad, scratchpad RAM or local store, is a high-speed internal memory used for temporary storage of calculations, data, and other work in progress
 Scratchpad, the former name of Axiom, a free, general-purpose computer algebra system
Demron. Demron is a radiation-shielding fabric. For the same weight it has slightly lower radiation protection than lead shielding, but is flexible. The composition of Demron is proprietary information, but it has been described as a non-toxic polyethylene and non-PVC-based polymer fused between two layers of a woven fabric.  The polymer molecule imitates the electronic traits of heavy metals, commonly employed for shielding against radiation. It has a significant electron cloud that either deflects or absorbs incoming radiation.  It is roughly three to four times more expensive than a conventional lead apron, but can be treated like a normal fabric for cleaning, storage and disposal.  More recent uses for Demron include certified first responder hazmat suits as well as tactical vests.

See also 
Nuclear safety

References

External links 
Radiation Shield Technologies
United States Patent Application

Technical fabrics
EMC E5. The EMC E5 is a , A1A-A1A passenger train-hauling diesel locomotive manufactured by Electro-Motive Corporation, and its corporate successor, General Motors' Electro-Motive Division (EMD) of La Grange, Illinois. It was produced exclusively for the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad (“The Burlington Route”), and its subsidiaries between 1940 and 1941.

The E5 was distinguished from the otherwise very similar E3, E4 and E6 by being clad in polished stainless steel to match the Burlington's Zephyr trains. It also featured unique small grill-like ornamentation on both sides of the upper headlight. Like the other pre-war models in the E-series, the E5 had a sloping “slant nose” design and was equipped with two headlights—a regular stationary headlight above a gyrating Mars signal light. The E5 was the sixth model in the EMD E-unit series.

Engine and powertrain
The E5 was powered by twin 12-cylinder prime movers, developing a total of  at 800 rpm. Designed specifically for railroad locomotives, the mechanically aspirated, two-stroke, 45-degree V-type engine, with an  bore by  stroke, giving  displacement per cylinder. This engine design remained in production until 1966. 

The E5 was originally intended to look very different with the cab section looking very similar to the streamlined diesel passenger trains that the CB&Q was famous for.  

Power for the locomotive's traction was provided by two direct-current generators, one for each prime mover. This generators powered four traction motors, two on each truck, in an A1A-A1A arrangement. This truck design was used across all E units, as well as on the MP 7100 AA6, CB&Q 9908, and CRI&P AB6 power cars. Since 1939, EMC/EMD has manufactured all of its major components.

Original owners

Locomotive details

Surviving example 
Only one E5 unit of the original 16 built survives today. The last surviving EMD E5 diesel, CB&Q No. 9911A Silver Pilot, is owned and operated by the Illinois Railway Museum in Union, Illinois. The locomotive was last used on the Fort Worth and Denver Railway (a CB&Q subsidiary) for the Texas Zephyr. It is now paired with one of the Burlington's Nebraska Zephyrs, a 5 car, articulated, stainless steel passenger train from 1936. 

This equipment has been featured in several film productions, including the 1992 movie A League of Their Own and the 2006 movie Flags of Our Fathers. E5 9911A Silver Pilot was used with 4 stainless steel passenger cars relettered to resemble the Zephyr trainset. 9911 is equipped with dual horns, which is a WABCO E2 and a Leslie Controls RS2M.

See also 

List of GM-EMD locomotives

References

Notes

Bibliography

External links 

 IRM Roster: Chicago Burlington & Quincy 9911A
 Burlington Route Historical Society, Rosters, Equipment & Structures

Diesel–electric locomotives of the United States
A1A-A1A locomotives
E5
Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad
Passenger locomotives
Railway locomotives introduced in 1940
Locomotives with cabless variants
Standard gauge locomotives of the United States
Streamlined diesel locomotives
Chicago, Burlington and Quincy locomotives
Square wheel. A square wheel is a wheel that, instead of being circular, has the shape of a square. While literal square wheels exist, a more common use is as an idiom meaning stereotypically bad or naive engineering (see reinventing the wheel).

A square wheel can roll smoothly if the ground consists of evenly shaped inverted catenaries of the right size and curvature.

A different type of square-wheeled vehicle was invented in 2006 by Jason Winckler of Global Composites, Inc. in the United States. This has square wheels, linked together and offset by 22.5°, rolling on a flat surface. The prototype appears ungainly, but the inventor proposes that the system may be useful in microscopic-sized machines (MEMS). In 1997 Macalester College mathematics professor Stan Wagon constructed the first prototype of a catenary tricycle. An improved model made out of modern materials was built when the original vehicle wore out in April, 2004.

In 2012, MythBusters experimented with modifying vehicles with square tires, determining that, with speed, a truck fitted with square wheels can deliver a relatively smooth ride.

See also
 Reuleaux triangle
 Non-circular gear

References

Wheels
Initiative for Software Choice. The Initiative for Software Choice (ISC) is a lobby group founded in May 2002 in response to widespread international government interest in open source software. The ISC website characterizes its membership as "committed to advancing the concept that multiple competing software markets should be allowed to develop and flourish unimpeded by government preference or mandate".

According to many Free Software advocates such as Bruce Perens, Microsoft founded ISC in reaction to the call for the adoption of Free Software by politicians in many countries.

The Computing Technology Industry Association (CompTIA) chairs the Initiative.

External links
 Software Choice(Official web site)
 MS 'Software Choice' scheme a clever fraud, by Bruce Perens
 ZDNet: Microsoft-sponsored lobbyist to the EU: It’s a mistake to floss us

References 

Information technology lobbying organizations
Lucien Gaulard. Lucien Gaulard (16 July 1850 – 26 November 1888) was a French engineer who invented devices for the transmission of alternating current electrical energy.

Biography
Gaulard was born in Paris, France in 1850.

A power transformer developed by Gaulard of France and John Dixon Gibbs of England was demonstrated in London, and attracted the interest of Westinghouse.  Gaulard and Gibbs first exhibited a device in London in 1881 and then sold the idea to the American company Westinghouse. They also exhibited the invention in Turin in 1884, where it was adopted for an electric lighting system. Many of the features of their design were adapted to the particular laws governing electrical distribution in the UK.

In 1882, 1884, and 1885 Gaulard and Gibbs applied for patents on their transformer; however, these were overturned due to actions initiated by Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti and others.

Their open-core device used a fixed 1:1 ratio to supply a series circuit for the utilization load (lamps). The voltage of their fixed 1:1 ratio system was reduced and controlled by pushing in and pulling out its open iron core.

In 1885, William Stanley, Jr. built the first practical American transformer based on Gaulard and Gibbs's idea, the precursor of the modern transformer.  Transformers were nothing new, but the Gaulard-Gibbs design was one of the first that could handle large amounts of power and promised to be easy to manufacture. Westinghouse imported a number of Gaulard-Gibbs transformers and a Siemens AC generator to begin experimenting with AC networks in Pittsburgh.

Gaulard died in an institution (Sainte-Anne Hospital) in Paris, and was said to have lost his reason due to the loss of the patents on his invention. Several months before his death, Gaulard appeared at the Elysee asking the concierge to conduct him to the president of France, for whom, he said, he had an urgent message.  The message was "I am God and God does not wait".  He has been described as an inventor whose ingenuity cost him not only his money, but reason and life as well. A tablet was erected to Gaulard at Lanzo Torinese.

Patents
  ()

See also
 John Dixon Gibbs
 Inductor
 Alternating current
 George Westinghouse
 William Stanley
 The Current War

References
Citations

19th-century French inventors
1850 births
1888 deaths
SFS. SFS may refer to:

Places 
 Subic Bay International Airport (IATA airport code: SFS), Subic Bay Freeport Zone, Morong, Bataan, Olongapo, Central Luzon, Luzon, Philippines

Computers 
 SAN file system
 Self-certifying File System, a decentralized network file system
 Smart File System, a journaling filesystem used on Amiga computers
 SquashFS, a compressed file system for Linux operating systems
 Simple Features, an OpenGIS standard for storage of geographical data
 The partition type of Windows Dynamic disks, see Logical Disk Manager#Basic and dynamic disks and volumes

Education 
 Society for Financial Studies, nonprofit academic society
 Saint Francis School Deoghar, English-medium convent school in Jharkhand, India
 Seoul Foreign School, English language school in Seoul, South Korea
 Sidwell Friends School, private Quaker school in Washington DC
 The School for Field Studies, the USA's oldest and largest undergraduate environmental study abroad program
 Edmund A. Walsh School of Foreign Service, a school of international relations within Georgetown University
 Swedish National Union of Students ()

Sports 
 Sioux Falls Skyforce, a basketball team from Sioux Falls, South Dakota
 Sydney Football Stadium (1988), demolished Australian stadium
 Sydney Football Stadium (2022), Australian stadium

Companies and organizations 
 San Francisco Symphony
 SFS Group, Swiss fastener manufacturer
 Finnish Standards Association

Other 
 Swedish Code of Statutes (Svensk författningssamling)
 Effluent sewer or solids-free sewer

See also

 
 SF (disambiguation) for the singular of SFs