omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Climatron. The Climatron is a greenhouse enclosed in a geodesic dome that is part of the Missouri Botanical Garden in St. Louis. Initiated by then Garden director Frits W. Went, the dome is the world's first completely air-conditioned greenhouse and the first geodesic dome to be enclosed in rigid Plexiglass (Perspex) panels. Completed in 1960, it was designed by T. C. Howard, of Synergetics, Inc., Raleigh, North Carolina. The broad climatic range within the dome, which recreates a lowland rain forest, is achieved by sophisticated climate controls without using interior partitions.

The structure is an unpartitioned half-sphere dome, 42 m in diameter and 21 m high. The frame is supported by aluminum tubes under compression and aluminum rods under tension. The St. Louis architects Murphy and Mackey were the architects on record. Synergetics, Inc were the designers of the dome. The architects received the 1961 R. S. Reynolds Memorial Award of $25,000 for their architectural use of aluminum. In 1976 it was named one of the 100 most significant architectural achievements in United States history.

The dome contains a small stone pre-existing neo-classical pavilion and over 400 varieties of plant life.  A bank of 24 flood lights, revolving at night in five-minute cycles, simulates noon light on one side of the dome and moonlight on other side. The climate ranges from the Amazon through Hawaii and Java to India.

Over time, the building experienced deterioration of the original Plexiglas panels and the adverse effect of humidity on some metal elements. The greenhouse was closed for extensive renovations in 1988 and reopened in March 1990. The original Plexiglas glazing was replaced with 2,425 panes of heat-strengthened glass (containing a plastic interlayer called Saflex) and coated with a low-emissivity film. In 2010, the Botanical Garden celebrated the 50th anniversary of the Climatron.

See also
Buckminster Fuller, patented the geometry for geodesic domes, lecturer, inventor, and author
Jewel Box (St. Louis, Missouri), a previous greenhouse built in St. Louis in Forest Park
Saint Louis Science Center, a museum whose original 1963 planetarium building has a unique hyperboloid structure
Mitchell Park Horticultural Conservatory
List of botanical gardens in the United States
Phytotron

References

External links

David P.D. Munns, Engineering the Environment: Phytotrons and the Quest to Control Climate in the Cold War (University of Pittsburgh Press, 2017).
The Climatron at World of Trons 

Buildings and structures completed in 1960
Geodesic domes
Historic American Buildings Survey in Missouri
Missouri Botanical Garden

pt:Climatron
Norbert Berkowitz. Norbert Berkowitz,  (1924 – June 25, 2001) was a Canadian scientist involved in researching coal technology in conjunction with the Alberta Research Council and the University of Alberta.

Berkowitz was born in Berlin and lived in Germany for the first 15 years of his life. During World War II, he and his family fled to England, where received a Ph.D. in petroleum engineering from the University of London. In 1952, he moved to Edmonton and joined the Alberta Research Council. He joined the University of Alberta in 1979 in a teaching position and retired in 1988. In 1984 he was made a Member of the Order of Canada. He was killed in a car accident in 2001.

Selected works
 Fossil Hydrocarbons: Chemistry and Technology,  (1997)

References

1924 births
2001 deaths

Alumni of the University of London
Engineers from Berlin
Canadian academics in engineering
Canadian engineering researchers
Members of the Order of Canada
Road incident deaths in Canada
Accidental deaths in Alberta
German emigrants to Canada
Computronium. Computronium is a material hypothesized by Norman Margolus and Tommaso Toffoli of MIT in 1991 to be used as "programmable matter", a substrate for computer modeling of virtually any real object.

It also refers to an arrangement of matter that is the best possible form of computing device for that amount of matter. In this context, the term can refer both to a theoretically perfect arrangement of hypothetical materials that would have been developed using nanotechnology at the molecular, atomic, or subatomic level (in which case this interpretation of computronium could be unobtainium), and to the best possible achievable form using currently available and used computational materials.

According to the Barrow scale, a modified variant of the Kardashev scale created by British physicist John D. Barrow, which is intended to categorize the development stage of extraterrestrial civilizations, it would be conceivable that advanced civilizations do not claim more and more space and resources, but optimize their already available space increasingly, for example by building a matrioshka brain consisting of several layers of computronium around their star.

In the 2010 film The Singularity Is Near: A True Story About the Future, American futurist Ray Kurzweil discusses a universe filled with computronium. He believes this could be possible as early as the late 22nd century and would be accomplished by sending intelligent nanobots through the universe faster than light, e.g. by using wormholes. According to him, such an endeavor would have the potential to prevent the natural ending of the universe.

In addition, the term computronium is used in connection with science fiction narratives.

See also
 Limits of computation
 Molecular scale electronics
 Molecular electronics
 Computon

References

Fictional computers
Fictional materials
Hypothetical technology
P1. P1, P01, P-1 or P.1 may refer to:

Computing, robotics, and, telecommunications 
 DSC-P1, a 2000 Sony Cyber-shot P series camera model
 Sony Ericsson P1, a UIQ 3 smartphone
 Packet One, the first company to launch WiMAX service in Southeast Asia
 Peer 1, an Internet hosting provider
 Honda P1, a 1993 Honda P series of robots, an ASIMO predecessor

Media 
 DR P1, a Danish radio network operated by Danmarks Radio
 NRK P1, a Norwegian radio network operated by the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation
 SR P1, a Swedish radio network operated by Sveriges Radio
 Polonia 1, a Polish TV channel of the Polcast Television

Military 
 P-1 Hawk, a 1923 biplane fighter of the U.S. Army Air Corps
 Kawasaki P-1, a Japanese maritime patrol aircraft (previously P-X)
 P-1 (missile), a Soviet anti-ship cruise missile

Science

Biology
 P1 antigen, identifies P antigen system
 P1 laboratory, biosafety -level-1 laboratory
 P1 phage, a bacterial virus
 SARS-CoV-2 Gamma variant, a strain of COVID-19 virus SARS-CoV-2 first detected in Manaus, Brazil in 2020
 ATC code P01 Antiprotozoals, a subgroup of the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System
 Pericarp color1 (p1), a gene in the phlobaphene biosynthesis pathway in maize
 C1 and P1 (neuroscience), a component of the visual evoked potential
 P1 nuclease, a nuclease that works on single-stranded DNA as well as RNA

Other sciences
 Period 1 of the periodic table
 Pollard's p − 1 algorithm for integer factorization
 P-ONE - a proposed neutrino detector

Transportation

Automobiles
 P1 International, a car club founded in Leatherhead, Surrey, England
 Alfa Romeo P1, a 1932 Grand Prix car
 Allard P1, a 1949 British five seater two door sports saloon
 McLaren P1, a sports car succeeding the McLaren F1.
 Porsche P1, first electric car produced by Ferdinand Porsche in 1898
 P-1, development code name of the Subaru 1500 automobile
 P1 race class in the Le Mans racing series

Aircraft
 Abrams P-1 Explorer, an American aerial survey aircraft
 Dewoitine P-1, a Dewoitine aircraft
 DFW P.1, a passenger aircraft development of the 1916 DFW C.V
 Paradise P-1 LSA, a Brazilian light-sport aircraft

Rail
 P1 (AirTrain Newark station), a station on AirTrain Newark, New Jersey, United States
 Alsace-Lorraine P 1, a German steam locomotives class
 LNER Class P1, a class of locomotive designed by Nigel Gresley

Other uses
 Front-runner, or position 1 (P.1)
 Papyrus 1, also known as P1, P, or , an early papyrus copy of part of the New Testament
 Walther P1, an aluminum-framed variant of the Walther P38 pistol
 Pioneer One, an open source web series
 P-1 (submarine), a fictional patrol craft in the animated TV series Marine Boy

See also

 
 
 
 
 Pone (disambiguation)
 PL (disambiguation)
 PI (disambiguation)
 1P (disambiguation)
 Π1 (disambiguation) (; romanized "p1"; pronounced "pi1")
General Motors Lambda platform. Lambda is General Motors full-size or mid-size 3-row crossover SUV automobile platform.  It is largely derived from the GM Epsilon platform, which underlies the Chevrolet Malibu sedan and similar models.

The Buick Enclave concept car was previewed at the 2006 North American International Auto Show, and the Saturn Outlook was shown at the 2006 New York Auto Show. The 2007 Outlook and GMC Acadia went into production in late 2006, followed by the 2008 Enclave in mid-2007, and the 2009 Chevrolet Traverse in mid-2008.

Lambda vehicles feature easily accessible three-row seating.  They were supplied with the LY7 3.6-liter V6.  Starting with the 2009 model year all Lambda vehicles have GM LLT 3.6-liter gasoline direct injection engine for improved fuel efficiency, horsepower and torque.  With the cancellation of GM's next-generation DOHC V8, there would be no V8 powertrain for the Lambda platform. The platform has been designed for front and all-wheel drive applications.

Lambda vehicles are produced in the new Lansing Delta Township Assembly plant near Lansing, Michigan. The Traverse began production in September 2008 at a retooled Spring Hill Assembly Plant in Tennessee, but production was later moved to Lansing.  GM discontinued the Outlook after the 2010 model year along with the entire Saturn brand.

Meanwhile, GM announced a facelift of its GMC Acadia for the 2013 model year, taking the bodyshell of the discontinued Saturn Outlook, while at the same time, GM would refresh its Buick Enclave & Chevrolet Traverse vehicles.

Minivans
GM was considering replacing the U-body minivans with new minivans using the Lambda platform for the 2009 model year, but due to the decline of minivan sales the plan was cancelled.

Vehicles
Vehicles based on this platform:
 2007–2010 Saturn Outlook
 2007–2016 GMC Acadia
 2008–2017 Buick Enclave
 2009–2017 Chevrolet Traverse

Sales

See also
List of General Motors platforms

References
 
 

Lambda
Defrosting (refrigeration). In refrigerators, defrosting (or thawing) is the removal of frost and ice.

A defrosting procedure is generally performed periodically on refrigerators and freezers to maintain their operating efficiency. Over time, as the door is opened and closed, letting in new air, water vapour from the air condenses on the cooling elements within the cabinet.

Types of frost (in various environments) include crystalline frost (hoar frost or radiation frost) from deposition of water vapor from air of low humidity, white frost in humid conditions, window frost on glass surfaces, advection frost from cold wind over cold surfaces, black frost without visible ice at low temperatures and very low humidity, and rime under supercooled wet conditions.

The resulting ice inhibits heat transfer out of the cabinet increasing running costs. Furthermore, as the ice builds up it takes increasing space from within the cabinet - reducing the space available for food storage.

Many newer units employ automatic defrosting (often called "frost-free" or "no frost") and do not require manual defrosting in normal use. Although, in some cases, users of Frost Free fridge/freezers have noted ice blocking the vent that allows air into the refrigerator compartment.

References

Cooling technology
Network access server. A network access server (NAS) is a group of components that provides remote users with a point of access to a network.

Overview
A NAS concentrates dial-in and dial-out user communications. An access server may have a mixture of analog and digital interfaces and support hundreds of simultaneous users. A NAS consists of a communications processor that connects asynchronous devices to a LAN or WAN through network and terminal emulation software. It performs both synchronous and asynchronous routing of supported protocols.

The NAS is meant to act as a gateway to guard access to a protected resource. This can be anything from a telephone network, to printers, to the Internet. A client connects to the NAS. The NAS then connects to another resource asking whether the client's supplied credentials are valid. Based on that answer the NAS then allows or disallows access to the protected resource.

Examples
The above translates into different implementations for different uses. Here are some examples.

An Internet service provider which provides network access via common modem or modem-like devices (be it PSTN, DSL, cable or GPRS/UMTS) can have one or more NAS (network access server) devices which accept PPP, PPPoE or PPTP connections, checking credentials and recording accounting data via back-end RADIUS servers, and allowing users access through that connection.
 The captive portal mechanism used by many WiFi providers: a user wants to access the Internet and opens a browser. The NAS detects that the user is not currently authorized to have access to the Internet, so the NAS prompts the user for their username and password. The user supplies them and sends them back to the NAS. The NAS then uses the RADIUS protocol to connect to an AAA server and passes off the username and password. The RADIUS server searches through its resources and finds that the credentials are valid and notifies the NAS that it should grant the access. The NAS then grants the user access to the Internet.
Another use of a NAS would be in voice over IP (VoIP). However, instead of using a username and password, many times a phone number or IP Address are used. If the phone number is a valid customer then the call can be completed. Other uses might be to verify whether a phone number has long distance access or a telephone card has minutes left.

Associated protocols
Although not required, NASs are almost exclusively used with authentication, authorization, and accounting (AAA) servers. Of the AAA protocols available, RADIUS tends to be the most widely used. The Diameter base protocol extends RADIUS services by providing error handling and inter-domain communications. This protocol is used in networks like the IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS).

See also
 Terminal server

References

External links
 , Network Access Server Requirements Next Generation (NASREQNG)

Network access
Telephony
Telecommunications infrastructure
La Negra (industrial complex). La Negra is a small industrial complex  east of Antofagasta, Chile after crossing the coastal mountain range, in the Atacama Desert. The complex includes a lithium battery production facility.

Overview
Among La Negra industries, the two major ones are Altonorte, a copper smelter refinery, and Inacesa, a cement plant. It offers basic services for truckers and travelers in general.

La Negra is also the intersection of the Pan-American Highway and the road from Antofagasta to Escondida Mine. It counts a station on the Salta–Antofagasta railway.

Industry
There is a lithium production and battery conversion plant in the area, operated by Albemarle. In 2024, the facility was visited by United States Secretary of the Treasury Janet Yellen.

Austin Engineering operate a mining machinery manufacturing facility in La Negra.

References

Antofagasta
Industry in Chile
Buildings and structures in Antofagasta Region
Bort. Bort, boart, or boort is an umbrella term used in the diamond industry to refer to shards of non-gem-grade/quality diamonds. In the manufacturing and heavy industries, "bort" is used to describe dark, imperfectly formed or crystallized diamonds of varying levels of opacity. The lowest grade, "crushing bort", is crushed by steel mortars and used to make industrial-grade abrasive grits. Small bort crystals are used in drill bits. The Democratic Republic of the Congo provides 75% of the world supply of crushing bort.

Use and application 

Bort is commonly used as an abrasive. Smaller flakes and particles are used as an additive for scouring or polishing pastes and agents. Larger particles can be added to cutting, drilling and grinding tools to improve their lifespan and substantially increase their efficiency.

Bort particles varying from one to two nanometers are added to lubricants such as paraffin oil. These particles will embed themselves into minute irregularities and imperfections of moving-part surfaces. Particles that remain suspended in the lubricant oil act as both a polishing agent, further smoothening the surfaces, and as ball bearings between the surfaces. Such nanotechnology applications with paraffin oil containing approximately 1% of these nano-size bort particles may decrease the friction up to half of that without the nano-particles.

See also 

Carbonado (black diamond)
Synthetic diamond
Ballas
Rough diamond

References 

Diamond
CSS Chicora. CSS Chicora was a Confederate ironclad ram that fought in the American Civil War. It was built under contract at Charleston, South Carolina in 1862. James M. Eason built it to John L. Porter's plans, using up most of a $300,000 State appropriation for construction of marine batteries; Eason received a bonus for "skill and promptitude." Its iron shield was  thick, backed by  of oak and pine, with  armor at its ends. Keeled in March, it was commissioned in November, Commander John Randolph Tucker, CSN assuming command.

In thick, predawn haze on January 31, 1863, Chicora and  raided the Federal blockading force of unarmored ships lying just outside the entrance to Charleston Harbor. With ram and gun, Palmetto State forced  to surrender, then disabled , who had to be towed to safety. Chicora meanwhile engaged other Union ships in a long-range gun duel, from which it emerged unscathed to withdraw victoriously to shelter inside the harbor.

It took part in the defense of the forts at Charleston on April 7 when they were attacked by a squadron of ironclad monitors under Rear Admiral Samuel Francis du Pont, USN. The Federal ships were forced to retire for repairs and did not resume the action.

Chicora was actively employed in the fighting around Charleston during 1863 and 1864. Its valuable services included the transporting of troops during the evacuation of Morris Island, and the bombardment of Forts Sumter, Gregg, and Wagner. In August 1863 she had the distinction of furnishing the first volunteer officer and crew for the Confederate Submarine Torpedo Boat H. L. Hunley.

"A Lieutenant's commission in the Confederate States Navy was conferred on me, with orders to report for duty on the ironclad Chicora at Charleston. My duties were those of a deck officer, and I had charge of the first division. On the occasion of the attack upon the blockading squadron ... It was my part, on the memorable morning, to aim and fire one effective shell into the Keystone State while running down to attack us, which (according to Captain LeRoy's report), killing twenty-one men and severely wounding fifteen, caused him to haul down his flag in token of surrender. The enemy now kept at a respectful distance while preparing their ironclad vessels to sail up more closely. Our Navy Department continued slowly to construct more of these rams, all on the same general plan, fit for little else than harbor defense." -- William T. Glassell, Lt. CSN

It was destroyed by the Confederates when Charleston was evacuated on February 18, 1865.

References

Notes

Bibliography
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Coker, PC, "Charleston's Maritime Heritage 1670–1865", Charleston, CokerCraft Press 1987
 Prisoners of the Civil War; The Paragon Agency, Publishers; 2001

External links
 

Ironclad warships of the Confederate States Navy
Ships built in Charleston, South Carolina
Shipwrecks of the American Civil War
Shipwrecks of the Carolina coast
1862 ships
Ship fires
Maritime incidents in February 1865
P7. P7, P.7, or P-7 may refer to:

Aircraft
 Boeing XP-7, a prototype United States biplane fighter of the 1920s
 Lockheed P-7, a proposed patrol aircraft ordered by the U.S. Navy
 Piaggio P.7, an Italian hydrofoil racing seaplane of 1929
 PZL P.7, a 1930 Polish fighter aircraft

Science
 p7 protein, a protein providing nucleocapsid of HIV
 Period 7 of the periodic table
 Seoul Semiconductor, high-energy quad-chip LED light (SSC P7)
 HAT-P-7b, an extrasolar planet discovered in 2008

Computer science
 Intel Itanium processor code-name
 Intel NetBurst, a seventh generation x86 microarchitecture
 X.400 protocol for access of a message store from a user agent

Other
 Cinturato P7 tire developed by Pirelli
 DR P7 Mix, a former radio station operated by the Danish Broadcasting Corporation
 Heckler & Koch P7, a semi-automatic pistol manufactured in Germany
 ProSieben, a German television channel
 Russian Sky Airlines IATA airline code
 South Scanian Regiment, Swedish Army armoured regiment with a designation P 7

See also
 7P (disambiguation)
Sclerometer. The sclerometer, also known as the Turner-sclerometer (from  meaning "hard"), is an instrument used by metallurgists, material scientists and mineralogists to measure the scratch hardness of materials. It was invented in 1896 by Thomas Turner (1861–1951), the first Professor of metallurgy in Britain, at the University of Birmingham.

The Turner-Sclerometer test consists of measuring the amount of load required to make a scratch.
 In test a weighted diamond point is drawn, once forward and once backward, over the smooth surface of the material to be tested. The hardness number is the weight in grams required to produce a standard scratch. The scratch selected is one which is just visible to the naked eye as a dark line on a bright reflecting surface. It is also the scratch which can just be felt with the edge of a quill when the latter is drawn over the smooth surface at right angles to a series of such scratches produced by regularly increasing weights.

See also

References

External links
Testing the Hardness of Metals 

Concrete
Hardness instruments
Metallurgy
Mineralogy
Victor Hasselblad. Victor Hasselblad (8 March 1906 – 5 August 1978) was a Swedish inventor and photographer, known for inventing the Hasselblad 6x6 cm medium format camera.

Life and work
Hasselblad was born in Gothenburg.  In 1940 Swedish Air Force officers requested Hasselblad to construct a camera that rivaled the one found in a German reconnaissance aircraft shot down over Sweden. Hasselblad founded the Victor Hasselblad AB company in 1941 to produce cameras for the Swedish Air Force.

Hasselblad was famous for always trying out Hasselblad AB's new camera models by photographing birds. For example, Hasselblad 2000 was tried a week at Nidingen, the only place in Sweden where the black-legged kittiwake nests.

By 1948, the company introduced the first civilian Hasselblad camera, the 1600F, in New York City. Over time, Hasselblad has become a standard camera for many professional photographers.

On his death, Hasselblad willed SEK 78 million (US$8 million) to the Erna and Victor Hasselblad Foundation.

In 1980 Hasselblad was posthumously inducted into the International Photography Hall of Fame and Museum.

References 

1906 births
1978 deaths
People from Gothenburg
Swedish photographers
20th-century Swedish inventors
Swedish ornithologists
20th-century Swedish zoologists
Hasselblad