omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Carbon arc welding. Carbon arc welding (CAW) is an arc welding process which produces coalescence of metals by heating them with an arc between a non-consumable carbon (graphite) electrode and the work-piece.  It was the first arc-welding process developed but is not used for many applications today, having been replaced by twin-carbon-arc welding and other variations.  The purpose of arc welding is to form a bond between separate metal pieces.  In carbon-arc welding a carbon electrode is used to produce an electric arc between the electrode and the materials being bonded.  This arc produces temperatures in excess of 3,000 °C.  At this temperature the separate metals form a bond and become welded together.

Development 

CAW could not have been created if not for the discovery of the electric arc by Humphry Davy in 1800, later repeated independently by a Russian physicist Vasily Vladimirovich Petrov in 1802. Petrov studied the electric arc and proposed its possible uses, including welding.

The inventors of carbon-arc welding were Nikolay Benardos and Stanisław Olszewski, who developed this method in 1881 and patented it later under the name Elektrogefest ("Electric Hephaestus").

Variations 
 Twin carbon arc welding (TCAW) in which the arc is established between two carbon electrodes
 Gas carbon arc welding (CAW-G) no longer has commercial significance.  Other processes that use shielding gases have also replaced carbon-arc welding such as tungsten-arc welding (GTAW, or TIG), plasma-arc welding (PAW), and atomic-hydrogen welding (AHAW).  Each of these processes, including carbon-arc welding, use a nonconsumable electrode.  A filler metal is generally used to aid the bond in the workpieces.

References 
 Welding handbook Volume 2, eighth edition.  Library of Congress number: 90-085465  copyright 1991 by American Welding Society

See also
Twin-carbon arc welding

Arc welding
Russian inventions
Cobham's thesis. Cobham's thesis, also known as Cobham–Edmonds thesis (named after Alan Cobham and Jack Edmonds), asserts that computational problems can be feasibly computed on some computational device only if they can be computed in polynomial time; that is, if they lie in the complexity class P. In modern terms, it identifies tractable problems with the complexity class P.

Formally, to say that a problem can be solved in polynomial time is to say that there exists an algorithm that, given an n-bit instance of the problem as input, can produce a solution in time O(nc), using the big-O notation and with c being a constant that depends on the problem but not the particular instance of the problem.

Alan Cobham's 1965 paper entitled "The intrinsic computational difficulty of functions" is one of the earliest mentions of the concept of the complexity class P, consisting of problems decidable in polynomial time. Cobham theorized that this complexity class was a good way to describe the set of feasibly computable problems.

Jack Edmonds's 1965 paper "Paths, trees, and flowers" is also credited with identifying P with tractable problems.

Limitations

While Cobham's thesis is an important milestone in the development of the theory of computational complexity, it has limitations as applied to practical feasibility of algorithms. The thesis essentially states that "P" means "easy, fast, and practical", while "not in P" means "hard, slow, and impractical". But this is not always true, because the thesis abstracts away some important variables that influence the runtime in practice:
 It ignores constant factors and lower-order terms.
 It ignores the size of the exponent. The time hierarchy theorem proves the existence of problems in P requiring arbitrarily large exponents.
 It ignores the typical size of the input.

All three are related and are general complaints about analysis of algorithms, but they particularly apply to Cobham's thesis, since it makes an explicit claim about practicality. Under Cobham's thesis, a problem for which the best algorithm takes n200 instructions is considered feasible, and a problem with an algorithm that takes 20.00001 n instructions infeasible—even though one could never solve an instance of size n = 2 with the former algorithm, whereas an instance of the latter problem of size n = 106 could be solved without difficulty. In fields where practical problems have millions of variables (such as operations research or electronic design automation), even O(n3) algorithms are often impractical.

A separate consideration is that in many cases, one is often content with approximate solutions if an exact solution cannot be found. For example, the travelling salesman problem is widely suspected to be unsolvable exactly in polynomial time (it is NP-hard), but good solutions can be obtained in polynomial time with methods such as the Christofides algorithm.

References

Computational complexity theory
Kinora. The Kinora was an early motion picture device developed by the French inventors Auguste and Louis Lumière in 1895, while simultaneously working on the Cinematograph. It was patented in February 1896.

Basically a miniature version of the mutoscope for home use, the Kinora worked very much like a flip book in the shape of a Rolodex. It used conventional monochrome photographic prints fixed to strong, flexible cards attached to a circular core. A reel was revolved handle by turning a handle, making the pictures flip over against a static peg one by one. The moving pictures could be viewed through an eyepiece.

The Cinematograph proved very successful so the Lumières did not bother with the Kinora but passed the idea on to Gaumont,who marketed the device and about a hundred different reels around 1900.

The British rights to the Kinora were bought by The British Mutoscope & Biograph Co. in 1898, but the machine was not marketed in the UK until 1902. It became popular in the UK and over 12 different viewer models and over 600 reels were produced. Biograph had constructed a studio in London in 1900 to film moving portraits of families and individuals. Flip books of 60 pictures in standard Mutoscope size were produced there as Bio-Gems, before a Kinora reel portrait service became available in 1903.

In May 1907 Biograph chairman W.T. Smedley set up Kinora Limited in London. The company introduced the first amateur Kinora camera in 1908, using rolls of photographic paper or celluloid one inch (2.5cm) wide that could be sent to the company for processing. A Kinora Grand for reels of 1,000 pictures of 2 1/2" by 3" also featured in their advertising booklet. By 1914, when the company's London factory burned down, public interest in the Kinora had declined, as the cinema screen now held greater attractions. The company did not rebuild the factory.

Notes

External links
Illustration and demonstration of the Kinora

Auguste and Louis Lumière
Film and video technology
History of film
UMIST linear system. The UMIST Linear System (ULS) is a gas target divertor simulator located on the former UMIST campus of the University of Manchester in the UK. It enables physicists to study the recombination processes of a detached plasma in a hydrogen target chamber.

Research on detached plasma and on its recombination modes is of primary importance in order to design an appropriate divertor region in a future nuclear fusion power plant, where huge amounts of energy will be deposited by the fast-moving particles generated in the main reactor. The major goal of the ULS as for many other linear divertor simulators, is to reproduce the same temperature and density conditions of the scrape-off layer of a tokamak in a linear environment and therefore to make easier the study of its properties.

ULS has been used to analyze the molecular activation and the electron-ion recombination modes, and to determine the conditions for their activation: diffusive processes have also been considered. Research on these subjects is still ongoing, and understanding of the elementary processes involved in a detached plasma is still far from being satisfactory.

References

Further reading
Kay, Michael J. (1998) A Study of Plasma Attenuation and Recombination in the Gas Target Chamber of a Divertor Simulator. UMIST Ph.D. thesis

Plasma physics facilities
Research institutes in Manchester
University of Manchester
CHAMP (satellite). Challenging Minisatellite Payload (CHAMP) was a German satellite launched July 15, 2000 from Plesetsk, Russia and was used for atmospheric and ionospheric research, as well as other geoscientific applications, such as GPS radio occultation, gravity field determination, and studying the Earth's magnetic field.

CHAMP was managed by GeoForschungsZentrum (GFZ) Potsdam.

The spacecraft is the first application of Astrium's "Flexbus" platform; GRACE was the second.  A heavily modified version flew as the GOCE mission.

Spacecraft instruments 
An onboard BlackJack Global Positioning System (GPS) Flight Receiver, provided by JPL, enables the use of satellite to satellite tracking for vehicle positioning.  To remove the effect of external, non-gravitational forces (e.g., atmospheric drag, solar radiation pressure) the satellite features an internal 3-axis STAR accelerometer.  Independent verification of orbital position is enabled by a passive Laser Retro Reflector (LRR), which also enables calibration of the principal positioning via laser ranging. Spacecraft attitude is measured using Advanced Stellar Compass (ASC) star tracker supplied by Technical University of Denmark and attitude control is provided by three magnetorquers and cold gas thrusters.  

Mounted on the boom, the satellite has an Magnetometer Instrument Assembly System (MIAS) for measurement of the Earth's magnetic field.  The vehicle can measure the Earth's electric field parallel to the magnetic field with the Digital Ion Drift Meter (DIDM).

End of mission 
CHAMP completed its mission and re-entered the Earth's atmosphere on 19 September 2010 after 10 years (design life: five years).

The mission was judged as being successful by the involved scientists, in particular as the original 5 year design life was significantly extended.

References

External links

Official site 
NASA website

Spacecraft launched in 2000
Satellites of Germany
Spacecraft which reentered in 2010
Laser ranging satellites
Atmospheric sounding satellites
Geospace monitoring satellites
Gravimetry satellites
SNCF Class X 97150. SNCF Class X 97150 railbusess, also known as type A2E (Autorails à 2 essieux), were built by Soulé in 1990. Three units, numbered X 97151-153 were built to work the Guingamp to Carhaix and Paimpol lines in Brittany.

Rails et Traction International, based in Raeren, Belgium have taken ownership of them and are making them available to open access rail operators.

References

X 97150
Diesel multiple units of France
Railcars of France
Vance D. Coffman. Vance D. Coffman (born April 3, 1944) was the former chairman of the board and chief executive officer of Lockheed Martin Corporation. He has additionally served on the board of directors for 3M, John Deere, and Amgen.

Early life and education 
Coffman was born April 3, 1944, in Kinross, Iowa, a very small town. His father was a farmer and grew soybeans, grain and corn. In 1949, the family moved to Winthrop, Iowa, where he attended East Buchanan High School.

He is a 1967 B.S. graduate in Aerospace Engineering of Iowa State University (ISU). Coffman had three brothers, all of which studied at ISU within the engineering and science departments. Coffman has Master's and Doctorate graduate in Aeronautics and Astronautics from Stanford University.

Work 
In 1967, Coffman joined Lockheed Corporation's Space Systems Division, working on the development of space programs and data processing systems for the corporation. By 1988 he was president of the Space Systems Division. He directed the Hubble Space Telescope project for Lockheed. By 1998 he was the chairman and CEO of Lockheed Martin, until he retired as CEO in 2004, followed by a retirement as chairman in 2005 after 38 years of service.

Starting in 2002, Coffman served as a member of the 3M company's Board of Directors, and by 2006 he was elected as a Lead Director of the Board of Directors.

In 2004, Coffman was elected to the Board of Directors for John Deere.

In 2007, the biotechnology company Amgen elected Coffman to the Board of Directors.

Awards and honorary degrees 
In 1999, Coffman was awarded from his alma mater Iowa State University the Distinguished Achievement Citation, followed by a 2006 awarded honorary doctorate of science for his work in technical and managerial leadership resulting in technological achievements and the achievement of American national security goals. He is the Endowed Faculty Chair in aerospace engineering department within the College of Engineering at Iowa State University. The first endowed "Vance D. Coffman Faculty Chair" in the aerospace engineering department at ISU was Dr. Bong Wie in 2007.

Coffman received an honorary doctorate of law degree in 2000 from the George L. Graziadio School of Business and Management at Pepperdine University. And an Honorary Doctor of Aerospace Engineering from Embry–Riddle Aeronautical University.

References

External links
Vance D. Coffman biography in the Reference for Business website
Vance D. Coffman biography, from the John Deere Board of Directors website

American technology chief executives
Iowa State University alumni
Stanford University alumni
Living people
1944 births
Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
Michael L. Eskew. Michael L. Eskew (born June 28, 1949) is an American businessman who is the former chairman and chief executive officer of UPS from 2002 to 2007. He is on the board of 3M, IBM, and Eli Lilly and Company.

Eskew received his bachelor's degree in industrial engineering from Purdue University, where he was a member of Kappa Sigma fraternity. He later attended the Advanced Management Program at the Wharton School of Business.

He began his career at UPS in 1972 as an industrial engineering manager. By 1994 he had become corporate vice president for industrial engineering, and in 1996 was made group vice president for engineering. In 1998 he was named to the UPS board, and in 1999 was made executive vice president. In 2000 he was appointed vice chairman, and in 2002 was promoted to chairman and CEO.

In 2003 he was appointed to the President's Export Council, and in 2004 he was elected chairman of the U.S.-China Business Council.

In 2004, Eskew was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering for contributions to the development of technology to automate and integrate business processes for efficient on-time worldwide shipping of packages.

References

External links

Living people
Eli Lilly and Company people
Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
1949 births
Cessna 404 Titan. The Cessna 404 Titan is an American twin-engined, light aircraft built by Cessna Aircraft. It was the company's largest twin piston-engined aircraft at the time of its development in the 1970s. Its US military designation is C-28, and Swedish Air Force designation Tp 87.

Design and development

The Cessna 404 was a development of the Cessna 402 with an enlarged vertical tail and other changes. The prototype first flew on February 26, 1975.  It is powered by two 375 hp/280 kW turbocharged Continental Motors GTSIO-520 piston engines. Two versions were offered originally; the Titan Ambassador passenger aircraft for ten passengers, and the Titan Courier utility aircraft for passengers or cargo. By early 1982 seven different variants were available, including a pure cargo version, the Titan Freighter.  The Freighter was fitted with a strengthened floor, cargo doors, and its interior walls and ceiling were made from impact-resistant polycarbonate materials to minimize damage in the event of cargo breaking free in-flight.

Variants
 Titan Ambassador – Basic 10-seat passenger aircraft.
 Titan Ambassador II – Ambassador with factory fitted avionics.
 Titan Ambassador III – Ambassador with factory fitted avionics.
 Titan Courier – Convertible passenger/cargo version.
 Titan Courier II – Courier with factory fitted avionics.
 Titan Freighter – Cargo version.
 Titan Freighter II – Freighter with factory fitted avionics.
 C-28A Titan – Designation given to two aircraft purchased by the United States Navy.

Operators

Civilian operators

Hinterland Aviation
Aero Logistics
East Coast Airlines
Airlines of Tasmania

Coastal Air
Flint Air Service

Air UK

Military operators

Royal Bahamas Defence Force

Bolivian Air Force

Colombian Air Force - 2 used by SATENA.

Dominican Republic Air Force

Royal Hong Kong Auxiliary Air Force – 1 acquired 1979.

Jamaica Defence Force

Mexican Navy

Nicaraguan Air Force

Swedish Air Force

Tanzania People's Defence Force

United States Navy (as the C-28A)

 Puerto Rico Police Department Two C404

Specifications (Ambassador I)

See also

References

External links

 Official Cessna Website
 Incomplete Cessna 404 Titan Production List

404
1970s United States civil utility aircraft
Low-wing aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1975
Twin piston-engined tractor aircraft
Aircraft with retractable tricycle landing gear
Kevin W. Sharer. Kevin W. Sharer (born March 2, 1948), is an American businessman who was chairman/CEO of the biotechnology company Amgen from 2000 to 2012. He later joined the faculty of Harvard Business School teaching RC Strategy and General Management.

Early life and education 
Sharer was born on March 2, 1948 in Clinton, Iowa. He studied aeronautical engineering at the U.S. Naval Academy and graduated in 1970 with a BSAE. In 1971 he received an MS in aeronautical engineering from the US Naval Postgraduate School. He received his MBA from the University of Pittsburgh's Joseph M. Katz Graduate School of Business in 1982.

Career 
Sharer served in the navy from 1970 through 1978. He served on two nuclear submarines. At the age of 27, he became construction engineer officer on the USS Memphis (SSN-691) and served as part of the commissioning crew.  He left the navy with the rank of lieutenant commander.

From 1978 to 1982, Sharer worked at AT&T Long Lines in engineering and sales management. Sharer was a consultant at McKinsey & Company, from 1982 to 1984 in Washington, D.C.  

From 1984 to 1989 Sharer worked at General Electric (GE).  He left as a corporate vice president to join MCI Communications. He was at MCI from 1989 to 1992 with responsibility for sales and marketing and as GM of the business markets division.  

Sharer joined the biotech firm Amgen in 1992 as president / chief operating officer and board member. From 2000 to 2012 he was chairman/CEO of Amgen. 

Sharer joined the faculty of Harvard Business School in 2012 and has taught courses in strategy and general management to MBA and executive education students.  

Sharer co-wrote with Adam Bryant The CEO Test, which was published by Harvard.

Personal 
With his wife, Sharer started the Sharer Foundation, which provides financial and programmatic support to community college students who transfer to a four-year university to earn their Bachelor's degree. He has two children and three stepchildren.

References

American chief executives
Businesspeople in the pharmaceutical industry
Joseph M. Katz Graduate School of Business alumni
Living people
Amgen
1948 births
United States Naval Academy alumni
United States Navy officers
Biotechnologists
American chief operating officers
McKinsey & Company people
Plant operator. A plant operator is an employee who supervises the operation of an industrial plant. The term is usually applied to workers employed in utilities, wastewater treatment plants, power plants or chemical plants such as gas extraction facilities, petrochemical or oil refineries.

Modern industrial plants are generally highly automated, with control of the plant's processes centralised in a control room from which valves, gauges, alarms and switches may be operated. Employees working in these environments are sometimes known as control room, panel or board operators - conversely, workers carrying out field operations may be known as 'outside operators'.  Generally, operators are assigned to a particular unit, on which they are responsible for a certain function or area of equipment.  Operators are also often responsible for ensuring work is being done in a safe manner, including managing 'permit to work' systems covering other workers.

References
Aluminium monofluoride. Aluminium monofluoride, also known as fluoridoaluminium, is the chemical compound with the formula AlF.  This elusive species is formed by the reaction between aluminium trifluoride and metallic aluminium at elevated temperatures but quickly reverts to the reactants when cooled.  Clusters derived from related aluminium(I) halides can be stabilized using specialized ligands.

This molecule has been detected in the interstellar medium, where molecules are so dilute that intermolecular collisions are unimportant.

See also
Aluminium monobromide
Aluminium monochloride
Aluminium monoiodide

References

Aluminium(I) compounds
Fluorides
Metal halides
Diatomic molecules
Technical Information Project. The Technical Information Project (TIP) was an early database project focused on the scholarly physics literature. Its "most unique feature" was its use bibliographic coupling, a novel way to search for related documents. The TIP included over 25,000 records.

Meyer Mike Kessler began developing the TIP at MIT in April 1962, with the support of a grant by the National Science Foundation. The project's objective was to create a system that could "perform automatic search operations on bibliographic data" using bibliographic coupling. Some of the innovations in TIP included the use of wild cards, and boolean searching.

Transfer to the American Institute of Physics 
Around 1968, responsibility for the TIP was transferred to the American Institute of Physics, under the direction of Dr. H. William Koch. In connection with the transfer, the Institute received a $149,000 NSF grant meant to address problems "produced by the rapid growth of the published [physics] literature, which threatens a breakdown in communications among scientists". The Institute aimed to create a nationwide "physics information network" by adding indexing information to the TIP, and using it to automatically produce classification indexes for its 38 physics journals, as part of a planned "National Physics Information System".

References

Not cited inline
 Chronology of Information Science
Bourne, C.P. and Hahn, T. B. A History of  Online Information Services, 1963-1976. Cambridge, MA:  MIT Press, 2003.
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Bibliographic databases and indexes