omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Analog device. Analog devices are a combination of both analog machine and analog media that can together measure, record, reproduce, receive or broadcast continuous information, for example, the almost infinite number of grades of transparency, voltage, resistance, rotation, or pressure. In theory, the continuous information in an analog signal has an infinite number of possible values with the only limitation on resolution being the accuracy of the analog device.

Analog media are materials with analog properties, such as photographic film, which are used in analog devices, such as cameras.

Example devices

Non-electrical
There are notable non-electrical analog devices, such as some clocks (sundials, water clocks), the astrolabe, slide rules, the governor of a steam engine, the planimeter (a simple device that measures the surface area of a closed shape), Kelvin's mechanical tide predictor, acoustic rangefinders, servomechanisms (e.g. the thermostat), a simple mercury thermometer, a weighing scale, and the speedometer.

Electrical
The telautograph is an analogue precursor to the modern fax machine. It transmits electrical impulses recorded by potentiometers to stepping motors attached to a pen, thus being able to reproduce a drawing or signature made by the sender at the receiver's station. It was the first such device to transmit drawings to a stationary sheet of paper; previous inventions in Europe used rotating drums to make such transmissions.

An analog synthesizer is a synthesizer that uses analog circuits and analog computer techniques to generate sound electronically.

The analog television encodes television and transports the picture and sound information as an analog signal, that is, by varying the amplitude and/or frequencies of the broadcast signal. All systems preceding digital television, such as NTSC, PAL, and SECAM are analog television systems.

An analog computer is a form of computer that uses electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic phenomena to model the problem being solved. More generally an analog computer uses one kind of physical quantity to represent the behavior of another physical system, or mathematical function. Modeling a real physical system in a computer is called simulation.

Example processes

Media
The chemical reactions in photographic film and film stock involve analog processes, with camera as machinery.

Interfacing the digital and analog worlds
In electronics, a digital-to-analog converter is a circuit for converting a digital signal (usually binary) to an analog signal (current, voltage or electric charge). Digital-to-analog converters are interfaces between the digital world and analog worlds. An analog-to-digital converter is an electronic circuit that converts continuous signals to discrete digital numbers.

References

Citations 

Analog circuits
Electronic circuits
Electronic engineering
Charmeuse. Charmeuse (; ; ) is a lightweight fabric woven with a satin weave. These float threads give the front of the fabric a smooth, shiny finish, whereas the back has a dull finish. Charmeuse differs from plain satin in that charmeuse has a different ratio of float (face) threads, and is of a lighter weight. Charmeuse may be made of silk, polyester, or rayon. Charmeuse woven from blended fibers has also become more common. It is used in women's clothing such as lingerie, evening gowns, and blouses, especially garments with a bias cut. It is occasionally used in menswear.

Characteristics

Charmeuse is lightweight and drapes easily. It has a satin side, which is shiny, and a matte side, which is dull.

It can be made of silk or a synthetic lookalike such as polyester. Silk charmeuse is more expensive and delicate but is softer and a better insulator.

Polyester charmeuse has characteristics that are undesirable for sewing, including a tendency to pucker at the seams and fraying during cutting and handling. Polyester charmeuse is cheaper and can often withstand machine washing. It can be a challenging fabric to sew; it tends to be slippery and may be difficult to control through the presser foot of a sewing machine. Pins can make holes and marks in polyester charmeuse, so sharp dressmaker's pins, with a smooth taper to the point, are used when sewing charmeuse garments. A sizing product may be sprayed on charmeuse before cutting.

History
A rudimentary charmeuse was first found to be made in China, dating back to 3630 BCE. It was originally made of silk and reserved for the upper class, but charmeuse eventually made its way to Europe and remained popular through the Middle Ages and the Renaissance period. The modern fabric that we associate with the name Charmeuse, however, was further developed in France by tailors and dressmakers.

Uses

The luster and delicate hand make charmeuse suited to lingerie, flowing evening gowns, and draped blouses. Bridal gowns sometimes use charmeuse. Because the fabric does not hold a shape well and tends to cling and hang against the body, it is not used for full, flared skirts. It is best suited to a more fluid, slinky bias cut.

Its uses in menswear include the lining of jackets and slacks, handkerchiefs, ties, and underwear such as charmeuse boxer shorts.

The look of charmeuse is prized for dressy garments, especially when cut on the bias, a technique used to create garments that flow well on the body.

Charmeuse is also the required material for the outer layer of Olympic competition ski jumper suits.

References

6. Sewport Support Team (2021, Oct. 10). What is Charmeuse Fabric: Properties, How its Made and Where. Sewport. Retrieved on Oct. 21, 2021 from https://sewport.com/fabrics-directory/charmeuse-fabric 

Woven fabrics
Satin
Avro 627 Mailplane. The Avro 627 Mailplane was a British biplane developed in 1931 by Avro from the Avro Antelope bomber as a mail plane for use in Canada. Only one was built which ended up being used as a test bed.

Development
The Avro 608 Hawk was a proposed two-seater fighter variant of the Antelope, which was planned to be powered by a Bristol Jupiter radial engine. Although construction of a prototype began, it was incomplete when it was redesigned with a 540 hp (400 kW) Armstrong Siddeley Panther engine as the Avro 622.

Following interest by Canadian Airways, who had a possible requirement for a mail plane, Roy Chadwick again redesigned the incomplete prototype to the Avro 627 Mailplane . This was a single-engine, single-bay biplane, powered by a 525 hp (391 kW) Panther engine and fitted for wheel or float operation. The sole prototype (G-ABJM) was certificated on 2 August 1931, and was shipped to Canada for operational trials. While these trials were successful, the Canadian government cut the subsidy for civil aviation and so Canadian Airways was unable to afford new aircraft, so the mailplane was returned to England.

The Mailplane was converted in 1933 to a high-speed test bed for the Armstrong Siddeley Tiger engine, the revised aircraft being known as the Avro 654.

Operational history
On return from Canada, the Mailplane was entered in the 1932 King's Cup Race, where it recorded the fastest speed of 176 mph (283 km/h), although owing to the handicap system, it came 29th.

After conversion to the Avro 654, the aircraft operational life was short, it being dismantled at Woodford Aerodrome in 1934.

Variants
Avro 608 Hawk Proposed two-seat fighter, powered by 425 hp (317 kW) Bristol Jupiter engine. Prototype incomplete.
Avro 622 Redesigned Avro 608, powered by 540 hp (400 kW) Armstrong Siddeley Panther II engine. Incomplete prototype converted to Avro 627.
Avro 627 Mailplane Single-seat mailplane, powered by 525 hp (391 kW) Armstrong Siddeley Panther IIA engine. One prototype built.
Avro 654 Conversion of Avro 627 as high-speed test bed.

Specifications (Avro 627 Mailplane)

See also

References

1930s British mailplanes
Mailplane
Biplanes
Single-engined tractor aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1931
Avions Fairey Junior. The Avions Fairey Junior, also known as the Tipsy Junior was a single-seat light aircraft built in Belgium following World War II.

Development
The Junior was one of a series of light aircraft designed by and named after E.O.Tips of Fairey Aviation's Belgian subsidiary, Avions Fairey. Of wood and fabric construction, it was a conventional, low-wing monoplane with a tailwheel undercarriage and a single seat, open cockpit, though there was the option of a bubble hood. The constant chord wings were almost square ended and the tailplane, fin and rudder also angular. Both completed aircraft were initially powered by the 36 hp (27 kW) Aeronca JAP J-99  engine, later replaced by the more powerful, 62 hp (46 kW) Walter Mikron 2.

The Junior, registered OO-TIT, flew for the first time on 30 June 1947 from Gosselies in Belgium.

Operational history

The first Junior was written off after a hard landing in 1948.

The second example (construction number J.111, registration OO-ULA) was bought by Fairey and taken to England in 1953, where it was registered as G-AMVP. In 1957, it was used in a publicity stunt when Fairey test pilot Peter Twiss landed it on the aircraft carrier HMS Ark Royal.  For part of its time it had the bubble canopy.  Rebuilt after a long time in storage following a forced landing in 1993, it flew again late in 2006.  It had a minor landing accident in 2008 but had a permit to fly until May 2009.

The Junior did not sell, and the third airframe was cancelled before completion.
It was purchased incomplete by Fairey in 1961 and has been under construction in the hands of a number of owners in the intervening years, but never finished.

Specifications

References

Bibliography

 
 
 
 

1940s Belgian sport aircraft
Junior
Low-wing aircraft
Single-engined tractor aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1947
Avro 636. The Avro 636 was a single-engined British fighter-trainer built by Avro in the mid-1930s. Four were built for the Irish Air Corps.

Development
The Avro 636 was designed in November 1934 by Roy Chadwick, Avro's chief designer as a one or two-seat fighter-trainer, and was planned to reproduce the flying characteristics of single-seat fighters. It had a similar structure to the Tutor, with a welded steel tube fuselage.

The aircraft was designed to be operated as a single or two seater, with the provision for fitting two forward firing .303 in (7.7 mm) Vickers machine guns.

Operational history
Four Avro 636s were ordered by the Irish Air Corps in December 1934. These aircraft were powered by old Armstrong Siddeley Jaguar IVC engines, which had originally been purchased by the Irish in 1930 for use in Vickers Vespa army co-operation aircraft. Although the Jaguar IVC powered aircraft was planned to be designated as the Avro 667, they were always referred to as Avro 636s.

The four aircraft were delivered in August 1935, and remained in service for several years.

Variants
Avro 636 Basic design, originally planned to be powered by 420 hp (313 kW) Armstrong Siddeley Jaguar IV engine.
Avro 636A Version powered by 680 hp (510 kW) Armstrong Siddeley Panther XI engine.
Avro 667 Version powered by unsupercharged 460 hp (340 kW) Armstrong Siddeley Jaguar IVC. Four built for Irish Air Corps. Known as Avro 636 in service.

Operators

Irish Air Corps

Specifications (Avro 667)

References

Single-engined tractor aircraft
1930s British military trainer aircraft
636
Biplanes
Aircraft first flown in 1935
Roe I Biplane. The Roe I Biplane (often later referred to as the Avro Biplane) was the first powered aircraft to be designed, built, and flown in England. Designed in an attempt to claim a prize offered by the Brooklands Automobile Racing Club, it was designed and built by Alliott Verdon Roe, who based it on a powered model with which he had won a Daily Mail prize of £75 at Alexandra Palace in April 1907. This prize was substantially larger: the club committee was offering £2,500 for the first person to fly a circuit of their three-mile (4.8 km) race track by the end of the year. In addition the Daily Graphic was offering a £1,000 prize for a flight of more than a mile (1.6 km).

The Roe biplane was built in the coachhouse of Roe's brother in Putney and transported to Brooklands for testing in September 1907.  It was an unequal-span two-bay biplane without any vertical stabilising surface or rudder and was originally powered by a 9 hp (7 kW) JAP engine mounted in front of the wing and driving a two-bladed aluminium pusher propeller mounted behind the wings.  This proved insufficiently powerful to get the craft airborne. Roe continued work on his aircraft, borrowing a French Antoinette engine of 24 hp (18 kW) to use instead. In order to carry the additional weight of this engine, Roe fitted additional lifting surfaces at mid-gap in the inner bay of the wing structure.  With this motor, Roe was able to make several short flights in the aircraft; the first on 8 June 1908.

One of the conditions of Roe's occupation of his shed at Brooklands was that it was to be used as a refreshment room on race days and on the first of these the aircraft was damaged when being manhandled over a fence by Brooklands racetrack attendants. Roe repaired the machine and some further short flights were made before he was evicted from Brooklands on 17 July 1907. Roe dismantled the aircraft and returned the engine, since he could not afford to buy it.

In 1988, a non-flying replica was constructed for the 80th anniversary of Roe's first flight and is displayed at the Brooklands Museum. In  2008, a taxiable replica was constructed for the museum to celebrate the flight's centenary.

Specifications (Antoinette engine)

See also
 I (Triplane)
 II Triplane
 III Triplane
 IV Triplane

References

Further reading

External links

 Brooklands Avro Biplane Project

1900s British experimental aircraft
Roe I Biplane
Biplanes
Single-engined pusher aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1908
Transfer paper. Transfer paper is used in textiles and arts and crafts projects. Transfer paper is a thin piece of paper coated with wax and pigment. Often, an ink-jet or other printer is used to print the image on the transfer paper.  A heat press can transfer the image onto clothing, canvas, or other surface. Transfer paper is used in creating iron-ons. Transfer papers can also be used for the application of rhinestones to clothing and other arts and crafts projects.

Inkjet 
Most conventional inkjet printers are not capable of printing white (though many wide-format and direct-to-garment inkjet printers offer white ink as an option). So on these devices, in any white areas, the garment's existing colour shows through. The mirror of the image is printed on paper. When it is transferred, the result is the mirror of the mirror (the original) results. Inkjet transfer paper for dark garments is covered with transferable white ink. For dark garments, the image is printed without mirroring. Garment printing needs transfer paper for high-quality garment printing results. 

Washability for inkjet transfer paper is not as good as for screen-printed items.

Dye sublimation 

For dye sublimation transfer paper, fabrics historically had to be white or light in color. 100% polyester, poly/cotton mix (the garment should be at least 50% polyester) microfibre and nylon can all be used. This printing process turns solid ink into a gas, avoiding a liquid stage. This process can be used on ceramic, wood, glass, or metal as long as they have a polymer coating.

Transfer papers now exist for most textiles, including elastic fabrics used for making sportswear and swimming suits, and for natural fiber fabrics such as cotton, silk, linen, and wool.

Colour laser 
Colour laser transfer is very similar to the inkjet transfer paper process and allows the decoration of any combination of fabric blends including 50/50 poly/cotton blends as well as 100% cotton textiles. This type of transfer paper is used for industrial printing jobs on a large scale offering better quality paper and image transfer.

History 
"The initial intent for this method of moving a pre- made image from one location to another was to serve as an essential substitute for ink. In 1801, Pellegrino Turri, an Italian inventor, invented carbon paper to provide the ink for his mechanical typing machine, one of the first typewriters." Ralph Wedgwood obtained the first patent for carbon paper in 1806. Wedgwood's technique was then continuously perfected.

See also 
 Carbon paper

References 

Paper products
Coated paper
PZL.12. PZL.12 (PZL-H) was a prototype of a Polish amphibious flying boat designed and built in 1931 by Zygmunt Puławski, a pioneering Polish designer. He was killed in a crash involving this design.

Design and development
The Polish designer Zygmunt Puławski of the PZL works designed PZL-H in 1930, as a small touring amphibious aircraft, for his own needs. The factory agreed to construct a single aircraft for Puławski. At the same time, the Polish Navy revealed interest in training and liaison seaplanes, and PZL-H was proposed to the Navy. In late 1930 the prototype was built in the PZL in Warsaw in a semi-amateur way. It finally was given a designation PZL.12.

The prototype was first flown in February 1931 in Warsaw by Puławski, in a land configuration (without auxiliary floats). The plane was not tested on water. During the sixth flight on 21 March 1931, right after take-off, the plane stalled due to strong wind and crashed in Warsaw, killing Puławski. The death of this talented designer of fighter aircraft was recognized as a heavy blow to the Polish Air Force capabilities. Further work upon PZL.12 ceased.

Design
Mixed construction high-wing cantilever monoplane flying boat. A fuselage of duralumin construction, metal-covered, square in cross-section, split into watertight compartments. A V-shaped bottom was single-stepped. Engine on struts above a fuselage, with a two-blade pusher propeller. Two-spar trapezoid wings with rounded ends, of wooden construction, plywood and canvas covered. A tail of wooden construction. Crew of two, sitting side by side in an open cockpit. Retractable landing gear: main gear  folding under wings, rear skid. There were planned auxiliary floats under wings. Fuel tank 100 L.

Specifications

See also

References

Further reading

1930s Polish civil utility aircraft
PZL aircraft
Flying boats
Single-engined pusher aircraft
High-wing aircraft
Amphibious aircraft
Shear force. In solid mechanics, shearing forces are unaligned forces acting on one part of a body in a specific direction, and another part of the body in the opposite direction. When the forces are collinear (aligned with each other), they are called tension forces or compression forces. Shear force can also be defined in terms of planes: "If a plane is passed through a body, a force acting along this plane is called a shear force or shearing force."

Force required to shear steel
This section calculates the force required to cut a piece of material with a shearing action. The relevant information is the area of the material being sheared, i.e. the area across which the shearing action takes place, and the shear strength of the material. A round bar of steel is used as an example. The shear strength is calculated from the tensile strength using a factor which relates the two strengths. In this case 0.6 applies to the example steel, known as EN8 bright, although it can vary from 0.58 to 0.62 depending on application.

EN8 bright has a tensile strength of 800MPa and mild steel, for comparison, has a tensile strength of 400MPa.

To calculate the force to shear a 25 mm diameter bar of EN8 bright steel;
 area of the bar in mm2 = (12.52)(π) ≈ 490.8mm2
 0.8kN/mm2 × 490.8mm2 = 392.64kN ≈ 40tonne-force
 40tonne-force × 0.6 (to change force from tensile to shear) = 24tonne-force

When working with a riveted or tensioned bolted joint, the strength comes from friction between the materials bolted together. Bolts are correctly torqued to maintain the friction. The shear force only becomes relevant when the bolts are not torqued.

A bolt with property class 12.9 has a tensile strength of 1200MPa (1MPa = 1N/mm2) or 1.2kN/mm2 and the yield strength is 0.90 times tensile strength, 1080MPa in this case.

A bolt with property class 4.6 has a tensile strength of 400MPa (1MPa = 1N/mm2) or 0.4 kN/mm2 and yield strength is 0.60 times tensile strength, 240MPa in this case.

See also
ASTM F568M, mechanical properties of different grades of steel fasteners
Cantilever method
Résal effect
Newton's laws of motion § Newton's third law

References

Force
Civil engineering
Don Puddy. Donald Ray Puddy (May 31, 1937November 22, 2004) was a NASA engineer and manager. He joined NASA in 1964, eventually becoming the agency's tenth flight director. His Flight Team colors were Crimson. He served as a flight director during the Apollo 17, Skylab, and Apollo-Soyuz Test Project missions, Skylab, and the first Space Shuttle mission. He earned a number of awards for his service, including the Presidential Medal of Freedom and the NASA Outstanding Leadership Medal.

Early years
He was born in Ponca City, Oklahoma.

NASA career
Puddy joined NASA in 1964. During the early years of the Apollo program he worked as a TELMU, a flight controller responsible for the electrical, life support and communications systems of the Lunar Module. He was on duty during the Apollo 11 lunar landing. He also served as head of the team that came up with many of the Lunar Module lifeboat procedures that were eventually used after the Apollo 13 accident. As part of the Apollo 13 Mission Operations Team, he received the Presidential Medal of Freedom for his role in the mission.

By the time of the Apollo 16 mission in April 1972, Puddy was training as a flight director. During that mission he served as the flight director for the Command Module for some of the time that it was undocked from the Lunar Module. Puddy went on to serve as a flight director in his own right during Apollo 17, all three Skylab missions, the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project and the first Space Shuttle mission, STS-1.

In 1987, following the departure of George Abbey, Puddy became the new head of the Flight Crew Operations Directorate (FCOD) at Johnson Space Center. In this position he would be responsible for the assignment of astronauts to missions. Many astronauts had hoped that a fellow astronaut would be chosen to fill the position. "Don was an exceptionally talented engineer and manager," astronaut Mike Mullane wrote. "But he wasn't a pilot... He just wasn't the best man for the job."

After his time in the FCOD, Puddy played a role in the Shuttle-Mir program as Special Assistant for US/Russian Programs. In this role he negotiated with both Russian organizations and American companies, and traveled many times to Star City to meet with his Russian counterparts.

He retired from NASA in October 1995. He was inducted into the Oklahoma Aviation and Space Hall of Fame in 2002.

References

Notes

External links
NASA Obituary

Biography on Shuttle-Mir Project

NASA flight controllers
NASA people
2004 deaths
1937 births
Acetaldehyde (data page). This page provides supplementary chemical data on acetaldehyde.

Material Safety Data Sheet  

The handling of this chemical may require safety precautions. The directions on the Material Safety Datasheet (MSDS) should be followed.
SDSdata.org index

Structure and properties

Thermodynamic properties

Vapor pressure of liquid

Table data obtained from CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 44th ed.

Spectral data

References

Chemical data pages
Chemical data pages cleanup