omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Paul C. Fisher. Paul C. Fisher (October 10, 1913 – October 20, 2006) was an American inventor and politician. He invented the Fisher Space Pen.

Fisher was born in Lebanon, Kansas, the son of Alice (Bales) and Carey Albert Fisher, a Methodist minister.

Fisher Space Pen

The Fisher Space Pen is a ballpoint pen which works with thixotropic ink and a pressurized ink cartridge. It can write on almost any substance ranging from butter to steel. It also can survive a wide array of temperatures, ranging from -50 to 160 degrees Fahrenheit.

Fisher submitted his invention to NASA. After vigorous testing, NASA approved Fisher's Space Pen. They purchased four hundred units at a reported price of $6.00 per unit (equivalent to approx. $60 in 2024). NASA purchased three different models: the 204, 207 and 208. The 204 had blue ink and a retraction button on the end. It was used on Skylab and the Apollo missions. It was later replaced by the 207. The 207 model was similar to the 204, except the retraction button had been moved to the side. The 208 model was the same as the 207, except it wrote in black ink. NASA modified these pens for use in the space program. Velcro patches were added along with a standard metal clip to facilitate the storage and attachment of the pen.

Political activities
Fisher unsuccessfully ran for the Democratic Party presidential nomination in 1960 and in 1968. In 1960, he was the only candidate besides John F. Kennedy on the New Hampshire primary ballot,  although other candidates were also in the race and on the ballot in other states.

He also made two unsuccessful bids for the United States House of Representatives, first in 1954 and then in 1986.

Fisher proposed the replacement of all existing sales and income taxes with a single graduated asset tax on those with assets of at least $100,000. His 1988 book, The Plan: To Restore the Constitution and Help Us All Get Out Of Debt (), promoted this idea.

Death
Fisher died at his home on October 20, 2006, in Boulder City, Nevada.

References

1913 births
2006 deaths
American manufacturing businesspeople
American political writers
American male non-fiction writers
People from Boulder City, Nevada
Candidates in the 1960 United States presidential election
Candidates in the 1968 United States presidential election
People from Smith County, Kansas
20th-century American inventors
20th-century American male writers
Kansas Democrats
Nevada Democrats
Inventors from Kansas
Pyroprocessing. Pyroprocessing (from Greek Πυρος = fire) is a process in which materials are subjected to high temperatures (typically over 800 °C) in order to bring about a chemical or physical change.  Pyroprocessing includes such terms as ore-roasting, calcination and sintering.  Equipment for pyroprocessing includes kilns, electric arc furnaces and reverberatory furnaces.

Cement manufacturing is a very common example of pyroprocessing. The raw material mix (raw meal) is fed to a kiln where pyroprocessing takes place. As with most industries, pyroprocessing is the most energy-intensive part of the industrial process.

Recycling used nuclear fuel through pyroprocessing

Argonne National Laboratory pioneered the development of pyrochemical processing, or pyroprocessing, a high-temperature method of recycling reactor waste into fuel, demonstrating it paired with the EBR-II and then proposed commercializing it in the Integral Fast Reactor. The latter was cancelled by the Clinton Administration in 1994. In 2016, Argonne National Laboratory researchers are developing and refining several pyroprocessing technologies for both light water and fast reactors, with most based on electrorefining rather than conventional wet-chemical/PUREX, to improve the technologies’ commercial viability by increasing their process efficiency and scalability.

Animations of the processing technology are also available.

Pyroprocessing of nuclear fuel rods, as an alternative to nuclear reprocessing, only attempts to combine separated plutonium with other, such as neptunium, americium, or curium. Theoretically, you could still reuse mixed, pyroprocessed plutonium to generate nuclear power, but it wouldn’t be pure enough for other uses.
	
In South Korea due to the historical Section 123 Agreement between ROK and the U.S, neither enrichment nor PUREX related reprocessing were permitted, with researchers therefore increasingly viewing the "proliferation resistant" pyroprocessing cycle, as the solution for the nation's growing spent fuel inventory, in 2017 forming a collaboration with the U.S and Japan to advance the economics of the process. In 2019, proponents of molten salt reactor (MSR) fuel cycles, frequently argue pairing the uncommercialized MSR with the pyroprocessing fuel cycle, as the MSR fuel is already in molten salt form, eliminating two process conversion steps, that of to-and-from metallic fuel, that both the commercially proposed IFR would have required and its antecedent physically demonstrated, when pyroprocessing was fielded in the EBR-II.

References

Chemical processes
US Aircraft A-67 Dragon. The US Aircraft A-67 Dragon is a single-engine, propeller-driven, ground-attack aircraft.  It is designed for counter-insurgency (COIN), close air support (CAS), and intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance (ISR) missions.  The A-67 is a low-cost aircraft built for low-intensity conflict situations, with a reported unit price of $4–5 million. The sole aircraft built is in storage at the MAPS Air Museum.

Specifications (A-67 prototype)

See also

References

External links
 US Aircraft A-67 web page
 A-67's New Home at MAPS Air Museum
"Dubai 2007: USAC seeking launch customer for low-cost Dragon". Flight Daily News, 13 November 2007.
 "New ISR/attack aircraft emerges in Ohio". C4ISR Journal, 16 January 2007.
"Warbird specialist flies A-67 Dragon". Flight International, 24 October 2006.
"A-67 Dragon counter-insurgency aircraft quietly makes first flight". Flight Global, 18 October 2006.
 "Boeing considers restarting OV-10 production after 23-year hiatus". Flight International, 1 February 2009.

A-67
2000s United States attack aircraft
Single-engined tractor aircraft
Single-engined turboprop aircraft
Low-wing aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 2006
Aircraft with retractable tricycle landing gear
Vietnam Aviation Academy. Vietnam Aviation Academy (abbreviated VAA, ) is a Vietnamese university specializing in aviation-related courses. The university is operated by the Ministry of Transport.

The academy has two campuses in Ho Chi Minh City, located in Tân Bình District and Phú Nhuận District. It also has a campus in Cam Ranh, Khánh Hòa Province. It offers bachelor's degrees in business administration, electronics and telecommunications engineering, and air traffic management.

References

External links
 

Government of Vietnam
Universities in Ho Chi Minh City
Modularity-driven testing. Modularity-driven testing is a term used in the testing of software. The test script modularity framework requires the creation of small, independent scripts that represent modules, sections, and functions of the application-under-test. These small scripts are then used in a hierarchical fashion to construct larger tests, realizing a particular test case.

Background
Of all the frameworks, this one should be the simplest to grasp and master. It is a well-known programming strategy to build an abstraction layer in front of a component to hide the component from the rest of the application. This insulates the application from modifications in the component and provides modularity in the application design. The test script modularity framework applies this principle of abstraction or encapsulation in order to improve the maintainability and scalability of automated test suites.

References

Software testing
James Oldshue. James Young Oldshue (April 1925 – January 16, 2007) was a chemical engineer with more than a hundred publications in scientific journals, numerous book chapters in textbooks and manuals, many patents, and an important textbook of his own, Fluid Mixing Technology 
Oldshue completed his B.S., M.A., and Ph.D. at the Illinois Institute of Technology in Chicago although his education was interrupted by service on the Manhattan Project from 1944 to 1945 in World War II. From 1950 to 1992, Oldshue worked as vice president and director of research at Lightnin' Mixers Corporation of Rochester, New York and gave his time to both national and international engineering societies, winning numerous engineering awards and honorary degrees including service as president of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers in 1979 and election to the prestigious National Academy of Engineering in 1980.
In addition, Oldshue gave extensively of himself to his church and the YMCA. He served on the North American Alliance of Reformed Churches and was a member of its Board of Foreign Missions. He worked locally for the YMCA in Rochester and visited more than forty different YMCAs in other countries as part of his work for the national YMCA organization and its efforts to support and stabilize YMCAs in the Middle East and Africa.

In his last years, Oldshue continued to teach technical seminars and taught his fellow seniors through the O.A.S.I.S. program funded by Lord and Taylor, offering a course called Science Made Simple in Rochester, Sarasota, Florida and Portland, Oregon. He is survived by his wife, Betty, his three sons, Paul, Richard, and Robert, and seven grandchildren.

He died at Sarasota Memorial Hospital in Sarasota, Florida, after a brief illness.

References

External links
In Memoriam: Jim Oldshue (North American Mixing Forum, affiliated with the American Institute of Chemical Engineers)

1925 births
2007 deaths
American chemical engineers
Illinois Institute of Technology alumni
Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
Fellows of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers
20th-century American engineers
YMCA leaders
Sd.Kfz. 254. The Sd.Kfz. 254 was a German fully tracked armoured scout car employed by Wehrmacht during World War II.

From 1936, the vehicle was developed under the designation RR-7 by the Saurer company as an artillery tractor for the Austrian army. Testing was completed and in 1937, an order was placed for the tractors and they were manufactured in 1938. About 12 vehicles were made prior to Anschluss (the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany in 1938).

Manufacture of the vehicle continued after the Anschluss. Records indicate that a total of 140 units were built with the new designation RK-7 (Räder-Kettenfahrgestell), although they were named as Sd.Kfz. 254 by the Wehrmacht. The vehicle featured a wheel-track layout and a diesel motor. The wheels were lowered when it was used on roads and retracted for tracked movement cross-country. A number saw service with the Afrika Korps, serving as artillery observation vehicles after being fitted with a radio and rail antenna.

The freedom tank
In 1950 the former mechanic Václav Uhlík from Líně in the Czech Republic found the wreck of an RR-7 artillery tractor. He repaired and rebuilt the machine as an armoured carrier. On 25 July 1953, with seven passengers in the vehicle, he got through three border zones including wire obstacles, and penetrated thirty kilometres into West German territory. There he applied for asylum and emigrated to the United States, where the machine was exhibited as the "freedom tank" (Czech: tank svobody). Today it is owned by a private collector.

References

Sources

External links 
www.panzernet.net
Sd.Kfz. 254wwiivehicles.com 

World War II armoured fighting vehicles of Germany
Armoured cars of the interwar period
Military vehicles introduced in the 1930s
Mercury(II) fluoride. Mercury(II) fluoride has the molecular formula HgF2 as a chemical compound of one atom of mercury with 2 atoms of fluorine.

Synthesis
Mercury(II) fluoride is most commonly produced by the reaction of mercury(II) oxide and hydrogen fluoride:
HgO + 2 HF → HgF2 + H2O

Mercury(II) fluoride can also be produced through the fluorination of mercury(II) chloride:
HgCl2 + F2 → HgF2 + Cl2

or of mercury(II) oxide:
2 HgO + 2 F2 → 2 HgF2 + O2
with oxygen as byproduct.

Applications
Mercury(II) fluoride is a selective fluorination agent.

References

Fluorides
Mercury(II) compounds
Metal halides
Fluorinating agents
Fluorite crystal structure
OEM International. OEM (International) Limited was a construction company based in Gibraltar.

The company issued a press release claiming that they would be creating a national airline for Gibraltar under the name of Fly Gibraltar. After a number of delays the project was cancelled in June 2007. There is no evidence that it was ever a serious undertaking.

OEM were responsible for the construction of several affordable Government of Gibraltar housing projects - Nelson’s View, Cumberland Terraces and Bayview Terraces.

On 4 April 2007 the Government announced the repossession of the sites, following the failure of OEM to satisfy the Government that they had sufficient funds available to complete the construction of the projects. The construction has been taken over by GRP Investments Company Limited, which is wholly owned by the Government.

References
 Government takes over OEM Affordable Housing Schemes

Construction and civil engineering companies of Gibraltar
Companies disestablished in 2007
Creutz–Taube complex. The Creutz–Taube ion is the metal complex with the formula {[Ru(NH3)5]2(C4H4N2)}5+. This cationic species has been heavily studied in an effort to understand the intimate details of inner sphere electron transfer, that is, how electrons move from one metal complex to another. The ion is named after  Carol Creutz, who first prepared the complex, and her thesis advisor Henry Taube, who received a Nobel Prize in Chemistry for this and related discoveries on electron transfer.

Properties
The complex consists of two pentammineruthenium units linked to the nitrogen atoms in a bridging pyrazine ligand, which completes the octahedral coordination sphere of each metal. The important feature of the compound is that the two metals have apparent fractional oxidation states of +2.5. Normally metal ions, like most ions, have integer oxidation states. For example, ruthenium ammine complexes are typically +2 or +3. The fact that the oxidation states are half-integer indicates that the two Ru(NH3)5 centers are equivalent in terms of their number of electrons. Crystallographic and theoretical studies are consistent with this description, that is, the two metal centers are equivalent. Characteristic of a mixed-valence complex, this ion strongly absorbs light in the near-infrared part of the electromagnetic spectrum. In the case of the Creutz–Taube ion, the absorption maximum occurs at 1570 nm. This absorption is described as an intervalence charge-transfer band.

Synthesis
The ion was originally isolated as the hydrated tosylate salt [Ru(NH3)5]2(C4H4N2)(O3SC6H4CH3)5·3H2O. It is prepared in two steps via the Ru(III)-Ru(III) pyrazine complex:.
2 [Ru(NH3)5Cl]2+  +  C4H4N2  → {[Ru(NH3)5]2(C4H4N2)}6+  +  2 Cl−

2 {[Ru(NH3)5]2(C4H4N2)}6+  +  Zn  → 2 {Ru(NH3)5]2(C4H4N2)}5+  +  Zn2+

The Creutz–Taube ion illustrates the advantages of ruthenium complexes for examining redox reactions. Ru(II) and Ru(III) ions can be interconverted at mild redox potentials. Both of these oxidation states are kinetically inert. Many analogues of this ion have been prepared using different bridging ligands.

References

Ruthenium complexes
Coordination complexes
Mixed valence compounds
Ammine complexes
Henry Combs. Henry Combs (December 4, 1916 – May 28, 2016) was a structural engineer at Clarence Johnson's famed Skunk Works division of Lockheed Corporation. He was Deputy Project Manager on the Lockheed U-2 program, Head Structural Engineer on the SR-71 Blackbird, and later, Technical Director of the Skunk Works. While he is most known for his integral work on the U-2, the SR-71 and the F-117 Nighthawk, he also worked on the F-104, Lockheed Constellation, C-130 Hercules, XP-58 Chain Lightning, and Lockheed JetStar.

Combs is revered as the father of the titanium A-12 structure. According to Ben Rich in "Skunk Works", Combs was the "dean" of the eight man structures group and an "irascible genius". Combs spoke on the U-2's development at the CIA's "The CIA and the U-2 Program" conference on 17 September 1998.

An accomplished sailplane (glider) pilot, Combs became famous within the soaring community for his weekly cross-country distance flights. Owing to the notable success of these flights, he became the leader of a fiercely loyal group of competition and cross-country sailplane pilots known as the "Crystal Squadron", based at Crystalaire gliderport in Llano, CA. From the mid 1980s through the early 2000s, this group of pilots, under Combs' spiritual and technical leadership, flew hundreds of long-distance soaring flights from Southern California to Nevada, Utah, and Arizona. In 1998, he completed his 200th straight-out long-distance flight meeting or exceeding the FAI "Diamond Badge" distance of 311 miles (500 km).

He was also well known for his extensive modifications and performance tuning work on the classic Glasflugel H-301 Libelle sailplane. Because of the numerous aerodynamic improvements made by Combs to his aircraft, it was capable of achieving performance levels on a par with more modern aircraft flown by the other members of the group. The net effect of these expert aircraft modifications, combined with his excellent piloting skills, was that (to their amazement and chagrin) Combs was often able to fly farther and faster than the other members of the Crystal Squadron, many of whom had spent three or four times the money on far newer "state of the art" sailplanes. This served only to further perpetuate the "irascible genius" legend, long after his Skunk Works days had passed. His soaring legacy is honored by the Soaring Society of America's "Henry Combs Perpetual Trophy".

Combs died on May 28, 2016, at the age of 99.

References

Structural engineers
Lockheed people
1916 births
2016 deaths
Franz-Josef Paefgen. Franz-Josef Paefgen (born 10 May 1946 in Büttgen) is a German engineer and manager. In 1976, Paefgen earned a doctoral degree in mechanical engineering from the RWTH Aachen University. He was most recently the CEO of Bentley Motors and Bugatti Automobiles SAS, from which he retired in 2011.

Prior to the roles at Bentley and Bugatti, Dr Paefgen held several positions at Ford Motor Company and Audi where he also was CEO.

During his time as the Chief Executive Officer of Bentley Motors Ltd., he was responsible for the Bentley Mulsanne and the Bentley Continental series of cars. From 2003 to 2005, Dr. Paefgen was responsible for the development of the Bugatti Veyron.

Since departing from Bentley and Bugatti, Dr Paefgen has accepted a position of a Board Member at the Finnish automotive company Valmet Automotive.
He is a member of the supervisory board of German automotive supplier ZF Friedrichshafen AG.

Further reading
 Richard Feast - Kidnap of the Flying Lady: How Germany Captured Both Rolls-Royce and Bentley (Motorbooks, 2003) 
 Andrew Frankel - Bentley - the Story (Redwood Publishing, 2005)

External links
 Bentley Motors

References

1946 births
Living people
People from Kaarst
Businesspeople from North Rhine-Westphalia
Engineers from North Rhine-Westphalia
German businesspeople in transport
Cartellverband members
RWTH Aachen University alumni
Milas hydroxylation. The Milas hydroxylation is an organic reaction converting an alkene to a vicinal diol, and was developed by Nicholas A. Milas in the 1930s. The cis-diol is formed by reaction of alkenes with hydrogen peroxide and either ultraviolet light or a catalytic osmium tetroxide, vanadium pentoxide, or chromium trioxide.

The reaction has been superseded in synthetic chemistry by the Upjohn dihydroxylation and later by the Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation.

Mechanism 
The proposed mechanism for the Milas hydroxylation involves the initial combination of hydrogen peroxide and the osmium tetroxide catalyst to form an intermediate, which then adds to the alkene, followed by a cleavage that forms the product and regenerates the OsO4.

Limitations 
One variation of the Milas hydroxylation (shown in the mechanism above) requires stoichiometric amounts of osmium tetroxide, which is toxic (highly volatile) and expensive. Furthermore, in Milas's own experiments his yields ranged from 37.6% to 60.2% for the cis-vicinal diol. Note that a vicinal diol is a molecule in which two hydroxy atoms are located on adjacent carbon atoms. Vicinal diols can be oxidized to aldehydes and ketones, rendering their synthesis useful.

The catalyst, osmium tetroxide, also known as Merck osmic acid, dissolves readily in tertiary butyl alcohol which implies that the solution in which the reaction occurs is stable, unless isobutylene is already present. In the presence of isobutylene most of the osmium tetroxide is reduced to an insoluble black colloidal oxide. This colloidal oxide is a very active catalyst in decomposition of hydrogen peroxide. Thus, in aqueous solutions osmium tetroxide decomposes hydrogen peroxide, whereas an anhydrous tertiary butyl alcohol decomposes at a much slower rate.

The Upjohn dihydroxylation and the Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation both result in cis-vicinal diols as well, and do not require the toxic, expensive catalyst.

Applications 
In 1949, the Milas hydroxylation was applied to a study of the demethylation of N-Dimethyl-p-Amino-azobenzene, otherwise known as butter yellow. Hydrogen peroxide in tertiary butyl alcohol with osmium tetroxide as a catalyst (Milas reagents) was examined to determine the parallels of the reaction with butter yellow in vivo versus in vitro. Previously it was discovered that the hydroxylation of butter yellow or its demethylated derivatives exist within rats, and thus rats were deemed suitable for the comparison. Absorption spectra were examined to confirm the results of the experiment, which found that the product of the Milas hydroxylation was one of the obtained products.

References

Organic oxidation reactions
Name reactions
Baseline Surface Radiation Network. Baseline Surface Radiation Network (BSRN) is a project of the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP) and the Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment (GEWEX) and as such is aimed detecting important changes in the Earth's radiation field at the Earth's surface which may be related to climate changes. The central archive of the BSRN is the World Radiation Monitoring Center (WRMC) which was initiated by Atsumu Ohmura in 1992 and operated at ETH until 2007. Since 2008 the WRMC is operated by the Alfred Wegener Institute for Polar and Marine Research (AWI), Germany.

Objectives
 To monitor the background (least influenced by immediate human activities which are regionally concentrated) shortwave and longwave radiative components and their changes with the best methods currently available.
 To provide data for the calibration of satellite-based estimates of the surface radiative fluxes.
 To produce high quality observational data to be used for validating the theoretical computations of radiative fluxes by models.

See also

 Global dimming

External links
Baseline Surface Radiation Network
BSRN information

Climatological research