omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
OpenSim (simulation toolkit). OpenSim is an open source software system for biomechanical modeling, simulation and analysis. Its purpose is to provide free and widely accessible tools for conducting biomechanics research and motor control science.  OpenSim enables a wide range of studies, including analysis of walking dynamics, studies of sports performance, simulations of surgical procedures, analysis of joint loads, design of medical devices, and animation of human and animal movement.  The software performs inverse dynamics analysis and forward dynamics simulations.  OpenSim is used in hundreds of biomechanics laboratories around the world to study movement and has a community of software developers contributing new features.

OpenSim is one of the flagship applications from Simbios, a NIH Center for Biomedical Computation at Stanford University.  Founded in 2004, Simbios is charged with a mandate to provide leading software and computational tools for physics-based modeling and simulation of biological structures. OpenSim was designed to propel biomechanics research by providing a common framework for investigation and a vehicle for exchanging complex musculoskeletal models.

History 
 OpenSim 1.0 was released on August 20, 2007 and provided capabilities for viewing musculoskeletal models, importing models developed in SIMM (Musculographics Inc.), editing muscle paths, and generating muscle actuated simulations that track experimental data.
 OpenSim 1.1 was released on December 11, 2007, which added new features such as user-specified camera positions for recording movies of simulations, and a perturbation (sensitivity) analysis for inquiry into the function of individual muscles.
 OpenSim 2.2.1 was released on April 11, 2011. This software update enhanced the user interface and allowed the user to set bounds on activations of muscles and actuators relating to static optimization not dynamic optimization.
 OpenSim 2.4 was released on October 10, 2011. This newest and most recent update includes faster and more robust tools for Inverse Dynamics and Inverse Kinematics, new visualization tools, enhanced access for API users, and many usability improvements.
 OpenSim 3.2 was released on March 13, 2014. This update focused on improving the OpenSim scripting interface, accessible through the graphical user interface (GUI), Matlab, and now Python. It also added new visualization capabilities and usability improvements in the OpenSim application. Full list of features can be found here.

References

External links 
http://opensim.stanford.edu/
https://github.com/opensim-org/opensim-core
http://simtk.org/home/opensim/
http://nmbl.stanford.edu/
http://simbios.stanford.edu/
http://simtk.org/
https://github.com/stanfordnmbl/osim-rl
http://osim-rl.stanford.edu/

Biomechanics
Kugisho B3Y. The Kugisho B3Y, or Navy Type 92 Carrier Attack Bomber, also popularly titled Yokosuka B3Y, was a Japanese carrier-based torpedo bomber of the 1930s. It was designed by the Naval Air Technical Arsenal at Yokosuka, and while unimpressive during testing, it was ordered into service by the Imperial Japanese Navy and used until replaced by more capable aircraft.

Development and design
In 1932, the Imperial Japanese Navy had a requirement, 7-Shi, for a new torpedo bomber to replace the Mitsubishi B2M. The air arsenal at Yokosuka prepared its own design to meet this requirement, competing against designs by Mitsubishi and Nakajima.

The resulting aircraft was a three-seat single-engine biplane, with a fuselage of steel tube construction and two-bay wooden wings that could fold rearwards for storage aboard aircraft carriers. It was powered by a single Hiro Type 91 W engine rated at . 

Testing proved that the aircraft had poor stability and control, and that the engine was unreliable. The competing Mitsubishi and Nakajima aircraft were even less successful however, and after modifications made by Tokuichiro Gomei of Aichi Kokuki, the aircraft was accepted by the Navy in August 1933 as the Kugisho Navy Type 92 Carrier Attack Bomber, with a short designation of B3Y1, with production by Aichi, Watanabe and the Hiro Naval Arsenal, 129 being produced by the time that production finished in 1936.

Operational history
The B3Y1 continued to be prone to engine problems, which frequently caused the type to be grounded. It served operationally in the early part of the Second Sino-Japanese War, gaining a good reputation for accurate level bombing against small targets. The Yokosuka B3Y was gradually phased out of operational service, being replaced by Aichi's D1A dive bomber and Yokosuka's B4Y torpedo bomber.

Operators

 Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service

Specifications (B3Y1)

See also

References

External links

 
 

Yokosuka, Kugisho B3Y
B3Y
Carrier-based aircraft
Single-engined tractor aircraft
Biplanes
Płock refinery. The Płock refinery is a large oil refinery and petrochemical complex located in Płock, Poland. It is owned by PKN Orlen, and is one of the two major crude oil refineries in Poland, the other one is Gdansk refinery. The refinery has a Nelson complexity index of 9.5 and a capacity is 16.3 million tonnes per year or 276,000 barrels per day of crude oil.

History 
In the early 1950s the Polish government wished to develop a petrochemicals industry for the country, to reduce reliance on imports. In Poland there were only five small specialist refineries, which together produced less than one million tonnes annually. Authorisation to build the country’s first large-scale crude oil refinery was given in 1954. The Oil Refining Industry oversight body began planning a new one million tonne per year facility. During the design phase the plans were upscaled and the final design had an initial capacity of six million tonnes, with an option to increase capacity up to ten million tonnes. In 1958, Płock was selected as the site for the new refinery, it was known as, and developed by, the Mazovia Refinery and Petrochemical Plant. The plant began operations in 1964.

Expansion 
Since 1997 a number of new treatment units were added to the refinery. These increased both the quantity and range of products available. Some of the units were: 

 1997 - 54,000 barrels per day Hydrocracker
 1999 - Residual Hydrocracker and 80,000 barrels per day expansion
 2003 - Hydrocracker capacity expanded
 2006 - Diesel oil hydrodesulphurization unit
 2007 - Hydrogen plant
 2010 - Hydrotreater 
 2011 - Combined Heat and Power improvements
A visbreaking unit was commissioned in December 2022. With a design capacity of 3,300 tonnes of vacuum residue feedstock a day the unit increased the overall petrol and diesel yields of the refinery. A hydrocracking unit and a diesel hydrotreater unit were also upgraded, the refinery’s annual diesel oil output increased by 150,000 tonnes.

Refining Units 
The Refining Units at the refinery are as follows.

 Atmospheric Distillation
 Fluidised Catalytic Cracker - a UOP process
 Hydrocracker – a UOP process (54,000 barrels per day)
 Vacuum Residual desulfurisation unit
 Vacuum Residual Hydrocracker
 CCR Reformer (continuous catalyst regeneration) - a UOP process
 Diesel oil hydrodesulphurization unit
 Jet fuel Hydrotreater
 Isomerizer
 Hydrogen Plant
 Alkylation Unit

The tallest flarestack of the refinery is  tall and the tallest chimney is  tall.

Products 
Products from the refinery and petrochemical plant included:

Refinery: 

 automotive and airplane fuels, 
 xylene, 
 diesel oil, 
 oil coke, 
 bitumen, 
 lubricant oil, 
 hard and soft paraffin 

Petrochemical plant: 

 ethylene oxide, 
 ethylene glycol, 
 phenol, 
 acetone, 
 sulfuric acid, 
 polyethylene, 
 polypropylene and other plastics

See also
Petroleum
List of oil refineries
Oil industry in Poland
Gdansk refinery

References

Refinery
Energy in Poland
Oil refineries in Poland
Light Artillery Rocket System. The Light Artillery Rocket System (or LARS) is a series of West German vehicle mounted multi-barrel rocket launchers designed for rapid concentration of fire on designated targets. The rockets are of 110 mm caliber. The usual mounting was a lightly armoured Magirus or MAN 6x6 truck. 36 rockets were mounted in two clusters of 18. The weapon entered service in 1969 and was phased out by 1998 and replaced by the M270 Multiple Launch Rocket System.

Operators

Former operators

References

External links
http://hsfeatures.com/features04/man6x6idw_1.htm

Wheeled self-propelled rocket launchers
Self-propelled artillery of Germany
Multiple rocket launchers
Military vehicles introduced in the 1960s
Thermodynamic integration. Thermodynamic integration is a method used to compare the difference in free energy between two given states (e.g., A and B) whose potential energies  and  have different dependences on the spatial coordinates. Because the free energy of a system is not simply a function of the phase space coordinates of the system, but is instead a function of the Boltzmann-weighted integral over phase space (i.e. partition function), the free energy difference between two states cannot be calculated directly from the potential energy of just two coordinate sets (for state A and B respectively). In thermodynamic integration, the free energy difference is calculated by defining a thermodynamic path between the states and integrating over ensemble-averaged enthalpy changes along the path. Such paths can either be real chemical processes or alchemical processes. An example alchemical process is the Kirkwood's coupling parameter method.

Derivation 

Consider two systems, A and B, with potential energies  and . The potential energy in either system can be calculated as an ensemble average over configurations sampled from a molecular dynamics or Monte Carlo simulation with proper Boltzmann weighting. Now consider a new potential energy function defined as:

Here,  is defined as a coupling parameter with a value between 0 and 1, and thus the potential energy as a function of  varies from the energy of system A for  and system B for . In the canonical ensemble, the partition function of the system can be written as:

In this notation,  is the potential energy of state  in the ensemble with potential energy function  as defined above. The free energy of this system is defined as:

,

If we take the derivative of F with respect to λ, we will get that it equals the ensemble average of the derivative of potential energy with respect to λ.

The change in free energy between states A and B can thus be computed from the integral of the ensemble averaged derivatives of potential energy over the coupling parameter . In practice, this is performed by defining a potential energy function , sampling the ensemble of equilibrium configurations at a series of  values, calculating the ensemble-averaged derivative of  with respect to  at each  value, and finally computing the integral over the ensemble-averaged derivatives.

Umbrella sampling is a related free energy method. It adds a bias to the potential energy. In the limit of an infinite strong bias it is equivalent to thermodynamic integration.

See also
 Free energy perturbation
 Bennett acceptance ratio
 Parallel tempering
 Alchemy

References

Computational chemistry
Statistical mechanics
Escher (programming language). Escher (named for M. C. Escher, "a master of endless loops") is a declarative programming language that supports both functional programming and logic programming models, developed by J.W. Lloyd in the mid-1990s. It was designed mostly as a research and teaching vehicle. The basic view of programming exhibited by Escher and related languages is that a program is a representation of a theory in some logic framework, and the program's execution (computation) is a deduction from the theory. The logic framework for Escher is Alonzo Church's simple theory of types.

Escher, notably, supports I/O through a monadic type representing the 'outside world', in the style of Haskell.
One of the goals of Escher's designers was to support meta-programming, and so the language has comprehensive support for generating and transforming programs.

Examples
MODULE      Lambda.
CONSTRUCT   Person/0.
FUNCTION    Jane, Mary, John: One -> Person.

FUNCTION    Mother : Person * Person -> Boolean.
Mother(x,y) =>
    x=Jane & y=Mary.

FUNCTION    Wife : Person * Person -> Boolean.
Wife(x,y) =>
    x=John & y=Jane.

FUNCTION    PrimitiveRel : (Person * Person -> Boolean) -> Boolean.
PrimitiveRel(r) =>
    r=Mother \/ r=Wife.

FUNCTION    Rel : (Person * Person -> Boolean) -> Boolean.
Rel(r) =>
    PrimitiveRel(r) \/
    (SOME [r1,r2]
        (r = LAMBDA [u] (SOME [z] (r1(Fst(u),z) & r2(z,Snd(u)))) &
            PrimitiveRel(r1) & PrimitiveRel(r2))).

References
 Declarative programming in Escher, JW Lloyd, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK, 1995
 An implementation of Escher (Some dead links can be reached from the archived page (or by substituting the new domain in the link in question).)

Functional languages
Orwell (programming language). Orwell is a small, lazy evaluation, functional programming language implemented principally by Martin Raskovsky and first released in 1984 by Philip Wadler during his time as a Research Fellow in the Programming Research Group, part of the Oxford University Computing Laboratory. Developed as a free alternative to Miranda, it was a forerunner of Haskell and was one of the first programming languages to support list comprehensions and pattern matching.

The name is a tribute to George Orwell's novel Nineteen Eighty-Four, the year in which the language was released. In the late 1980s and the 1990s, most of the computing practical assignments for undergraduates studying for a degree in Mathematics and Computation at Oxford University were required to be completed using the language.

References

Academic programming languages
Functional languages
Haskell programming language family
Programming languages created in 1984
Id (programming language). Irvine Dataflow (Id) is a general-purpose parallel programming language, started at the University of California at Irvine in 1975 by Arvind and K. P. Gostelow. Arvind continued work with Id at MIT into the 1990s.

The major subset of Id is a purely functional programming language with non-strict semantics. Features include: higher-order functions, a Milner-style statically type-checked polymorphic type system with overloading, user defined types and pattern matching, and prefix and infix operators. It led to the development of pH, a parallel dialect of Haskell.

Id programs are fine grained implicitly parallel.

The MVar synchronisation variable abstraction in Haskell is based on Id's M-structures.

Examples
Id supports algebraic datatypes, similar to ML, Haskell, or Miranda:

 type bool = False | True;

Types are inferred by default, but may be annotated with a typeof declaration. Type variables use the syntax *0, *1, etc.

 typeof id = *0 -> *0;
 def id x = x;

A function which uses an array comprehension to compute the first  Fibonacci numbers:

 typeof fib_array = int -> (array int);
 def fib_array n =
   { A = { array (0,n) of
         | [0] = 0
         | [1] = 1
         | [i] = A[i-1] + A[i-2] || i <- 2 to n }
   In A };

Note the use of non-strict evaluation in the recursive definition of the array A.

Id's lenient evaluation strategy allows cyclic datastructures by default. The following code makes a cyclic list, using the cons operator :.

 def cycle x = { A = x : A In A };

However, to avoid nonterminating construction of truly infinite structures, explicit delays must be annotated using #:

 def count_up_from x = x :# count_up_from (x + 1);

Implementations
pHluid
The pHluid system was a research implementation of Id programming language, with future plans for a front-end for pH, a parallel dialect of the Haskell programming language, implemented at Digital's Cambridge Research Laboratory. and non-profit use. It is targeted at standard Unix workstation hardware.

References

External links
 ID Language Reference Manual, Rishiyur S. Nikhil, 1991.
"An Asynchronous Programming Language for a Large Multiprocessor Machine", Arvind et al., TR114a, Dept ISC, UC Irvine, Dec 1978

Functional languages
Australian Aluminium Council. The Australian Aluminium Council is the Australian peak industry association representing companies involved in bauxite mining, alumina refining, Production of High Purity Alumina (HPA), aluminium metal production and the production and distribution of semi-fabricated aluminium products.

Marghanita Johnson has been the CEO of the Australian Aluminium Council since 2020.

Membership 
Council members include some of Australia's largest companies, and currently are Abx Group, Alpha HPA, Alcoa, Alspec, Aurukun Bauxite, Bluescope Distribution, Capral Aluminium, GJames, Metro Mining, Portland Aluminium, Queensland Alumina Ltd, Rio Tinto Aluminium,South32, Tomago Aluminium,  VBX and Vulcan Aluminium. 

Australia is one of the world's largest producers of Bauxite, the second largest producer and the world’s largest exporter of alumina and the world's sixth largest producer of aluminium. The Australian aluminium industry employs around 17,000 workers directly and generates export earnings worth over $15 billion.

Role of the Council 
The Council is the peak industry association representing the Australian Aluminium industry. The Council promotes the use of Australian aluminium products nationally and internationally. A technical standards group within the Council also develops and maintains material specifications and standards and other technical data for those users both within and outside the industry, and the Council produces an annual statistical analysis of materials consumption, aluminium production and exports by Australia's six aluminium smelters.

See also
 Mining in Australia

References

External links 
 

Business organisations based in Australia
Aluminium companies of Australia
Excess chemical potential. In thermodynamics, the excess chemical potential is defined as the difference between the chemical potential of a given species and that of an ideal gas under the same conditions (in particular, at the same pressure, temperature, and composition).
The chemical potential of a particle species  is therefore given by an ideal part and an excess part.

Chemical potential of a pure fluid can be estimated by the Widom insertion method.

Derivation and Measurement
For a system of diameter  and volume , at constant temperature , the classical canonical partition function  

with  a scaled coordinate, the free energy is given by:

Combining the above equation with the definition of chemical potential,

we get the chemical potential of a sufficiently large system from (and the fact that the smallest allowed change in the particle number is )

wherein the chemical potential of an ideal gas can be evaluated analytically. 
Now let's focus on  since the potential energy of an  system can be separated into the potential energy of an  system and the potential of the excess particle interacting with the  system, that is,

and

Thus far we converted the excess chemical potential into an ensemble average, and the integral in the above equation can be sampled by the brute force Monte Carlo method.

The calculating of excess chemical potential is not limited to homogeneous systems, but has also been extended to inhomogeneous systems by the Widom insertion method, or other ensembles such as NPT and NVE.

See also
Apparent molar property

References
 Note: the equations and presentation in this article are drawn from Excess Chemical Potential via the Widom Method

Potentials
Thermodynamics
Chemical thermodynamics

ro:Mărimi molare de exces
Phenom (electron microscope). Phenom is a small, table-top sized scanning electron microscope (SEM) originally developed by Philips and FEI and further developed by Phenom-World.

Features
The microscope features a combination of optical and electron-optical images; the optical image enables a "Neverlost" function so operators may navigate to any point on the sample. Sample loading takes place in four seconds (to obtain the CMOS overview image) and 30 seconds into the vacuum space via rapid transfer technology (no conventional load lock). 

The Phenom system user interface is controlled with a touch screen. It achieves magnifications of up to 100,000 times with a resolution of down to 15 nm. An optional fully integrated X-ray analysis (EDS) system shows the composition of the sample in a few seconds..

Gallery

External links

US Patent #7906762 - Compact scanning electron microscope
Publication in: Systems Research Forum (SRF) Vol. 1 (2006) of the Stevens Institute of technology  

Microscopes
LH Aviation. LH Aviation was a French aircraft manufacturing company, founded in 2004 and located in Melun-Villaroche. LH Aviation developed the LH-10 Ellipse.

History 
The company was founded in 2004 by Sébastien Lefebvre as a manufacturer of ultralight single and two-seater carbon fibre aircraft. A prototype of the first airplane was created that year by Frédéric Hubschwerlenson and Lefebvre.

Their plane, the LH-10, has multiple versions including automated and training planes. The LH-10 was shown at the 2009 Le Bourget Paris Air Show.

In 2015 the company had about 50 employees in Villaroche, France, including one dedicated pilot.

Over the years the company raised capital from investors in different countries, including Mohsine Karim-Bennani from Morocco, who wanted to create a Moroccan subsidiary and a manufacturing plant in Casablanca. However the two sides ended up in court and the collaboration was cancelled.

Lefebvre left the company in July 2016.

After several years of insolvency, the company was placed in recovery in 2018, and judicial liquidation began in September 2019. The assets were bought by I-SEE Group, who commercialized the LH-10 and the LH-D as IC-10 and IC-D, respectively.

Key dates 
 May 2004: LH Aviation founded.
 September 2007: First flight of the LH-10 prototype at the Avia International Airshow.
 March 2008: Joined the Aerospace Cluster Activity at Melun-Villaroche.
 2007: Exposure of the LH-10 prototype on the Champs Elysees during the Festival of Transport..
 July 2008: Attendance at Farnborough Airshow.
 June 2010: Financial and operational backing from Aeronautic Investment Fund Magellan Industries.
 June 2009, 2011, 2013: Participation in the 49th, 50th and 51st Paris Air Shows.
 October 2011: First formation: Saget Promotion Official delivery of the first two surveillance airplanes by the Air Force Benin.
 August 2012: First flight of the LH-10 Ellipse Surveillance Advanced version.
 2012: Participation in Euronaval and Eurosatory.
 2012: Recruitment of military competence internally, participation in the Paris Air Show.
 May 2013: First rocket launch performed from the LH-10 Ellipse.
 April 2014: Set up of the Moroccan subsidiary.
 December 2014: Use of the LH-10 by the French border police.
 January 2015: Creation of the Explorair 45.
 February 2015: Creation of the outsourcing department.
 21 October 2018: Judicial liquidation

Products

LH-10 Ellipse 
The LH-10 Ellipse is for training and pilot training; it has a tandem configuration and a glass cockpit.

LH-10 Guardian 
The LH-10 Guardian is intended for surveillance missions.

LH-10 Elfe 
The LH-10 Elfe is a military aircraft with an airborne collision avoidance system.

LH-D 
The LH-D is an unmanned aerial vehicle made from carbon fibre. It has an OPV option.

References

External links 
 LH Aviation
 LH Aviation in India

Aircraft manufacturers of France
Companies based in Île-de-France
French companies established in 2004