omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Isopentane. Isopentane, also called methylbutane or 2-methylbutane, is a branched-chain saturated hydrocarbon (an alkane) with five carbon atoms, with formula  or .

Isopentane is a volatile and flammable liquid. It is one of three structural isomers with the molecular formula C5H12, the others being pentane (n-pentane) and neopentane (2,2-dimethylpropane).

Isopentane is commonly used in conjunction with liquid nitrogen to achieve a liquid bath temperature of −160 °C. Natural gas typically contains 1% or less isopentane, but it is a significant component of natural gasoline.

History 
Although the mixture of pentanes was first isolated from the destructive distillation (pyrolysis) products of the boghead coal by Charles Greville Williams in 1862. In 1864–1865 two chemists tried to extract same hydrocarbons from the Pennsylvanian oil. Carl Schorlemmer noted "that a mere trace of the liquid boiled below  30°C", but the first to properly separate isomers (and thus discover isopentane) was American chemist Cyrus Warren (1824–1891) slightly later, who measured the boiling point of the more volatile one at 30°C.

Nomenclature
The traditional name isopentane, attested in English as early as 1875, was still retained in the 1993 IUPAC recommendations, but is no longer recommended according to the 2013 recommendations. The preferred IUPAC name is the systematic name 2-methylbutane. An isopentyl group is a subset of the generic pentyl group. It has the chemical structure -CH3CH2CH(CH3)2.

Uses
Isopentane is used in a closed loop in geothermal power production to drive turbines.

Isopentane is used, in conjunction with dry ice or liquid nitrogen, to freeze tissues for cryosectioning in histology.

Isopentane is a major component (sometimes 30% or more) of natural gasoline, an analog of common petroleum-derived gasoline that is condensed from natural gas. Its share in commercial car fuel is highly variable: 19–45% in 1990s Sweden, 4–31% in 1990s US and 3.6–11% in the US in 2011. It has a substantially higher octane rating (RON 93.7) than n-pentane (61.7), and therefore there is interest in conversion from the latter.

References

External links
 International Chemical Safety Card 1153
IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry (online version of the "Blue Book")

Alkanes
BS 5950. BS 5950 is a withdrawn British Standard for the design, fabrication and erection of structural steelwork. It was written for use in the UK but can be used worldwide. It was superseded by BS EN 1993 and withdrawn on 30 March 2010. 

It does not apply to bridges, which are covered by BS 5400. BS 5950 replaced BS 449, which used a permissible stress approach, and uses limit state design methods.

References

05950
Structural engineering standards
Louis Vicat. Louis Vicat (31 March 1786, Nevers – 10 April 1861, Grenoble) was a French engineer.

He graduated from the École Polytechnique in 1804 and the École des Ponts et Chaussées in 1806.

Vicat studied the setting of mortars and developed his own. The first building using it is the bridge at Souillac (Dordogne), erected in 1818.
The material was popular but was superseded by Portland cement. He also invented the Vicat needle that is still in use for determining the setting time of concretes and cements.  His son Joseph Vicat founded Vicat Cement, which is today a large international cement manufacturing company.

He was a member of the French Academy of Sciences and his name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower. Vicat was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1855.

References

 Guy Coriono (1997) 250 ans de l'École des Ponts et Chaussées en cent portraits. 222 pp. Presses de l'École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées, Paris, .
 Antoine Picon (1997) L'art de l'Ingénieur. Constructeur, entrepreneur, inventeur. 598 pp. Editions du Centre Pompidou, Paris, .

French materials scientists
19th-century French engineers
École Polytechnique alumni
Corps des ponts
École des Ponts ParisTech alumni
1786 births
1861 deaths
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
People from Nevers
Cement
Members of the French Academy of Sciences
19th-century French inventors
Concrete pioneers
Japp–Klingemann reaction. The Japp–Klingemann reaction is a chemical reaction used to synthesize hydrazones from β-keto-acids (or β-keto-esters) and aryl diazonium salts. The reaction is named after the chemists Francis Robert Japp and Felix Klingemann.

The hydrazone products of the Japp–Klingemann reaction are most often used as intermediates in syntheses of more complex organic molecules.  For example, a phenylhydrazone product can be heated in the presence of strong acid to produce an indole via the Fischer indole synthesis.

If there is a leaving group elsewhere in the Japp–Klingemann product, the hydrazone instead can cyclize at that site via a substitution reaction to give a pyrazole. This process is a key part of the synthesis of  and related compounds:

Reaction mechanism
To illustrate the mechanism, the Japp-Klingemann ester variation will be considered. The first step is the deprotonation of the β-keto-ester. The nucleophilic addition of the enolate anion 2 to the diazonium salt produces the azo compound 3.  Intermediate 3 has been isolated in rare cases. However, in most cases, the hydrolysis of intermediate 3 produces a tetrahedral intermediate 4, which quickly decomposes to release the carboxylic acid 6.  After hydrogen exchange, the final hydrazone 7 is produced.

References

Substitution reactions
Name reactions
Milling. Milling may refer to:
 Milling (minting), forming narrow ridges around the edge of a coin
 Milling (grinding), breaking solid materials into smaller pieces by grinding, crushing, or cutting in a mill
 Milling (machining), a process of using rotary cutters to remove material from a workpiece
 Milling (military training exercise), a type of boxing session in the British army
 Milling (surname), a surname
 Milling, a stage in Fulling, a woollen clothmaking process
 Milling, using milliradian marks to determine range
 Pavement milling, removing the surface of a paved area
 Photochemical machining, processes involved in photographic engraving and sheet metal manufacture

See also
 Mill (disambiguation)
 Miller (disambiguation)
Stable storage. Stable storage is a classification of computer data storage technology that guarantees atomicity for any given write operation and allows software to be written that is robust against some hardware and power failures. To be considered atomic, upon reading back a just written-to portion of the disk, the storage subsystem must return either the write data or the data that was on that portion of the disk before the write operations.

Most computer disk drives are not considered stable storage because they do not guarantee atomic write; an error could be returned upon subsequent read of the disk where it was just written to in lieu of either the new or prior data.

Implementation 
Multiple techniques have been developed to achieve the atomic property from weakly atomic devices such as disks. Writing data to a disk in two places in a specific way is one technique and can be done by application software.

Most often though, stable storage functionality is achieved by mirroring data on separate disks via RAID technology (level 1 or greater). The RAID controller implements the disk writing algorithms that enable separate disks to act as stable storage.
The RAID technique is robust against some single disk failure in an array of disks whereas the software technique of writing to separate areas of the same disk only protects against some kinds of internal disk media failures such as bad sectors in single disk arrangements.

Computer data storage
Carbon monoxide (data page). This page provides supplementary chemical data on carbon monoxide.

Material safety data sheet 

The handling of this chemical may incur notable safety precautions. It is highly recommended that you seek the material safety data sheet (MSDS) for this chemical from a reliable source such as SIRI, and follow its directions.
 MSDS from Advanced Gas Technologies in the SDSdata.org database

Structure and properties

Thermodynamic properties

Spectral data

References 

Chemical data pages
Carbon monoxide
Chemical data pages cleanup
PMD (software). PMD is an open source static source code analyzer that reports on issues found within application code. PMD includes built-in rule sets and supports the ability to write custom rules. PMD does not report compilation errors, as it only can process well-formed source files. Rather, PMD is designed to detect inefficient code or bad programming habits, which can reduce the performance and maintainability of the program if they accumulate. It can analyze files written in Java, JavaScript, Apex and Visualforce, PLSQL, Apache Velocity, XML, and XSL.

While PMD does not officially stand for anything, several retro acronyms have been suggested, including for instance Programming Mistake Detector and Project Meets Deadline.

Features
PMD is able to detect flaws or possible flaws in source code, like:
 Bugs—Empty try/catch/finally/switch blocks.
 Dead code—Unused local variables, parameters and private methods.
 Empty if/while statements.
 Overcomplicated expressions—Unnecessary if statements, for loops that could be while loops.
 Suboptimal code—Wasteful String/StringBuffer usage.
 Classes with high Cyclomatic Complexity measurements.
 Duplicate code—Copied/pasted code can mean copied/pasted bugs, and decreases maintainability.

License
PMD is released under a BSDish license while parts of it are under Apache License 2.0 and the LGPL.

Copy/Paste Detector (CPD)
The Copy/Paste Detector (CPD) is an add-on to PMD that uses the Rabin–Karp string search algorithm to find duplicated code.
Unlike PMD, CPD works with a broader range of languages including Java, JavaServer Pages (JSP), C, C++, Fortran, PHP, and C# code.

Plugins
PMD has plugins for JDeveloper, Eclipse, jEdit, JBuilder, Omnicore's CodeGuide, NetBeans/Sun Studio, IntelliJ IDEA, TextPad, Maven, Ant, Gradle, Gel, JCreator, Hudson, Jenkins, SonarQube, Visual Studio Code and Emacs. There is also a CLI version.

See also
 List of tools for static code analysis
 SonarQube

References

Further reading
 Rutar, Almazan, Foster (2004), "A Comparison of Bug Finding Tools for Java". ISSRE '04 Proceedings of the 15th International Symposium on Software Reliability Engineering'', IEEE, doi:10.1109/ISSRE.2004.1

External links
 
 
 
  on SourceForge.net.
  Written by the lead developer, Tom Copeland ().
 

Java development tools
Static program analysis tools
Free software testing tools
Lanarkite. Lanarkite is a mineral, a form of lead sulfate with formula Pb2(SO4)O. It was originally found at Leadhills in the Scottish county of Lanarkshire, hence the name.  It forms white or light green, acicular monoclinic prismatic crystals, usually microscopic in size. It is an oxidation product of galena.

In 2023, Lanarkite was used by Korean physicists in an attempt to make LK-99, a material evaluated for room-temperature superconductivity.

References

Webmineral
Mindat

Lead minerals
Sulfate minerals
Monoclinic minerals
Minerals in space group 12
Caldarium. A  (also called a calidarium, cella caldaria or cella coctilium) was a room with a hot plunge bath, used in a Roman bath complex.
The boiler supplying hot water to a baths complex was also called .

This was a very hot and steamy room heated by a hypocaust, an underfloor heating system using tunnels with hot air, heated by a furnace tended by slaves. It was also the hottest room in the regular sequence of bathing rooms; after the caldarium, bathers would progress back through the tepidarium to the frigidarium.

A  in both public and private baths followed a common plan which had three main parts. The common arrangement would include a warm-water bath -- usually called , but also referred to as  or  -- sunk into the floor, a semicircular alcove  --  -- where bathers would sit in order to induce sweating, and in the middle of the room a vacant space --  or  -- meant for physical exercise before going to sit in .

The bath's patrons would use olive oil to cleanse themselves by applying it to their bodies and using a strigil to remove the excess. This was sometimes left on the floor for the slaves to pick up or put back in the pot for the women to use for their hair.

The temperature of the  is not known exactly. However, a floor surface temperature above  would have been uncomfortable to stand on with bare feet.

See also

 Ancient Roman bathing

References

External links
 Greek and Roman baths at the Perseus Project

Ancient Roman baths
Rooms
Dave Forney. George David Forney Jr. (born March 6, 1940) is an American electrical engineer who made contributions in telecommunication system theory, specifically in coding theory and information theory.

Biography
Forney received the B.S.E. degree in electrical engineering from Princeton University in 1961, summa cum laude, and the M.S. and Sc.D. degrees in electrical engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1963 and 1965, respectively. His Sc.D thesis introduced the idea of concatenated codes.
He is a member of the United States National Academy of Engineering (1989) and National Academy of Sciences (2003). He is a long-time faculty member at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Among other things, he is generally credited with being the first to recognize the optimality and practical importance of the Viterbi algorithm, and his tutorial paper on the subject is widely cited.
His work in the Viterbi algorithm and in advancing the understanding of coding theory in general influenced the design of modern digital modems.

In 1965 he joined the Codex Corporation. His design resulted in the first mass-produced 9600 bit/s modem introduced in 1971. He spent the academic year of 1971–1972 at Stanford University, and then returned to Codex. He became vice president of research and development at Codex, through its acquisition by Motorola in 1977, serving in both management and technical positions.

He received the IEEE Edison Medal in 1992 "for original contributions to coding, modulation, data communication modems, and for industrial and research leadership in communications technology". In 1995 he received the Claude E. Shannon Award from the IEEE Information Theory Society and he received twice, in 1990 and in 2009, the IEEE Donald G. Fink Prize Paper Award. In 1998 Forney received a Golden Jubilee Award for Technological Innovation from the IEEE Information Theory Society. He has also received the 2016 IEEE Medal of Honor for "pioneering contributions to the theory of error-correcting codes and the development of reliable high-speed data communications".

See also 
Forney algorithm

References

External links 
 Recent publications at the arXiv.

American electrical engineers
American information theorists
1940 births
Living people
Fellows of the IEEE
Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
IEEE Edison Medal recipients
MIT School of Engineering faculty
20th-century American engineers
IEEE Medal of Honor recipients
American telecommunications engineers
Princeton University School of Engineering and Applied Science alumni
MIT School of Engineering alumni
Stanford University staff
HP FOCUS. The Hewlett-Packard FOCUS microprocessor, launched in 1982, was the first commercial, single chip, fully 32-bit microprocessor available on the market. At this time, all 32-bit competitors (DEC, IBM, Prime Computer, etc.) used multi-chip bit-slice-CPU designs, while single-chip designs like the Motorola 68000 were a mix of 32 and 16-bit.

Introduced in the Hewlett-Packard HP 9000 Series 500 workstations and servers (originally launched as the HP 9020 and also, unofficially, called HP 9000 Series 600), the single-chip CPU was used alongside the I/O Processor (IOP), Memory Controller (MMU), Clock, and a number of 128-kilobit dynamic RAM devices as the basis of the HP 9000 system architecture. It was a 32-bit implementation of the 16-bit HP 3000 computer's stack architecture, with over 220 instructions (some 32 bits wide, some 16 bits wide), a segmented memory model, and no general purpose programmer-visible registers. The design of the FOCUS CPU was richly inspired by the custom silicon on sapphire (SOS) chip design HP used in their HP 3000 series machines.

Because of the high density of HP's NMOS-III IC process, heat dissipation was a problem. Therefore, the chips were mounted on special printed circuit boards, with a ~1 mm copper sheet at its core, called "finstrates".

The Focus CPU is microcoded with a 9,216 by 38-bit microcode control store. Internal data paths and registers are all 32-bit wide. The Focus CPU has a transistor count of 450,000 FETs.

References

  See  for HP Journal articles.

FOCUS
Stack machines
32-bit microprocessors
Fred Cohen. Frederick B. Cohen (born 1956) is an American computer scientist and best known as the inventor of computer virus defense techniques. He gave the definition of "computer virus". Cohen is best known for his pioneering work on computer viruses, the invention of high integrity operating system mechanisms now in widespread use, and automation of protection management functions.

In 1983, while a student at the University of Southern California's School of Engineering, he wrote a program for a parasitic application that seized control of computer operations, one of the first computer viruses, in Leonard Adleman’s class. He wrote a short program, as an experiment, that could "infect" computers, make copies of itself, and spread from one machine to another. It was hidden inside a larger, legitimate program, which was loaded into a computer on a floppy disk.

One of the few solid theoretical results in the study of computer viruses is Cohen's 1987 demonstration that there is no algorithm that can perfectly detect all possible viruses.

Cohen also believed there are positive viruses and he had created one called the compression virus which spreading would infect all executable files on a computer, not to destroy, but to make them smaller.

During the past 10 year of his research work, Fred Cohen wrote over 60 professional publications and 11 books.

Papers 
1991, Trends In Computer Virus Research
1991, A Case for Benevolent Viruses
1991, The Computer Security Encyclopedia - Computer Viruses
1992, A Formal Definition of Computer Worms and Some Related Results
1989, Models of Practical Defenses Against Computer Viruses
1988, On the Implications of Computer Viruses and Methods of Defense
1984, Computer Viruses - Theory and Experiments
1989, Models of Practical Defenses Against Computer Viruses

References

 Cohen, F., 1987. "Computer Viruses Theory and Experiments," Computers and Security, vol. 6, pp. 22--35.

American computer scientists
USC Viterbi School of Engineering alumni
Living people
1956 births
Computer security academics
Marcel Tolkowsky. Marcel Tolkowsky (25 December 1899 – 10 February 1991), an engineer by education, was a Belgian member of a Jewish family of diamond cutters from Poland. He is generally acknowledged as the father of the modern round brilliant diamond cut. Many of his family have gone on to become noted diamond cutters, including his cousin Lazare Kaplan and his great-nephew Gabi Tolkowsky.

Tolkowsky, as part of his PhD topic at the University of London, systematically studied the grinding of diamonds. Around the same time, in his book Diamond Design, he published the specifications of what would later be called the American Standard (also known as the American Ideal Cut, Tolkowsky cut, and Tolkowsky Brilliant), which is the diamond-cutting benchmark in North America. It was derived from mathematical calculations that considered both brilliance and fire of the stone. Marcel Tolkowsky found that if a diamond was cut too deep or shallow then light would escape out the sides or bottom of the diamond, resulting in a loss of brilliance (white light reflected up through the top of a diamond), fire (colored light reflected from within a diamond), and sparkle (combination of fire and brilliance). 

The original model was intended to be a set of general guidelines; several aspects of a diamond's cut had not been accounted for or explored. Later modifications of round brilliants differ in minor ways.

References

External links

 Tolkowsky Diamonds – official site
 Diamond Design: A Study of the Reflection and Refraction of Light in a Diamond by Marcel Tolkowsky

1899 births
1991 deaths
20th-century Belgian engineers
Belgian Jews
Diamond cutting
Sysprep. Sysprep  is Microsoft's System Preparation Tool for Microsoft Windows operating system deployment.

History
Sysprep was originally introduced for use with Windows NT 4.0. Later versions introduced for Windows 2000, Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 are available for download from Microsoft website and included in the Windows CD. Windows Vista is the first version of Windows NT to include a version of Sysprep that was independent of the hardware abstraction layer (HAL), in the "out of box" installation.

Purpose
Desktop deployment is typically performed via disk cloning utility. Sysprep can be used to prepare an operating system for disk cloning and restoration via a disk image.

Windows operating system installations include many unique elements per installation that need to be "generalized" before capturing and deploying a disk image to multiple computers. Some of these elements include:
 Computer name
 Security Identifier (SID)
 Driver Cache

Sysprep seeks to solve these issues by allowing for the generation of new computer names, unique SIDs, and custom driver cache databases during the Sysprep process.

Administrators can use tools such as SetupMgr.exe (Windows XP) or the Windows Automated Installation Kit (Windows Vista/7/Server 2008) to generate answer files that Sysprep will process on new computer deployments.

Alternatives to Sysprep
Mark Russinovich of Sysinternals created a partial alternative to Sysprep, named NewSID, in 1997. However, after his own further analysis and research, Russinovich concluded that having duplicate SIDs is a non-issue and arranged NewSID's retirement.

References

External links
 Windows 2000 System Preparation Tool (Sysprep) Version 1.1
 How to use the Sysprep tool to automate successful deployment of Windows XP
 Hardware devices not installed in Sysprep image - 
 Description of New Features in Sysprep for Windows XP - 
 Informational guide on how to use Sysprep for deploying Windows 2000/XP
 Sysprep for Windows 2008 R2
 Microsoft: TechNet: Windows Sysinternals: NewSID v4.10
 SelfImage wiki: Post-cloning operations (discusses Sysprep, also mentions NewSID)

Windows administration