omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Forced convection. Forced convection is a mechanism, or type of transport, in which fluid motion is generated by an external source (like a pump, fan, suction device, etc.). Alongside natural convection, thermal radiation, and thermal conduction it is one of the methods of heat transfer and allows significant amounts of heat energy to be transported very efficiently.

Applications
This mechanism is found very commonly in everyday life, including central heating and air conditioning and in many other machines. Forced convection is often encountered by engineers designing or analyzing heat exchangers, pipe flow, and flow over a plate at a different temperature than the stream (the case of a shuttle wing during re-entry, for example).

Mixed convection
In any forced convection situation, some amount of natural convection is always present whenever there are gravitational forces present (i.e., unless the system is in an inertial frame or free-fall). When the natural convection is not negligible, such flows are typically referred to as mixed convection.

Mathematical analysis
When analyzing potentially mixed convection, a parameter called the Archimedes number (Ar) parametrizes the relative strength of free and forced convection. The Archimedes number is the ratio of Grashof number and the square of Reynolds number, which represents the ratio of buoyancy force and inertia force, and which stands in for the contribution of natural convection. When Ar ≫ 1, natural convection dominates and when Ar ≪ 1, forced convection dominates.
 

When natural convection isn't a significant factor, mathematical analysis with forced convection theories typically yields accurate results. The parameter of importance in forced convection is the Péclet number, which is the ratio of advection (movement by currents) and diffusion (movement from high to low concentrations) of heat.

When the Peclet number is much greater than unity (1), advection dominates diffusion.  Similarly, much smaller ratios indicate a higher rate of diffusion relative to advection.

See also
 Convective heat transfer
 Combined forced and natural convection

References

External links

Thermodynamics
Heat transfer
IMI plc. IMI plc (), formerly Imperial Metal Industries Limited (1962–1968) and IMI Limited (1978–1981), is a British-based engineering company headquartered in Birmingham, England.  It is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index.

History
The company was founded by Scottish entrepreneur George Kynoch who opened a percussion cap factory in Witton, West Midlands in 1862, trading as Kynoch. The business soon diversified, manufacturing goods ranging from soap and bicycle components to non-ferrous metals, but by the early 20th century it had developed particular expertise in metallurgy. After World War I it merged with Nobel Industries. In 1926 the company acquired Eley Brothers, an ammunition business. The company, by then known as Nobel Explosives, was one of the four businesses that merged in 1927 to create Imperial Chemical Industries. The Witton site became the head office of ICI Metals. During the Second World War the Witton site was used for the development and production of uranium for the Tube Alloys project.

In the 1950s the company's researchers perfected the process for producing titanium on a commercial basis. In 1958 ICI Metals bought 50% of Yorkshire Imperial Metals: it acquired the other 50% four years later.

The name Imperial Metal Industries Limited (IMI for short) was adopted on the 100th anniversary of the firm in 1962. The company was listed on the London Stock Exchange in 1966. Initially ICI retained a majority holding, but in 1978 IMI became fully independent. In the 1990s the Company disposed of its more basic businesses such as metal smelting and metal founding.

In 2003, IMI moved from the Witton site to new headquarters close to Birmingham Airport.

The company announced in October 2013 that a decade-long programme of transformation had been completed with the disposal of two non-core subsidiaries to Berkshire Hathaway for £690m. The disposal of the Cornelius Group, a beverage-dispensing machine business, together with the disposal of a marketing intelligence business, would enable the company to focus on its control valve making business.

In November 2022, it was announced IMI had acquired the Blackburn-based smart thermostatic control manufacturer, Heatmiser, for £110 million.

Sectors

The company is involved in five sectors:
Process automation
Industrial automation
Climate control
Life science & fluid control
Transport

References

External links

An Unofficial History of Kynoch Works

Aircraft component manufacturers of the United Kingdom
British companies established in 1862
Companies listed on the London Stock Exchange
Engineering companies of the United Kingdom
Firearm manufacturers of the United Kingdom
Manufacturing companies based in Birmingham, West Midlands
Metal companies of the United Kingdom
1862 establishments in England
Manufacturing companies established in 1862
Companies in the FTSE 100 Index
Avantair. Avantair was an aircraft  fractional ownership company, headquartered at Clearwater, Florida, U.S.A.. Avantair provided fractional ownership, leasing and time card options within a fleet of twin-turboprop-engined P.180 aircraft. Avantair operated the largest fleet of  Piaggio P180 aircraft in the world with a total fleet size of 56 aircraft as of June 2012. The company went out of business in 2013.

History 
Avantair was founded in July 2003 as the exclusive fractional provider of the Piaggio P.180 aircraft and in February 2007, became the only publicly traded (AAIR) stand-alone, private aircraft operator in the industry.

Avantair grounded its fleet in October 2012 following an incident in which an elevator separated from the tail of an aircraft in Camarillo, California. In June 2013, Avantair grounded their fleet again due to questions about maintenance and replacement of time-sensitive parts. By the end of June 2013 the company announced that it could not pay workers for shifts worked after June 8, 2013. The company furloughed air and ground crew and was seeking additional financing to resume operations. The company was also the subject of several class action lawsuits and an individual suit alleging that it had failed to provide pre-paid service to customers.

Avantair declared bankruptcy and then held an initial bankruptcy auction on January 10, 2014.

Fleet
56 x Piaggio P180 Avanti
1 x IAI-1125 Astra

References

External links
Official site

Fractional aircraft ownership companies
Defunct airlines of the United States
Airlines based in Florida
American companies established in 2003
Windecker YE-5. The Windecker YE-5A was an experimental aircraft evaluated by the U.S. Air Force.

It was an all-composite construction aircraft, based on the commercial single-engine, low-wing Windecker Eagle. The YE-5A, delivered in 1973, was used in tests relating to the radar detectability (commonly known as 'stealth') of composite aircraft. A single YE-5A (serial number 73-1653) was built. The YE-5A composite airframe benefited from the U.S. Army project and was shown to be difficult to detect using radar; however other components, including the metal engine, could be seen on radar. The YE-5A was destroyed in a crash during a classified project in 1985, and was replaced by a modified conventional civilian model Windecker Eagle (N4196G), to complete the project. This aircraft is disassembled and in storage in the United States Army Aviation Museum at Fort Novosel, Alabama.

Project CADDO

The U.S. Air Force tests were preceded by tests of a nearly similar prototype, which was delivered to the U.S. Army in 1972. This aircraft was code-named CADDO and tested at Aberdeen Proving Ground. The U.S. Army acquired another Eagle in 1974, which was used for ballistic tests. The U.S. Army Eagle was also used in tests for the U.S. Air Force. Ultimately this aircraft (N803WR) was destroyed by a tornado in 1980.

Specifications (YE-5A)

References

E-5, Windecker
E-5
Stealth aircraft
Low-wing aircraft
Single-engined tractor aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1973
Wangerooge-class tug. The Type 722 Wangerooge-class tugs are a series of ocean-going tugboats that are used for rescue and salvage operation by the German Navy. They are also used for towing targets and retrieving training torpedoes. Survival training for aircraft crews are also carried out with them.

Replacements
On 12 May 2023, the Federal Office of Bundeswehr Equipment, Information Technology and In-Service Support announced the purchase of Rota Endurance, formerly Highland Endurance, an anchor handling tug (AHT) built in 2003 by Vard Søviknes in Norway as commercial replacement. Further acquisitions of similar commercial tugs boats are being considered with a second tender on-going in 2023.

List of ships

The ships are named after East Frisian Islands.

Gallery

References

Sources
 Seeschlepper WANGEROOGE-Klasse (in German) - Marine (official homepage of the German Navy)

Auxiliary ships of Germany
Tugboats of Germany
Auxiliary tugboat classes
Auxiliary ships of the German Navy
8250 UART. The 8250 UART (universal asynchronous receiver-transmitter) is an integrated circuit designed for implementing the interface for serial communications. The part was originally manufactured by the National Semiconductor Corporation. It was commonly used in PCs and related equipment such as printers or modems. The 8250 included an on-chip programmable bit rate generator, allowing use for both common and special-purpose bit rates which could be accurately derived from an arbitrary crystal oscillator reference frequency.  

The chip designations carry suffix letters for later versions of the same chip series. For example, the original 8250 was soon followed by the 8250A and 8250B versions that corrected some bugs. In particular, the original 8250 could repeat transmission of a character if the CTS line was asserted asynchronously during the first transmission attempt.

Due to the high demand, other manufacturers soon began offering compatible chips. Western Digital offered WD8250 chip under Async Communications Interface Adapter (ACIA) and Async Communications Element (ACE) names.

The 16450(A) UART, commonly used in IBM PC/AT-series computers, improved on the 8250 by permitting higher serial line speeds.   

With the introduction of multitasking operating systems on PC hardware, such as OS/2, Windows NT or various flavours of UNIX, the short time available to serve character-by-character interrupt requests became a problem, therefore the IBM PS/2 serial ports introduced the 16550(A) UARTs that had a built-in 16 byte FIFO or buffer memory to collect incoming characters.   

Later models added larger memories, supported higher speeds, combined multiple ports on one chip and finally became part of the now-common Super I/O circuits combining most input/output logic on a PC motherboard.

Blocks 
The line interface consists of:
SOUT, SIN, /RTS, /DTR, DSR, /DCD, /CTS, /RI

Clock interface:
XIN, XOUT, /BAUDOUT, RCLK

Computer interface:
D0..D7, /RD, /WR, INTRPT, MR, A0, A1, A2, ADS, WR, RD, /CS2, CS1, CS0

The interrupt line will (when the IER bit has enabled it) be triggered to go high when one of the following events occur: Receiver line status, Received data available,  Transmitter holding register empty, and MODEM status. The interrupt signal is reset to low level upon the appropriate interrupt service or a reset operation (via MR).

History 
The 8250 UART was used in several 8-bit computers at least since 1978. 
IBM used the 8250 UART in the IBM PC (1981). The 8250A and 8250B revisions were later released, and the 16450 was introduced with the IBM Personal Computer/AT (1984).

The main difference between releases was the maximum communication speed.

IBM refused to use Intel 8251 in the serial port adapter because Intel chip had no internal baudrate generator, and the adapter had to be more complex and expensive. Later IBM implemented Synchronous Communication Adapter, but it was not popular.

References

External links 
 Serial and UART Tutorial
 archive.pcjs.org: National Semiconductor PC16450C/NS16450, PC8250A/INS8250A Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (datasheet, dated 1990)

Input/output integrated circuits
ECW (file format). ECW (Enhanced Compression Wavelet) is a proprietary wavelet compression image format used for aerial photography and satellite imagery. It was developed by Earth Resource Mapping, which is now owned by Intergraph, part of Hexagon AB. It is a lossy compression format for images.

In 1998 Earth Resource Mapping Ltd in Perth, Western Australia company founder Stuart Nixon (founder of Nearmap) and two software developers Simon Cope and Mark Sheridan were researching rapid delivery of terabyte sized images over the internet using inexpensive server technology. The outcome of that research was two products, Image Web Server (IWS) and ECW. ECW enables discrete wavelet transforms (DWT) and inverse-DWT operations to be performed quickly on large images while using a relatively small amount of memory. Related (now expired) patents included  and  for ECW and  for IWS. These patents were obtained by ERDAS Inc. through the acquisition of Earth Resource Mapping on May 21, 2007. Indirectly Hexagon AB became owner of these patents because they acquired Leica Geosystems in 2005 who had acquired ERDAS Inc in 2001.

After JPEG2000 became an image standard, ER Mapper added tools to read and write JPEG2000 data into the ECW SDK to form the ECW JPEG2000 SDK. After subsequent purchase by ERDAS (themselves subsequently merged into Intergraph), the software development kit was renamed to the ERDAS ECW/JP2 SDK. v5 of the SDK was released on 2 July 2013.

Properties 
Map projection information can be embedded into the ECW file format to support geospatial applications.

Image data of up to 65,535 bands (layers or colors) can be compressed into the ECW v2 or v3 file format at a rate of over 25 MB per second on an i7 740QM (4-cores) 1.731 GHz processor using v4.2 of the ECW/JP2 SDK. Data flow compression allows for compression of large images with small RAM requirements. The file format can achieve typical compression ratios from 1:2 to 1:100.

The ECW Protocol (ECWP) is an efficient streaming protocol used to transmit ECW and JPEG2000 images over networks, such as the Internet. ECWP supports ECWPS for private and secure encrypted streaming of image data over public networks such as the Internet.

There is a very fast read-only SDK supporting ECW and JPEG2000 which is available for no charge for desktop implementation for Windows, Linux and MacOSX.  A read / write SDK can be purchased for desktop and server implementations for Windows, Linux and MacOSX. A full functioning server implementation (using ECW, JPEG2000, ECWP and JPIP) was offered within the PROVIDER SUITE of the Power Portfolio (formerly IWS) license.
A previous version of the SDK (3.3) is available in open source, and can be used for non-Microsoft operating systems, such as Linux, macOS or Android.

References

External links 
 Ueffing – Wavelet based ECW image compression (PDF)
 ERDAS ECW/JP2 SDK V5 FAQ (PDF)

GIS raster file formats
Amiga (disambiguation). Amiga is the name of a series of personal computers.

Amiga is the Portuguese, Spanish, Occitan and Catalan word for "friend" in the feminine, or "female friend".

The word may also refer to:

Businesses and products
 Amiga Corporation, the company that originally developed the Amiga personal computer
 AmigaOS, the operating system of the Amiga personal computer
 Commodore-Amiga, Inc., a subsidiary of Commodore International (both now defunct) that developed and marketed the Amiga personal computer
 Amiga Technologies GmbH, a subsidiary of Escom (both now defunct) that was set up following their purchase of Commodore International in 1996
 Amiga, Inc. (South Dakota), the original 1997 Gateway subsidiary named Amiga, Inc. (incorporated in the US state of South Dakota)
 Amiga, Inc., the company incorporated in the US state of Delaware
 Amiga 1000, the first Amiga computer, originally known simply as the Amiga
 Amiga (record label), a record label that originated in East Germany

People
 Coral Amiga, English actress

Other uses
 Amiga (butterfly), a butterfly in the family Nymphalidae
 Amiga (album)

See also
 Amigo (disambiguation)
 Amica (disambiguation)
 Amicus (disambiguation)
Westerwald-class transport ship. The Type 760 Westerwald-class replenishment ship was a class of two replenishment ships of the German Navy. They are commissioned from 1967 to 2010. Their main task was to transport ammunition and material for warships at sea.

Development 
As part of the auxiliary ship program of 1959, drafts for the construction of Type 706 ammunition transporters were drawn up in 1963/64. At the end of 1964, the Orenstein & Koppel shipyard in Lübeck received the order to build two Type 706 ships.

In the mid-1980s, the two ammunition transporters received the complete package for maneuvering, consisting of a transverse thrust system, Becker rudder and GUY reduction gear. The supply stations on the Westerwald were subsequently enlarged, and external platforms that could be folded out to the side were installed.

Armaments were only available during the time with a military crew on board.

The Odenwald was mainly used for the transport of MM-38 missiles to and from Brest / France. The Westerwald was used as a supplier in addition to transporting ammunition. In many cases, he was deployed as a supplier in speedboat or minesweeping squadrons when the tender subordinate to the squadrons was not available.

The two ships were officially reclassified as utilities in the 1990s. The Westerwald received Type 760A and the Odenwald received Type 760B.

Ships of class

Citations

Auxiliary transport ship classes
Auxiliary ships of Germany
Auxiliary ships of the German Navy
AN/ALE-50 towed decoy system. The AN/ALE-50 towed decoy system is an electronic countermeasure tool designed by Raytheon to protect multiple US military aircraft from air-to-air and surface-to-air radar-guided missiles. The AN/ALE-50 towed decoy system is an anti-missile countermeasures decoy system used on U.S. Air Force, Navy, and Marine Corps aircraft, and by certain non-United States air forces. The system is manufactured by Raytheon Space and Airborne Systems at its facility in Goleta, California. The ALE-50 system consists of a launcher and launch controller installed on the aircraft (usually on a wing pylon), and one or more expendable towed decoys. Each decoy is delivered in a sealed canister and has a ten-year shelf life.  

When deployed, the decoy is towed behind the host aircraft, protecting the aircraft and its crew against RF-guided missiles by luring the missile toward the decoy and away from the intended target. In both flight tests and actual combat, the ALE-50 has successfully countered numerous live firings of both surface-to-air and air-to-air missiles. U.S. military pilots have nicknamed the decoy "Little Buddy". The system requires no threat-specific software, and communicates its health and status to the aircraft over a standard data bus.

Operational history 
The ALE-50 was first deployed in 1995, but is also used on the F/A-18E/F Super Hornet and the B-1B Lancer. The ALE-50 has also been integrated into the next-generation AN/ALQ-184(V)9 ECM pod, creating an integrated threat-protection system that can be carried on a larger number of platforms.

The ALE-50 expendable decoys' estimated value is $22,000 each. A production run of 1,048 units were delivered through October 2010. An additional 226 units of ALE-50 Bravo T3F launchers were produced for U.S. Navy F/A-18 E/F aircraft in September 2014.

The ALE-50 towed decoy is currently operational on the F-16 Fighting Falcon, F/A-18E/F, and B-1B aircraft with more than 25,000 deliveries.

See also 

AN/ALE-55 Fiber-Optic Towed Decoy
List of military electronics of the United States

References 

Electronic countermeasures
Electronic warfare equipment
Military electronics of the United States
Equipment of the United States Air Force
Military technology
Raytheon Company products
Towed decoys
Weapons countermeasures
Military equipment introduced in the 1990s
Cast Earth. Cast Earth is a proprietary natural building material developed since the mid-1990s by Harris Lowenhaupt and Michael Frerking based on the earlier Turkish Alker, which is a concrete-like composite with soil of a suitable composition as its bulk component stabilized with about 15% calcined gypsum (plaster of Paris) instead of Portland cement. It can be used to form solid walls that need not be reinforced with a steel frame or timber framing, unless extra seismic reinforcement is necessary. Forms are set up and filled with Cast Earth, which sets quickly and solidly. Once the forms are removed the wall stays sound.

Cast Earth is often promoted as an environmentally friendly alternative to cast concrete. The Cast Earth slurry is poured in forms similar to concrete construction and is a suitable alternative to concrete walls in areas prone to hurricane damage. The technology has the potential to be able to compete against traditional wood-frame construction in terms of cost. Cast Earth can also be installed with a lot less labor than most green alternatives, such as rammed earth. Since the product is proprietary, installation requires a crew trained by the Cast Earth company, leaving it out of reach of do-it-yourself builders. It is also not cost-effective for contractors unless they do a lot of Cast Earth installations. 

The calcined gypsum sets quickly. When calcined gypsum is added to soil, the setting time is reduced even further, to mere minutes. Often this quick setting is too fast and a retardant must be added to the mix so it can be poured. In Alker, lime is added to extend working time to 20 minutes. Cast Earth uses another retardant for an even greater working time. This ingredient is proprietary and a carefully guarded secret. When the material is dry, it is similar to adobe in various ways, outperforming it in tensile strength, hardness, and erosion resistance. It also has less tendency to crack and shrink. Some Cast Earth walls do soak up water, however, depending upon the porosity of the earthen materials used.  For example, decomposed granite tends to be prone to absorption if the eaves of the roof is inadequate or it is exposed to water for a prolonged time, i.e. days.  Limestone materials however, tend to repel water once the walls are completely dried/cured.

References

External links
 http://www.castearth.com/ is the inventor's website

Soil-based building materials
Masonry
FalconSAT-2. FalconSAT-2 (FS 2, COSPAR 2006-F01) was a satellite built by students of the United States Air Force Academy as part of the FalconSAT program. It was intended to have been placed into low Earth orbit to study the effects of plasma on communications with spacecraft, however it failed to reach orbit due to a malfunction of its carrier rocket.

The FalconSAT-2 program started in late 2000, as a follow-up to FalconSAT-1. The spacecraft was based on a bus constructed by Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd, with the experiments being constructed at the USAF Academy. The primary instrument aboard FalconSAT-2 was the Miniaturized Electrostatic Analyzer, or MESA. It was originally scheduled to be deployed from , on mission STS-114 in early 2003. Following the Columbia accident this mission was delayed, and FalconSAT-2 was removed from the Shuttle manifest.

FalconSAT-2 was assigned as the payload for the maiden flight of the Falcon 1 rocket, which was launched from Omelek Island at 22:30 GMT on 24 March 2006. At launch, a corroded nut caused an engine fire, leading to the failure of the engine 25 seconds into the flight. The rocket fell into the Pacific Ocean close to the launch site. FalconSAT-2 was thrown clear of the rocket, and landed in a storage shed on Omelek Island, just a few feet from its own shipping container.

See also

C/NOFS

References

Spacecraft launched in 2006
Satellite launch failures
SpaceX military payloads
Rocket launches in 2006
Space accidents and incidents in the United States