omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Claybord. Claybord Black is a clay coated hardboard panel for scratchboard that is coated with India ink. Comparable to traditional paper scratchboard, it’s more durable and easier to scratch into for cleaner and crisper details and lines. The surface is made of a special clay coating that allows for precise detail and fine lines in drawing, painting, and other artistic techniques. The black background provides a striking contrast for white or colored mediums, making artwork stand out. Artists often use Claybord Black for techniques such as scratchboard, scratch art, and ink drawing. For added dimension, colored inks can be added to the white areas and then scratched again for additional highlights and volume.

Ingredients 
The exact ingredients, which are used in making Claybord, like many proprietary art materials, depend of the manufacturer. However, based on general knowledge of similar art surfaces and materials, Claybord likely include the following ingredients:

 Support Material: This is typically a rigid panel made from materials such as wood, Masonite (a type of hardboard), or similar substrates.

 Clay Coating: Claybord gets its name from a layer of white kaolin clay that is applied to the support material. Kaolin clay is a type of clay mineral that is often used in ceramics and art materials for its smooth texture and absorbency.

 Ground: The clay coating is typically treated with an absorbent ground that allows for the application of various artistic mediums such as ink, paint, and pastels. The specific formulation of this ground may vary depending on the desired characteristics of the final product.

 Protective Sealant (Optional): Some Claybord panels may be coated with a protective sealant to enhance durability and quality. This sealant can help protect the artwork from damage caused by moisture, UV light, and other environmental factors.

External links
 Manufacture - Ampersand Art Supply
 Inventor - Charles Ewing
 The New Scratchbord by Charles Ewing, 
 How to Create Art without Knowing How to Draw a Straight Line by Arlene Wright-Correll - 
 The Scratchbord Art Series of Arlene Wright-Correll

Visual arts materials
Carbon respiration. Carbon respiration (also referred to as carbon emissions and carbon releases) is the global release into the atmosphere of carbon through natural and artificial processes. It is used in combination with carbon fixation to gauge carbon flux (including CO2 flux) between atmospheric carbon and the global carbon cycle

Basic process
Carbon is released to the atmosphere through the burning of fossil fuels, organic respiration, wood burning, and volcanic eruptions. The uptake of carbon from the atmosphere occurs through carbon dissolution into the oceans, Photosynthesis, and the consequent storing of carbon in various forms such as peat bogs, oil accumulation, and formation of minerals such as coal and copper. It also happens when carbohydrates are changed into carbon dioxide.

Carbon flux ratio

The calculation of the annual net difference between carbon release and carbon storage constitutes the annual global atmospheric carbon accumulation rate. Using this method, the annual carbon flux ratio has been calculated to be approaching zero. This means the carbon respiration rate and carbon storage rate are in balance when generating a global estimate of this figure.

Annual net carbon flux has been grossly calculated to be close to zero, implying the carbon release and carbon fixation rates are roughly in balance worldwide.  This finding is contradicted by measuring the concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, an important indication that the balance is tipped toward emissions.  Using this data, atmospheric concentrations appear to have increased rapidly over the past 100 years and are currently higher than ever in human history, suggesting that more carbon is being released than can be absorbed on earth.

References

Atmosphere
Respiration
True Love (short story). "True Love" is a science fiction short story by American writer Isaac Asimov. It was first published in the February 1977 issue of American Way magazine and reprinted in the collections The Complete Robot (1982) and Robot Dreams (1986).

In his autobiography In Joy Still Felt, the author states that American Way had requested a Valentine's Day story from him for its February 1977 issue, and that he wrote the story to console himself after the departure of his daughter following a visit during the 1976 Thanksgiving weekend.

Plot summary
Milton Davidson is trying to find his ideal partner. To do this, he prepares a special computer program to run on Multivac, which he calls Joe, which has access to databases covering the entire populace of the world. He hopes that Joe will find him his ideal match, based on physical parameters as supplied. 

Milton arranges to have the shortlisted candidates assigned to work with him for short periods, but realises that looks alone are not enough to find an ideal match. In order to correlate personalities, he speaks at great length to Joe, gradually filling Joe's databanks with information about his personality.

In doing so, Joe develops the personality of Milton. Upon finding an ideal match, he arranges to have Milton arrested for malfeasance, so that Joe can 'have the girl' for himself.

External links 
 

Multivac short stories by Isaac Asimov
1977 short stories
Gregori Aminoff Prize. The Gregori Aminoff Prize is an international prize awarded since 1979 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in the field of crystallography, rewarding "a documented, individual contribution in the field of crystallography, including areas concerned with the dynamics of the formation and dissolution of crystal structures. Some preference should be shown for work evincing elegance in the approach to the problem."

The prize, which is named in memory of the Swedish scientist and artist Gregori Aminoff (1883–1947), Professor of Mineralogy at the Swedish Museum of Natural History from 1923, was endowed through a bequest by his widow Birgit Broomé-Aminoff. The prize can be shared by several winners. It is considered the Nobel prize for crystallography.

Recipients of the Prize
Source: Royal Swedish Academy of Science

See also

 List of chemistry awards
 List of physics awards

References

Notes

A. The form and spelling of the names in the name column is according to www.kva.se, the official website of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Alternative spellings and name forms, where they exist, are given at the articles linked from this column.

B. The information in the country column is according to www.kva.se, the official website of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. This information may not necessarily reflect the recipient's birthplace or citizenship.

C. The information in the institution column is according to www.kva.se, the official website of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. This information may not necessarily reflect the recipient's current institution.

D. The citation for each award is quoted (not always in full) www.kva.se, the official website of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. The links in this column are to articles (or sections of articles) on the history and areas of physics for which the awards were presented. The links are intended only as a guide and explanation. For a full account of the work done by each prize winner, please see the biography articles linked from the name column.

Citations

External links
awardee of the Gregori Aminoff Prize 

Awards of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
Chemistry awards
Crystallography awards
Physics awards
Awards established in 1979
Sa'ar 3-class missile boat. The Sa'ar 3 class ("Cherbourg") is a series of missile boats built in Cherbourg, France at the Amiot Shipyard based on an Israeli Navy modification of the German Navy's . They are also known as the stars of Cherbourg.

Design and development 
The Israeli naval command had reached the conclusion by the early 1960s that their old Second World War-era destroyers, frigates and corvettes were obsolete and new ships and vessels were needed.  Yitzhak Shoshan, later to command the destroyer INS Eilat at the time of her sinking, surveyed the available torpedo boat designs and recommended the German .  The Israeli Navy asked Lürssen, the shipyard which built the Jaguar class, to modify the wooden Jaguar-class design by switching to steel construction, adding  to the length, and revising the internal compartmentalization.  Due to Arab League pressure on the German government, this plan was not continued and a new builder was sought.  The Israeli Navy discovered that the Cherbourg-based Constructions Mécaniques de Normandie owned by Félix Amiot had experience building patrol boats in cooperation with Lürssen and would build the boats, based upon the German designs and plans.  The engines were imported from Germany.  The project received the code name "Falling Leaves" (). After the last 5 built were placed under embargo by the government of France, they were retrieved in the Cherbourg Project.

Operational history 
The Sa'ar 3 boats' first battle engagements were made during the October 1973 Yom Kippur War. During this war, the first surface-to-surface missile naval engagements took place. The first was at the Battle of Latakia where the Israeli Navy defeated many Syrian boats and coastal targets using Otobreda 76 mm guns and missiles.  This was followed shortly thereafter by Israeli defeat of Egyptian forces at the Battle of Baltim.

In the 1980s, one of the Sa'ar boats got stuck in the Coastal waters of Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabian authorities allowed the Israeli navy to free the ship and to take it away.

Vessels in the class 
 INS Sa'ar (Tempest)
 INS Sufa (Storm)
 INS Ga'ash (Volcanic Storm)
 INS Herev (Sword)
 INS Hanit (Spear) - sold to Chile in 1988, renamed Iquique
 INS Hetz (Arrow) - sold to Chile in 1988, renamed Covadonga

See also
 Cherbourg Project

References

Notes

Bibliography
 

Missile boat classes
Missile boats of the Israeli Navy
Missile boats of the Chilean Navy
Cherbourg-Octeville
Zoubin Ghahramani. Zoubin Ghahramani FRS (; born 8 February 1970) is a British-Iranian researcher and Professor of Information Engineering at the University of Cambridge. He holds joint appointments at University College London and the Alan Turing Institute. and has been a Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge since 2009. He was Associate Research Professor at Carnegie Mellon University School of Computer Science from 2003 to 2012. He was also the Chief Scientist of Uber from 2016 until 2020. He joined Google Brain in 2020 as senior research director. He is also Deputy Director of the Leverhulme Centre for the Future of Intelligence.

Education
Ghahramani was educated at the American School of Madrid in Spain and the University of Pennsylvania where he was awarded a double major degree in Cognitive Science and Computer Science in 1990. He obtained his Ph.D. from the Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, supervised by Michael I. Jordan and Tomaso Poggio.

Research and career
Following his Ph.D., Ghahramani moved to the University of Toronto in 1995 as a Postdoctoral Fellow in the Artificial Intelligence Lab, working with Geoffrey Hinton. From 1998 to 2005, he was a member of the faculty at the Gatsby Computational Neuroscience Unit, University College London.

Ghahramani has made significant contributions in the areas of Bayesian machine learning (particularly variational methods for approximate Bayesian inference), as well as graphical models and computational neuroscience. His current research focuses on nonparametric Bayesian modelling and statistical machine learning. He has also worked on artificial intelligence, information retrieval, bioinformatics and statistics which provide the mathematical foundations for handling uncertainty, making decisions, and designing learning systems. He has published over 200 papers, receiving over 80,000 citations (an h-index of 120).

He co-founded Geometric Intelligence in 2014, with Gary Marcus, Doug Bemis, and Ken Stanley, which was acquired by Uber in 2016. Afterwards, he transferred to Uber's AI Labs in 2016, and later became Chief Scientist at Uber, replacing Gary Marcus. In 2020 he joined Google and became the Sr. Director of Google Brain in April 2021 after Samy Bengio's departure.

Awards and honors
Ghahramani was elected Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 2015. His certificate of election reads:

He was awarded the Royal Society Milner Award in 2021 in recognition of ‘his fundamental contributions to probabilistic machine learning’.

References

External links
 

1970 births
Machine learning researchers
Artificial intelligence researchers
Living people
Members of the University of Cambridge Department of Engineering
British people of Iranian descent
Iranian engineers
Carnegie Mellon University faculty
Academics of University College London
Massachusetts Institute of Technology School of Science alumni
Fellows of St John's College, Cambridge
Fellows of the Royal Society
Uber people
Engineering professors at the University of Cambridge
Beta cloth. Beta cloth is a type of fireproof PTFE impregnated silica fiber cloth used in the manufacture of Apollo/Skylab A7L space suits, the Apollo Thermal Micrometeoroid Garment, the McDivitt Purse, and in other specialized applications.

Beta cloth consists of fine woven silica fiber, similar to glass fiber. The resulting fabric does not burn, and melts only at temperatures exceeding . To reduce its tendency to crease or tear when manipulated, and to increase durability, the fibers are coated with Teflon.

Details
The tight weave of Beta cloth makes it more resistant to atomic oxygen exposure. Its ability to resist atomic oxygen exposure means it is commonly used as the outer-most layer of multi-layer insulation for space; it was used on the Space Shuttle and the International Space Station.

It was incorporated into NASA space suits after the deadly 1967 Apollo 1 launch pad fire, in which the astronauts' nylon suits burned through. After the fire, NASA demanded any potentially flammable materials be removed from both the spacecraft and space suits. Beta cloth was developed by a Manned Spacecraft Center team led by Frederick S. Dawn and including Matthew I. Radnofsky working with the Owens-Corning and DuPont companies.

Where additional wear resistance was needed, external patches of Chromel-R metallic cloth were used.

Beta cloth was used as the material for the Skylab shower enclosure.

The interior of the Space Shuttle payload bay was almost completely covered with Beta cloth. This protected it while it was opened for weeks at a time in space.

Beta cloth is used on the Curiosity Mars rover.

See also
 Multi-layer insulation
 Materials for use in vacuum

References

External links

 NASA - Multilayer Insulation Material Guidelines (1999)
 

Apollo program hardware
Flame retardant fabrics
Woven fabrics
Horatio Frederick Phillips. Horatio Frederick Phillips (1845 – 1924) was an English aviation pioneer, born in Streatham, Surrey. He was famous for building multiplane flying machines with many more sets of lifting surfaces than are normal on modern aircraft. However he made a more lasting contribution to aeronautics in his work on aerofoil design.

Aerofoils
Phillips devised a wind tunnel in which he studied a wide variety of aerofoil shapes for use in providing lift. The tunnel was unusual in that the gas flow was provided by steam rather than air.

By 1884 he was able to register his first patent, and more were to follow. He demonstrated the truth of George Cayley's idea that giving the upper surface greater curvature than the lower accelerates the upper airflow, reducing pressure above the wing and so creating lift.

Multiplane flying machines

Phillips believed that multiple stacked wing planes (or "sustainers" as he called them), in "Venetian blind" configuration, offered advantages.
 His 1893 Flying Machine had 50 lifting surfaces and used his patented "double-surface airfoils" in such a way as to produce an aspect ratio of 1:152, providing great lift at the sacrifice of stability. As a test vehicle, it was not designed to be manned, but was used to test lifting capability. Its maximum load was found to be .
 His 1904 Multiplane was a development of the 1893 test vehicle in a configuration that could be flown by a person. It had 21 wings and had a tail for stability, but was unable to achieve sustained flight. Its best performance was . A specially made replica of the 1904 machine appears in the opening sequences of the 1965 film Those Magnificent Men in their Flying Machines.

 His 1907 Multiplane, which had 200 individual airfoils and was powered by a  engine driving a  propeller achieved a  flight on 6 April 1907. This was the first flight of its kind in England, although it was preceded by the Wright brothers by several years.
Though successful, the 1907 model showed poor performance compared to more conventional contemporary types. This caused Phillips to end his attempts at manned flight.

References

External links
Guide to Horatio Philips, Letter to Octave Chanute August 25, 1909 at the University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center

British aviation pioneers
English engineers
1845 births
1924 deaths
Phillips
Coring. Coring happens when a heated alloy, such as a Cu-Ni system, cools in non-equilibrium conditions. The center of each grain, which is the first part to freeze, is rich in the high-melting element (e.g., nickel for this Cu–Ni system), whereas the concentration of the low-melting element increases with position from this region to the grain boundary. This is termed a 'cored structure', which gives rise to less than the optimal properties. The distribution of the two elements within the grains is nonuniform, a phenomenon termed 'segregation'; that is, concentration gradients are established across the grains. 

As a casting having a cored structure is reheated, grain boundary regions will melt first in as much as they are richer in the low-melting component. This produces a sudden loss in mechanical integrity due to the thin liquid film that separates the grains. Furthermore, this melting may begin at a temperature below the equilibrium solidus temperature of the alloy. Coring may be eliminated by a homogenization heat treatment carried out at a temperature below the solidus point for the particular alloy composition. During this process, atomic diffusion occurs, which produces compositionally homogeneous grains.

Coring is predominantly observed in alloys having a marked difference between liquidus and solidus temperatures. It is often being removed by subsequent annealing and/or hot-working. It is exploited in zone refining techniques to produce high purity metals. Coring was first discovered by Aubrey Tang.

References
 Beddoes, J. and Bibby, M.J. Principles of Metal Manufacturing Processes. E
 William D. Callister, Jr. "Materials Science and Engineering. An Introduction".

Metallurgy
Toolkit for Conceptual Modeling. The Toolkit for Conceptual Modeling (TCM) is a collection of software tools to present specifications of software systems in the form of diagrams, tables, trees, and the like. TCM offers editors for techniques used in Structured Analysis as well as editors for object-oriented (UML) techniques. For some of the behavior specification techniques, an interface to model checkers is offered. More in particular, TCM contains the following editors.

 Generic editors for generic diagrams, generic tables and generic trees. All available icons can be used and no syntactic diagram constraints are checked.
 Unified Modeling Language (UML) editors for static structure (i.e. class and object) diagrams, use-case diagrams, activity diagrams, statecharts, collaboration diagrams, component diagrams and deployment diagrams.
 Structured Analysis (SA) editors for entity-relationship diagrams, data and event flow diagrams, state transition diagrams, function refinement trees, transaction-use tables and function-entity type tables.
 Miscellaneous editors such as for JSD (process structure and network diagrams), recursive process graphs and transaction decomposition tables. These editors are no longer updated but they will remain available within TCM.

The Toolkit for Conceptual Modeling was written circa 1996, by Roel Wieringa and Frank Dehne, for Wieringa's conceptual modeling courses and books, Requirements Engineering: Frameworks for Understanding, and Design Methods for Reactive Systems: Yourdon, Statemate and the UML.

PDF versions of the User Guide and report, The Yourdon Systems Method and the toolkit for conceptual modeling are available for download.

TCM was an example of Computer Aided Software Engineering support for Method for Conceptual Modeling (MCM) in Model-Driven Architecture in Practice. It was referenced in Petri Net Technology for Communication-Based Systems, Formal Ontology in Information Systems, and Proceedings : Ninth International Workshop on Software Specification and Design.

TCM has been cited in patents for automatic software production.

In 1997, NASA converted TCM C++ source to Java for a Web-based Hyper-text Environment for Requirements Engineering (WHERE) project.

See also
 Model Driven Engineering (MDE)

References

External links
 Tookit for Conceptual modeling: home page for the toolkit.

Free diagramming software
Concept mapping software
UML tools
Kansas City, Clay County and St. Joseph Railway. The Kansas City, Clay County and St. Joseph Railway was an electrified interurban railway that ran between Kansas City, Missouri, and St. Joseph, Missouri, from the early 1900s until 1933.  It was the longest of the various interurbans serving Kansas City running nearly  and extended another  to Savannah, Missouri.

The railway was built over the course of three years by electrical engineer George Townsend, brother to writer and congressman Edward W. Townsend and composer Cornelia Townsend. The interurban was a light rail system in which single cars traveled powered by an overhead electric wire.  The interurban ran hourly.  Fare was $1.55 and it took nearly two hours from downtown to downtown.  One line went from Kansas City to St. Joseph, another line went from Kansas City to Excelsior Springs.

The railway made Townsend wealthy. George Townsend killed himself in Kansas City, MO on June 24, 1913 by jumping into the Missouri River.

See also
List of interurbans

References

External links
Interurban road

Kansas City interurban railways
Clay County, Missouri
Platte County, Missouri
Buchanan County, Missouri
1933 disestablishments in Missouri
Defunct Missouri railroads
Transportation in Kansas City, Missouri
St. Joseph, Missouri
Kansas City and Olathe Electric Railway. The Kansas City and Olathe Electric Railway was a  electric interurban rail line between Kansas City, Missouri, and Olathe, Kansas. When it began operation in 1908, it ran from Rosedale, southwest through South Park to Merriam, then west to Shawnee. The road was abandoned in 1934.

It was also known as the Kansas City, Lawrence and Topeka Railway (because it originally was supposed to go to those cities), the Hocker's Grove Line for developer Richard W. Hocker (it now is usually referred to as the Hocker Line) and the Kansas City, Merriam and Shawnee Line (it was to stir development in Merriam and Shawnee, Kansas).

See also
List of interurbans

References

External links
Kansas City, Kansas Public Library History
A Splendid Ride: The Streetcars of Kansas City, 1870-1957

Kansas City interurban railways
Transportation in Johnson County, Kansas
Transportation in Olathe, Kansas
Railway companies established in 1903
1934 disestablishments in Kansas
Defunct Kansas railroads
American companies established in 1903
1903 establishments in Kansas
American companies disestablished in 1934
Railway lines opened in 1908