omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Gy's sampling theory. Gy's sampling theory is a theory about the sampling of materials, developed by Pierre Gy from the 1950s to beginning 2000s in articles and books including:

(1960) Sampling nomogram
(1979) Sampling of particulate materials; theory and practice
(1982) Sampling of particulate materials; theory and practice; 2nd edition
(1992) Sampling of Heterogeneous and Dynamic Material Systems: Theories of Heterogeneity, Sampling and Homogenizing
(1998) Sampling for Analytical Purposes

The abbreviation "TOS" is also used to denote Gy's sampling theory.

Gy's sampling theory uses a model in which the sample taking is represented by independent Bernoulli trials for every particle in the parent population from which the sample is drawn. The two possible outcomes of each Bernoulli trial are: (1) the particle is selected and (2) the particle is not selected. The probability of selecting a particle may be different during each Bernoulli trial. The model used by Gy is mathematically equivalent to Poisson sampling. Using this model, the following equation for the variance of the sampling error in the mass concentration in a sample was derived by Gy:

in which V is the variance of the sampling error, N is the number of particles in the population (before the sample was taken), q i is the probability of including the ith particle of the population in the sample (i.e. the first-order inclusion probability of the ith particle), m i is the mass of the ith particle of the population and a i is the mass concentration of the property of interest in the ith particle of the population.

It is noted that the above equation for the variance of the sampling error is an approximation based on a linearization of the mass concentration in a sample.

In the theory of Gy, correct sampling is defined as a sampling scenario in which all particles have the same probability of being included in the sample. This implies that q i no longer depends on i, and can therefore be replaced by the symbol q. Gy's equation for the variance of the sampling error becomes:

where abatch is the concentration of the property of interest in the population from which the sample is to be drawn and Mbatch is the mass of the population from which the sample is to be drawn. It has been noted that a similar equation had already been derived in 1935 by Kassel and Guy.

Two books covering the theory and practice of sampling are available; one is the Third Edition of a high-level monograph and the other an introductory text.

See also 
Statistical sampling

References 

Sampling (statistics)
No. 77 Squadron RAF. No. 77 Squadron RAF was a squadron of the Royal Air Force which was active in various incarnations between 1916 and 1963.

History
No. 77 Squadron was formed on 1 October 1916 at Edinburgh, and was equipped with B.E.2 and B.E.12 aircraft. The squadron disbanded at RAF Turnhouse on 13 June 1919.

The squadron was reformed on 14 June 1937, at RAF Finningley from 'B' Flight of No. 102 Squadron. It operated the Hawker Audax until November 1937, then re-equipped with the Vickers Wellesley. In 1938 the squadron moved to RAF Driffield, to form part of No. 4 Group, and re-equipped with Armstrong Whitworth Whitleys. The squadron joined Coastal Command in May 1942 and was engaged in anti-submarine patrols, based at RAF Chivenor.

In October 1942, the squadron converted to Halifaxes at RAF Elvington, moving to RAF Full Sutton in May 1944. On 8 May 1945 the squadron joined Transport Command, and in July 1945 re-equipped with Douglas Dakotas. The squadron moved to RAF Broadwell in August 1945 followed by a posting to India in October 1945. The squadron was disbanded by being renumbered as No. 31 Squadron on 1 November 1946.

It was reformed at Broadwell in December 1946 when No. 271 Squadron was re-numbered. The squadron operated Dakotas during the Berlin Airlift and then disbanded on 1 June 1949 at RAF Waterbeach.

Strategic missiles
The squadron was again reformed as 77(SM) Sqn. - on 1 September 1958 as one of 20 Strategic Missile (SM) squadrons associated with Project Emily. The squadron was equipped with three PGM-17 Thor Intermediate range ballistic missiles, and based at RAF Feltwell.

In October 1962, during the Cuban Missile Crisis, the squadron was kept at full readiness, with the missiles aimed at strategic targets in the USSR.
The squadron was disbanded on 10 July 1963 with the termination of the Thor Program in Britain.

Aircraft operated
 1916-1918 Royal Aircraft Factory BE2c
 1916-1918 Royal Aircraft Factory BE12
 1916 Airco DH.6
 1916 Royal Aircraft Factory BE2d
 1917-1918 Royal Aircraft Factory BE2e
 1917-1918 Royal Aircraft Factory RE8
 1917-1918 Royal Aircraft Factory BE12b
 1918-1919 Avro 504K (NF)
 1937 Hawker Audax
 1937-1938 Vickers Wellesley
 1938-1939 Armstrong Whitworth Whitley III
 1939-1942 Armstrong Whitworth Whitley V
 1942-1945 Handley Page Halifax II, III, VI and V
 1945-1946 Douglas Dakota
 1946-1949 Douglas Dakota
 1958-1963 PGM-17 Thor IRBM

Squadron Codes
 November 1938September 1939; ZL
 September 1939November 1946; KN
 1943May 1945; TB ('C' flight)
 December 1946June 1949; YS (inherited from No. 271 Squadron)

See also
 List of Thor missile bases

References

Citations

Bibliography

External links

 
 
 

077
077
No. 77
Ballistic missile squadrons of the Royal Air Force
Parting line. A parting line,  in industrial casting of molds, is the border line between the two halves of the mold (known as the “core” and the “cavity.”), which draft direction change at here. One can check the parting line in the mould or product which divides the two half.  It is sometimes a starting point for the mold parting surface.  In engineering drawing, a parting line is often abbreviated as PL. ASME's Y14.8 standard specifies a symbol for parting line. Engineering applications (seals, tight running molded parts) that require precision for shape control, call for removal of flashes. Many molders will repair or even replace the mold tooling so that the flash is reduced to an acceptable tolerance or eliminated altogether. Secondary operations to remove parting line flash include hand trimming, vibratory tumbling, media blasting and cryogenic deflashing.

References

Metalworking terminology
Plastics industry
Scandinavian hydrogen highway partnership. The Scandinavian hydrogen highway partnership is a collaboration started in June 2006 to connect the hydrogen highways  hydrogen link network (Denmark), Hyfuture (Sweden) and Hynor (Norway). 

The planned highway is part of the hydrogen infrastructure, there are several hydrogen re-fueling stations planned along the route.

See also
Hydrogen economy

References

External links
SHHP

Hydrogen economy
Road transport in Denmark
Transport in Sweden
Road transport in Norway
Kattel Bridge. Kapteel Bridge (Zomi: Kapteel Guun Lei) is a bridge in Tedim Township, Chin State, Myanmar and opened on April 25, 2002. Kapteel Bridge is a suspension bridge across Manipur River in Chin State (Zogam).

The bridge is   long and  wide. The bridge is on Tedim - Kapteel - Rih Lake motor road. Its clearance is  wide and  high, and it can bear three tons of load. The bridge was built by Deputy Superintending Engineer U San Win.

Opening ceremony
The bridge opening ceremony was held at the central pandal of the bridge on April 25, 2002. The opening ceremony was attended by Chairman of Sagaing Division Peace and Development Council Commander of North-West Command Brig-Gen Soe Naing, Minister for Construction Maj-Gen Saw Tun, Brig-Gen Khin Maung Aye of Kalay Station, Deputy Minister for Construction Brig-Gen Myint Thein, officials of the ministry, state/district/township level departmental officials, members of the Union Solidarity and Development Association, Maternal and Child Welfare Association, Red Cross Society and Social Organization, and local people, totalling 2,200.

References

Buildings and structures in Chin State
Bridges in Myanmar
Bridges completed in 2002
2002 establishments in Myanmar
Overlapping distribution method. The Overlapping distribution method was introduced by Charles H. Bennett for estimating chemical potential.

Theory 

For two N particle systems 0 and 1 with partition function  and  ,  

from 

get the thermodynamic free energy difference is 

For every configuration visited during this sampling of system 1 we can compute the potential energy U as a function of the configuration space, and the potential energy difference is 

Now construct a probability density of the potential energy from the above equation:

where in  is a configurational part of a partition function

 

since 

now define two functions:

thus that 

and can be obtained by fitting  and

References 

Potentials
Chemical thermodynamics
Eugène Belgrand. Eugène Belgrand (23 April 1810 – 8 April 1878) was a French engineer who made significant contributions to the modernization of the Parisian sewer system during the 19th century rebuilding of Paris.  Much of Belgrand's work remains in use today.

Civil engineering
Prior to 1850, the water system in Paris was inadequate for its growing population.  Waste water was discharged into the Seine, a primary source of the critically limited supply of drinking water.  Baron Haussmann, tasked by Napoléon III to modernize the city, appointed Belgrand as Director of Water and Sewers of Paris in March 1855.  Hausmann had been impressed by the École Polytechnique graduate's application of geology to water engineering during the design of a fountain in Avallon and he became an engineer from the Ponts et Chaussées School and integrated the Yonne technical services in Avallon in 1849. He studied the ancient languages.

Belgrand embarked on an ambitious project.  The tunnels he designed were intended to be clean, easily accessible, and substantially larger than the previous Parisian underground. Eugène Belgrand took part in the renovation of Paris under the leadership of Haussman between 1852 and 1870: he created an innovating network of underground pipes to prevent Paris from being flooded.  Under his guidance, Paris's sewer system expanded fourfold between 1852 and 1869.  He also addressed the city's fresh water needs, constructing a system of aqueducts that nearly doubled the amount of water available per person per day and quadrupled the number of homes with running water. Belgrand remains famous for his works, consisting the Paris sewers, the aqueduct on the Vanne river between Arcueil and Cachan, the aqueduct on the Dhuis river (:fr: Dhuis (rivière)) and the reservoir of Montsouris (:fr: Réservoir de Montsouris) which stores the water underground.

Public reaction to the improvements was overwhelmingly favourable, supported by tours of the newly constructed sewer system and a series of photographs taken by Nadar, pioneering the use of artificial lighting for photography.  Belgrand shared his insights with others, writing "monumental publications" detailing his work and the science behind it.

Belgrand's projects remain "one of the most extensive urban sewer systems in the world" and served as a "transitional phase" leading to modern wastewater processing. Belgrand wrote the  history of Paris.

Commemoration
To commemorate his work in Parisian civil engineering, Belgrand's name is one of 72 names engraved on the Eiffel Tower, opposite the École Militaire.  The main gallery of the Paris Sewer Museum is also named in his honor, as is a street in Paris.

Now his name is a school's name in the small town of Ervy-le-Châtel.

References

Related

External links
 

French civil engineers
École Polytechnique alumni
École des Ponts ParisTech alumni
Corps des ponts
1810 births
1878 deaths
Members of the French Academy of Sciences
Engineers from Paris
Burials at Montparnasse Cemetery
Noflan. Noflan is a flame retardant chemical. It was developed in the 1980s by the Moscow State Textile University and the Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics in Moscow, with the aim of fire-proofing the fabric used in Soviet spacecraft. In the 1990s the technology was commercialised and licensed to Firestop Chemicals.

Composition

As halogens and antimony containing flame retardant result in unwanted degradation, alternatives have been under research.
Noflan is a complex of the amide of alkylphosphonic acid ammonium salt with ammonium chloride but is also alleged to cause corrosion.

Uses
Noflan is used to treat fabric and carpets in trains, buses and aircraft, including the Airbus A380.

Gävle straw goat
Noflan was used to protect a giant straw yule goat or julbocken from arson in Gävle, Sweden during December 2006.

References

 New Scientist 22/11/07

External links
 http://www.firestop.uk.com/textiles.htm Firestop's page on Noflan

Flame retardants
Configuration entropy. In statistical mechanics, configuration entropy is the portion of a system's entropy that is related to discrete representative positions of its constituent particles. For example, it may refer to the number of ways that atoms or molecules pack together in a mixture, alloy or glass, the number of conformations of a molecule, or the number of spin configurations in a magnet. The name might suggest that it relates to all possible configurations or particle positions of a system, excluding the entropy of their velocity or momentum, but that usage rarely occurs.

Calculation 
If the configurations all have the same weighting, or energy, the configurational entropy is given by Boltzmann's entropy formula
 
where kB is the Boltzmann constant and W is the number of possible configurations. In a more general formulation, if a system can be in states n with probabilities Pn, the configurational entropy of the system is given by
 
which in the perfect disorder limit (all Pn = 1/W) leads to Boltzmann's formula, while in the opposite limit (one configuration with probability 1), the entropy vanishes. This formulation is called the Gibbs entropy formula and is analogous to that of Shannon's information entropy.

The mathematical field of combinatorics, and in particular the mathematics of combinations and permutations is highly important in the calculation of configurational entropy.  In particular, this field of mathematics offers formalized approaches for calculating the number of ways of choosing or arranging discrete objects; in this case, atoms or molecules.  However, it is important to note that the positions of molecules are not strictly speaking discrete above the quantum level.  Thus a variety of approximations may be used in discretizing a system to allow for a purely combinatorial approach.  Alternatively, integral methods may be used in some cases to work directly with continuous position functions, usually denoted as a configurational integral.

See also 
 Conformational entropy
 Combinatorics
 Entropic force
 Entropy of mixing
 High entropy oxide
 Nanomechanics

Notes

References 

 

Statistical mechanics
Thermodynamic entropy
Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics
Entropy
Highdeal. Highdeal, a privately owned BSS software product company, was founded in  in the R&D labs of France Télécom by a team including Eric Pillevesse and Serge Soudoplatoff, and officially spun off in the year 2000. Highdeal's flagship product, Highdeal Transactive, is a modular software suite. Highdeal was acquired by SAP in June 2009. The company's headquarters are in New York City and Paris, France with numerous satellite offices throughout the world.

Currently, Highdeal has over 180 implementations in more than 50 countries with customers spanning all industries that need to adapt to the NGN environment such as finance, transportation and logistics, new media and publishing, mobile/wireless, broadband, and on-demand services.

Highdeal Transactive Features
Highdeal Transactive Features include:
Pricing & Rating Capabilities
Real-Time Account Balance Management
Automated Partner Settlement
Billing, Customer Care & Accounts Receivable
Profit Simulation & Pricing Analytics
Connector Framework & Open APIs

See also
 Telecommunications rating
 Operational Support Systems

References

General references

External links
 Hoovers Company Overview

Companies established in 1996
Business software companies
Most probable number. The most probable number method, otherwise known as the method of Poisson zeroes, is a method of getting quantitative data on concentrations of discrete items from positive/negative (incidence) data.

Purpose
There are many discrete entities that are easily detected but difficult to count.  Any sort of amplification reaction or catalysis reaction obliterates easy quantification but allows presence to be detected very sensitively.  Common examples include microorganism growth, enzyme action, or catalytic chemistry.  The MPN method involves taking the original solution or sample, and subdividing it by orders of magnitude (frequently 10× or 2×), and assessing presence/absence in multiple subdivisions.

The degree of dilution at which absence begins to appear indicates that the items have been diluted so much that there are many subsamples in which none appear.  A suite of replicates at any given concentration allow finer resolution, to use the number of positive and negative samples to estimate the original concentration within the appropriate order of magnitude.

Applications
In microbiology, the cultures are incubated and assessed by eye, bypassing tedious colony counting or expensive and tedious microscopic counts. Presumptive, confirmative and completed tests are a part of MPN.

In molecular biology, a common application involves DNA templates diluted into polymerase chain reactions (PCR).  Reactions only proceed when a template is present, allowing for a form of quantitative PCR, to assess the original concentration of template molecules.  Another application involves diluting enzyme stocks into solution containing a chromogenic substrate, or diluting antigens into solutions for ELISA (Enzyme-Linked ImmunoSorbent Assay) or some other antibody cascade detection reaction, to measure the original concentration of the enzyme or antigen.

Weakness and importance
The major weakness of MPN methods is the need for large numbers of replicates at the appropriate dilution to narrow the confidence intervals.  However, it is a very important method for counts when the appropriate order of magnitude is unknown a priori and sampling is necessarily destructive.

See also
 Dilution assay

External links 
 A downloadable MPN calculator to take your data and get estimates
 A five-replicate MPN table
 Details of practical implementation, but not theory
 US FDA article on MPN method
 Information on the MPN method and ballast water treatment
 Downloadable EXCEL program for the determination of the Most Probable Numbers (MPN), their standard deviations, confidence bounds and rarity values according to Jarvis, B., Wilrich, C., and P.-T. Wilrich: Reconsideration of the derivation of Most Probable Numbers, their standard deviations, confidence bounds and rarity values. Journal of Applied Microbiology 109 (2010), 1660 – 1667

References

 Oblinger, J.L., and J. A. Koburger, J.A. (1975) "Understanding and Teaching the Most Probable Number Technique." J. Milk Food Technol. 38(9), 540–545.

Quantitative research
Laboratory techniques
Biostatistics
CICS (disambiguation). CICS is the Customer Information Control System, a transaction server that runs primarily on IBM mainframes.

CICS may also refer to:

 Canadian Intergovernmental Conference Secretariat
 CICS, the Center for Information Convergence and Strategy, San Diego State University, California, USA
 CICS-FM, a Canadian radio station
 Chicago International Charter School, Illinois, United States
 the CICS-ICCS, International Catholic Conference of Scouting (CICS, Conférence Internationale du Scoutisme Catholique), Rome, Italia

See also
 CIC (disambiguation)
Ultracomputer. The New York University's Ultracomputer is a significant processor design in the history of parallel computing.  The system has N processors, N memories, and an N log N message-passing switch connecting them. The system supported an innovative fetch-and-add process coordination instruction, and the custom VLSI network switches could combine references (including fetch-and-adds) from several processors into a single reference, to reduce memory contention.

The machine was developed in the 1980s at the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences Computer Science Department, based on a concept developed by Jacob T. Schwartz.  Most of the work done was theoretical, but two prototypes were built:
 An 8-processor bus-based machine
 A 16-processor, 16 memory-module machine with custom VLSI switches supporting the fetch-and-add instruction.

Ultracomputer technology was the basis for the IBM Research Research Parallel Processor Prototype (RP3), an experimental parallel computer that supported 512 processing nodes. A 64-node system was built at the Thomas J. Watson Research Center in the late 1980s.

References

Supercomputers
Parallel computing
1980s in computing
Low-angle laser light scattering. Low-angle laser light scattering or LALLS is an application of light scattering that is particularly useful in conjunction with the technique of Size exclusion chromatography, one of the most powerful and widely used techniques to study the molecular mass distribution of a polymer.

Typically the eluent of the SEC column is allowed to pass through both a refractive index detector (that gives measures for the concentration in the solution as a function time) and through a laser scattering cell. The scattered intensity is measured as a function of time under a small angle with respect to the laser beam. The low-angle light scattering data can be analyzed if one assumes that the low-angle data is the same as the scattering at zero angle.  For the relevant equations, see the article on static light scattering.  Under these conditions the laser signal together with the concentration data can be translated into a curve that yields both the Mn and the Mw, the molar mass weighted by number and by weight respectively. The combination of those two data gives information on the linearity of the polymer.

The technique is sometimes complemented or combined with viscometry and polystyrene standards are available for validation of the results.

References

Polymer physics
Scattering