omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Nikolai Afanasyev. Nikolay Mikhailovich Afanasyev (; 14 November 1916 – 15 March 2009), also known as Nicolai Michaelovich Afanasiev, was a Russian firearms designer.

Biography
Nicolai Michaelovitch Afanasiev was born in Russia on 14 November 1916 in St. Petersburg. In 1938 he graduated from a Tekhnikum of the Mechanization of Agriculture.

In 1939 he was drafted to serve in a tank corps in Mongolia, where he started to work on machine gun design. After the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union, he volunteered for front-line service. He was allowed to be a fighter from September 1941 until the fall of 1942, when he was recalled to work on armaments, initially on improving fuses for 82- and 120-mm mortars.

After 1948 Afanasiev worked at the KBP Instrument Design Bureau.

He died on 15 March 2009.

Designs
 LAD machine gun – 1942
 Afanasev A-12.7 – 1950
 Afanasev Makarov AM-23 – 1953
 a bullpup design with which he participated in the AKM contest - 1955
 2A-14 23 mm autocannon, used in the ZU-23 – 1960 (with P.G. Yakushev)
 2A-7 23 mm autocannon, used in the ZSU-23-4 – 1960 (with P.G. Yakushev)
 TKB-011
 TKB-0136, competed in Project Abakan
 OTs-02 Kiparis

Honours and awards
 Hero of Socialist Labour (1986) – For achievements in the design of aircraft gun armament
 Two Orders of Lenin (1963, 1986)
 Order of the October Revolution (1977)
 Order of the Patriotic War, 2nd class (1963)
 USSR State Prize (1967)
 Mosin Prize
 Honoured Inventor of the RSFSR (1968)

References

External links
 http://www.bratishka.ru/archiv/2007/8/2007_8_17.php  
 Photo of Afanasyev's small arms designs at Tula museum 
  Николай Михайлович Афанасьев page at KBP



1916 births
2009 deaths
Firearm designers
Heroes of Socialist Labour
Engineers from Saint Petersburg
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Recipients of the USSR State Prize
Soviet inventors
Soviet engineers
Soviet military personnel of World War II
NZ Shipping Co Ltd v A M Satterthwaite & Co Ltd. New Zealand Shipping Co. Ltd. v. A. M. Satterthwaite & Co. Ltd., or The Eurymedon () is a leading case on contract law by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. This 1974 case establishes the conditions when a third party may seek the protection of an exclusion clause in a contract between two parties.

Facts
A drilling machine was to be shipped from Liverpool to Wellington, New Zealand. The bill of lading stipulated the limited liability of the carrier. It further stated that the clause would extend to servants, agents, and any independent contractors, which is often referred to as a "Himalaya clause". The carrier company was a subsidiary of the company that also owned the stevedore operation that unloaded the drill. Due to negligence the stevedores damaged the drill while unloading it. The stevedores claimed protection of the immunity clause in the contract between the carrier and Satterthwaite.

Judgment
This case had facts on all fours with the earlier House of Lords' case, Scruttons Ltd v Midland Silicones Ltd, where their lordships held that the doctrine of privity prevented the stevedore from relying on a limitation of liability clause in a bill of lading. However, in that case Lord Reid proposed that in future such stevedores might be covered under the contractual clause through agency provided certain pre-conditions were satisfied:

In this case, the Privy Council considered that all four aspects of the "Lord Reid test" had been met, so that the stevedores were fully protected under the damage exclusion clause. Also, it used the concept of implied agency to give effect to the exemption (Himalaya) clause (thus extending it from the carriers to the stevedores) using the carriers as the agent.

Although the contract of carriage (as evidenced by the bill of lading) was bilateral, the bill of lading operated as a unilateral contract between the shippers and the stevedores; and this unilateral contract was activated by performance (unloading of the drill), and the stevedore was then entitled to rely upon the protections within the bill of lading.

Lord Wilberforce stated:

He went on to say:

See also

English contract law
Privity
Privity in English law
Third party beneficiary
Carlill v Carbolic Smoke Ball Co
Pao On v Lau Yiu Long
Harvela Investments Ltd v Royal Trust of Canada (CI) Ltd

Notes

External links
 Full text of decision from BaiLII.org

English contract case law
Judicial Committee of the Privy Council cases on appeal from New Zealand
New Zealand contract case law
English privity case law
1974 in case law
1974 in New Zealand law
Process-oriented programming. Process-oriented programming is a programming paradigm that separates the concerns of data structures and the concurrent processes that act upon them. The data structures in this case are typically persistent, complex, and large scale - the subject of general purpose applications, as opposed to specialized processing of specialized data sets seen in high productivity applications (HPC). The model allows the creation of large scale applications that partially share common data sets. Programs are functionally decomposed into parallel processes that create and act upon logically shared data.

The paradigm was originally invented for parallel computers in the 1980s, especially computers built with transputer microprocessors by INMOS, or similar architectures. Occam was an early process-oriented language developed for the Transputer.

Some derivations have evolved from the message passing paradigm of Occam to enable uniform efficiency when porting applications between distributed memory and shared memory parallel computers . The first such derived example appears in the programming language Ease designed at Yale University in 1990. Similar models have appeared since in the loose combination of SQL databases and objected oriented languages such as Java, often referred to as object-relational models and widely used in large scale distributed systems today. The paradigm is likely to appear on desktop computers as microprocessors increase the number of processors (multicore) per chip.

The Actor model might usefully be described as a specialized kind of process-oriented system in which the message-passing model is restricted to the simple fixed case of one infinite input queue per process (i.e. actor), to which any other process can send messages.

See also

Communicating process architectures
Massively parallel processing
Parallel computing
Multi-core
Actor model

References

External links
 Sowders, Matthew, "ProcessJ: A process-oriented programming language" (2011). UNLV Theses, Dissertations, Professional Papers, and Capstones. Paper 1393.

Programming paradigms
List of alumina refineries. This is a list of alumina refineries in the world. The list is incomplete and missing some data.

Smelter-grade alumina refineries

Specialty alumina plants

See also
List of aluminium smelters

References

Sources
 Alcan, (2006). An Evolving Alcan: Alcan Facts 2006, Canada: Alcan.
 Platt's Metal Week, 27 October 1997, p. 6
 Plunkert, P (1997). Bauxite and Alumina, United States Geological Survey
 Hydro Aluminium, (2004). Shaping Solutions for the Future, Oslo: Hydro Media.
 United Nations, (2000). United Nations Conference on Trade and Development: Recent and Planned Changes in Production Capacity for Bauxite, Alumina and Aluminium

Alumina refineries
Refineries, alumina
ι
Novation X-Station. The Novation X-Station is a virtual analog synthesizer, audio interface and MIDI controller that was released in early 2004, and made by the British company Novation. It is the end-result of adding an audio interface, a KS-class synthesizer and an effects section to the company's ReMOTE controllers. The product was sold for a short time under the name ReMOTE Audio, before being re-branded as the X-Station. Functionally there are no differences between the two, apart from the software, that can be updated through a USB connection, at . It came in three variants  : 25, 49 and 61 keys (2,4 and 5 octaves, respectively). 

The Novation X-Station uses a unique process that manipulates algorithms, called "Liquid Analogue Sound Modelling" a technique that mimics the subtle distortions introduced at the filter stage by analog synthesis, originally developed by Novation for their classic synth, the Supernova. You could call the synthesizer of the X-Station "Supernova Light".

The audio interface is 24 bits, with 2 phantom powered XLR/Jack inputs, and S/PDIF out. It also has an assignable 'Xpression' pad and spring-loaded X/Y joystick. The X-Station can be powered by USB, rechargeable batteries, or power adaptor. 

The Novation X-Station was discontinued May, 2009.

External links 
 Novation X-Station official product page

Virtual analog synthesizers
Novation synthesizers
City Engineering College. City Engineering College was started in 2001 by the Jayanagar Education Society. The college is located off Kanakapura Main Road, near Bangalore.

The college is the sister project of AMC Engineering College, Bangalore.  It started a civil engineering branch in the 2011–12 academic year.

External links 

 Official website
 City College
 ACE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
 
  Jayanagar Education Society]

Engineering colleges in Bengaluru
Affiliates of Visvesvaraya Technological University
2001 establishments in Karnataka
Cophasing. In astronomy, the term cophasing or phasing describes the process of controlling the individual segments in a segmented mirror or a telescope so that the segments form a larger composite mirroring surface. Cophasing implies precise, active control of three degrees of freedom of each individual segment mirror: translation along the optical axis (piston) and rotation about two axes perpendicular to the optical axis (tip-tilt).

Each segment of the segmented telescope is a solid body having 6 degrees of freedom exposed to the gravitation force, wind blowing, and other mechanical forces. If the position of each segment is not controlled the resolution of the whole telescope will be the same as if telescope had the diameter equal to the size of one segment. To achieve a resolution commensurable with that of a monolithic telescope of the same diameter the segmented surface must be controlled with a precision better than  surface rms.

Projects for future extremely large telescopes (ELTs) generally depend on the use of a segmented primary mirror. While the basic technologies required for segmented telescopes have been demonstrated for the 10m Keck telescope or GTC telescope, ELTs of diameters form 50 to 100 m represent a qualitative change with respect to wave front control related to segmentation in comparison with the current 10 meters technology.

References

Telescopes
GARUDA. GARUDA(Global Access to Resource Using Distributed Architecture) is India's Grid Computing initiative connecting 17 cities across the country. The 45 participating institutes in this nationwide project include all the IITs and C-DAC centers and other major institutes in India.

GARUDA is a collaboration of science researchers and experimenters on a nationwide grid of computational nodes, mass storage and scientific instruments that aims to provide the technological advances required to enable data and compute intensive science for the 21st century. One of GARUDA's most important challenges is to strike the right balance between research and the daunting task of deploying that innovation into some of the most complex scientific and engineering endeavors being undertaken today.

The Department of Information Technology (DIT), Government of India has funded the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) to deploy the nationwide computational grid GARUDA. In Proof of Concept (PoC) phase which ended in March 2008, 17 cities across the country were connected with an aim to bring “Grid” networked computing to research labs and industry. From April 2008 the Foundation phase is in progress with an aim to include more users’ applications, providing Service Oriented architecture, improving network stability and upgrading grid resources. GARUDA will assist to accelerate India's drive to turn its substantial research investment into tangible economic benefits.

The Main Monitoring Centre also called the Garuda Monitoring and Management Centre is set up at C-DAC Knowledge Park, Bangalore. From this point, the whole grid which has now extended even into Europe is Monitored and Managed by C-DAC's young scientists. In India, GARUDA uses National Knowledge Network as network backbone.

Grid Middleware
GARUDA has adopted a pragmatic approach for using existing Grid infrastructure and Web Services technologies. The deployment of grid tools and services for GARUDA will be based on a judicious mix of in-house developed components, the Globus Toolkit (GT), industry grade & open source components. The Foundation phase GARUDA will be based on stable version of GT4.
The resource management and scheduling in GARUDA is based on a deployment of industry grade schedulers in a hierarchical architecture. At the cluster level, scheduling is achieved through Load Leveler for AIX platforms and Torque for Linux clusters.

Grid Access Methods
The GARUDA portal which provides the user interface to the Grid resources hides the complexity of the Grid from the users. It allows submission of both sequential and parallel jobs and also provides job accounting facilities. Problem Solving Environment (PSE) in the domains of Bio-informatics, and Community Atmospheric Model support the entire cycle of problem solving for the specific domains by supporting problem formulation, algorithm selection, numerical simulation and solution visualization.

References

21st-century establishments in India
Distributed computing architecture
Grid computing projects
Science and technology in India
John Birkinshaw. John Birkinshaw (1777–1842) was an English railway engineer from Bedlington, Northumberland, noted for his invention of wrought iron rails in 1820 (patented on October 23, 1820).

Up to this point, rail systems had used either wooden rails, which were totally incapable of supporting steam engines, or cast iron rails typically only  in length. These cast iron rails, developed by William Jessop and others, only allowed very low speeds and broke easily and although steam locomotives had been tested as early as 1804 by Richard Trevithick, these experiments had not been economically successful as the rails frequently broke.

"John Birkinshaw's 1820 patent for rolling wrought-iron rails in 15ft lengths was a vital breakthrough for the infant railway system. Wrought iron was able to withstand the moving load of a locomotive and train unlike cast iron, used for rails until then, which was brittle and fractured all too easily."

Birkinshaw's wrought iron rails were taken up by George Stephenson in 1821 for the proposed Stockton and Darlington Railway, despite the fact that Stephenson already held the rights to the best cast iron product, and it was this railway that effectively launched the rail era.

Career
 In 1821, whilst an engineer at Bedlington Ironworks, Birkinshaw developed a new method of rolling wrought iron rails in  lengths.
 His son John Cass Birkinshaw (1811–1867) worked for Robert Stephenson as an assistant engineer on the London & Birmingham Railway (L&BR), then resident engineer on the Birmingham and Derby Junction Railway, and was engineer-in-chief for the Malton and Driffield Railway (MDR).

Private life
Birkinshaw married at St John's, Newcastle upon Tyne on 10 October 1809. He and his wife Ann Cas had eight children:
John Cass Birkinshaw (1811–1867)
Henry Birkinshaw (born 1817)
George Peter Birkenshaw (born 1820)
William Birkinshaw (born 1822)
Emma A. (born 1824)
Edward Birkinshaw (born 1826)
Richard (born 1829)
Mary (born 1834)

See also
Permanent way (history)
Rail transport

References 

British railway civil engineers
People of the Industrial Revolution
English civil engineers
English inventors
Year of birth unknown
People from Bedlington
1777 births
1842 deaths
Configure script. When installing a package on a Unix or Unix-like environment, a configure script is a shell script that generates build configuration files for a codebase to facilitate cross-platform support. It generates files tailoring for the host system  the environment on which the codebase is built and run.

Even though there are no standards for such a script, the pattern is so ubiquitous that many developers are familiar with and even expect a script named configure that has this functionality. The script can be and originally was hand-coded. Today, multiple tools are available for generating a configure script based on special configuration files. One commonly used tool is Autotools which generates a Bash script.

Obtaining a software package as source code and compiling it locally is a common scenario on Unix and Unix-like environments. Typically, this process involves the following steps: 

 Generate build configuration files
 Build the code
 Install the result to an accessible location

A configure script accomplishes the first step by generating a makefile that is configured for the host system. This includes using the libraries of the host as required by the codebase.

Use 

After navigating a command-line shell to the directory that contains the source code, the following commands are typically executed:

./configure
make
make install

For the Autotools, the configure script logs status and errors to file config.log, and the command ./configure --help outputs command line help information.

Often, a document with instructions is included with the codebase; often in a file named INSTALL. It can be helpful if the configure script fails.

Generating 

Autotools simplifies some of the challenges of cross-platform software development. These tools query the host system for environment settings, platform architecture, and the existence and location of required build and runtime dependencies. They store the gathered information in configure.ac to be read by configure during the installation phase.

In new development, library dependency checking can be accomplished via pkg-config via the m4 macro, PKG_CHECK_MODULES.  Before pkg-config gained popularity, separate m4 macros were created to locate files known to be included in the distribution of libraries depended upon.

History 
The first program to come with a configure script was rn by Larry Wall in 1984.  The script was written by hand and produced a jocular running commentary when executed.  It still survives as part of the build system of the trn program.

Since then, an ecosystem of tools have been developed to automate the creation of configure scripts, of which the most common is Autoconf.

References 

Compiling tools
Linux configuration utilities
Unix programming tools
configure
Green coke. Green coke (raw coke) is the primary solid carbonization product from high boiling hydrocarbon fractions obtained at temperatures below 900 K. It contains a fraction of matter that can be released as volatiles during subsequent heat treatment at temperatures up to approximately 1600 K. This mass fraction, called volatile matter, is in the case of green coke between 4 and 15 wt.%, but it depends also on the heating rate.

Raw coke is an equivalent term to green coke although it is now less frequently used. The proportion of volatile matter of green coke depends on temperature and time of cooking, but also on the method for its determination.

See also

Coker unit
Delayed coker
Petroleum coke
Coke (fuel)

References
 IUPAC Compendium of Chemical Terminology 2nd Edition (1997)

Coal
Magnasee. Magnasee is a product used to visualize the magnetic fields recorded onto magnetic recording media such as magnetic tape, diskettes, and the like.

The product contains very fine colloidal iron in a fast-evaporating liquid such as naphtha or fluorocarbons. The liquid is first agitated vigorously to disperse the iron. It may then be carefully poured over the magnetic media of, in the case of tape, the tape may be dipped into the open container of liquid. The iron adheres between the magnetic domains of the media, allowing the user to see where these magnetic domains have been written. Allowing the carrier liquid to evaporate allows very close visualization of the domains.

Various faults in the magnetic recording process could then be visually detected. These included:

 Track mis-alignments including gross azimuth errors
 Missing (unrecorded) tracks
 Failures of the erasure system
 Lift-off of the media from the recording head(s)
 After-the fact destruction of the recording via, say, the application of external magnets

For many older systems that recorded at a low linear bit density, the bit density of the recording could be determined.

While Magnasee was most commonly used on magnetic media that wasn't meant to be re-used (for reading or writing), careful cleaning could remove the iron particles and allow critical media to be re-used.

References
 Magnetic Recording Handbook, Marvin Camras, Springer 1988, 

Magnetic devices
Call-Processing Language. Call Processing Language (CPL) is a language that can be used to describe and control Internet telephony services.

Details
It is designed to be implementable on either network servers or user agent servers. It is meant to be simple, extensible, easily edited by graphical clients and independent of operating system or signaling protocol. It is suitable for running on a server where users may not be allowed to execute arbitrary programs, as it has no variables, loops or ability to run external programs.

On Session Initiation Protocol Servers (SIP servers), CPL has been used to control the session protocol based on user defined preferences. For example an incoming call can be authenticated based on user set filters of Address information of called or date/time of the call.

Other telephonic session attributes such as how long to ring a phone and taking action based on busy or no answer or not found can be set and the program can take action as defined for such response. Manual update of user location can be done via the user interface.

References

VoIP software
List of aircraft produced by China. Aircraft produced by China.

Military aircraft designation system
As a convention, the designations of Chinese military aircraft usually start from 5 instead of 1.

Bombers

Fighter aircraft

Ground attack aircraft

Airborne early warning and control

Maritime patrol/anti-submarine aircraft

Trainers

Military utility aircraft (transport/tanker/passenger)

Military UAV 
For the reason that Chinese UAV developers / manufacturers have officially released a considerable number of military UAVs, and also due to Chinese government's transparency policy for military UAV, this sub-list will only focus on models that are already identified and introduced into the PLA.

Presumably, the military designation with WZ and GJ are designations for Chinese air force, the BZK, DCK are for Navy, and the KVD and JWP are for Ground force

Helicopters

Civilian transport and passenger aircraft

Agricultural aircraft

Airships

Electric aircraft

Gliders and sailplanes

See also
 Aviation Industry Corporation of China
 China Aviation Industry Corporation I
 China Aviation Industry Corporation II
 List of Chinese aircraft engines
 List of unmanned aerial vehicles of China
 People's Liberation Army Air Force

References

China

Aircraft
Aircraft