omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
North Star Horizon. The North Star Horizon was a popular 8-bit S-100 bus computer introduced in October 1977. Like most S-100 machines of the era, it was built around the Zilog Z80A microprocessor, and typically ran the CP/M operating system. It was produced by North Star Computers, and it could be purchased either in kit form or pre-assembled. The North Star Horizon was one of the first computers to have built in floppy drives  as well as being one of the first personal computers to have a hard disk drive.

Specifications
The computer consists of a thick aluminum chassis separated into left and right compartments with a plywood cover which sat on the top and draped over the left and right sides. (It is one of only a handful of computers to be sold in a wooden cabinet. Later versions featured an all-metal case which met safety standards.)  The rear section of the compartment on the right held a linear power supply, including a large transformer and power capacitors, comprising much of the bulk and weight of the system. The empty section in front of the power supply normally housed one or two floppy disk drives, placed on their side so the slots were vertical. The compartment on the left held the S-100 motherboard, rotated so the slots ran left-right. Although a few logic circuits were on the motherboard, primarily for I/O functions, both the processor and the memory resided in separate daughterboards.

Capable of running CP/M and NSDOS (North Star's proprietary Disk Operating System), a standard North Star system sported one or two hard-sectored single sided 5.25 inch floppy disk drives.  Within a year a double density floppy controller board was released that supported double sided drives giving 360KB per disk.   The base unit had a serial interface to which one could connect a terminal to interact with it. NSDOS included North Star BASIC, a slightly non-standard dialect of BASIC, where some standard BASIC commands of the day had been changed, probably to avoid potential legal issues. Two examples of this were the EXAM and FILL commands, which took the place of the more common PEEK and POKE.

The Horizon was superseded by the all-in-one North Star Advantage in 1982. The Horizon found a niche in University environments where its inbuilt S-100 bus could be used to interface it to a variety of control systems.

North Star released a hard disk version, with an internal full height 5MB MFM drive. They also released an S-100 card with integrated memory and two serial ports which allowed up to eight users on one Horizon, each with their own CPU sharing the disk and other resources.  This operated under TurboDOS, a multi user CP/M variant with some Unix-like features.

References

External links
NorthStar Horizon at Obsolete Technology
NorthStar Horizon at Old Computer Museum
North Star Computers Manuals from  Harte Technologies
NorthStar documentation from Rich's classic computing lab

Early microcomputers
Computer-related introductions in 1977
S-100 machines
WSA. WSA may refer to:

 van der Waals surface area 
 War Shipping Administration, part of the US government responsible for building cargo ships in World War II
 Weapon storage area, a maximum security part of an ammunition depot where nuclear weapons are stored
 West Allerton railway station, Liverpool, England (station code)
 Western Sahara Authority
 Western Soccer Alliance
 Western Sydney Airport, an international airport currently under construction
 Wilderness study area
 Windows Socket API, Microsoft's implementation of Berkeley sockets 
 Windows Subsystem for Android, a compatibility layer for Android apps in Windows 11
 Women's Squash Association, the governing body for the women's professional squash circuit and the women's world rankings
 Worker Student Alliance, a division of Students for a Democratic Society, sometimes referred to as SDS-WSA
 Workers' Solidarity Alliance
 World Service Authority
 World Soundtrack Awards
 World Summit Award
 WSA Process, Wet gas Sulphuric Acid is a Wet Catalysis Process
 Web Services Addressing
 Voivodeship Administrative Court, Wojewódzki Sąd Administracyjny, referred to as WSA
 United Nations World Summit Awards
Sticking probability. The sticking probability is the probability that molecules are trapped on surfaces and adsorb chemically. From Langmuir's adsorption isotherm, molecules cannot adsorb on surfaces when the adsorption sites are already occupied by other molecules, so the sticking probability can be expressed as follows:

where  is the initial sticking probability and  is the surface coverage fraction ranging from 0 to 1.

Similarly, when molecules adsorb on surfaces dissociatively, the sticking probability is

The square is because a disassociation of 1 molecule into 2 parts requires 2 adsorption sites. These equations are simple and can be easily understood but cannot explain experimental results.

In 1958, P. Kisliuk  presented an equation for the sticking probability that can explain experimental results. In his theory, molecules are trapped in precursor states of physisorption before chemisorption. Then the molecules meet adsorption sites that molecules can adsorb to chemically, so the molecules behave as follows.

If these sites are not occupied, molecules do the following (with probability in parentheses):

 adsorb on the surface chemically ()
 desorb from the surface ()
 move to the next precursor state ()
  
and if these sites are occupied, they

 desorb from the surface ()
 move to the next precursor state ()

Note that an occupied site is defined as one where there is a chemically bonded adsorbate so by definition it would be . Then the sticking probability is, according to equation (6) of the reference,

When , this equation is identical in result to Langmuir's adsorption isotherm.

Notes

References
 The constitution and fundamental properties of solids and liquids. part i. solids. Irving Langmuir; J. Am. Chem. Soc. 38, 2221-95 1916 

Physical chemistry
Materials science
POSSE project. The Portable Open Source Security Elements (POSSE) project was a co-operative venture between the University of Pennsylvania Distributed Systems Laboratory, the OpenBSD project and others. It received funding through a grant from the United States Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The project's goal was to increase the security of some open source projects, including Apache and OpenSSL.  The project ran from 2001 to April 2003, when the grant from DARPA was prematurely terminated.

Overview 
This was a security initiative directed by the University of Pennsylvania Distributed Systems Laboratory and paid for through the Composable High Assurance Trusted Systems programme. POSSE was a US$2,125,000 grant "to introduce advanced security features used in special-purpose government computers into standard office PCs." The United States government hoped to benefit from the availability of better security features in affordable, standardized computers and software. OpenBSD was selected as "the computing world’s most secure forum for the development of open-source software" and approximately US$1,000,000 was allotted to its development.

Colleagues in the POSSE project included Theo de Raadt, the founder and leader of the OpenBSD Project, Ben Laurie of the Apache Software Foundation and OpenSSL Group, and numerous faculty and graduate students from the University of Pennsylvania.

In April 2003, speaking in an interview to the Canadian newspaper The Globe and Mail, Theo de Raadt remarked on the occupation of Iraq: "I try to convince myself that our grant means a half of a cruise missile doesn't get built."  Jonathan Smith, the head of the POSSE project, stated that US military officials had expressed discomfort with this comment.  DARPA's funding for the project was subsequently terminated.  It was theorized that the US government disapproved of de Raadt's comments and that they led to the decision to cancel the grant. However, DARPA spokeswoman Jan Walker claimed that it was triggered by "recent world events and specifically the evolving threat posed by increasingly capable nation-states."

References

External links 
 The POSSE Project homepage
 CNET, 17 April 2003: Defense agency pulls OpenBSD funding
 LWN.net, 23 April 2003: DARPA Cancels OpenBSD Funding
 Worker's World, 1 May 2003: Pentagon punishes software developer for anti-war comments

DARPA
OpenBSD
VDL Bus & Coach. VDL Bus & Coach is a Dutch vehicle manufacturer. It is an amalgamation of several bus building companies within the VDL Groep. VDL Bus & Coach has manufacturing plants in Belgium and the Netherlands. By 2018 VDL Bus & Coach sold 500 electric buses.

History 
VDL Bus & Coach originates from the VDL Groep acquiring the following bus building companies in the Netherlands and Belgium:

 Berkhof (acquired in 1998, based in Valkenswaard, became VDL Bus Modules). Formerly part of Berkhof Jonckheere Groep, which VDL Groep acquired in 1998.
 Bova (acquired in 2003, based in Valkenswaard, became VDL Bus Valkenswaard).
 DAF Bus (acquired in 1993, based in Eindhoven, became VDL Bus Chassis). Originally named DAF Bus International after being separated from the truck-building business of DAF, it joined United Bus in 1990. It became a subsidiary of VDL Groep after United Bus collapsed in 1993. DAF Bus International was renamed VDL Bus International in September 2003. In 2008, VDL Bus International was renamed VDL Bus Chassis. 
 Hainje (acquired in 1998, based in Heerenveen, became VDL Bus Heerenveen). Formerly part of Berkhof Jonckheere Groep, which VDL Groep acquired in 1998.
 Jonckheere (acquired in 1998, based in Roeselare, became VDL Bus Roeselare). Formerly part of Berkhof Jonckheere Groep, which VDL Groep acquired in 1998.
 Kusters (acquired in 1998, based in Venlo, became VDL Bus Venlo). Formerly part of Berkhof Jonckheere Groep, which VDL Groep acquired in 1998.
 Van Hool (acquired in 2024). Acquired after the company became bankrupt.

Products

Current

Integral buses and coaches
 Citea
 Futura
 Midcity

Chassis
 SB180   - Low entry
 SB200   - Low entry
 SB230   - Low entry
 SBR230  - Low entry
 DB300   - Double deck
 TB2175  - Heavy duty (front engine)
 TBR2175 - Heavy duty (front engine)
 SB4000 - Intercity / Coach
 SBR4000 - Coach

Van conversions
 MidCity
 MidEuro

Historical (including DAF bus models)

Integral coaches and whole vehicles
 Lexio (interurban bus body on VDL SB4000 chassis, marketed as VDL Bova Lexio)
 Magiq (integral coach, ex Bova, renamed VDL Bova Magiq)
 Synergy (double deck coach body on VDL SBR4000 chassis, marketed as VDL Bova Synergy)

Chassis
 B62
 B1100
 B1300
 B1500
 B1502
 B1600
 DB250
 MB200
 MB205
 MB210
 MB230
 MBG200
 MBG205
 SB120
 SB201
 SB210
 SB220
 SB225
 SBR235
 SB250
 SB260   - Chassis modules for VDL Citea SLF
 SB1600
 SB1602
 SB1605
 SB2000
 SB2005
 SB2100
 SB2300
 SB2305
 SB2700
 SB2705
 SB2750
 SB3000
 SBG220
 SBR3000/SBR3015
 TB100
 TB102
 TB160
 TB163
 TB300
 TB2100
 TB2105

Gallery

References

External links
VDL Bus & Coach website

Paccar
VDL Groep
Bus manufacturers of the Netherlands
Peter Elias. Peter Elias (November 23, 1923 – December 7, 2001) was a pioneer in the field of information theory. Born in New Brunswick, New Jersey, he was a member of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology faculty from 1953 to 1991. In 1955, Elias introduced convolutional codes as an alternative to block codes. He also established the binary erasure channel and proposed list decoding of error-correcting codes as an alternative to unique decoding.

Career 
Peter Elias was a member of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology faculty from 1953 to 1991. His students included Elwyn Berlekamp and he was a colleague of Claude Shannon. From 1957 until 1966, he served as one of three founding editors of Information and Control.

Awards 
Elias received the Claude E. Shannon Award of the IEEE Information Theory Society (1977); the Golden Jubilee Award for Technological Innovation of the IEEE Information Theory Society (1998); and the IEEE Richard W. Hamming Medal (2002).

Family background 
Peter Elias was born on November 23, 1923, in New Brunswick, New Jersey. His mother Anna Elias (née Wahrhaftig) was born on April 19, 1897, in New York City. His father Nathaniel Mendel Elias, born on February 21, 1895, worked for Thomas Edison in his Edison, New Jersey, laboratory after graduating from Columbia University with a degree in chemical engineering. His paternal grandparents were Emil Elias and Pepi Pauline Cypres (daughter of Peretz Hacohen Cypres and Lea Breindel Cypres) who married in 1889 in Kraków, Poland.

Death 
Elias died (at age 78) on December 7, 2001, of Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease.

See also 
 Elias coding

References

External links
 
Robert G. Gallager, "Peter Elias", Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences (2008)
 Peter Elias papers, MC-0606. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Distinctive Collections, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

1994 fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery
American information theorists
Jewish engineers
1923 births
2001 deaths
Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni
Massachusetts Institute of Technology faculty
Harvard University alumni
Stephanite. Stephanite is a silver antimony sulfosalt mineral with formula: Ag5SbS4. It is composed of 68.8% silver, and sometimes is of importance as an ore of this metal.

History
Under the name Schwarzerz it was mentioned by Georgius Agricola in 1546, and it has been variously known as "black silver ore" (German Schwarzgultigerz), brittle silver-ore (Sprödglanzerz), etc. The name stephanite was proposed by W Haidinger in 1845 in honour of the Archduke of Austria Stephan Franz Victor of Habsburg-Lorena (1817–1867). French authors use F. S. Beudant's name psaturose (from the Greek ψαθυρός, fragile).

Properties
It frequently occurs as well-formed crystals, which are orthorhombic and occasionally show indications of hemimorphism: they have the form of six-sided prisms or flat tables terminated by large basal planes and often modified at the edges by numerous pyramid-planes. Twinning on the prism-planes is of frequent occurrence, giving rise to pseudo-hexagonal groups like those of aragonite. The colour is iron-black, and the lustre metallic and brilliant; on exposure to light, however, the crystals soon become dull. Stephanite is an important ore of silver in some mining camps.

Occurrence
Stephanite occurs as a  late-stage mineral with other ores of silver in hydrothermal veins. Associated minerals include proustite, acanthite, native silver, tetrahedrite, galena, sphalerite and pyrite. Localities which have yielded good crystallized specimens are Freiberg and Gersdorf near Rosswein in Saxony, Chañarcillo in Chile, and exceptionally Cornwall. In the Comstock lode in Nevada massive stephanite and argentite are important ores of silver.

See also
 List of minerals
 List of minerals named after people

References

Attribution

Silver minerals
Antimony minerals
Sulfosalt minerals
Orthorhombic minerals
Glances
Minerals in space group 36
USS Flusser (DD-289). USS Flusser (DD-289) was a  built for the United States Navy during World War I.

Description
The Clemson class was a repeat of the preceding  although more fuel capacity was added. The ships displaced  at standard load and  at deep load. They had an overall length of , a beam of  and a draught of . They had a crew of 6 officers and 108 enlisted men.

Performance differed radically between the ships of the class, often due to poor workmanship. The Clemson class was powered by two steam turbines, each driving one propeller shaft, using steam provided by four water-tube boilers. The turbines were designed to produce a total of  intended to reach a speed of . The ships carried a maximum of  of fuel oil which was intended gave them a range of  at .

The ships were armed with four 4-inch (102 mm) guns in single mounts and were fitted with two  1-pounder guns for anti-aircraft defense. In many ships a shortage of 1-pounders caused them to be replaced by 3-inch (76 mm) guns. Their primary weapon, though, was their torpedo battery of a dozen 21 inch (533 mm) torpedo tubes in four triple mounts. They also carried a pair of depth charge rails. A "Y-gun" depth charge thrower was added to many ships.

Construction and career
Flusser, named for Charles W. Flusser, was launched 7 November 1919 by Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation, Squantum, Massachusetts; sponsored by Mrs. Maude F. Williams; and commissioned 25 February 1920. Flusser'''s first active service was patrol duty in Mexican waters between 9 May 1920 and 17 June, based at Key West. She carried out a comprehensive training schedule along the east coast and in the Caribbean until 18 June 1924 when she sailed from Newport, Rhode Island for a tour of duty with U.S. Naval Forces, Europe, calling at ports in 15 countries before returning to New York 16 July 1925.

Returning to east coast and Caribbean operations, Flusser'' aided in the development of destroyer tactics and carried reservists on training cruises until decommissioned at Philadelphia 1 May 1930. She was scrapped 22 October 1930 in accordance with the terms of the London Treaty limiting naval armaments.

Notes

References

External links

http://www.navsource.org/archives/05/289.htm

Clemson-class destroyers
Ships built in Quincy, Massachusetts
1919 ships
SUNMOS. SUNMOS (Sandia/UNM Operating System) is an operating system jointly developed by Sandia National Laboratories and the Computer Science Department at the University of New Mexico. The goal of the project, started in 1991, is to develop a highly portable, yet efficient, operating system for massively parallel-distributed memory systems.

SUNMOS uses a single-tasking kernel and does not provide demand paging. It takes control of all nodes in the distributed system. Once an application is loaded and running, it can manage all the available memory on a node and use the full resources provided by the hardware. Applications are started and controlled from a process called yod that runs on the host node. Yod runs on a Sun frontend for the nCUBE 2, and on a service node on the Intel Paragon.

SUNMOS was developed as a reaction to the heavy weight version of OSF/1 that ran as a single-system image on the Paragon and consumed 8-12 MB of the 16 MB available on each node, leaving little memory available for the compute applications.  In comparison, SUNMOS used 250 KB of memory per node.  Additionally, the overhead of OSF/1 limited the network bandwidth to 35 MB/s, while SUNMOS was able to use 170 MB/s of the peak 200 MB/s available.

The ideas in SUNMOS inspired PUMA, a multitasking variant that only ran on the i860 Paragon.  Among the extensions in PUMA was the Portals API, a scalable, high performance message passing API.  Intel ported PUMA and Portals to the Pentium Pro based ASCI Red system and named it Cougar.  Cray ported Cougar to the Opteron based Cray XT3 and renamed it Catamount.  A version of Catamount was released to the public named OpenCatamount.

In 2009, the Catamount lightweight kernel was selected for an R&D 100 Award.

See also
 Compute Node Linux
 CNK operating system

References

External links 
SUNMOS FTP site
A humorous field guide to differences between SUNMOS and OSF
OpenCatamount.

Supercomputer operating systems
Sandia National Laboratories
SGI Crimson. The IRIS Crimson (code-named Diehard2) is a Silicon Graphics (SGI) computer released in 1992. It is the world's first 64-bit workstation.

Crimson is a member of Silicon Graphics's SGI IRIS 4D series of deskside systems; it is also known as the 4D/510 workstation. It is similar to other SGI IRIS 4D deskside workstations, and can use a wide range of graphics options (up to RealityEngine). It is also available as a file server with no graphics.

This machine makes a brief appearance in the movie Jurassic Park (1993) where Lex uses the machine to navigate the IRIX filesystem in 3D using the application fsn to restore power to the compound. The next year, Silicon Graphics released a rebadged, limited-edition Crimson R4400/VGXT called the Jurassic Classic, with a special logo and SGI co-founder James H. Clark's signature on the drive door.

Features
 One MIPS 100 MHz R4000 or 150 MHz R4400 processor
 Choice of seven high-performance 3D graphics subsystems (Entry, XS, XS24, Elan, Extreme, Reality Engine, VGXT)
 Up to 256 MB memory and internal disk capacity of up to 7.2 GB, expandable to more than 72 GB using additional enclosures
 I/O subsystem includes four VMEbus expansion slots, Ethernet and two SCSI channels with disk striping support

Crimson memory is unique to this model.

References

External links
 IRIS Crimson

Crimson
64-bit computers
Soot (software). In static program analysis, Soot is a bytecode manipulation and optimization framework consisting of intermediate languages for Java. It has been developed by the Sable Research Group at McGill University. Soot is currently maintained by the Secure Software Engineering Group at Paderborn University.
Soot provides four intermediate representations for use through its API for other analysis programs to access and build upon:
 Baf: a near bytecode representation.
 Jimple: a simplified version of Java source code that has a maximum of three components per statement.
 Shimple: an SSA variation of Jimple (similar to GIMPLE).
 Grimp: an aggregated version of Jimple suitable for decompilation and code inspection.

The current Soot software release also contains detailed program analyses that can be used out-of-the-box, such as context-sensitive flow-insensitive points-to analysis, call graph analysis and domination analysis (answering the question "must event a follow event b?"). It also has a decompiler called dava.

Soot is free software available under the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL).
In 2010, two research papers on Soot ( and ) were selected as IBM CASCON First Decade High Impact Papers among 12 other papers from the 425 entries.

Jimple 
Jimple is an intermediate representation of a Java program designed to be easier to optimize than Java bytecode. It is typed, has a concrete syntax and is based on three-address code.

Jimple includes only 15 different operations, thus simplifying flow analysis. By contrast, java bytecode includes over 200 different operations.

Unlike java bytecode, in  Jimple local and stack variables are typed and Jimple is inherently type safe.

Converting to Jimple, or "Jimplifying" (after "simplifying"),  is conversion of bytecode to three-address code.  The idea behind the conversion, first investigated by Clark Verbrugge, is to associate a variable to each position in the stack. Hence stack operations become assignments involving the stack variables.

Example
Consider the following bytecode, which is from the 

iload 1  // load variable x1, and push it on the stack
iload 2  // load variable x2, and push it on the stack
iadd     // pop two values, and push their sum on the stack
istore 1 // pop a value from the stack, and store it in variable x1

The above translates to the following three-address code:

stack1 = x1 // iload 1
stack2 = x2 // iload 2
stack1 = stack1 + stack2 // iadd
x1 = stack1 // istore 1

In general the resulting code does not have static single assignment form.

SootUp
Soot is now succeeded by the SootUp framework developed by the Secure Software Engineering Group at Paderborn University. SootUp is a complete reimplementation of Soot with a novel design, that focuses more on static program analysis, rather than bytecode optimization.

References

Further reading
  Republished in 
  Republished in

External links
 
 Scientific publications citing Soot (on Google Scholar)

Free software programmed in Java (programming language)
Free computer programming tools
Static program analysis tools
McGill University