omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
KOMPILER. In computing, the KOMPILER was one of the first language compilation and runtime systems for International Business Machines' IBM 701, the fastest commercial U.S. computer available in 1955.

Information on KOMPILER is listed on page 16 of Volume 2, Number 5 (May 1959) of the Communications of the ACM. Known versions are KOMPILER 2 for IBM 701 and KOMPILER 3 for the IBM 704. KOMPILER was eventually replaced by a Fortran compiler on the IBM 704.

See also
 PACT (compiler)

References

External links
 HOPL: Kompiler.

Programming languages
Knowledge Query and Manipulation Language. The Knowledge Query and Manipulation Language, or KQML, is a language
and protocol for communication among software agents and knowledge-based systems. It was
developed in the early 1990s as part of the DARPA knowledge Sharing Effort, which was aimed at developing techniques for building large-scale knowledge bases which are 
share-able and re-usable. While originally conceived of as an interface to knowledge based systems, it was soon repurposed as an Agent communication language.

Work on KQML was led by Tim Finin of the University of Maryland, Baltimore County and  Jay Weber of EITech and involved contributions from many researchers.

The KQML message format and protocol can be used to interact with an intelligent system, either by an application program, or by another intelligent system. KQML's "performatives" are operations that agents perform on each other's knowledge and goal stores. Higher-level interactions such as contract nets and negotiation are built using these. KQML's "communication facilitators" coordinate the interactions of other agents to support knowledge sharing. 

Experimental prototype systems support concurrent engineering, intelligent design, intelligent planning, and scheduling.

KQML is superseded by FIPA-ACL.

References

Knowledge representation languages
Agent communications languages
Kent Recursive Calculator. KRC (Kent Recursive Calculator) is a lazy functional language developed by David Turner from November 1979 to October 1981 based on SASL, with pattern matching, guards and ZF expressions (now more usually called list comprehensions). Two implementations of KRC were written: David Turner's original one in BCPL running on EMAS, and Simon J. Croft's later one in C under Unix, and KRC was the main language used for teaching functional programming at the University of Kent at Canterbury (UK) from 1982 to 1985.

The direct successor to KRC is Miranda, which includes a polymorphic type discipline based on that of Milner's ML.

References

Further reading
 Functional Programming and its Applications, David A. Turner, Cambridge U Press 1982.

External links
 KRC's home page with a free implementation for Unix systems

Functional languages
History of computing in the United Kingdom
University of Kent
Programming languages created in 1981
KRL (programming language). KRL is a knowledge representation language, developed by Daniel G. Bobrow and Terry Winograd while at Xerox PARC and Stanford University, respectively. It is a frame-based language. 

KRL was an attempt to produce a language which was nice to read and write for the engineers who had to write programs in it, processed like human memory, so you could have realistic AI programs, had an underlying semantics which was firmly grounded like logic languages, all in one, all in one language. And I think it - again, in hindsight - it just bogged down under the weight of trying to satisfy all those things at once.

References

Further reading
 "An Overview of KRL, a Knowledge Representation Language", D.G. Bobrow and T. Winograd, Cognitive Sci 1:1 (1977).
 Daniel G. Bobrow, Terry Winograd, An Overview of KRL, A Knowledge Representation Language,  Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory Memo AIM 293, 1976.

Knowledge representation languages
Programming languages created in 1976
Knowledge Systems Laboratory. Knowledge Systems Laboratory (KSL) was an artificial intelligence research laboratory within the Department of Computer Science at Stanford University until 2007, located in the Gates Computer Science Building, Stanford. Work focused on knowledge representation for shareable engineering knowledge bases and systems, computational environments for modelling physical devices, architectures for adaptive intelligent systems, and expert systems for science and engineering.

KSL had projects with Stanford Medical Informatics (SMI), the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Lab (SAIL), the Stanford Formal Reasoning Group (SFRG), the Stanford Logic Group, and the Stanford Center for Design Research (CDR).

Past members

This is a partial list (in alphabetical order) of past members:

 Edward Feigenbaum
 Richard Fikes
 Diana E. Forsythe
 Tom Gruber
 William Clancey
 Alon Y. Halevy
 Deborah L. McGuinness
 Paulo Pinheiro
 Derek H. Sleeman
 Barbara Hayes-Roth
 Bruce G. Buchanan
 Ruth Duran Huard
 Lee Brownston

References

 Archived Publications: "The Edward A. Feigenbaum Papers: Work in Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science at Stanford University". Stanford University Libraries. Retrieved 22 July 2018.

Stanford University
Kyoto Common Lisp. Kyoto Common Lisp (KCL) is an implementation of Common Lisp by Taichi Yuasa and Masami Hagiya, written in C to run under Unix-like operating systems. KCL is compiled to ANSI C. It conforms to Common Lisp as described in the 1984 first edition of Guy Steele's book Common Lisp the Language and is available under a licence agreement.

KCL was implemented from scratch, outside of the standard committee, solely on the basis of the specification. It was one of the first Common Lisp implementations ever, and exposed a number of holes and mistakes in the specification that had gone unnoticed.

Derived software

 Austin Kyoto Common Lisp (AKCL) is a collection of ports, bug fixes, and performance improvements to KCL made by William Schelter. AKCL has been ported to a range of Unix workstations.
 GNU Common Lisp (GCL) was derived from AKCL.
 Embeddable Common-Lisp (ECL) was derived from KCL.
 ManKai Common Lisp (MKCL) was derived from ECL.
 Commercial versions of Kyoto Common Lisp were Ibuki Common Lisp and Delphi Common Lisp.

References

Common Lisp implementations
Common Lisp (programming language) software
Lattice. Lattice may refer to:

Arts and design 
 Latticework, an ornamental criss-crossed framework, an arrangement of crossing laths or other thin strips of material
 Lattice (music), an organized grid model of pitch ratios
 Lattice (pastry), an ornamental pattern of crossing strips of pastry

Companies 
 Lattice Engines, a technology company specializing in business applications for marketing and sales
 Lattice Group, a former British gas transmission business
 Lattice Semiconductor, a US-based integrated circuit manufacturer

Science, technology, and mathematics

Mathematics 
 Lattice (group), a repeating arrangement of points
 Lattice (discrete subgroup), a discrete subgroup of a topological group whose quotient carries an invariant finite Borel measure
 Lattice (module), a module over a ring that is embedded in a vector space over a field
 Lattice graph, a graph that can be drawn within a repeating arrangement of points
 Lattice-based cryptography, encryption systems based on repeating arrangements of points
 Lattice (order), a partially ordered set with unique least upper bounds and greatest lower bounds
 Lattice-based access control, computer security systems based on partially ordered access privileges
 Skew lattice, a non-commutative generalization of order-theoretic lattices
 Lattice multiplication, a multiplication algorithm suitable for hand calculation

Other uses in science and technology 
 Bethe lattice, a regular infinite tree structure used in statistical mechanics
 Bravais lattice, a repetitive arrangement of atoms
 Lattice C, a compiler for the C programming language
 Lattice mast, a type of observation mast common on major warships in the early 20th century
 Lattice model (physics), a model defined not on a continuum, but on a grid
 Lattice tower, or truss tower is a type of freestanding framework tower
 Lattice truss bridge, a type of truss bridge that uses many closely spaced diagonal elements

Other uses 
 Lattice model (finance), a method for evaluating stock options that divides time into discrete intervals

See also 
 Grid (disambiguation)
 Mesh (disambiguation)
 Trellis (disambiguation)
Lars Magnus Ericsson. Lars Magnus Ericsson (; 5 May 1846 – 17 December 1926) was a Swedish inventor, entrepreneur and founder of telephone equipment manufacturer Ericsson (incorporated as Telefonaktiebolaget LM Ericsson).

Early life 
Lars Magnus was born in Värmskog, Värmland, and grew up in the small village of Vegerbol located between Karlstad and Arvika. At the age of 12, Ericsson's father died forcing him to seek work as a miner. He worked until he had enough money to leave the village and move to Stockholm in 1867. He then worked for six years for an instrument maker named Öllers & Co. who mainly created telegraph equipment. Because of his skills, he was given two state scholarships to study instrument making abroad between 1872 and 1875. One of the companies he worked at was Siemens & Halske.

Career 
Upon his return to Sweden in 1876, he founded a small mechanical workshop together with his friend Carl Johan Andersson who had also worked at Öllers & Co.. This workshop was actually a former kitchen of some 13 m2 situated at Drottninggatan 15 in the most central part of Stockholm. Here, he started a telephone company by analyzing Bell company and Siemens telephones and creating his own copies in their image. It was not until they started cooperating with Henrik Tore Cedergren in 1883 that the company would start to grow into the Ericsson corporation.

In the year 1900 Lars Magnus retired from Ericsson at the age of 54. He kept his shares in the company until 1905 and then sold them all.

He is said to have been a demanding person, and disliked any direct publicity about his personality and did not wish to be idolized. He was, however, deeply respected by his employees. He was always a skeptic and cautious in business. He was also somewhat opposed to patents, as many of the products he made would not have been possible to do if the patent legislation had been overly effective. When his phones were copied by Norwegian companies he did not care, as his phones had in turn been largely copied from Siemens. He initially did not believe in a mass market for telephones, and saw it as a toy for the leisure class.

Personal life 
Ericsson married Hilda Simonsson in 1878. They had four children together: Johan (1879–1881), Gustaf (1880–1965), Anna (1881–1967) and Lars Magnus Jr. "Lalle" (1892–1921). When their daughter Anna was only six weeks old, their eldest son Johan died from pulmonary oedema. The couple also lost their son Lalle at a young age to tuberculosis.

Death 
After his death in 1926, he was buried at Hågelby gård in Botkyrka. At his explicit request, there is no headstone marking his grave.

See also
Simone Giertz

References

1846 births
1926 deaths
People from Grums Municipality
19th-century Swedish inventors
Swedish miners
Ericsson people
19th-century Swedish businesspeople
Lysator. Lysator is an academic computer club at Linköping University, Sweden with almost 600 members. It is an independent non-profit society, separate from the students' union and the faculties of the university.

History 

Lysator was founded on 29 March 1973. The first computer used at Lysator was a Datasaab D21, delivered to Lysator on 25 May 1973. Later in the decade, members of Lysator developed and initially built a microcomputer, the LYS-16, which was advanced for its time due to its 16-bit word size.

In February 1993, Lysator put up the first web server in Sweden, among the first 10–15 in the world.

On 30 July 2010, Lysator began migrating to a new 3U home rack, increasing their available storage space from 700GB to 13TB.

Projects hosted by Lysator 

Lysator has been a starting ground for many notable projects, some of which have since become independent from the club:
 Project Runeberg
 LysKOM
 Elfwood
 SvenskMud
 NannyMUD
 Sprite Animation Toolkit
 Pike (programming language)

See also 
 History of the Internet in Sweden

References

External links 
 Homepage of Lysator
 History of Lysator
 

Linköping University
MUD organizations
Student organizations established in 1973
Computer clubs in Sweden
Transport in Liberia. Transport in Liberia consists of  of railways, 6,580 miles of highways (408 mi paved), seaports, 29 airports (2 paved) and 2 miles of pipeline for oil transportation. Buses and taxis are the main forms of ground transportation in and around Monrovia. Charter boats are also available.

Railways 

Historically, three railways were built in Liberia to export ore from mines; they were damaged during the civil wars. By 2007 (or 2009) the Bong mine railway was operational. The Lamco Railway was partially rebuilt by ArcelorMittal and put back into service in 2011. 

There are no rail connections with other countries, although there has been a proposal to extend the Lamco railway to serve a mine across the border in Guinea.

Total: 243 km (2025)

Standard gauge: 243km (2025)

Narrow gauge: 0 km (2025)

Roadways 

Total:
10,600 km (6,586 mi) (there is major deterioration on all highways due to heavy rains and lack of maintenance)

Paved:
657 km (408 mi)

Unpaved:
9,943 km (6,178 mi) (2018)

When construction and reconstruction of roads in Liberia is complete, the Trans–West African Coastal Highway will cross the country, connecting it to Freetown (Sierra Leone), Abidjan (Ivory Coast), and eventually to 11 other nations of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS).

Ports and harbors 
 Buchanan - railhead of  Arcelor Mittal line from Tokadeh.
 Greenville
 Harper
 Monrovia

Merchant marine 
Liberia is an international flag of convenience for freight shipping.

Total:
3,942 (2021) 

Ships by type:
barge carrier 1,487, container ship 878, general cargo 131, oil tanker 851, other 595 (2021)

Airports 

20 (2017)
The main international airport in the country is Roberts International Airport.

Airports - with paved runways 
Total:
2
Over 3,047 m (10,000 ft):
1
1,524 to 2,437 m (5,000 to 8,000 ft):
1 (2017)

Airports - with unpaved runways 
Total:
27
1,524 to 2,437 m (5,000 to 8,000 ft):
5
914 to 1,523 m (3,000 to 4,999 ft):
8
Under 914 m (3,000 ft):
14 (2013)

See also 
 Economy of Liberia

References

External links
Laser science. Laser science or laser physics is a branch of optics that describes the theory and practice of lasers.

Laser science is principally concerned with quantum electronics, laser construction, optical cavity design, the physics of producing a population inversion in laser media, and the temporal evolution of the light field in the laser. It is also concerned with the physics of laser beam propagation, particularly the physics of Gaussian beams, with laser applications, and with associated fields such as nonlinear optics and quantum optics.

History

Laser science predates the invention of the laser itself. Albert Einstein created the foundations for the laser and maser in 1917, via a paper in which he re-derived Max Planck’s law of radiation using a formalism based on probability coefficients (Einstein coefficients) for the absorption, spontaneous emission, and stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. The existence of stimulated emission was confirmed in 1928 by Rudolf W. Ladenburg. In 1939, Valentin A. Fabrikant made the earliest laser proposal. He specified the conditions required for light amplification using stimulated emission. In 1947, Willis E. Lamb and R. C. Retherford found apparent stimulated emission in hydrogen spectra and effected the first demonstration of stimulated emission; in 1950, Alfred Kastler (Nobel Prize for Physics 1966) proposed the method of optical pumping, experimentally confirmed, two years later, by Brossel, Kastler, and Winter.

The theoretical principles describing the operation of a microwave laser (a maser) were first described by Nikolay Basov and Alexander Prokhorov at the All-Union Conference on Radio Spectroscopy in May 1952. The first maser was built by Charles H. Townes, James P. Gordon, and Herbert J. Zeiger in 1953. Townes, Basov and Prokhorov were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1964 for their research in the field of stimulated emission. Arthur Ashkin, Gérard Mourou, and Donna Strickland were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2018 for groundbreaking inventions in the field of laser physics.

The first working laser (a pulsed ruby laser) was demonstrated on May 16, 1960, by Theodore Maiman at the Hughes Research Laboratories.

See also
Laser acronyms
List of laser types

References

External links
 A very detailed tutorial on lasers
Laws of infernal dynamics. The laws of infernal dynamics are an adage about the cursedness of the universe. Attributed to Science fiction author David Gerrold, the laws are as follows:

An object in motion will be moving in the wrong direction.
An object at rest will be in the wrong place.
The energy required to move an object in the correct direction, or put it in the right place, will be more than you wish to expend but not so much as to make the task impossible.

The laws are a parody on the first and second of Newton's laws of motion in the spirit of Murphy's law.  Newton's first law of motion has here been split into two parts, the first two laws.  Newton's third law of motion is left unparodied, though a separate adage states that "for every action, there is an equal and opposite criticism."

References

Adages
Lynx (programming language). Lynx is a programming language for large distributed networks, using remote procedure calls. It was developed by the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 1984 for the Charlotte multicomputer operating system. 

In 1986 at the University of Rochester Lynx was ported to the Chrysalis operating system running on a BBN Butterfly multiprocessor.

References

Bibliography
M. L. Scott, "The Lynx Distributed Programming Language: Motivation, Design, and Experience," Computer Languages 16:3/4 (1991), pp. 209-233. http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/scott91lynx.html

Concurrent programming languages
Microphotonics. Microphotonics is a branch of technology that deals with directing light on a microscopic scale and is used in optical networking. Particularly, it refers to the branch of technology that deals with wafer-level integrated devices and systems that emit, transmit, detect, and process light along with other forms of radiant energy with photon as the quantum unit.

Microphotonics employs at least two different materials with a large differential index of refraction to squeeze the light down to a small size.  Generally speaking, virtually all of microphotonics relies on Fresnel reflection to guide the light.  If the photons reside mainly in the higher index material, the confinement is due to total internal reflection.  If the confinement is due many distributed Fresnel reflections, the device is termed a photonic crystal.  There are many different types of geometries used in microphotonics including optical waveguides, optical microcavities, and Arrayed waveguide gratings.

Photonic crystals 
Photonic crystals are non-conducting materials that reflect various wavelengths of light almost perfectly. Such a crystal can be referred to as a perfect mirror. Other devices employed in microphotonics include micromirrors and photonic wire waveguides. These tools are used to "mold the flow of light", a famous phrase for describing the goal of microphotonics. The crystals serve as structures that allow the manipulation, confinement, and control of light in one, two, or three dimensions of space.

Microdisks, microtoroids, and microspheres 

An optical microdisk, optical microtoroid, or optical microsphere uses internal reflection in a circular geometry to hold on to the photons.  This type of circularly symmetric optical resonance is called a Whispering gallery mode, after Lord Rayleigh coined the term.

Application 
Microphotonics has biological applications and these can be demonstrated in the case of the "biophotonic chips", which are developed to increase efficiency in terms of "photonic yield" or the collected luminescent signal emitted by fluorescent markers used in biological chips.

Currently, microphotonics technology is also being developed to replace electronics devices and bio-compatible intracellular devices. For instance, the long-standing goal of an all-optical router would eliminate electronic bottlenecks, speeding up the network. Perfect mirrors are being developed for use in fiber-optic cables.

See also 
Photonics

References 

Microtechnology
Photonics
Telecommunications in Mauritania. Telephones - main lines in use:
300,500 (2024)

Telephones - mobile cellular:
2000,000 (2003)

Telephone system:
general assessment:
limited system of cable and open-wire lines, minor microwave radio relay links, and radiotelephone communications stations (improvements being made)
domestic:
mostly cable and open-wire lines; a recently completed domestic satellite telecommunications system links Nouakchott with regional capitals
international:
country code - 222; satellite earth stations - 9Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean) and 20 Arabsat 

Radio broadcast stations:
AM 1, FM 14, shortwave 1 (2001)

Radios:
410,000 (2001)

Television broadcast stations:
20(2024)

Televisions:
708,000 (2001)

Internet Service Providers (ISPs):
26 (2014)

Internet users:
2500
,000 (2002)

Country code (Top level domain): .mr

Broadband Internet access 

Mauritania has three operators, the original monopoly, Mauritel (now owned by Vivendi's Maroc Telecom), Mattel (owned by Tunisie Telecom) and Chinguitel, which will start operations in December 2006.

The country only has around 1000 DSL subscribers, and 3000000 internet subscribers in total, out of a population of 4.85 million. Monthly DSL charges were high, around US$30 per month, but have now dropped to MRO 10000 (around US$20) per month.

See also
 Media of Mauritania

References
Microelectronics. Microelectronics is a subfield of electronics. As the name suggests, microelectronics relates to the study and manufacture (or microfabrication) of very small electronic designs and components.  Usually,  but not always, this means micrometre-scale or smaller.  These devices are typically made from semiconductor materials. Many components of a normal electronic design are available in a microelectronic equivalent.  These include transistors, capacitors, inductors, resistors, diodes and (naturally) insulators and conductors can all be found in microelectronic devices. Unique wiring techniques such as wire bonding are also often used in microelectronics because of the unusually small size of the components, leads and pads. This technique requires specialized equipment and is expensive.

Digital integrated circuits (ICs) consist of billions of transistors, resistors, diodes, and capacitors.  Analog circuits commonly contain resistors and capacitors as well.  Inductors are used in some high frequency analog circuits, but tend to occupy larger chip area due to their lower reactance at low frequencies. Gyrators can replace them in many applications.

As techniques have improved, the scale of microelectronic components has continued to decrease.  At smaller scales, the relative impact of intrinsic circuit properties such as interconnections may become more significant.  These are called parasitic effects, and the goal of the microelectronics design engineer is to find ways to compensate for or to minimize these effects, while delivering smaller, faster, and cheaper devices.

Today, microelectronics design is largely aided by electronic design automation (EDA) software.

See also 
 Digital electronics
 Electrical engineering
 Kelvin probe force microscope
 Macroelectronics
 Microscale chemistry
 Nanoelectronics

References

  https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-76096-4/

Electronics