omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Avatar (spacecraft). Avatar (Sanskrit: , ISO: ; from "Aerobic Vehicle for Transatmospheric Hypersonic Aerospace TrAnspoRtation") is a concept study for a robotic single-stage reusable spaceplane capable of horizontal takeoff and landing, by India's Defence Research and Development Organisation. The mission concept is for low cost military and commercial satellite space launches.

This spaceplane concept is unrelated to ISRO's RLV Technology Demonstration Programme (RLV-TD).

Concept
The idea is to develop a spaceplane vehicle that can take off from conventional airfields. Its liquid air cycle engine would collect air in the atmosphere on the way up, liquefy it, separate oxygen and store it on board for subsequent flight beyond the atmosphere. The Avatar, a reusable launch vehicle, was first announced in May 1998 at the Aero India 98 exhibition held at Bangalore.

Avatar is projected to weigh 25 tons, of which 60% of that mass would be liquid hydrogen fuel. The oxygen required by the vehicle for combustion in outer space would be collected from the atmosphere during takeoff, thus reducing the need to carry oxygen during launch. The notional specification is for a payload weighing up to  to low Earth orbit and to withstand up to 100 launches and reentries.

If built, Avatar would take off horizontally like a conventional airplane from a conventional airstrip using turbo-ramjet engines that burn hydrogen and atmospheric oxygen. During this cruising phase, an on-board system would collect air from the atmosphere, from which liquid oxygen would be separated and stored and used to burn the stored hydrogen in the final flight phase to attain orbit. The vehicle would be designed to permit at least one hundred launches and atmospheric reentries.

Feasibility study
The Avatar concept study was commissioned by India's Defence Research and Development Organisation in 2001. India's Space Agency ISRO has no connection with the project.  Air Commodore Raghavan Gopalaswami, who headed the study, made a presentation on the spaceplane at the global conference on propulsion at Salt Lake City, United States on July 10, 2001.

See also
Spaceplanes of comparable role, configuration and era
Boeing X-37
Buran
Dream Chaser
Skylon
Space Rider
Space Shuttle
SpaceShipTwo

References

External links
Concept of AVATAR

Hydrogen-powered aircraft
Hypersonic aircraft
Space launch vehicles of India
Space programme of India
Ramjet-powered aircraft
Former proposed space launch system concepts
Spacecraft propulsion
Spaceplanes
Proposed aircraft of India
V-tail aircraft
Satish Dhawan Space Centre
Aeronca L. The Aeronca L is a 1930s American cabin monoplane designed and built, in small numbers, by Aeronca Aircraft. It differed significantly from other Aeronca planes by the use of radial engines, streamlining, and a cantilever low wing.

Design and construction
Quite unlike other Aeronca designs, the Model L was a "cantilever" (no external struts for bracing) low-wing monoplane, that featured side-by-side seating in a completely enclosed cabin. The design reflected the greater attention being paid to aerodynamics in the period, including large wheel spats for the fixed undercarriage and a Townend ring for the engine. The aircraft was of mixed-construction with a welded steel fuselage and wings with spruce spars and ribs, all covered with fabric.

Initial attempts to use Aeronca's own engines proved inadequate, and the company turned to small radial engines from other suppliers, particularly neighboring Cincinnati engine manufacturer LeBlond.

Operational history
The Model L was mainly flown by private pilot owners. The plane was not a big seller.  Difficulty with engine sources, and a destructive flood, in 1937, at Aeronca's factory at Cincinnati's Lunken Airport, took the energy out of the program, and Aeronca went back to high-wing light aircraft.

With the end of sales to Aeronca, LeBlond  sold their engine-manufacturing operation to an Aeronca-rival planemaker, Kansas City-based Rearwin Aircraft, who resumed production of the engines under the brand name "Ken-Royce," largely for use in Rearwin planes.

Variants
LA
Fitted with a  LeBlond 5DE engine, 9 built
LB
Fitted with an  LeBlond 5DF engine, 29 built
LC
Fitted with a  Warner Scarab Jr engine, 15 built
LCS
A single LC, [NC16289], was fitted with floats to become the LCS, carrying a load of  for  at .
LD
Fitted with a  Lambert R-266 5-cyl. radial engine

Surviving aircraft
The EAA AirVenture Museum in Oshkosh, Wisconsin has a 1937 Aeronca LC in its collection.

The Western Antique Aeroplane & Automobile Museum of Hood River, Oregon, has an airworthy Aeronica LC. Aeronca LB N16271 was in final stages of restoration as of January of 2015; Aeronca LC NC17442 (cn 2056) is also on display in the museum.

Specifications (Model LC)

Notes

References

Taylor, J. H. (ed) (1989) Jane's Encyclopedia of Aviation. Studio Editions: London. p. 31
Holcomb's Aerodrome

Low-wing aircraft
Single-engined tractor aircraft
1930s United States civil utility aircraft
Aeronca aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1935
Aircraft with fixed conventional landing gear
Single-engined piston aircraft
Aeronca Arrow. The Aeronca Model 9 Arrow was a low-wing all-metal cabin monoplane with retractable landing gear. It was marketed to returning pilots from World War II and unveiled in 1947 but never went into production.

The single prototype (registered NX39581) was destroyed in a crash during a test flight due to propeller failure.

Specifications

See also

References

Further reading

External links
 Aerofiles: Aeronca 9 Arrow

Low-wing aircraft
Single-engined tractor aircraft
1940s United States civil utility aircraft
Aeronca aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1947
Single-engined piston aircraft
Frederick Abbott (Indian Army officer). Major-General Sir Frederick Abbott,  (13 June 1805 – 4 November 1892) was a British Indian Army officer and engineer of the East India Company.

Background
Frederick was born at Little Court, Buntingford, Hertfordshire, the second son of Henry Alexius Abbott, a retired Calcutta merchant of Blackheath, Kent, and his wife Margaret Welsh, the daughter of William Welsh of Edinburgh. He had the following siblings:
 Margaret (1801–1877)
 Major-General Augustus Abbott (1804–1867)
 General Sir James Abbott, KCB (1807–1896)
 Emma Abbott (1809–1875)
 Major General Saunders Alexius Abbott (1811–1894)
 Keith Edward Abbott, Consul General (1814–1873)
 Edmund Abbott (1816–1816)

Career
After training at Addiscombe Military Seminary from 1820 to 1822, Abbott was posted to India with the Bengal Engineers in 1823. He served in the First Burmese War, and in 1825 distinguished himself in the Battle of Prome, where he was wounded. After serving in different locations in India, he took part as chief engineer in the First Anglo-Afghan War. Here he was ordered to destroy the great bazaar of Kabul as a retribution for the murder of a British officer, an action he later regretted. In 1841, Abbott was appointed superintending engineer of the north-western provinces of Bengal. He fought in the First Anglo-Sikh War in 1846, and took part in the Battle of Sobraon, for which he was awarded a Companion of the Order of the Bath.

He retired one year later and took over as lieutenant-governor of Addiscombe Seminary in 1851. Abbott became a knight bachelor in 1854 and was promoted to major-general in 1858. In 1859, he was appointed to serve on the Royal Commission on the Defence of the United Kingdom, whose recommendations prompted a huge programme of fortification for the British naval dockyards. After the college was closed in 1861, he served on various other royal commissions.

Family
In 1835, he married Frances Cox, da. of Lt.Col. Cox, Royal Artillery, and widow of Lt.Col. Hubert de Burgh. Abbott died in Branksome Park, Poole in 1892. His wife and daughter both predeceased him.

References

1805 births
1892 deaths
Graduates of Addiscombe Military Seminary
British military personnel of the First Anglo-Afghan War
British military personnel of the First Anglo-Burmese War
British military personnel of the First Anglo-Sikh War
Companions of the Order of the Bath
Knights Bachelor
People from Buntingford
Bengal Engineers officers
British Indian Army generals
British East India Company Army officers
Military personnel from Hertfordshire
ZBasic. ZBasic is a compiler which was first released by Simutek (Tucson, Arizona) in 1980.  The combined efforts of Andrew Gariepy, Scott Terry, David Overton, Greg Branche, and Halbert Laing led to versions for MS-DOS, Apple II, Mac, CP/M, and TRS-80 computers. ZBasic is a fast and efficient BASIC compiler with an integrated development environment. It aims to be used as a cross-platform development system, where the same source code can be compiled to different platforms without any modifications.

In 1991, Harry Gish and 32 Bit Software Inc. of Dallas, Texas purchased the MS-DOS version. Nando Favaro expanded it to include 16- and 32-bit-specific machine code as well as VGA and VESA video. Zedcor concentrated on the Macintosh market and renamed it FutureBASIC.

Features
ZBasic features device independent graphics: the same compiled code can work on different display resolutions and colors, and even in text mode. Original PC versions include graphical support up to EGA for MS-DOS.

ZBasic includes BCD (binary coded decimal) math with precision up to 54 digits.

INDEX$ is an array of variable length strings that can be easily sorted, searched, etc.

References 
 TRS-80 releases
 ZBasic manual  'ZBasic, Interactive Compiler', by Andrew R. Gariepy, Scott Terry, David Overton, Greg Branche and Halbert Laing. Documentation by Michael A. Gariepy. Fourth Edition 4/87 (C)1985-1987 Zedcor Inc.
 'ZBasic-PC/386', modifications by Nando Favaro. Documentation by Harry Gish. First Edition 3/91 (C)1991 32 Bit Software Inc.
 ZBasic 5 reviewed by Dave Kelly for MacTech magazine

1980 software
BASIC compilers
CP/M software
Apple II software
Classic Mac OS software
Kicker magnet. Kicker magnets are dipole magnets used to rapidly switch a particle beam between two paths.  Conceptually similar to a railroad switch in function, a kicker magnet must switch on very rapidly, then maintain a stable magnetic field for some minimum time.  Switch-off time is also important, but less critical.

An injection kicker magnet merges two beams incoming from different directions.  Most commonly, there is a beam circulating in a synchrotron, in the form of a particle train which only partially fills the arc.  As soon as the circulating particle train has passed the kicker, it is switched on so that an additional batch of particles may be appended to the train.  The magnet must then be switched off in time to not affect the head of the train when it next rounds the synchrotron.

An ejection kicker magnet does the opposite, diverting a circulating beam so it leaves the synchrotron.  Almost always, an ejection kicker is used to eject the entire particle train, emptying the synchrotron.  This means that it has the entire tail-to-head gap in the synchrotron to function, and the switch-off time is essentially irrelevant.  However, it must hold a stable field for longer (one full rotation of the synchrotron), and must generate a stronger magnetic field, as it is used to eject a higher energy beam that has been accelerated in the synchrotron.

The magnets are powered by a high voltage (usually in the range of tens of thousands of volts) source called a power modulator which uses a pulse forming network to produce a short pulse of current (usually in the range of a few nanoseconds to a microsecond and thousands of amperes in amplitude). The current produces a magnetic field in the magnet, which in turn imparts a Lorentz force on the particles as they traverse the magnet's length, causing the beam to deflect into the proper trajectory.

Because a kicker magnet applies a particular lateral impulse to the beam, to achieve a fixed deflection angle the strength of the kick must be accurately matched to the momentum of the particles. This is part of the power modulator's job.

References
 
 

Accelerator physics
Advanced Plant Management System. The Advanced Plant Management System (APMS) is a SCADA solution developed in partnership by RWE npower and Thales UK.

Based on a real-time application platform, APMS is a monitoring and control system for any large industrial process. APMS is implemented at more than thirty electric power generation units in the UK, including Tilbury, Didcot A, Aberthaw, Drax and Rugeley power stations.

The APMS system replaced the Cutlass programming language and application system - a real-time control system widely implemented during the 1970s in British power plants by the Central Electricity Generating Board (CEGB) research & development team - in National Power power stations. (PowerGen in contrast retained and modernised its Cutlass systems.)

See also
 npower UK
 Aberthaw power stations
 Didcot power stations
 Fiddlers Ferry power station
 Ironbridge power stations
 Drax power station
 APMS replacing CUTLASS system

References

External links
 APMS: Advanced Plant Management System
 Thales UK
 RWE npower
 npower

Industrial automation
Telemetry
Power station technology
PKP class ET42. The Soviet-made ET42 (also manufactured as NEWZ 112E) is PKP's (Polish National Railways) most powerful standard gauge electric freight locomotive. Due to its provenance, it is often referred to by its nickname of Rusek (Polish derogatory word for a native of Russia) or Czapajew (Chapayev) (Russian: Чапаев).

Description
The locomotive's construction is based on that of the Soviet VL10 and VL11 (Russian: ВЛ10 & ВЛ11, respectively) and is characterised by its straightforward design as well as ease of use and reliability. The ET42 was designed to be a dual section locomotive from the outset, as opposed to the remaining dual section locomotives operated by PKP, such as the ET41 or ET40. For this reason a "single version" of the ET42 doesn't exist; nor is it possible to modify one of the sections to run as an independent unit. Since there aren't any empty spaces left by surplus cabs, the locomotive is much shorter than other dual section locomotives built from single units. The ET42 is also equipped with facilities for heating carriages and can therefore be used for hauling passenger trains. Moreover, it has five positions of excitation attenuation (from 83% to 36% of full field) which allows for higher speed on the track after the train accelerates.

History
In 1969, the electrification of Polish Coal Trunk-Line between Upper Silesia and Gdańsk was completed, which made it possible to run freight trains with electric locomotives from Silesia to ports along the Baltic. Yet at the time, Polish State Railways did not have sufficiently strong locomotives in its stock that could handle the increasingly heavy trains on the route. The initial decision to serve this route by ET21 with multiple tractions resulted in shortages of locomotives. In the early 1970s, stronger two-unit locomotives were ordered independently from two suppliers: one in Czechoslovakia (ET40) and the other in the Soviet Nowocherkas Electric Locomotive Construction Plant (ET42). Originally, the Soviet locomotives were to receive the designation ET41, but their delivery was delayed and the designation was given to the new ET41 locomotive, constructed in Poland on the basis of the EU07 locomotive  .

Fifty ET42s were purchased between 1978 and 1982 and were all based at the Zduńska Wola Karsznice depot. They were all built at the Novocherkassk Electric Locomotive Factory in the former Soviet town of Novocherkassk (Russian: Новочеркасск). The ET42's main role is hauling very heavy coal trains (up to 4,000 tonnes) along the routes leading from Silesia to the ports of Gdańsk and Gdynia. Four locomotives are no longer in PKP's inventory: ET42-003, ET42-033, ET42-043 and ET42-045 due to a rail accident. Now all locomotives are based in Zakład Taboru Tarnowskie Góry.

See also
Polish locomotives designation

References 

3000 V DC locomotives
Bo′Bo′+Bo′Bo′ locomotives
Polish State Railways electric locomotives
Standard gauge locomotives of Poland
Fairey Firefly I. The Fairey Firefly was a British fighter of the 1920s from Fairey Aviation.
It was a single-seat, single-engine biplane of mixed construction.

Development
The Firefly was a private-venture design, penned by Marcel Lobelle. It was first flown on 9 November 1925 by Norman Macmillan.
The Air Ministry did not pursue the project, partly because of the American Curtiss engine used  and partly because of its wooden construction  and the Firefly I did not enter production.

Specifications (Firefly I)

See also

References

1920s British fighter aircraft
Firefly I
Biplanes
Single-engined tractor aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1925
Substrate (materials science). Substrate is a term used in materials science and engineering to describe the base material on which processing is conducted. Surfaces have different uses, including producing new film or layers of material and being a base to which another substance is bonded.

Description 
In materials science and engineering, a substrate refers to a base material on which processing is conducted. This surface could be used to produce new film or layers of material such as deposited coatings.  It could be the base to which paint, adhesives, or adhesive tape is bonded.

A typical substrate might be rigid such as metal, concrete, or glass, onto which a coating might be deposited. Flexible substrates are also used. Some substrates are anisotropic with surface properties being different depending on the direction: examples include wood and paper products.

Coatings

With all coating processes, the condition of the surface of the substrate can strongly affect the bond of subsequent layers.  This can include cleanliness, smoothness, surface energy, moisture, etc.

Coating can be by a variety of processes, including:
 Adhesives and adhesive tapes
 Coating and printing processes
 Chemical vapor deposition and physical vapor deposition
 Conversion coating
 Anodizing
 Chromate conversion coating
 Plasma electrolytic oxidation
 Phosphate coating
 Paint
 Enamel paint
 Powder coating
 Industrial coating
 Silicate mineral paint
 Fusion bonded epoxy coating (FBE coating)
 Pickled and oiled, a type of plate steel coating.
 Plating
 Electroless plating
 Electrochemical plating
 Polymer coatings, such as Teflon
 Sputtered or vacuum deposited materials
 Vitreous enamel

In optics, glass may be used as a substrate for an optical coating—either an antireflection coating to reduce reflection, or a mirror coating to enhance it. Ceramic substrates are also used in the renewable energy sector to produce inverters for photovoltaic solar systems and concentrators for concentrated photovoltaic systems.

A substrate may be also an engineered surface where an unintended or natural process occurs, like in:
 Fouling
 Corrosion
 Biofouling
 Heterogeneous catalysis
 Adsorption

See also 
 List of coating techniques
 Thin film
 Wetting

References

Chemical processes
Coatings
Industrial processes
Materials science
Thomas Lincoln Casey Jr.. Thomas Lincoln Casey Jr. (February 19, 1857 – February 3, 1925) was an American army engineer and entomologist who was noted for his work on Coleoptera. He was the eldest son of Brigadier General Thomas Lincoln Casey (1831–1896), who served as Chief of Engineers for the United States Army Corps of Engineers and oversaw the completion of the Washington Monument.

Military career
Casey was born in West Point, New York. He followed in his father's footsteps and attended the United States Military Academy at West Point. He entered the academy in 1875 and graduated second in his class in 1879, when he was commissioned a 2nd lieutenant in the Corps of Engineers.

He was promoted to 1st lieutenant in June 1881 and to captain in July 1888.  From 1895 he was assigned to construction of fortifications at Fort Monroe and the Hampton Roads area in Virginia.   In July 1898, he was promoted to major and supervised the installation of underwater mines to defend Hampton Roads during the Spanish–American War.  He then served at Vicksburg, Mississippi from 1899 to 1901 and was in charge of Mississippi river improvements at St. Louis, Missouri from 1901 to 1906.

In 1906, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel. In 1909, he was promoted to colonel and assigned as engineer secretary to the Lighthouse Board until 1910. Casey retired from the army on November 1, 1912.

Scientific work
He published numerous scientific papers on the subject of Coleoptera and a monograph, Memoirs on the Coleoptera (1910–1924). He was also known for contributions to astronomy.

Later life
Casey died on February 3, 1925 in Washington, D.C. He was interred at Arlington National Cemetery three days later.

Bibliography 
Coleopterological works:
 Casey T. L. 1910–1924. Memoirs on the Coleoptera.

Malacological work:
 Casey T. L. 1904. Notes on the Pleurotomidae with description of some new genera and species. Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis, volume 14, number 5, pages 123–170.

References

External links 
 Thos. L. (Thomas Lincoln) Casey Papers
 

1857 births
1925 deaths
People from West Point, New York
United States Military Academy alumni
United States Army Corps of Engineers personnel
Military personnel from New York (state)
American entomologists
American astronomers
Scientists from New York (state)
American military personnel of the Spanish–American War
United States Army colonels
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Streak (mineralogy). The streak of a mineral is the color of the powder produced when it is dragged across an unweathered surface. Unlike the apparent color of a mineral, which for most minerals can vary considerably, the trail of finely ground powder generally has a more consistent characteristic color, and is thus an important diagnostic tool in mineral identification. If no streak seems to be made, the mineral's streak is said to be white or colorless. Streak is particularly important as a diagnostic for opaque and colored materials. It is less useful for silicate minerals, most of which have a white streak or are too hard to powder easily.

The apparent color of a mineral can vary widely because of trace impurities or a disturbed macroscopic crystal structure. Small amounts of an impurity that strongly absorbs a particular wavelength can radically change the wavelengths of light that are reflected by the specimen, and thus change the apparent color. However, when the specimen is dragged to produce a streak, it is broken into randomly oriented microscopic crystals, and small impurities do not greatly affect the absorption of light. 

The surface across which the mineral is dragged is called a "streak plate", and is generally made of unglazed porcelain tile. In the absence of a streak plate, the unglazed underside of a porcelain bowl or vase or the back of a glazed tile will work. Sometimes a streak is more easily or accurately described by comparing it with the "streak" made by another streak plate.

Because the trail left behind results from the mineral being crushed into powder, a streak can only be made of minerals softer than the streak plate, around 7 on the Mohs scale of mineral hardness. For harder minerals, the color of the powder can be determined by filing or crushing a small sample, which is then usually rubbed on a streak plate. Most minerals that are harder have an unhelpful white streak.

Some minerals leave a streak similar to their natural color, such as cinnabar, lazurite and native gold. Other minerals leave surprising colors, such as fluorite, which always has a white streak, although it can appear in purple, blue, yellow, or green crystals. Hematite, which is black in appearance, leaves a red streak which accounts for its name, which comes from the Greek word "haima", meaning "blood." Galena, which can be similar in appearance to hematite, is easily distinguished by its gray streak.

References

External links
 Physical Characteristics of Minerals, at Introduction to Mineralogy by Andrea Bangert
 What is Streak? from the Mineral Gallery

Mineralogy