omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Foe (unit). A foe is a unit of energy equal to 1044 joules or 1051 ergs, used to express the large amount of energy released by a supernova.  An acronym for "[ten to the power of] fifty-one ergs", the term was introduced by Gerald E. Brown of Stony Brook University in his work with Hans Bethe, because "it came up often enough in our work". 

Without mentioning the foe, Steven Weinberg proposed in 2006 "a new unit called the bethe" (B) with the same value, to "replace" it.

This unit of measure is convenient because a supernova typically releases about one foe of observable energy in a very short period (which can be measured in seconds). In comparison, if the Sun's current luminosity is the same as its average luminosity over its lifetime, it would release 3.827 W × 3.1536 s/yr × 1010 yr ≈ 1.2 foe. One solar mass has a rest mass energy of 1787 foe.

See also
 Orders of magnitude (energy)

References

Units of energy
Supernovae
Gerhard Fischer (inventor). Gerhard Julius Richard Fischer later Gerhard Julius Richard Fisher, Gerhard R. Fisher (March 18, 1899 – May 2, 1988) was a U.S. entrepreneur of German descent. He contributed to the development and popularity of the hand held metal detector.

Biography
Fisher was born in 1899 in Landeshut, Silesia, to Richard Hugo Georg Arthur Fischer, an engineer, and his wife Margaretha Julia Fischer née Job. His mother was from Łódź, where the parents also married. Around 1906, the Fischer family moved to Dresden. After studying electrical engineering at the Dresden University, Fischer emigrated to the U.S. In 1931, he founded Fisher Research Laboratory, Inc. in Palo Alto, where he served as president until his retirement in 1967. While working  with aircraft radio detection finders environment-dependent changes became apparent. From the interference by metal, he concluded that the device must also be suitable for detecting metal. Fisher shared the idea with Albert Einstein who correctly predicted the proliferation of hand held metal detector use. In 1937, he patented his metal detector. He died 1988 in Palo Alto.

Inventions
Although the actual inventor of the hand-held metal detector is disputed, the hand-held metal detector was made in 1925 and was first patented by Dr. Gerhard Fisher in 1931. A metal detector had been invented some forty years earlier (1881) by Alexander Graham Bell for the sole purpose of locating a lead bullet in President James A. Garfield.

Fisher Research Laboratory
He founded Fisher Research Laboratory to develop and market the hand held metal detectors in 1931.

References

External links
Fisher Research Laboratory – Company History
Metal detecting history (MDgear)

20th-century German inventors
Engineers from Bavaria
German emigrants to the United States
Year of birth missing
Year of death missing
Square Butte (transmission line). Square Butte is the designation of a high-voltage direct current transmission line in the United States between the Milton R. Young Power Plant near Center, North Dakota at  and the Arrowhead converter station near Adolph (a neighborhood of the city of Hermantown near the city of Duluth, Minnesota) at . It was built by Minnkota Power Cooperative and Minnesota Power and went in service in 1977. In 2009, an agreement was executed between the two companies whereby Minnkota gets the rights to all the power currently transmitted over the line (and which is now carried over a newly built 345kV transmission line) while Minnesota Power takes full ownership of the line to transmit power from new sources in the Center area.

Square Butte can transfer up to 500 megawatts at a symmetrical voltage of 250 kV. The whole line is implemented as overhead line on steel lattice towers, with a single conductor per HVDC pole (i.e. a total of two for the HDVC bipole), with a length of 449 miles (749 kilometers). The line crosses the Missouri River north of Price between  and  in a 718 metres long span. As is the case for modern HVDC-systems thyristor static inverters are used.

Crossing another HVDC line

Southeast of Wing, North Dakota, at  Square Butte crosses CU, another HVDC powerline. This is the only crossing point of two HVDC overhead powerlines in the Western hemisphere.

Electrode line 
The ground return electrode line starting at Adolph Static Inverter Plant is installed on portal pylons of the three phase AC-powerline from Adolph Static Inverter Plant to Marble Substation. It ends at .
The electrode line starting at Adolph Static Inverter Plant consists of two underground 15 kV cables, each using aluminum conductors with a cross section of 380 mm2.

External links
 ABB (2005). Upgrade of control system for CU and Square Butte HVDC projects. Retrieved March 27, 2005.
 THE SQUARE BUTTE HVDC SCHEME 
 THE SQUARE BUTTE HVDC SCHEME – Geographic map

Energy infrastructure completed in 1977
Electric power transmission systems in the United States
Energy infrastructure in North Dakota
Energy infrastructure in Minnesota
Duluth, Minnesota
1977 establishments in Minnesota
1977 establishments in North Dakota
Buildings and structures in Oliver County, North Dakota
CU (power line). CU is the designation of a line for high-voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission between the Coal Creek Station power plant south of Underwood, North Dakota at  and the Dickinson converter station near Buffalo, Minnesota at .

The designation most likely refers to two Minnesota-based power generation/transmission cooperatives that originally partnered to build the Coal Creek plant and associated line - Cooperative Power Association and United Power Association, which later merged to become Great River Energy. Great River Energy recently announced that the mine-mouth plant that supplies this line, Coal Creek Station, will be decommissioned in 2022, unless another entity steps up to acquire (and continue operating) the plant, leaving the future of this line in doubt.

The CU project controversy in 1978 and 1979 was a result of protests by farm landowners in the path of the CU line right of way.

The CU line, which went in service in 1978, can transfer an electrical power of 1,000 megawatts at a symmetrical transmission voltage of 400 kV. An overhead line connection 436 miles (710 kilometers) long is used, with two conductors per pole. Thyristor static inverters are used.

Crossing of HVDC powerlines 
Southeast of Wing, North Dakota, at  CU crosses Square Butte, another HVDC powerline. This is the only crossing point of two HVDC overhead powerlines in the Western hemisphere.

Electrodes 
The ground return electrode line at Coal Creek Station uses the towers of the AC line between  and  as support before it ends at .

The electrode line at Dickinson converter plant runs on the towers of the main line until a tower at . From this tower it runs on a line on 4 poles until its endpoint situated at .

References 

Energy infrastructure completed in 1979
Electric power transmission systems in the United States
Energy infrastructure in North Dakota
Energy infrastructure in Minnesota
HVDC transmission lines
1979 establishments in Minnesota
1979 establishments in North Dakota
Eel River Converter Station. The Eel River Converter Station is a high-voltage direct current (HVDC) converter station in Eel River Crossing, New Brunswick, Canada; it is the first operative HVDC station in the world equipped with thyristors.

The Eel River Converter Station was the first operating fully solid-state HVDC converter station in the world, although some stations in Europe had mixed thyristor valves in with their original mercury-arc valves. The design and equipment for the Eel River HVDC station was provided by General Electric with its commissioning being completed in 1972.

The Eel River Converter Station consists of two separate 12-pulse bidirectional solid-state non-synchronous HVDC ties of 4800 thyristors  (each nominally rated 160 MW) connecting 230-kV transmission systems of Hydro-Québec and NB Power. The converter station has a nominal throughput rating of 40 MW to 320 MW and an overload capability of up to 350 MW.  

The station was built to provide Hydro-Québec with its first major power interconnection with the remainder of eastern North America to enable export of surplus energy made available by the completion of the Churchill Falls hydro-electric project in Labrador.  For the first thirteen years of its operation, Eel River operated at a capacity factor of over 100%, making it the most heavily used HVDC station in the world. 

A report by New Brunswick System Operator in 2009 said:
Eel River HVDC was commissioned in 1972 and was built as the world's first solid state back to back converter stations. There has been no major refurbishment done to the station except for the replacement of the converter transformers in the mid-1980s due to a design defect. 
A recent engineering study of the Eel River facility recommended the replacement of the HVDC converter stations controls and the upgrades of the air cooled thyristor valves with conventional liquid cooled thyristor valves. Both projects would require multiple years to complete. The planning is underway for this project.

Upgrade
Eel River Converter Station was successfully upgraded by ABB and went into operation in November 2014.

The station was named an IEEE Milestone in 2011.

References

External links
.

Buildings and structures in Restigouche County, New Brunswick
Converter stations
NB Power
Hydro-Québec
Energy infrastructure completed in 1972
Electric power infrastructure in Canada
Energy in Quebec
Ironworker (machine). An Ironworker is a class of machine that can shear, notch, and punch holes in steel plate and profiles. Ironworkers generate force using mechanical advantage or hydraulic systems.

The name is now used for machines made by various manufacturers, including the Edwards Manufacturing Company, and may be an example of a genericized trademark.

History

The Ironworker machines made by Edwards evolved from the manually-operated metal shear it produced in the 1930s, which was a single blade attached to a long-handled lever which gave its operator enough leverage to cut through metal.

Overview
Modern systems use hydraulic rams powered by a high-powered alternating current electric motor.  High strength carbon steel blades and dies of various shapes are used to work the metal. The machine itself is made of very heavy steel to handle the enormous force that can be generated during use.  Ironworkers are rated according to the force they can generate in tons; ratings usually start at 20 tons and go as high as 220 tons.

Mechanical ironworkers are mostly used in productions with low temperature in winter (up to ) and are considered to be faster. Another reason to choose the mechanical construction is when cutting of large profiles (up to 300 mm (12 in) and bigger) is needed. Most hydraulicals can't cut this size. The disadvantages are the higher power consumption (sometimes double for the same job), the noise and the safety concerns.

Safety
Ironworkers are built with safety in mind, but they still present hazards that must be addressed and thoroughly considered before they are purchased. Most of them have at least 4 stations that require boundaries around them to safely produce parts. They can shear flat plate, angle iron, round and square bar stock as well as punch plates, angles, I-beam and channel iron. Some have a station for notching and forming different types of materials. The area around each station should be at least , since that is the common stock length of most materials used on ironworkers.

Operations
Operations which can be performed include:
 Forming or bending
 Notching
 Punching 
 Shearing

Advantages
Due to the reduction in the amount of man hours and effort needed to cut or punch steel sections, an ironworker is often an integral part of commercial manufacturing facilities and fabrication shops. They are easily re-tooled for various operations and can be operated by one person.

References

Metalworking cutting tools
Fabrication (metal)
AFIS. AFIS may refer to:

 Advanced Fire Information System
 Aerodrome Flight Information Service
 Airborne Flight Information System, an avionics system proprietary to Honeywell Aerospace
 American Forces Information Service
 Association française d'Ingénierie Système, French chapter of the INCOSE
 Association française pour l'information scientifique, a French skeptical organisation
 Automated Fingerprint Identification System (disambiguation)
 Automatic Flight Information Service
 Amministrazione Fiduciaria Italiana della Somalia (Italian Administration of Somalia) United Nations Trust Territory

See also
Aphis (disambiguation)
FreeS/WAN. FreeS/WAN, for Free Secure Wide-Area Networking, was a free software project which implemented a reference version of the IPsec network security layer for Linux. The project goal of ubiquitous opportunistic encryption of Internet traffic was not realized, although it did contribute to general Internet encryption.

The project was founded by John Gilmore, and administered for most of its duration by Hugh Daniel. John Ioannidis and Angelos Keromytis started the codebase while outside the United States prior to autumn 1997.  Technical lead for the project was Henry Spencer, and later Michael Richardson. The IKE keying daemon (pluto) was maintained by D. Hugh Redelmeier while the IPsec kernel module (KLIPS) was maintained by Richard Guy Briggs. Sandy Harris was the main documentation person for most of the project, later Claudia Schmeing.

The final FreeS/WAN version 2.06 was released on 22 April 2004. The earlier version 2.04 was forked to form two projects, Openswan and strongSwan. Openswan has since (2012) been forked to Libreswan.

External links

 Project website
 Documentation

Free security software
History of software
IPsec
Light industry. Light industry are industries that usually are less capital-intensive than heavy industries and are more consumer-oriented than business-oriented, as they typically produce smaller consumer goods.  Most light industry products are produced for end users rather than as intermediates for use by other industries. Light industry facilities typically have a smaller environmental impact than those associated with heavy industry. For that reason, zoning laws are more likely to permit light industry near residential areas.

One definition states that light industry is a "manufacturing activity that uses moderate amounts of partially processed materials to produce items of relatively high value per unit weight".

Characteristics
Compared to heavy industries, light industries require fewer raw materials, space, and power. While light industry typically causes little pollution, particularly compared to heavy industry, some light industries can cause significant pollution or risk of contamination. For example, electronics manufacturing, itself often a light industry, can create potentially harmful levels of lead or chemical wastes in soil without proper handling of solder and waste products (such as cleaning and degreasing agents used in the manufacture).

Industry sectors 

 Food industry 

 Paper making 
 Plastic 
 Leather industry
 Textiles 
 Household electric appliances

General-use products  

 Kitchen and dining products
 Beauty and personal care
 Home textiles
 Cleaning and storage 
 Clock, watch, and eyewear
 Gardening
 Household sundries 
 Advertising and packaging

History 

The Oxford English Dictionary traces the use of the term "light industry" from 1916 onwards.

Within the later stages of the Industrial Revolution, the development of light industry tended to precede that of heavy industry.

References

Industries (economics)
RKWard. RKWard is a transparent front-end to the R programming language, a scripting-language with a strong focus on statistics functions. RKWard tries to combine the power of the R language with the ease of use of commercial statistical packages.

RKWard is written in C++ and although it can run in numerous environments, it was designed for and integrates the KDE desktop environment with the Qt (software) libraries.

Features 
RKWard's features include
Spreadsheet-like data editor
Syntax highlighting, code folding and code completion
Data import (e.g. SPSS, Stata and CSV)
Plot preview and browsable history
R package management
Workspace browser
GUI dialogs for all kinds of statistics and plots

Interface 
RKWard aims to be easy to use, both for people with deep knowledge of R, and for users who, although they have experience in statistics, are not familiar with the language. The application design offers the possibility of using the graphic tools as well as ignoring many of them and using the program as integrated development environment.

It includes a workspace viewer, which gives access to packages, functions and variables loaded by R or imported from other sources. It also has a file viewer, and data set editing windows, display of the contents of the variables, help, command log and HTML output.

It also offers components that help in code editing and direct order execution, such as the script window and the R console, where you can enter complete commands or programs as you would in the original R text interface. It provides additional help such as syntax coloring documentation of functions while writing, and includes the feature of capturing graphs or emerging dialogs produced by offering additional options for handling, saving and exporting them.

Package Management 
The R package management is carried out through a configuration dialog that allows one to, either automatically (because a plug-in requires it) or manually, install new packages from the repository's official project, update existing ones, delete them or upload / download them from the workspace.

Add-ons system 
Thanks to its add-ons system RKWard constantly expands the number of functions that can be accessed without writing the code directly. These components allow, from a graphical user interface, instructions to be generated in R for the most common or complex statistical operations. In this way, even without having deep knowledge about the language it is possible to perform advanced data analysis or elaborated graphs. The results of the computations are formatted and presented as HTML, making it possible, with a single click and drag, to export tables and graphs to, for example, office suites.

See also 
 Comparison of statistical packages
 R interfaces

References

External links 
RKWard homepage

Free R (programming language) software
Free software programmed in C++
Free statistical software
KDE Applications
PHP software
Sodium fusion test. The sodium fusion test, or Lassaigne's test, is used in elemental analysis for the qualitative determination of the presence of foreign elements, namely halogens, nitrogen, and sulfur, in an organic compound. It was developed by J. L. Lassaigne.

The test involves heating the sample with sodium metal, "fusing" it with the sample. A variety of techniques has been described. The "fused" sample is plunged into water, and the qualitative tests are performed on the resultant solution for the respective possible constituents.

Theory
The halogens, nitrogen, and sulfur are covalently bonded to the organic compounds are converted to various sodium salts formed during the fusion. Typically proposed reactions are:
Na + C + N → NaCN
Na + C + N + S → NaSCN
2Na + S → Na2S
Na + X → NaX
The fate of the hydrocarbon portion of the sample is disregarded.

The aqueous extract is called sodium fusion extract or Lassaigne's extract.

Test for nitrogen
The sodium fusion extract is made alkaline by adding NaOH. To this mixture, freshly prepared FeSO4 solution is added and boiled for some time and then cooled. A few drops of FeCl3 are added and Prussian blue (bluish green) color forms due to formation of ferric ferrocyanide along with NaCl. This shows the presence of nitrogen in the organic compound.6CN- +Fe^2+ -> [Fe(CN)6]^4-{3[Fe(CN)6]}^{4-} +4Fe^3+ ->[\ce{xH2O}]Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3\cdot xH2O

Test for sulfur

Lead acetate test 
The sodium fusion extract is acidified with acetic acid and lead acetate is added to it. A black precipitate of lead sulfide indicates the presence of sulfur.

Sodium nitroprusside test 
Freshly prepared sodium nitroprusside solution is added to the sodium fusion extract, turning the solution deep violet due to formation of sodium thionitroprusside. S^2- + [Fe(CN)5NO]^2- -> [Fe(CN)5NOS]^4- 

In case, both nitrogen and sulfur are present in an organic compound, sodium thiocyanate is formed which gives blood red color since there are no free cyanide ions.
 
Fe^3+ + SCN- -> [Fe(SCN)]^2+

Test for halogens
The sodium fusion extract is boiled with concentrated HNO3 followed by the addition of AgNO3 solution which yields a white (AgCl) or yellow (AgBr or AgI) precipitate if halogen is present.NaX + AgNO3 -> AgX + NaNO3

Test for phosphorus 
Sodium peroxide is added to the compound to oxidise phosphorus to sodium phosphate. It is boiled with concentrated HNO3 and then ammonium molybdate is added. A yellow precipitate (ammonium phosphomolybdate) indicates the presence of phosphorus.
Na3PO4 + 3HNO3 -> H3PO4 + 3NaNO3
H3PO4 + 21NaNO3 + 12(NH4)2MoO4 -> (NH4)3[P(Mo3 O10)4] + 21NH4NO3 + 12H2O

References

External links
 Lab Manual from the University of West Indies, Mona

Chemical tests
Sodium
Elemental analysis
Neurally controlled animat. A neurally controlled animat is the conjunction of
a cultured neuronal network
a virtual or physical robotic body, the Animat, "living" in a virtual computer generated environment or in a physical arena, connected to this array
Patterns of neural activity are used to control the virtual body, and the computer is used as a sensory device to provide electrical feedback to the neural network about the Animat's movement in the virtual environment.

The current aim of the Animat research is to study the neuronal activity and plasticity when learning and processing information in order to find a mathematical model for the neural network, and to determine how information is processed and encoded in the rat cortex.

It leads towards interesting questions about consciousness theories as well.

See also
 Remote control animal

References 

 T. B., Demarse, D. A. Wagenaar, A. W. Blau and S. M. Potter, ‘Neurally controlled computer-simulated animals: a new tool for studying learning and memory in vitro’ in Society for Neuroscience Annual Meeting, (2000) SFN ID: 2961.
 T. B., Demarse, D. A. Wagenaar, A. W. Blau and S. M. Potter, (2001). ‘The neurally controlled Animat: biological brains acting with simulated bodies’. Autonomous Robots no.11, pp.305–310

Neural circuitry
Neural engineering
HVDC Gezhouba–Shanghai. The HVDC Gezhouba–Shanghai is a high voltage direct current electric power transmission system between Gezhouba and Nanqiao near Shanghai, China put in service in 1989. The bipolar  line is rated at 500 kV and a maximum power of 1,200 MW.

Between 2008 and 2011 the towers of the most part of the line, which were almost guyed towers capable of carrying two conductors, were replaced by new free-standing line towers for 4 conductors in order to install the conductors for the HVDC Hubei-Shanghai on them. This 970 km long line, which is also a bipolar HVDC with an operating voltage of 500 kV runs from Jingmen to Fenjing and has a transmission capacity of 3000 MW.

HVDC Hubei-Shanghai shares also the grounding electrode of HVDC Gezhouba–Shanghai for the Nanqiao terminal. For most of its length, the electrode line of HVDC Gezhouba–Shanghai carries also the electrode line of HVDC Hubei-Shanghei. HVDC Gezhouba–Shanghai carries between Fenjing and Nanqiao also the electrode line of HVDC Hubei-Shanghei in most part of its length on its towers.

The grounding electrode of HVDC Hubei-Shanghai at Chujiahu is also used by HVDC Three Gorges-Changzhou.

Sites

References

External links

Energy infrastructure completed in 1989
HVDC transmission lines
Electric power infrastructure in China
1989 establishments in China
Three Gorges Dam