omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Letts nitrile synthesis. The Letts nitrile synthesis is a chemical reaction of aromatic carboxylic acids with metal thiocyanates to form nitriles. The reaction includes the loss of carbon dioxide and potassium hydrosulfide. The polar basic substitution reaction was discovered in 1872 by Edmund A. Letts.

History
In 1857 Hugo Schiff observed that the reaction between benzoyl chloride with potassium cyanide produced the desired benzonitrile. Work done later by British chemist Edmund A. Letts delved much deeper into the synthesis of nitriles. Attempting first to add cyano-groups to acetic acid, he obtained a mixture of acetamide and carbonyl sulfide. However, in 1872 he showed that treating a 2:1 molecular ratio of benzoic acid and potassium thiocyanate with heat for several hours also produced nitriles with only a small amount of amide with about 40% yield.

G. Krüss expanded on Letts' work in 1884, producing better yields by utilizing lead(II) thiocyanate. In 1916, E.E. Reid found that showed that dry distillation of the zinc(II) salt of the acid with a 20% excess of lead(II) thiocyanate gave an 86% conversion and 91% yield, almost double of that produced by Letts.

Mechanism
Kekulé proposed the reaction mechanism in 1873.

In this polar basic substitution reaction mechanism, thiocyanate ion extracts the acidic proton from benzoic acid while heated. This yields the conjugate base (stabilized by resonance structures)  and thiocyanic acid.

The next step involves the evolution of carbon dioxide, where a lone pair of electrons moves from the negatively charged oxygen to form a double bond with the carboxylic carbon. The sigma bond between the ring and carboxyl group is then severed, the electron pair moving to the ring and delocalized through resonance structures.

The final step of the mechanism involves the attack of the phenyl anion attacking the cyano-carbon, pushing the electron pair over to the sulfur, which readily diffuses the negative charge and is further stabilized by the potassium ion, resulting in the final benzonitrile product and potassium hydrosulfide.

Applications
Aromatic nitriles have a few applications, including polyrecombination to form polymers, are sometimes studied as biologically active molecules and undergoing Ritter reactions to form amides.

Benzonitrile, the original product of Letts, has multiple uses as a versatile reagent and as a solvent. Substituted benzonitriles are important in many fields including pharmaceuticals. Benzonitrile is a precursor in the synthesis of Fadrozole, an aromatase inhibitor used in the treatment of breast cancer. 4-(trifluoromethyl)benzonitrile, produced by the Nickel catalyzed cyanation of 4-chlorobenzotrifluoride is a precursor for the antidepressant Fluvoxamine.

Benzonitrile can also act a ligand in asymmetric catalysis, coordinating to transition metals and forming Lewis acids.

See also
For synthesis of nitriles:
Kolbe nitrile synthesis
Rosenmund-von Braun reaction
For reactions of nitriles: 
Pinner reaction
Stephen aldehyde synthesis

References

Substitution reactions
Name reactions
Gold(I,III) chloride. Gold(I,III) chloride is the inorganic compound with the chemical formula Au4Cl8. It is an example of a mixed valence compound as it contains gold in two oxidation states; square-planar gold(III) and almost linear gold(I). The compound, which is black, is photosensitive as well as air- and moisture-sensitive.

Synthesis
According to the procedure by Calderazzo et al., gold(I,III) chloride may be prepared by the reaction of gold(III) chloride with gold carbonyl chloride or carbon monoxide at room temperature in thionyl chloride.

Au2(CO)Cl4 + Au2Cl6 → COCl2 + Au4Cl8

2 Au2Cl6 + 2 CO → Au4Cl8 + 2 COCl2

Structure and properties
Single crystals of gold(I,III) chloride are triclinic with a P space group and consist of discrete Au4Cl8 molecules with idealised C2h symmetry. Within this the Au(I) centers are linearly coordinated with a Cl-Au-Cl bond angle of 175.0° (close to the ideal value of 180°) and an average bond length of 2.30 Å. The Au(III) centers adopt a slightly irregular square-planar conformation with the Au-Cl bond lengths for bridging chlorides (2.33 Å) being slightly longer than those of terminal chlorides (2.24 Å).

References 

Gold compounds
Chlorides
Metal halides
Mixed valence compounds
Light-sensitive chemicals
Gold–halogen compounds
Eight-membered rings
Heterocyclic compounds with 1 ring
James DeLaurier. James D. DeLaurier is an inventor and professor emeritus of the University of Toronto Institute for Aerospace Studies.  He is a leader in design and analysis of lighter than air vehicles and flapping winged aircraft.

Career
He received his bachelor of science degree from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and his PhD in Aeronautics and Astronautics from Stanford University. He then worked at the NASA Ames Research Center during the Apollo Program in 1965–66. In 1970 he began working with Sheldahl Corporation to develop scientific balloon designs and he designed a wing shaped balloon that would later be the inspiration for a new design of solar hybrid airship.

In 1974 DeLaurier established a research team at UTIAS, and was in charge of the Low-Speed Aerodynamics Laboratory. The DeLaurier lab developed wind tunnel models and flying prototypes for a new breed of airships including the Magnus Airship in the mid 1980s. His team designed flight-dynamic simulation for airships and aerostats that have been used for the certification of new commercial airships in England, the U.S. and Germany. The team, along with John Martin, designed the first successful free-flying aircraft solely powered by microwave power transmission. This project was the initiative of the Communications Research Centre, and was called SHARP (Stationary High-Altitude Relay Platform). The DeLaurier lab, along with Jeremy M. Harris, designed and built a proof-of-concept scaled ornithopter that is recognized by the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale as the world's first successful remotely piloted engine-powered flapping-wing aircraft (UTIAS Ornithopter No.1 or, more commonly, "Mr. Bill").

The team then went on to design and build an engine-powered human-carrying ornithopter, called "The Great Flapper", which took off from the ground and sustained flight on 8 July 2006. The thrust from the flapping wings was boosted by a model-aircraft jet engine.

Recognition
"Diplôme d'Honneur" from the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale – 1988 (SHARP project) and 1991 (ornithopter project)
Popular Science "Best of What's New" award – 1992 (ornithopter project) and 2002 (Mentor MAV)
Popular Mechanics "Design and Engineering" award – 1993 (ornithopter project)
Rolex "Spirit of Enterprise" Award – 1993 (ornithopter project)
Canadian Aeronautics and Space Institute “Romeo Vachon Award” – 1994 (ornithopter project) and “McCurdy Award”- 2007 (achievement in creative aspects of aeronautical engineering)
Berblinger Prize for innovative aircraft from Ülm, Germany – 1998 (ornithopter project)

References

Toronto Star article about first human-carrying ornithopter flight
UTIAS faculty directory

External links
Official site of Project Ornithopter, the team that built the first human-carrying ornithopter

University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign alumni
American aerospace engineers
Living people
Stanford University alumni
Year of birth missing (living people)
Noack volatility test. The Noack volatility test, named after Kurt Noack, determines the evaporation loss of lubricants in high-temperature service. This test is standardized as ASTM D5800. 

In this test, a sample is heated at 250 °C for 60 minutes with a constant flow of air over it. The weight fraction lost is the result for the Noack volatility test.

As the lighter hydrocarbon fraction of motor oils evaporate, the viscosity of the remaining oil increases, contributing to poor circulation, reduced fuel economy, increased oil consumption, wear and tailpipe emissions.

References

Motor oils
ASTM D 5800
SMP (computer algebra system). Symbolic Manipulation Program, usually called SMP, was a computer algebra system designed by Chris A. Cole and Stephen Wolfram at Caltech circa 1979. It was initially developed in the Caltech physics department with contributions from Geoffrey C. Fox, Jeffrey M. Greif, Eric D. Mjolsness, Larry J. Romans, Timothy Shaw, and Anthony E. Terrano.

SMP was first sold commercially in 1981, by the Computer Mathematics Corporation of Los Angeles, which later became part of Inference Corporation. Inference further developed the program and marketed it commercially from 1983 to 1988, but it was not a commercial success, and Inference became pessimistic about the market for symbolic math programs, and so abandoned SMP to concentrate on expert systems.

SMP was influenced by the earlier computer algebra systems Macsyma (of which Wolfram was a user) and Schoonschip (whose code Wolfram studied).

SMP follows a rule-based approach, giving it a "consistent, pattern-directed language". Unlike Macsyma and Reduce, it was written in C.

During the 1980s, it was one of the generally available general-purpose computer algebra systems, along with Reduce, Macsyma, and Scratchpad, and later muMATH and Maple. It was often used for teaching college calculus.

The design of SMP's interactive language and its "map" commands influenced the design of the 1984 version of Scratchpad.

Criticism

SMP has been criticized for various characteristics, notably its use of floating-point numbers instead of exact rational numbers, which can lead to incorrect results, and makes polynomial greatest common divisor calculations problematic. Many other problems in early versions of the system were purportedly fixed in later versions.

References

Additional sources
 Chris A. Cole, Stephen Wolfram, "SMP: A Symbolic Manipulation Program", Proceedings of the fourth ACM symposium on Symbolic and algebraic computation (SIGSAM), Snowbird, Utah, 1981. full text
 Stephen Wolfram with Chris A. Cole, SMP: A Symbolic Manipulation Program, Reference Manual, California Institute of Technology, 1981; Inference Corporation, 1983. full text
 Stephen Wolfram, "Symbolic Mathematical Computation", Communications of the ACM, April 1985 (Volume 28, Issue 4).  Despite the general-sounding title the focus is on an introduction to SMP. Online version of this article 
 J.M. Greif, "The SMP Pattern-Matcher" in B.F. Caviness (editor), Proceedings of EUROCAL 1985, volume 2, pgs. 303-314, Springer-Verlag Lecture Notes in Computer Science, no. 204,   A discussion, with examples, of the capabilities, tasks, and design philosophy of the pattern-matcher.
 SMP's manual "SMP Handbook"
 Stephen Wolfram's blog post on the history of SMP's creation

Computer algebra systems
Michael Carlisle. Sir John Michael Carlisle (born 16 December 1929) is a British marine engineer.

Early life and education
Carlisle was born in Sheffield, the son of John Hugh Carlisle and Lilian Amy Smith. He was educated at King Edward VII School (photo), and then the University of Sheffield where he studied mechanical engineering.

Career
After service in the Royal Navy, he spent his working life in the marine engineering industry, supplying and reconditioning major engine components for large marine diesel engines, from UK and overseas factories and joint ventures. From 1967 to 1968, he was President of the Sheffield Junior Chamber of Commerce, now known as Junior Chamber International (JCI) Sheffield. From 1969, he was involved with the NHS, and served as Chairman of many Authorities and Trusts, including Trent Regional Health Authority from 1982-94. He was a Council Member of the Medical Research Council from 1991–95 and on the NHS Policy Board from 1994 to 95. He was awarded a knighthood in 1985.

Sir Michael Carlisle joined the University Council of the University of York in 1990, and became a Pro-Chancellor in November 2000, and also Vice-Chair of Council. He has been a member of several University Committees, including Policy and Resources during the tenure of the current Vice-Chancellor and his predecessor. He is a member of the University Court. He has also served as Chair of the York Health Economics Consortium, and as a non-executive director of York Science Park Ltd since its incorporation. He was also a non-executive director of several other companies. He was a member of the HYMS Board since it was established until 2007.

He has a NHS mental health hospital named after him, the Michael Carlisle Centre, which occupies the former Nether Edge Hospital site in Sheffield.

From 2007 to 2012, he was Chairman of Scarborough & N E Yorkshire Healthcare Trust and led the strategy to integrate that Trust with York Hospital NHS FT, to eliminate the outstanding debt and provide further capital expenditure. He also served as Lay Chair of the Fitness to Practise Committee of the Hull York Medical School (HYMS). He holds honorary degrees of LLD from the Universities of Sheffield and Nottingham, and a D Univ from York in 1998. Since 2014 he has been Chair of Healthwatch North Yorkshire.

He was awarded a knighthood in the 1985 New Year Honours.

Notes

External links
 University of York

1929 births
Living people
Engineers from Yorkshire
Knights Bachelor
Carlisle, Michael
British marine engineers
Alumni of the University of Sheffield
Mechanical heat treatment. Mechanical heat treatment (MHT) is an alternative waste treatment technology. This technology is also commonly termed autoclaving. MHT involves a mechanical sorting or pre-processing stage with technology often found in a material recovery facility. The mechanical sorting stage is followed by a form of thermal treatment. This might be in the form of a waste autoclave or processing stage to produce a refuse derived fuel pellet. MHT is sometimes grouped along with mechanical biological treatment. MHT does not however include a stage of biological degradation (anaerobic digestion or composting).

Configurations

Different MHT systems may be configured to meet various objectives with regard to the waste outputs from the process. The alternatives (depending on the system employed) may be one or more of the following:

Separate an 'organic rich' component of the waste for subsequent biological processing
Produce a refuse derived fuel to be applied in an appropriate process to utilise its energy potential; and
Extract materials for recycling (typically glass and metals, potentially plastics and the fibrous organic and paper fraction)

See also 

 Anaerobic digestion
 Composting
 List of solid waste treatment technologies
 Material recovery facility
 Mechanical biological treatment

References

Thermal treatment
Waste treatment technology
Black, Hawthorn & Co. Black, Hawthorn and Company was a steam locomotive manufacturer  with a works situated in Gateshead, Tyne and Wear, UK.

John Coulthard and Son
The Quarry Field Works was opened in 1835 by John and Ralph Coulthard, known as John Coulthard and Son which became R. Coulthard and Company in 1853 when the partnership was dissolved. Their first loco was York, Newcastle and Berwick Railway number 156, a  to the Jenny Lind pattern. There followed more of the same and several  engines. Although the works numbers went up to 100, probably only twenty were new, since the company carried out a great deal of rebuilding work.

Black, Hawthorn & Co
In 1865 Ralph Coulthard retired and the works was taken over by William Black and Thomas Hawthorn, who concentrated on industrial tank locomotives, both four and six coupled.  The company supplied steam locomotives to collieries and works, particularly in North East England.  They also built a number of crane engines.  Some of the locomotives were very long-lived. A  steam locomotive is preserved and is currently getting a refit at the Tanfield Railway.

Chapman and Furneaux
By 1896 over a thousand engines had been built when the firm was taken over by Chapman and Furneaux,  A further seventy were produced before closing in 1902, with drawings, patterns and goodwill being bought by R & W Hawthorn and Leslie of Newcastle.

Preservation

Preserved Black, Hawthorn locomotives include:

{| class="wikitable"
!Number and name
!Serial No.
!Image
!Built Date
!Wheel arrangement
!Gauge
!Original owner
!Location
!Notes
|-
|421
|263
|
|1873
|
|
|Rajputana State Railway
|Ajmer Works, India
|
|-
|Wellington
|266
|
|1873
|
|4 ft 8+1⁄2 in (1,435 mm)
|
|Tanfield Railway
|
|-
|Bauxite No. 2
|305
|
|1874
|
|4 ft 8+1⁄2 in (1,435 mm)
|
|National Railway Museum
|
|-
|Portugesa 
|748
|
|1883
|
|
|Minas Y Ferrocarriles de Utrillas, Teruel, Spain
|Statfold Barn Railway
|Undergoing restoration
|-
|No. 3 
|858
|
|1885
|
|3 ft (914,4mm)
|Kettering Ironstone Railway
|Penrhyn Castle Railway Museum
|Transferred to the ownership of the Waterford Suir Valley Railway  in 2024
|-
|0
|869
|
|1887
|
|
|
|Beijing Railway Museum, China
|
|-
|
|895
|
|1887
|2-2-0ST
|
|Copiapó Mining
|Copiapó station, Chile
|
|-
|E No. 1
|897
|
|1887
|
|4 ft 8+1⁄2 in (1,435 mm)
|Consett Iron Company
|Beamish Museum
|
|-
|City of Aberdeen 
|912
|
|1887
|
|4 ft 8+1⁄2 in (1,435 mm)
|
|Bo'ness and Kinneil Railway
|Owned by SRPS
|-
|No. 1 Styrbjörn
|966
|
|1890
|
|4 ft 8+1⁄2 in (1,435 mm)
|Sandvikens Järnverk
|’s children playground near Sandviken, Sweden
|
|}

References

 Lowe, J.W., (1989) British Steam Locomotive Builders,'' Guild Publishing

Locomotive manufacturers of the United Kingdom
School of Engineering and Applied Science. School of Engineering and Applied Science is the name of several engineering schools at universities in the United States:

Fu Foundation School of Engineering and Applied Science at Columbia University, founded in 1896
Fred DeMatteis School of Engineering and Applied Science at Hofstra University in New York
George Washington University School of Engineering and Applied Science at George Washington University
Harvard School of Engineering and Applied Sciences at Harvard University
Henry Samueli School of Engineering and Applied Science at the University of California, Los Angeles
Robert R. McCormick School of Engineering and Applied Science at Northwestern University
University of Michigan School for Environment and Sustainability at the University of Michigan, founded in 1927
University of Pennsylvania School of Engineering and Applied Science at the University of Pennsylvania, founded in 1852
University of Virginia School of Engineering and Applied Science at the University of Virginia, founded in 1836
Princeton University School of Engineering and Applied Science
University at Buffalo School of Engineering and Applied Sciences
Washington University School of Engineering and Applied Science at Washington University in St. Louis, founded in 1854
WBG. WBG may refer to:

 Warner Bros. Games, an American video game publishing company
 World Bank Group, a family of five international organizations that makes leveraged loans, generally to poor countries
 Wide bandgap, a term associated with semiconductors having electronic band gaps significantly larger than one electron volt
 Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, a German publishing company
 World Bridge Games, a contract bridge competition event
 The Amtrak station code for the Williamsburg Transportation Center in Williamsburg, Virginia
 Schleswig Air Base, is an airbase of the German Air Force
German submarine U-2331. German submarine U-2331 was a Type XXIII U-boat built for Nazi Germany's Kriegsmarine during World War II and intended for service against allied shipping in coastal waters. She was a brand new, high-technology electric U-boat which was lost when only one month old in a bizarre training accident in the Baltic Sea. Built at Hamburg, she was constructed at speed, as she and her sisters were seen as war winning weapons and thus vitally important to the German war effort.

Design
Like all Type XXIII U-boats, U-2331 had a displacement of  when at the surface and  while submerged. She had a total length of  (o/a), a beam width of  (o/a), and a draught depth of. The submarine was powered by one MWM six-cylinder RS134S diesel engine providing , one AEG GU4463-8 double-acting electric motor electric motor providing , and one BBC silent running CCR188 electric motor providing .

The submarine had a maximum surface speed of  and a submerged speed of . When submerged, the boat could operate at  for ; when surfaced, she could travel  at . U-2331 was fitted with two  torpedo tubes in the bow. She could carry two preloaded torpedoes. The complement was 14–18 men. This class of U-boat did not carry a deck gun.

Service history
Completed in September 1944, U-2331 was undergoing a fast-track working-up period in the Baltic under her commander Oberleutnant zur See Hans-Walter Pahl under the observation of Klaus Vernier, a highly experienced U-boat commander and tactical expert. On 10 October, just 28 days after her completion, U-2331 dived and failed to surface in the sea off the Hel Peninsula. Four of the reduced crew (including the captain), escaped the sinking ship but 15 did not, including Vernier.

The Kriegsmarine conducted an investigation into the loss, at which it was revealed that either the captain or Vernier had ordered the submarine to submerge whilst travelling in reverse, thus unbalancing the boat and causing it to sink uncontrollably. A handful of men on the conning tower survived as the boat sank under them. The wreck was raised and taken to Gotenhafen (Gdynia, Poland), but the time submerged underwater had irreparably damaged the boat's systems, and the remains were scrapped.

References

Bibliography

External links
 

World War II submarines of Germany
Type XXIII submarines
U-boat lost in diving accidents
World War II shipwrecks in the Baltic Sea
U-boats commissioned in 1944
U-boats sunk in 1944
1944 ships
Ships built in Hamburg
Maritime incidents in October 1944
GE Measurement & Control. GE Measurement & Control Solutions is an affiliate business of Baker Hughes specializing in the design and manufacture of sensing elements, devices, instruments, and systems that enable customers to monitor, protect, control, and validate the safety of their critical processes and applications.

Its worldwide headquarters are located in Billerica, Massachusetts. Other key offices and manufacturing plants are located in Fremont, California, Houston, Texas, Lewistown, Pennsylvania, St. Marys, Pennsylvania, Twinsburg, Ohio, Shanghai, China, Tijuana, Mexico, Shannon, Ireland and Groby, UK.

The company has grown in recent years by making a number of strategic acquisitions in key sensor areas such as temperature, pressure, level, and flow sensors. Acquisitions include leading temperature sensor manufacturers Thermometrics, pressure sensor manufacturers Druck and so on.

Druck, GE General Eastern, GE Protimeter, GE Kaye, GE NovaSensor, Panametrics, GE Thermometrics, and GE Ruska are now under one name: GE Industrial Sensing.

The company offers products such as NTC/PTC Thermistors (for temperature sensing), Pressure Sensors, Humidity Sensors, Infrared sensors, Ultrasonic flow sensors besides providing the complete solution for the customers. The current CEO of the company is Mr. Brian Palmer who has worked with GE in an array of roles over 15+ years.

References

General Electric Industrial subsidiaries
Companies based in Billerica, Massachusetts
Companies based in Middlesex County, Massachusetts