omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Energy Institute. The Energy Institute (EI) is a professional organization for engineers and other professionals in energy-related fields. The EI was formed in 2003 by the merger of the Institute of Petroleum (dating back to 1913) and the Institute of Energy (dating back to 1925). It has an international membership of about 20,000 people and 200 companies. Its main office is at 61 New Cavendish Street, London. EI is a registered charity with a Royal Charter.

In the United Kingdom, EI has the authority to establish professional registration for the titles of Chartered Engineer, Incorporated Engineer, and Engineering Technician, as a licensed member institution of the Engineering Council. It is also licensed by the Society for the Environment to award Chartered Environmentalist status.

Formation
In 2003 the Institute of Petroleum and the Institute of Energy merged to form the Energy Institute. The offices of the Institute of Petroleum became the offices of the combined organization, and the offices of the Institute of Energy in London were closed.

History of The Institute of Petroleum 
The Institute of Petroleum was formed in 1913 as The Institution of Petroleum Technologists (IPT). The first president was Boverton Redwood, and the second president was John Cadman; the IPT named its Cadman Award in his honour. In 1938 the organization expanded to cover the oil and gas industry and was renamed The Institute of Petroleum (IP).

History of the Institute of Energy 
The Institution of Fuel Economy Engineers was founded in 1925, and the Institution of Fuel Technology in 1926. The two merged in 1927 as the Institute of Fuel (IoF). The first president after the merger was Alfred Mond. The IoF named the Melchett Award in his honour. In 1979 the organization became the Institute of Energy (IoE).

Structure
The EI is a registered charity, formed to promote the science of energy and fuels in all applications for the public benefit. It is governed by its council, which has a president and vice-presidents. Juliet Davenport, founder and former CEO of renewable energy supplier Good Energy, was appointed to a three-year term as president in July 2022.

The EI has several categories of membership from student to fellow, and also has corporate members. Membership is required in order to go through the professional licensing procedures the organization supervises.

Publications
The official journal of EI is the Journal of the Energy Institute which is published by Elsevier. EI also publishes two membership magazines, Energy World and Petroleum Review.

See also
 Energy in the United Kingdom
 Institution of Engineering and Technology
 Energy Technologies Institute
 Petroleum industry
 Nuclear Institute

References

External links
 

Engineering societies based in the United Kingdom
ECUK Licensed Members
Energy in the United Kingdom
Energy organizations
Trade associations based in the United Kingdom
Organisations based in the City of Westminster
Organizations established in 2003
Energy education
Air-to-air rocket. An air-to-air rocket or air interception rocket is an unguided projectile fired from aircraft to engage other flying targets. They were used briefly in World War I to engage enemy observation balloons and in and after World War II to engage enemy bombers. Fighters were too maneuverable to be effectively engaged with rockets.

History

World War I
Rockets were used in World War I to engage observation balloons and airships. Success rates were low and the rockets were dangerous to handle in the early fighters built from highly flammable materials. By the end of the war they were replaced by the incendiary Pomeroy bullets. The Pomeroy bullet was developed to strike German Zeppelin airships, by igniting the hydrogen in the balloon. They did not always work. One of the notable rockets from World War I was the Le Prieur rocket which had a range of about , limited by inaccuracy. It was first used in the Battle of Verdun.

Interwar period
The first known example of a successful attack of air-to-air rockets on another plane took place on August 20, 1939, during the Battle of Khalkhin Gol. A group of Soviet Polikarpov I-16 fighters under command of Captain N. Zvonaryev successfully destroyed a few Japanese warplanes by launching of RS-82 rockets. Soviet RS-82 rockets were mounted on special pylons under wings of Soviet fighters.

World War II
Air-to-air rockets were utilized in World War II to engage bombers because cannon fire proved ineffective at high closing speeds. On top of that, getting in the range to fire one's guns also meant getting in the range of the bomber's tail gun. The German R4M was the first practical rocket. It was highly successful, but came too late to change the outcome of the war. After experiencing the effectiveness of the German rockets, both the Soviet Union and the United States started developing their own.

The invention of effective air-to-air missiles spelled the end for their unguided counterparts in the 1950s. The capability of steering during the flight trajectory significantly increased the hit percentage over rockets. The United States built one last air-to-air rocket, the AIR-2 Genie. It used a nuclear warhead with a blast radius of 300m to compensate for its inaccuracy.

List of air-to-air rockets by country

France
Le Prieur rocket
SNEB

Germany
R4M Orkan
RZ.65
Werfer-Granate 21

Hungary
44M Lidérc

Japan
Ro-3
Ro-5
Type 3 No.1 Mk 28
Type 3 No.6 Mk 27

Sweden
Srak m/55
Srak m/57

United Kingdom
2-inch RP

USA
AIR-2 Genie
Dervish
Gimlet
Mk 4 Fin-Folding Aerial Rocket
Zuni 5-inch Folding-Fin Aircraft Rocket

USSR
AS-5
RS-82
S-21

References
Ramberg–Bäcklund reaction. The Ramberg–Bäcklund reaction is an organic reaction converting an α-halo sulfone into an alkene in presence of a base with extrusion of sulfur dioxide. The reaction is named after the two Swedish chemists Ludwig Ramberg and Birger Bäcklund. The carbanion formed by deprotonation gives an unstable episulfone that decomposes with elimination of sulfur dioxide. This elimination step is considered to be a concerted cheletropic extrusion.

The overall transformation is the conversion of the carbon–sulfur bonds to a carbon–carbon double bond. The original procedure involved halogenation of a sulfide, followed by oxidation to the sulfone. Recently, the preferred method has reversed the order of the steps. After the oxidation, which is normally done with a peroxy acid, halogenation is done under basic conditions by use of dibromodifluoromethane for the halogen transfer step.  This method was used to synthesize 1,8-diphenyl-1,3,5,7-octatetraene.

Applications 
The Ramberg–Bäcklund reaction has several applications. Due to the nature of elimination, it can be applied to both small rings ,

and large rings containing a double bond .

This reaction type gives access to 1,2-dimethylenecyclohexane

and the epoxide variation  access to allyl alcohols.

A recently developed application of the Ramberg–Bäcklund reaction is the synthesis of C-glycosides. The required thioethers can be prepared easily by exchange with a thiol. The application of the Ramberg–Bäcklund conditions then leads to an exocyclic vinyl ether that can be reduced to the C-nucleoside .In a variation, oxidation of a sulfamide generates a azo compound.

Substrates 
The necessary α-halo sulfones are accessible through oxidation of the corresponding α-halo sulfides with peracids such as meta-chloroperbenzoic acid; oxidation of sulfides takes place selectively in the presence of alkenes and alcohols. α-Halo sulfides may in turn be synthesized through the treatment of sulfides with halogen electrophiles such as N-chlorosuccinimide or N-bromosuccinimide.

Mechanism 
The sulfone group contains an acidic proton in one of the α-positions which is abstracted by a strong base (scheme 1). The negative charge placed on this position (formally a carbanion) is transferred to the halogen residing on the other α-position in a nucleophilic displacement temporarily forming a three-membered cyclic sulfone. This intermediate is unstable and releases sulfur dioxide to form the alkene. Mixtures of cis isomer and trans isomer are usually obtained.

The Favorskii rearrangement and the Eschenmoser sulfide contraction are conceptually related reactions.

References

  
 
 
 
  
  
  
  
  

Elimination reactions
Olefination reactions
Carbon-carbon bond forming reactions
Name reactions
Scotch hands. Scotch hands (also known as butter beaters, butter hands, butter workers or butter pats) are wooden spatulas used when making butter. They are used to press freshly churned butter to remove the watery buttermilk during the butter finishing (working) process, as well as to distribute salt through the butter.  Removing the buttermilk and adding salt helps to prevent rancidity in finished butter.     One side of the paddle will be ribbed or grooved to allow the buttermilk to drain away from the butter during pressing.  The ungrooved side may be used for shaping the butter into final form. The highest quality Scotch hands are made out of sycamore wood, but they can also be made out of metal.

Scotch hands and other butter working tools can be found in ethnographic museums.     

Newer versions are used by some small-scale and home butter makers.

References

Butter
Kitchenware
Matsuura Machinery. is a machine tool manufacturing company based  in Fukui, Fukui Prefecture, Japan, in operation since August 1935.

History
Matsuura Machinery began as a manufacturer and distributor of lathes in 1935. Production of milling machines began in 1957, and the company went public in 1960. Production of automatic-controlled milling machines began in 1961 and numerically controlled milling machines from 1964. Production of automatically controlled drilling machines began in 1972, and vertical machining centers from 1974.

The company began exporting to the United States from 1975. In 1981, Matsuura Machinery began production of high-speed machining centers and twin-spindle vertical machining centers, and horizontal machining centers from 1983. The total number of machining centers shipped surpassed 10,000 units in 1993 and 20,000 in 2015.

Use
The company's machining centers are used in a variety of industries, among them aerospace equipment manufacturers. Machine tools manufactured by Matsuura were used by NASA on the Space Shuttle Discovery's fuel tanks in 1998, making them four tons lighter than before.

See also

 Bullard Machine Tool Company

References

External links
Official Website
Reach Forklift

Japanese brands
Manufacturing companies of Japan
Engineering companies of Japan
Companies based in Fukui Prefecture
Machine tool builders
Manufacturing companies established in 1935
Japanese companies established in 1935
Universe (Unix). In some versions of the Unix operating system, the term universe was used to denote some variant of the working environment. During the late 1980s, most commercial Unix variants were derived from either System V or BSD. Most versions provided both BSD and System V universes and allowed the user to switch between them. Each universe, typically implemented by separate directory trees or separate filesystems, usually included different versions of commands, libraries, man pages, and header files. While such a facility offered the ability to develop applications portable across both System V and BSD variants, the requirements in disk space and maintenance (separate configuration files, twice the work in patching systems) gave them a problematic reputation. Systems that offered this facility included Harris/Concurrent's CX/UX, Convex's Convex/OS, Apollo's Domain/OS (version 10 only), Pyramid's DC/OSx (dropped in SVR4-based version 2), Concurrent's Masscomp/RTU, MIPS Computer Systems' RISC/os, Sequent's DYNIX/ptx and Siemens' SINIX. 

Some versions of System V Release 4 retain a system similar to Dual Universe concept, with BSD commands (which behave differently from classic System V commands) in , BSD header files in  and library files in .   can also be found in NeXTSTEP and OPENSTEP, as well as Solaris.

External links
 Sven Mascheck, DYNIX 3.2.0 and SINIX V5.20 Universes

Unix
Direct borohydride fuel cell. Direct borohydride fuel cells (DBFCs) are a subcategory of alkaline fuel cells which are directly fed by sodium borohydride or potassium borohydride as a fuel and either air/oxygen or hydrogen peroxide as the oxidant. DBFCs are relatively new types of fuel cells which are currently in the developmental stage and are attractive due to their high operating potential in relation to other type of fuel cells. Recently, DBFCs that rival proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) in peak power but operating at double the voltage have been reported.

Chemistry
Sodium borohydride has been used  with more conventional hydrogen fuel cell systems as a means of storing hydrogen. The hydrogen can be regenerated for a fuel cell by catalytic decomposition of the borohydride with water, including successful hydration with synthetic urine:

NaBH4 + 2H2O → NaBO2 + 4H2

Direct borohydride fuel cells decompose and oxidize the borohydride directly, side-stepping hydrogen production and even producing slightly higher energy yields:

Cathode: 2O2 + 4H2O + 8e− → 8OH− (E0 = +0.4V)
Anode: NaBH4 + 8OH− → NaBO2 + 6H2O + 8e− (E0 = -1.24 V)
Total E0 = +1.64V

The simplified reaction is:

NaBH4 + 2O2 → NaBO2 + 2H2O + Electricity

The working temperature of a direct sodium borohydride fuel cell is 70 °C (158 °F).

Advantages
DBFCs could be produced more cheaply than a traditional fuel cell because they do not need expensive platinum catalysts. In addition, they have a higher power density. The high operating voltage of a DBFC reduces the number of cells (in a series circuit) needed in a stack to achieve a desired rated voltage and thus reduces the stack costs considerably.

Disadvantages
Unfortunately, DBFCs do produce some hydrogen from a side reaction of NaBH4 with water heated by the fuel cell. This hydrogen can either be piped out to the exhaust or piped to a conventional hydrogen fuel cell. Either fuel cell will produce water, and the water can be recycled to allow for higher concentrations of NaBH4.

More importantly, the process of creating electricity via a DBFC is not easily reversible.  For example, after sodium borohydride (NaBH4) has released its hydrogen and has been oxidized, the product is NaBO2 (sodium metaborate). Sodium metaborate might be hydrogenated back into sodium borohydride fuel by several different techniques, some of which might theoretically require nothing more than water and electricity or heat.  However, these techniques are still in active development.  As of June 30, 2010, many patents claiming to effectively achieve the conversion of sodium metaborate to sodium borohydride have been investigated but none have been confirmed—the current efficiency of "boron hydride recycling" seems to be well below 1% which is unsuitable for recharging a vehicle.

Cost
Mass production projected prices for the fuel are as low as US$5/kg, rivalling the cost of hydrocarbon fuels.

See also

 Glossary of fuel cell terms

References

External links

Fuel cells
Little b (programming language). Little b is a domain-specific programming language, more specifically, a modeling language, designed to build modular mathematical models of biological systems.  It was designed and authored by Aneil Mallavarapu.  Little b is being developed in the Virtual Cell Program at Harvard Medical School, headed by mathematician Jeremy Gunawardena.

This language is based on Lisp and is meant to allow modular programming to model biological systems.  It will allow more flexibility to facilitate rapid change that is required to accurately capture complex biological systems.

The language draws on techniques from artificial intelligence and symbolic mathematics, and provides  syntactic conveniences derived from object-oriented languages.  The language was originally denoted with a lowercase b (distinguishing it from B, the predecessor to the widely used C programming language), but the name was eventually changed to "little b" to avoid confusion and to pay homage to Smalltalk.

References
Krieger K. "Life in Silico: A Different Kind of Intelligent Design". Science. 312(5771):189–190.
https://arstechnica.com/uncategorized/2008/07/little-b-project-creates-biology-specific-programming-system/
https://www.computerworld.com/article/2551598/big-things-from-little-b.html

External links
Biology enters 'The Matrix' through new computer language EurekAlert article

Programming languages
Dynamic programming languages
Dynamically typed programming languages
Object-oriented programming languages
Lisp (programming language)
Specification languages
Cross-platform free software
Programming languages created in 2004
Thomas M. Cover. Thomas M. Cover [ˈkoʊvər] (August 7, 1938 – March 26, 2012) was an American information theorist and professor jointly in the Departments of Electrical Engineering and Statistics at Stanford University. He devoted almost his entire career to developing the relationship between information theory and statistics.

Early life and education
He received his B.S. in Physics from MIT in 1960 and Ph.D. in electrical engineering from Stanford University in 1964. His doctoral studies were supervised by Norman Abramson.

Career
Cover was President of the IEEE Information Theory Society and was a Fellow of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics and of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.  He received the Outstanding Paper Award in Information Theory for his 1972 paper "Broadcast Channels"; he was selected in 1990 as the Shannon Lecturer, regarded as the highest honor in information theory; in 1997 he received the IEEE Richard W. Hamming Medal; and in 2003 he was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.

During his 48-year career as a professor of Electrical Engineering and Statistics at Stanford University, he graduated 64 PhD students, authored over 120 journal papers in learning, information theory, statistical complexity, pattern recognition, and portfolio theory; and he partnered with Joy A. Thomas to coauthor the book Elements of Information Theory, which has become the most widely used textbook as an introduction to the topic since the publication of its first edition in 1991. He was also coeditor of the book Open Problems in Communication and Computation.

Selected works
 
 
 Van Campenhout, Jan. and Cover, T. (1981). Maximum entropy and conditional probability. Information Theory, IEEE Transactions on
 Cover, T. (1974). The Best Two Independent Measurements Are Not the Two Best. Systems, Man and Cybernetics, IEEE Transactions on
 Cover, T. and Hart, P. (1967). "Nearest neighbor pattern classification". IEEE Transactions on Information Theory.
 Cover, T. (1965). Geometrical and Statistical Properties of Systems of Linear Inequalities with Applications in Pattern Recognition. Electronic Computers, IEEE Transactions on

See also
 k-nearest neighbors algorithm
 Cover's theorem

References

External links
 Thomas M. Cover Stanford University homepage
 

1938 births
2012 deaths
American information theorists
American statisticians
Fellows of the IEEE
Fellows of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics
Members of the United States National Academy of Engineering
People from San Bernardino, California
American probability theorists
Stanford University School of Engineering alumni
Stanford University School of Engineering faculty
Vanadium tetrachloride. Vanadium tetrachloride is the inorganic compound with the formula VCl4.  This reddish-brown liquid serves as a useful reagent for the preparation of other vanadium compounds.

Synthesis, bonding, basic properties
With one more valence electron than diamagnetic TiCl4, VCl4 is a paramagnetic liquid.  It is one of only a few paramagnetic compounds that is liquid at room temperature.

VCl4 is prepared by chlorination of vanadium metal. VCl5 does not form in this reaction; Cl2 lacks the oxidizing power to attack VCl4. VCl5 can however be prepared indirectly from VF5 at −78 °C.

Reactions
Consistent with its high oxidizing power, VCl4 reacts with HBr at -50 °C to produce VBr3.  The reaction proceeds via VBr4, which releases Br2 during warming to room temperature.
2 VCl4 + 8 HBr → 2 VBr3 + 8 HCl + Br2

VCl4 forms adducts with many donor ligands, for example, VCl4(THF)2.

It is the precursor to vanadocene dichloride.

Organic chemistry
In organic synthesis, VCl4 is used for the oxidative coupling of phenols.  For example, it converts phenol into a mixture of 4,4'-, 2,4'-, and 2,2'-biphenols: 
2 C6H5OH + 2 VCl4 → HOC6H4–C6H4OH  +  2 VCl3 + 2 HCl

Applications
VCl4 is a catalyst for the polymerization of alkenes, especially those useful in the rubber industry.  The underlying technology is related to Ziegler–Natta catalysis, which involves the intermediacy of vanadium alkyls.

Safety considerations
VCl4 is a volatile, aggressive oxidant that readily hydrolyzes to release HCl.

References

Vanadium(IV) compounds
Chlorides
Metal halides
Reagents for organic chemistry
E0. E0 or E00 can refer to:
 ε0, in mathematics, the smallest member of the epsilon numbers, a type of ordinal number
 ε0, in physics, vacuum permittivity, the absolute dielectric permittivity of classical vacuum
 E0 (cipher), a cipher used in the Bluetooth protocol
 E0 (robot), a 1986 humanoid robot by Honda
 Eo, in electrochemistry, the standard electrode potential, measuring individual potential of a reversible electrode at standard state
 E0, the digital carrier for audio, specified in G.703
 E0, Eos Airlines IATA code
 E0, ethanol-free gasoline, see REC-90
 e0, in demographics, the life expectancy of an individual at birth (age zero)
 E00, Cretinism ICD-10 code
 E00, ECO code for certain variations of the Queen's Pawn Game chess opening
 Enemy Zero, a 1996 Japanese horror video game for the Sega Saturn

See also
 0E (disambiguation)
McMaster School of Computational Engineering and Science. In 2005, the McMaster School of Computational Engineering and Science was the first program launched in Canada dedicated in developing expertise in the third wave of scientific research involving simulation, modeling and optimization. The new school brings together 50 faculty from engineering, science, business and health science to collaboratively conduct research and advance education.

The three major research thrusts of the school are:

Computational Physical Sciences
Computational Optimization, Design and Control
Computational Biosciences

Activities cover a broad spectrum of research areas representing current interdisciplinary activities, future areas that involve existing, but as yet untapped potential, as well as areas to be developed by future appointments.

Programs

The school offer programs at the Master, (M.Eng., M.Sc., M.A.Sc.) with coursework project or thesis. Ph.D. and postdoctoral levels. These will be of an interdisciplinary nature including core courses at the Masters level and module-based topic courses at all levels. Programs are currently being reviewed by the Ontario Council on Graduate Studies and approval is pending. Approval is anticipated in early 2006 with programs beginning in September.

Facilities and Departmental Affiliations

McMaster University is a partner in the recently formed Shared Hierarchical Academic Research Computing Network (SHARCNET), currently among the leading high-performance computing centers in the world.

High-Performance Research Computing Support Group (HPRCS) – HPRCS supports HPC installations as a central part of the university infrastructure and provides various levels of computing support to the research and high-performance computing communities at McMaster.

Affiliated Laboratories

Advanced Optimization Group and Laboratory
Advanced Signal Processing Laboratory
Applied and Industrial Mathematical Sciences Laboratory
Bioinformatics Research Laboratory
Communications Research Laboratory
McMaster Advanced Control Consortium
Neural Computation Laboratory
Simulation Optimization Systems Research Laboratory

Notes and references

  Program Structure

McMaster University
Computer science departments in Canada
Educational institutions established in 2005
2005 establishments in Canada