Johannis de Rijke. was a Dutch civil engineer and a foreign advisor to the Japanese government in Meiji period Japan. He made significant contributions in the enhancement of Japan's river systems and the development of its port facilities, which were vital in the industrialisation and infrastructure advancement of the nation during the Meiji era.

Arriving in Japan in 1873, he was instrumental in the amelioration of the Yodo River in Osaka and the Kiso River in Nagoya. He played an integral role in the development of the Yokohama and Kobe ports, turning them into significant hubs of international trade.

De Rijke's efforts were instrumental in substantially mitigating flood risks, enhancing navigational capabilities, and boosting trade and transportation, thereby accelerating Japan's modernisation.

Early life and background
Johannis de Rijke was born in Colijnsplaat on the island of Noord-Beveland. The third of seven children, he was the son of Pieter de Rijke, a farmer and part-time dike worker, and his wife, Anna Catharina Liefbroer. Lacking the means for formal education, he was mentored by Jacobus Lebret, the district engineer in Bevelanden.

In 1865, he became chief construction foreman for the Oranjesluizen, a lock complex near Amsterdam, designed to separate the IJ lagoon from the Zuiderzee at Schellingwoude. His supervisor was Cornelis Johannes van Doorn.

In 1873, De Rijke set off from Marseille aboard the steamship Iraouaddy to Shanghai, and then to Nagasaki, along with George Escher and Dick Arnst. The journey reflected their differing statuses: Escher, a graduate engineer, travelled first class, while De Rijke and his family were in second class, and Arnst, the work boss, in third class. De Rijke was accompanied by his pregnant wife and their two children, Anna Catharina and Johannes Laurens.
 
Shortly after arriving in Japan, their son Pieter was born, followed by Eleazer, Els, Jacoba, and Adan in subsequent years. Tragically, Eleazer passed away at a young age in Japan. With his wife's deteriorating health, De Rijke sought a qualified tutor for his children. In 1880, upon Arnst's return to the Netherlands, De Rijke's children accompanied him, to be cared for by his former mentor Lebret, now residing in Oosterbeek. His wife succumbed to cholera in 1881. Recognising his commitment, his employer granted him a six-month leave to the Netherlands. He took another leave after four years, travelling via the United States and England.

It was during this period that he met Maria Suzanna Heck, a 25-year-old teacher and devout Calvinist, known for her correspondence with Abraham Kuyper. They married in Amsterdam. The couple had five children together: Hendrik, Santina Helenus, Stoffelina, and Wilhelmus. De Rijke, a staunch Calvinist, valued hard work, honesty, and simplicity. In 1899, he joined Kuyper's Anti-Revolutionary Party. In 1900, Maria and the children moved to the Netherlands for their upbringing. In 1891, De Rijke applied for a position in the Orange Free State (Transvaal) but was not accepted due to the absence of a suitable role.

Career and major projects

Japan 
In 1872, encouraged by Van Doorn, De Rijke travelled to Japan to assist in the redesign of the port of Osaka.
He arrived in September 1873, along with Van Doorn and George Arnold Escher. Over the next thirty years, these civil engineers, joined later by Jack Lindo and Anthonie Rouwenhorst Mulder, executed numerous flood control and water management projects. They enhanced the ports of Tokyo, Yokohama, Nagasaki, Ujina (Hiroshima), Hakata (Fukuoka), Mikuni (Sakai), and Niigata. Notably, De Rijke's work on the breakwater at Yokkaichi has been recognised by the Japanese government as an Important Cultural Property.

De Rijke was instrumental in the improvement of various riparian zones of Japanese rivers. His significant contribution included the separation of the Kiso River, Nagara River, and Ibi River near Nagoya, known as the . He undertook works at the Kurobe alluvial fan, located on the Japan Sea coast, and took on the project of constructing a tunnel channel from Lake Biwa to Kyoto, assuming Escher's position after his return to the Netherlands.

De Rijke is credited with establishing the Kanda River sewer network in Tokyo. Elementary schools in Aichi Prefecture conduct a tour of wajū for third graders, educating them about its history and the challenges faced in its construction. This programme aims to foster an appreciation of the effort and history behind the creation of the wajū, and to ensure its legacy is passed on to future generations.

Following 1891, De Rijke was appointed an Imperial officer of the Meiji Home Ministry, rising to the position of Vice Minister. He frequently grappled with the challenges of Japanese bureaucracy and corruption, which he found conflicted with his Reformed principles.

Among the five Dutch engineers of that period, De Rijke stayed the longest in Japan, and later worked in China. His prestigious position in Japan stood in contrast to the potential difficulties that his lack of a formal engineering title would have caused him in the Netherlands.

In 2002, Dutch filmmaker Louis van Gasteren released "In a Japanese Rapids; Dutch Watermen in Japan 1872 - 1903," a documentary about De Rijke and Escher. That same year, Van Gasteren edited a book titled "In a Japanese Rapid" and three years later, he published "The Eternal Rice with Japanese Tea," featuring letters from the Dutch watermen.

Tone River 

De Rijke's inaugural undertaking in Japan involved the enhancement of the Tone River, which was affected by significant navigable depth issues arising from siltation. Addressing this issue required detailed topographical survey data, which was not readily available in Japan at the time. Following De Rijke's arrival, an extensive levelling project was commenced in the area. Jack Lindo had already established a baseline level (the Tokyo level) for this purpose.

While levelling was a known concept in Japan, logistical challenges in procuring appropriate survey instruments hampered progress. De Rijke noted in a letter dated 7 June 1884, "The Japanese still work astonishingly slowly. Now, after a year of measuring, I still cannot even determine the gradient”.

He later collaborated with Rouwenhorst Mulder on this project; they devised a plan in 1887, which commenced in 1888. The project was executed on a grand scale, employing 3,000 individuals, including many prisoners. The canal was completed by 1890.

Yodo River Regulation 
A significant undertaking was the regulation of the Yodo River, aimed at enhancing its utility as a navigational channel between Osaka and Kyoto. The impetus for this project arose from the progressive shallowing of the river at its mouth, attributed to sediment accumulation. This sedimentation, a consequence of soil erosion in the upstream mountainous regions, considerably augmented the river's sediment load, depositing in the lower stretches and the delta. Consequently, a contemporary bank protection design was implemented at the points of severe erosion. The Dutch engineers De Rijke and Escher introduced the construction of groynes, drawing inspiration from the brushwood groynes used in the Netherlands. The onsite execution of these projects was significantly influenced by Foreman Johannes Westerweel.

A notable environmental concern was the deforestation at the summit of Mount Kabatayama, leading to pronounced surface erosion and additional sediment deposition in the Yodo River. As a remedial measure, the engineers recommended prohibiting logging activities on the mountain slopes and advocated for the reforestation of the mountain's apex. These interventions, over time, proved successful in mitigating the silting issues in the downstream sections of the river. These initiatives were termed "mountain works" by De Rijke, initially comprising fascine bundles ( on the slopes, later evolving into hedge-like structures.

Concurrently, the collapse of a retaining wall along the Minato River presented an additional challenge. This was addressed by constructing a bank with a gentle incline, reinforced with stone deposits.

The primary phase of the Yodo River improvements spanned the years 1875-1876. This phase involved deepening the river's channel along the 44 km stretch between Osaka and Kyoto, creating a "summer bed." By installing groynes and dumps, the engineers ensured the maintenance of this low-water bed through focused water currents. During periods of high discharge, the entire winter bed was utilized for drainage, effectively preventing hazardous flooding. This methodology mirrored the techniques employed in the normalization of the Rhine and later, the Meuse rivers in the Netherlands.

The riverbank and groyne constructions were based on traditional Dutch fascine mattress designs, assembled and installed under Westerweel's supervision. In safeguarding the embankments, another Dutch method involving Fascine was employed, overseen by specialist Foreman Josinus Kalis. Notably, local materials like bamboo and rice straw were utilized instead of the customary willow wood and rye straw from Holland. A hallmark of the Dutch engineers' approach was their aim to address multiple objectives through their projects, such as curbing soil erosion, disease prevention, and agricultural enhancement, all within an integrated framework that viewed a river's catchment area as a cohesive system requiring balanced water distribution.

Mikuni Harbour Project 
In the latter half of the 19th century, the port of Mikuni, historically a hub of national trade on the Kitamaebune shipping route, faced a decline due to sediment deposits from the Kuzuryū River. Recognising its strategic importance, the local populace in 1875 petitioned the Japanese government for improvements. This led to the involvement of Escher and de Rijke.

Escher's tenure began in 1876 with an ambitious design including an arc breakwater to counteract gravel run-off, and a basin with an average water depth of three metres. Beyond the maritime aspects, Escher's vision extended to urban development, notably designing an Elementary school in Mikuni. However, financial constraints and contractual terminations led to Escher's return to the Netherlands, leaving the project incomplete.

In 1877, Johannis de Rijke assumed the mantle. De Rijke, already grappling with existing responsibilities, faced a challenging task exacerbated by frequent disputes with Japanese executive staff and a devastating cholera outbreak in the summer of 1879. His wife's illness added further personal strain, and necessitated her temporary relocation to Kobe for health reasons.

De Rijke's tenure was marked by significant alterations to Escher's initial plans. Concerns over budget miscalculations and the structural integrity of the arc breakwater, deemed inadequate against the formidable waves, led to a comprehensive redesign. De Rijke's proposal incorporated five layers of fascine mattresses and timber piles, bound by iron chains, and included the addition of four spur dikes. These changes, however, resulted in a tripling of construction costs, imposing a heavy financial burden on the local inhabitants.

In a desperate bid to generate revenue, the port was prematurely opened for trade in 1880, despite the incomplete state of construction. This decision proved to be ill-fated; the following year witnessed the partial destruction of the arc breakwater by strong ocean waves. Nonetheless, construction persevered, with the project finally reaching completion in 1885. The total cost escalated to 7.5 times Escher's original estimate, but the completion of Mikuni port reinstated its status as a modern trade hub and a pivotal transit point.

Escher and de Rijke's legacy of engineering solutions employed at Mikuni port included the adoption by Japanese engineers of the fascine mattress technique. The project not only resolved the issue of drift sand but also became a learning ground for Japanese officials and engineers, facilitating the transmission of valuable construction methodologies.

Locally, the harbour dam is referred to as "Essuru Tsutsumi" or "Escher's Harbour Dam", a homage to its original designer. This dam continues to be an integral component of the Mikuni harbour infrastructure.

Kiso Delta Regulation 
The city of Nagoya, along with its surrounding areas, has historically grappled with the challenges posed by water management, frequently facing flooding from the Kiso Delta at the confluences of the Kiso River, the Nagara River, and the Ibi River. Efforts to regulate these rivers date back to the Edo period, yet these early attempts largely failed to yield significant results. In the period spanning 1878 to 1900, De Rijke undertook extensive research in this region and subsequently developed a comprehensive plan aimed at segregating the three rivers in the lower stretches of the Kiso Delta.

The proposed project was a monumental undertaking, with an estimated cost of 9.74 million yen, a figure representing over 10% of the national budget at the time. The execution of this ambitious plan extended until the year 1912, reflecting the scale and complexity of the intervention required to address the long-standing water management challenges in this region.

Kiso Lock Construction 
The alteration of the confluence points of the Kiso River and the Nagara River consequentially disrupted the direct shipping route between these rivers. The resultant disparity in water levels between the two rivers rendered a simple crossing infeasible. To address this issue, the construction of a lock was proposed as the optimal solution. This lock, pivotal in facilitating navigation, was built over a decade, from 1892 to 1902. Upon its completion in 1902, it witnessed substantial usage, with 20,000 ships passing through it that year. However, as shipping technology progressed and vessel sizes increased, the lock's relevance diminished due to its limited dimensions of 5.5 x 36 metres.

Presently, the lock is situated within the Sendohira River Park, where it stands as a monument commemorating this engineering feat. A statue of de Rijke is located near the site.

Dam Construction on the Otani River 
Situated approximately 1 km upstream from the confluence of the Yoshino and Otani rivers, this dam represents a significant engineering achievement. Designed and supervised by de Rijke himself, the dam's construction spanned from 1886 to 1887. This structure, essentially a stepped spillway, was conceived as an anti-erosion measure to mitigate the energy dissipation of water flow.

The original dimensions of the dam were 97 metres in length, 12 metres in width, and 3.8 metres in height. Subsequent structural modifications led to a reduction in its length to 60 metres, an alteration aimed at reinforcing the dam's integrity. The Otani River, characteristically dry except during periods of heavy rainfall, transforms into a torrential flow during such events. This dam is one of the few remaining structures in the area that were designed and built under the guidance of de Rijke.

The Holland Dams 
In the realm of hydraulic engineering during the Meiji era, the construction of the dam in Otsu-shi, conceptualised in 1889, stands as a notable example. Japanese engineer Tanabe Gisaburo played a pivotal role in its design, under de Rijke's supervision. This dam, colloquially known as Oranda Sekihisage (Dutch dam), mirrors the architectural blueprint of the Otani dam, featuring a stepped spillway comprising twenty tiers. It is constructed using granite blocks, each measuring 120 cm in length, 55 cm in breadth, and 35 cm in height.

The dam spans a width of 34 metres and rises to a height of 7 metres. Today, it is celebrated as one of the oldest extant industrial heritage sites from the Meiji era. In recognition of its historical and engineering significance, it was accorded the status of an industrial heritage site by the Japanese Association of Civil Engineers in 2004. A similar dam, sharing the same name, was erected in Kaizu-shi by De Rijke in 1891.

Joganji River Flood Protection 
In 1891 de Rijke was involved in works at the Joganji River in Fukuyama-ken, after it was discerned that the river lacked adequate storage capacity to handle excessive rainfall. This deficiency was starkly highlighted by the Ansei dike breach, resulting in the inundation of over 1,500 hectares of land. In response to this event, de Rijke was commissioned to devise a comprehensive flood protection strategy for the region.

His proposal encompassed an array of measures, including the construction of twelve bank defences to safeguard agricultural zones, the establishment of a double dike system, downstream river regulation, and the enhancement of the river's storage capacity through riverbed widening.

The implementation of this ambitious project commenced in 1903. Although de Rijke departed in 1906, the project continued under different stewardship and reached completion in 1926. A contemporaneous photograph bears the caption: "Johannes de Rijke, an engineer employed by the Ministry of the Interior, who suffered the results of it flooding in 1899, once described it as 'not a river, but a waterfall.' The plan involves an investment of a substantial 10,000 yen for the river's renovation, initiating erosion control work on the upstream Yukawa River from 1901, projected over a 20-year period.” De Rijke himself characterised the Joganji River as more akin to rapids than a conventional river.

Development of the Port of Osaka 
The genesis of the Port of Osaka's modernisation can be traced back to 1875, when De Rijke and Van Doorn initially proposed a plan for its enhancement. However, the prohibitive costs associated with their proposal led to its deferment. A resurgence of interest emerged in 1890, driven by the industrial and commercial sectors. The Osaka governor, acknowledging these pressures, requested De Rijke to formulate a revised plan. Central to De Rijke's revised proposal was the redirection of the Yodo River away from the port to mitigate silt accumulation and enhance navigability. This plan, devised in 1890, also aimed to address the flood risks evidenced by recent inundations along the Yodo.

Despite the plan's strategic foresight, it remained unimplemented initially. However, by 1892, with increased financial resources, De Rijke received a commission to refine and advance his proposal. This phase involved meticulous surveying and soil analysis, revealing notably soft ground conditions. De Rijke's design approach drew inspiration from the IJmuiden sea lock in the Netherlands and the Port of Tanjung Priok in the Dutch East Indies. The completion of this comprehensive plan occurred in 1894, though its ambitious scope rendered it a costly venture. An investigative committee, considering military implications, further recommended expanding the scope of the plan, thereby escalating its cost.

This process, marked by significant disagreements between De Rijke and the Japanese bureaucracy, eventually culminated in 1897 with the adoption of a plan that incorporated several elements of De Rijke's original proposal. Despite this, the plan was officially credited to Japanese engineers, and De Rijke was not appointed as the director of the construction office for the new port. This role was instead assigned to Okino Tadao, a Japanese engineer with French training.

Port of Yokohama Developments 
The period from 1886 to 1889 witnessed the collaboration of Johannis de Rijke with A.T.L. Rouwenhorst Mulder in crafting a comprehensive plan for the augmentation of the Port of Yokohama. Concurrently, an alternative proposal was presented by the British engineer Henry Spencer Palmer. The port's redevelopment was funded in part by reparations from the United States following the Shimonoseki campaign.

Detailed analyses and reports in 1888 by engineers Koi Furuichi, Gisaburo Tanabe, and Mulder revealed the near-identical nature of the plans in terms of overall layout, but differed fundamentally in the construction of the breakwaters. However, political forces swayed the decision on which plan to proceed with.

Despite the expert recommendations favouring De Rijke's design for its practicality and adaptability, the Japanese government, in a move influenced heavily by diplomatic considerations, opted for Palmer's proposal in 1889. The execution of Palmer's plan encountered significant delays, attributed primarily to the substandard quality of the concrete used. This factor extended the project's completion timeline until 1896.

A critical aspect of this developmental phase was the contrasting levels of diplomatic support each proposal received. The English engineers benefitted from robust backing through British diplomatic channels, whereas their Dutch counterparts received negligible support from the Netherlands government. The fundamental disparity between the two designs lay in their foundational approaches: De Rijke's plan was predicated on the use of fascine mattresses, a decision informed by the soft soils of the port's seabed. In contrast, Palmer's concrete-based design was deemed excessively rigid for such ground conditions.

The Japanese government's decision to proceed with Palmer's design precipitated a contentious and public dispute, often played out in the press with protracted written correspondences, during which allegations of corruption were levelled against several officials.

Other Projects in Japan 
De Rijke's engineering expertise extended to a multitude of projects across Japan, each contributing significantly to the country's infrastructural development.

His involvement included:

 Chikugo: River improvement works.
 Hiroshima: Development of a comprehensive port plan.
 Katsura: River improvement and management.
 Kobe: Designing of jetties for maritime infrastructure.
 Kuzuryu: River improvement to enhance water flow and management.
 Nagasaki: Crafting a strategic port plan.
 Niigata: Harbour construction and development.
 Sakai: Formulation of a port development plan.
 Shinano: River improvement for better water resource management.
 Tokyo: Comprehensive port plan, along with improvements in sewerage and water supply systems.
 Yokkaichi, Yoshino: River improvement and reforestation efforts, aimed at environmental restoration and flood control.

China 
De Rijke's engineering expertise extended to China as early as 1873. His correspondence with the Dutch consul in Shanghai, E. van Heukelsveldt Slaghek, initially focused on the challenging sandbank at the mouth of the Huangpu Jiang (referred to as Wangpoo by De Rijke). This tributary of the Yangtze River plays a crucial role in Shanghai's international trade. The persistent accretion at the sandbank significantly impeded navigation, leading to a request in 1875 from the consuls of the United States and United Kingdom for de Rijke to examine potential improvements. Despite reluctance from his Japanese employers, De Rijke, along with Escher, conducted an exploratory visit to Shanghai and compiled a report that garnered considerable attention, though it did not culminate in immediate implementation. The Dutch Royal Society of Engineers expressed interest in their findings.

De Rijke's involvement in China escalated in 1896 with a commission from the Shanghai Chamber of Commerce. Additionally, he played a role in the Yellow River flood control project. 

In 1899, De Rijke sought to rally the construction industry around the task through lectures at the Royal Institute of Engineers. His study, conducted during his return journey from Japan in 1903, led to his appointment by the Chinese government in 1905 to spearhead the project. He announced his departure for China in 1905. Arriving in Shanghai with his 16-year-old son Hendrik in February 1906, De Rijke assumed the role of chief engineer of the Whangpoo Conservancy Board.

Granted considerable autonomy in the project, he initiated several riverway projects on the Huangpu River, including the Wusong Jetty and the Gaoqiao new channel. These efforts notably improved navigation by deepening the lowest water depth at Huangpu's mouth from 15 ft to 21 ft, and in the Gaoqiao new channel from 2–3 ft to 19 ft.

De Rijke's staff, primarily from the Netherlands, included approximately 80 employees. The project utilised two dredgers (the Rhenania and the Colonia, shipped from Emden in 1906) and a sand suction dredger (the Cyclop), carried out by the Dutch East Asiatic Dredging Company. His plans culminated in the complete clearance of the Woosung Sandbar. Despite not all works being completed, De Rijke resigned in 1910 and returned to the Netherlands in November of that year. The project continued under the leadership of Swedish engineer H.M. von Heidenstam and was completed in 1928.
 
Hendrik de Rijke, Johannis's son, also contributed to the project, working in Nantong in 1916 to implement his father's plans for the Yangtze River. Tragically, Hendrik's life was cut short at the age of 29 during a cholera epidemic in 1919, while independently designing a new infrastructure with improved water management systems.

Later life and legacy 
Johannis de Rijke's distinguished career was acknowledged through numerous honours. In recognition of his contributions, he was awarded the Order of the Sacred Treasures, 2nd class, and returned to the Netherlands in 1903. His accolades in the Netherlands included his appointment as an Officer of the Order of Orange-Nassau, and on 13 January 1911, he was knighted in the Order of the Dutch Lion. Additionally, in Belgium, he received the honour of knighthood in the Order of Leopold.

De Rijke passed away in Amsterdam at the age of 70. His final resting place is in the Zorgvlied cemetery in Amsterdam. Remarkably, his grave continues to be a site of international remembrance, with an annual visit by a Japanese delegation. This delegation pays homage through the laying of a wreath and the performance of a Buddhist ceremony, a testament to the enduring impact of his work in Japan. The Dutch organisation, Stichting Blauwe Lijn (English: Blue Line Foundation) will organise a theme year and a series of events around de Rijke's life and work in 2024.

He is commemorated in the naming of a split hopper barge operated by the Dutch dredging company Van Oord. Today, Dutch words such as  (English: water level), and  (pronounced “kereppu” in Japanese), meaning groyne, are common technical terms in Japanese.

Honours 
 Order of the Sacred Treasures, 1889 (4th class); 1892 (3rd class); 1903 (2nd class)
 Order of Orange-Nassau, 1911
 Order of the Dutch Lion, 1913
 Order of Leopold (Belgium)

References

Citations

Further reading 
 Kamibayashi, Yoshiyuki. "Two Dutch Engineers and Improvements of Public Works in Japan,"  Proceedings of the Third International Congress on Construction History, Cottbus, May 2009
 Karan, Pradyumna Prasad. (2005).  Japan in the 21st century: Environment, Economy, and Society. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky. ; ;  OCLC 254187082
 Nussbaum, Louis Frédéric and Käthe Roth. (2005). Japan Encyclopedia. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ; OCLC 48943301

Publications by Johannis de Rijke

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Publications about Johannis de Rijke
 L.A. van Gasteren (red.) In een Japanse stroomversnelling; berichten van Nederlandse watermannen, rijswerkers, ingenieurs, werkbazen 1872-1903 (In a Japanese rapids, messages from Dutch 'Watermen' ) (2000, Walburg Pers)
 Yoshiyuki Kamibayashi Johannis de Rijke; de man die Japanse rivieren liet herleven (Johannis de Rijke, the man who revived the Japanese rivers) (2002, Walburg Pers; translation from a Japanese original)
 Gasteren, Louis van Die eeuwige rijst met Japansche thee (The eternal rice with Japanese tea) (2003, Uitgeverij Bas Lubberhuizen)

External links
The Johannis de Rijke Project of the Stichting Blauwe Lijn Foundation (in Dutch).

1842 births
1913 deaths
Dutch civil engineers
Dutch expatriates in Japan
Foreign advisors to the government in Meiji-era Japan
People from Noord-Beveland

Knights of the Order of the Netherlands Lion
Officers of the Order of Orange-Nassau