omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Arrott plot. In condensed matter physics, an Arrott plot is a plot of the square of the magnetization  of a substance, against the ratio of the applied magnetic field to magnetization  at one (or several) fixed temperature(s). Arrott plots are an easy way of determining the presence of ferromagnetic order in a material. They are named after American physicist Anthony Arrott who introduced them as a technique for studying magnetism in 1957.

Details
According to the Landau theory applied to the mean field picture for magnetism, the free energy of a ferromagnetic material close to a phase transition can be written as:

where , the magnetization, is the order parameter,  is the applied magnetic field,  is the critical temperature, and  are material constants.

Close to the phase transition, this gives a relation for the magnetization order parameter:

where  is a dimensionless measure of the temperature.

Thus in a graph plotting  vs.  for various temperatures, the line without an intercept corresponds to the dependence at the critical temperature. Thus along with providing evidence for the existence of a ferromagnetic phase, the Arrott plot can also be used to determine the critical temperature for the phase transition.

Generalization
Giving the critical exponents explicitly in the equation of state, Arrott and Noakes proposed:

Where  are free parameters. In these modified Arrott plots, data is plotted as  versus . In the case of classical Landau theory,  and  and this equation reduces to the linear  versus  plot. However, the equation also allows for other values of  and , since real ferromagnets often do not have critical exponents exactly consistent with a simple mean field theory ferromagnetism.

The use of the correct critical exponents for a given system can help give straight lines on the Arott plot, but not in cases such as low magnetic field and amorphous materials. While mean field theory is a more reasonable model for ferromagnets at higher magnetic fields, the presence of more than one magnetic domain in real magnets means that especially at low magnetic fields, the experimentally measured macroscopic magnetic field (which is an average over the whole sample) will not be a reasonable way to determine the local magnetic field (which is felt by a single atom). Therefore, magnetization data taken at low magnetic fields should be ignored for the purposes of Arrott plots.

Transition order
Magnetic phase transitions can be either first order or second order. The nature of the transition can be inferred from the Arrott plot based on the slope of the magnetic isotherms. If the lines are all positive slope, the phase transition is second order, whereas if there are negative slope lines, the phase transition is first order. This condition is known as the Banerjee criterion.

The Banerjee criterion is not always accurate for evaluating inhomogeneous ferromagnets, since the slopes can all be positive even when the transition is first-order.

See also
Curie–Weiss law

References

Electric and magnetic fields in matter
Magnetic ordering
Horacio Ahuett Garza. Horacio Ahuett Garza (born May 21, 1964) is a Mexican engineer, professor and researcher specializing in rapid prototypes, computerized processing and manufacturing and mold design. His work has been recognized with Level II membership in Mexico’s Sistema Nacional de Investigadores.

Ahuett Garza earned his bachelor’s in mechanical and electrical engineering from Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education, Campus Monterrey (1986), during which time he also taught at the fluids laboratory. He earned his masters and doctorate in mechanical engineering from Ohio State University in 1992 and 1996, working as a researcher with the department of industrial and systems engineering and as a teaching assistant.

From 1987 to 1990 he worked with the machinery for a company named Fabricación de Máquinas as an engineer in charge of processes and new products. From 1990 to 1998, he taught mechanical engineering classes at the Monterrey campus becoming full-time in 1997, then from 1990 to 2000 was the director of the Centro de Sistemas de Manufactura del Tecnológico de Monterrey in León. During this time, he also collaborated with the Cámara de Calzado (a shoe industry promoter) in Guanajuato to develop and implement manufacturing cells in local factories.

Since 2000, Ahuett Garza has worked with the Centro de Diseña e Innovación de Productos at Campus Monterrey.  His research specialties are the rapid development of prototypes, analysis of smelting techniques and the design of molds. He has also done research in computerized numerical control, computer-assisted manufacturing, analysis of aluminum smelting and injection molding. His more recent work has focused on the development of high precision machinery and microprocesses.

He has published chapters in several books including a chapter on die casting in the book Modeling for casting and solidification processing and has written various articles for journals such as Materials Processing Technology.

Ahuett Garza’s work has been recognized by the Mexican government with Level II membership in the Sistema Nacional de Investigadores. In 2000 the central campuses of ITESM awarded him the “Mejor Proyecto de Apoyo al Desarrollo Sustentable” recognition. He has a patent in process for a machine designed to polish surfaces semi-automatically.

References

See also
 List of Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education faculty

Academic staff of the Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education
1964 births
Living people
Mechanical engineers
Mexican engineers
Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education alumni
Place of birth missing (living people)
Ohio State University College of Engineering alumni
Spitzer resistivity. The Spitzer resistivity (or plasma resistivity), also called 'Spitzer-Harm resistivity', is an expression describing the electrical resistance in a plasma, which was first formulated by Lyman Spitzer in 1950. The Spitzer resistivity of a plasma decreases in proportion to the electron temperature as .

The inverse of the Spitzer resistivity  is known as the Spitzer conductivity .

Formulation 
The Spitzer resistivity is a classical model of electrical resistivity based upon electron-ion collisions and it is commonly used in plasma physics. The Spitzer resistivity (in units of ohm-meter) is given by:
 
where  is the ionization of nuclei,  is the electron charge,  is the electron mass,  is the Coulomb logarithm,  is the electric permittivity of free space,  is the Boltzmann constant, and  is the electron temperature (in Kelvin).

One way to convert the  of a plasma column to its resistance is to multiply by the length of the column and divide by its area.

In CGS units, the expression is given by:
     |[need to indicate how to put the result in 1/Ohm-cm or Siemens/m ]

This formulation assumes a Maxwellian distribution, and the prediction is more accurately determined by 
 
where the factor  and the classical approximation (i.e. not including neoclassical effects) of the   dependence is:
 .

In the presence of a strong magnetic field (the collision rate is small compared to the gyrofrequency), there are two resistivities corresponding to the current perpendicular and parallel to the magnetic field. The transverse Spitzer resistivity is given by , where the rotation keeps the distribution Maxwellian, effectively removing the factor of .

The parallel current is equivalent to the unmagnetized case, .

Disagreements with observation 

Measurements in laboratory experiments and computer simulations have shown that under certain conditions, the resistivity of a plasma tends to be much higher than the Spitzer resistivity. This effect is sometimes known as anomalous resistivity or neoclassical resistivity. It has been observed in space and effects of anomalous resistivity have been postulated to be associated with particle acceleration during magnetic reconnection. There are various theories and models that attempt to describe anomalous resistivity and they are frequently compared to the Spitzer resistivity.

References 

Electrical resistance and conductance
Plasma physics equations
LD&ECR Class B. The LD&ECR Class B (LNER Class J60) was a class of  steam locomotives of the Lancashire, Derbyshire and East Coast Railway.

Four examples were built in 1897. Three were normally based at Langwith Junction, while the other was at Tuxford. In later years they moved to Wrexham, with one transferring to Gorton as the works shunter.

References

Notes

Sources

B
0-6-0T locomotives
Kitson locomotives
Railway locomotives introduced in 1895
Scrapped locomotives
Standard gauge steam locomotives of Great Britain

Shunting locomotives
New South Wales Z28 class locomotive. The Z28 class was actually an amalgamation under one class of two former classes, comprising the Baldwin built formerly J.131 class, and the Eveleigh completed J.522 class. The Baldwin J131 class were first delivered in 1887, and the locally made J522 class delivered in 1893.

Gallery

See also
NSWGR steam locomotive classification

References

28
Scrapped locomotives
Standard gauge locomotives of Australia
2-8-0 locomotives
Siemens-Schuckert L.I. The Siemens-Schuckert L.I was a large, three-engined biplane bomber aircraft, built in Germany towards the end of World War I.  It was a twin boom design, strongly influenced by the successful Caproni Ca.3. Three were built but not used operationally.

Design and development 

In 1918 Idflieg ordered a bomber which was to follow the layout of the three engine, twin boom Italian  Caproni designs. It was originally called the G.III but was eventually moved into a new L category, intermediate between G and R, the only aircraft ever to be so classified.

The L.I was a large biplane with a wingspan of . The wing was straight edged and of constant chord and divided into two outer bays on each side by three sets of parallel interplane struts and diagonal flying wires.  Ailerons were fitted to both upper and lower planes, projecting behind the upper trailing edge and externally rod connected. On each side a square section tailboom or fuselage was joined to the wing structure between the innermost interplane struts and the central nacelle by more complicated bracing. A tractor  Maybach Mb.IV six cylinder water cooled inline engine was mounted in the nose of each boom and there was a gunner's position in the boom just aft of the wing trailing edge, equipped with a Parabellum MG14  calibre machine gun.

The L.I was flown from a cockpit in the short central nacelle, which had a third Maybach engine in pusher configuration at the rear and another Parabellum equipped gunner's position in its nose. The fixed conventional undercarriage had pairs of mainwheels mounted under each outer engine and a tailskid on each boom. It also had a substantial nosewheel, mounted on the nacelle, to protect the L.I from damaging noseovers.

Three L.Is were built but the type was not used operationally.

Specifications

See also
List of twin-boom aircraft

References

Trimotors
Twin-boom aircraft
Biplanes
1910s German bomber aircraft
L.I
Aircraft first flown in 1918
Alexander Andreev. Alexander Fyodorovich Andreev (, 10 December 1939 – 14 March 2023) was a Russian theoretical physicist best known for explaining the eponymous Andreev reflection. Andreev was educated at the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, starting in 1959 and graduating ahead of schedule in 1961, having been mentored by Landau.

From 1979, Andreev was a professor at the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology. He focused on the physics of superconductivity, quantum liquids and solids, surface phenomena, and magnetism.

Andreev was a vice-president of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1991–2013).

Prizes
1981 - Corresponding Member of USSR Academy of Sciences
1984 - Lomonosov Prize of Moscow State University
1986 - Lenin Prize (USSR)
1987 - Full member of USSR Academy of Sciences
1987 - Carus-Medal of German National Academy of Sciences Leopoldina and Carus-Prize of Stadt Schweinfurt
1992 - Lorentz Professorship, Leiden University (the Netherlands)
1995 - Simon Memorial Prize, Institute of Physics (U.K.)
1996 - Honorary member of Ioffe Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences
1999 - Kapitza Gold Medal, Russian Academy of Sciences
2001-2002 - Jubilee Professor, Chalmers University of Technology (Sweden)
2002 - Foreign member of Finnish Academy of Science and Letters
2002 - Foreign member of Georgian Academy of Sciences
2003 - Independent Prize "Triumph" (Russia)
2004 - Pomeranchuk Prize 
2004 - Doctorate honoris causa of Leiden University (the Netherlands)
2004 - Doctorate honoris causa of Kazan State University (Russia)
2005 - Honorary professor of Kyrgyz National University
2005 - Foreign member of Polish Academy of Sciences
2006 - 
2008 - Foreign member of National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine
2011 - Demidov Prize of the Russian Academy of Sciences

References

1939 births
2023 deaths
Soviet physicists
Russian physicists
Full Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
Full Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Members of the Finnish Academy of Science and Letters
Members of the Georgian National Academy of Sciences
Members of the Polish Academy of Sciences
Academic staff of the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology
Demidov Prize laureates
Recipients of the Lenin Prize
Recipients of the Order "For Merit to the Fatherland", 3rd class
Recipients of the Order "For Merit to the Fatherland", 4th class
Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology alumni
Scientists from Saint Petersburg
Panasonic Lumix DMC-GX7. The Panasonic Lumix DMC-GX7 announced in August 2013, is a Micro Four Thirds compact mirrorless interchangeable lens camera. 
It was Panasonic's first Micro Four Thirds camera with a built-in in-body stabilization system (IBIS) and has a built-in EVF (add-on EVFs are no-longer supported). Panasonic uses 2-axis in-body stabilization allowing the use of shutter speeds 1 to 2 stops slower than without stabilization, compared to the 4 to 5 stops of improvement offered by Olympus' 5-axis stabilization.

Features include:
 Magnesium alloy body
 New 16 MP Live MOS, Four Thirds sensor (25% better Signal to Noise performance, 10% better sensitivity, 10% better saturation level )
 Venus Engine
 ISO 200 - 25,600 (ISO 125 in extended mode, max. 3,200 in movie mode)
 Maximum shutter speed 1/8000 sec.
 AF detective range: -4 EV to 18 EV 
 Micro Four Thirds mount
 Full HD video capture, including 1920 x 1080/60p (AVCHD or MP4 formats)
 Full-time AF and tracking AF also available in cinema-like 24p video with a bit rate of maximum 24 Mbit/s
 Built-in live view finder (electronic view finder, EVF), 90-degree tilt-able, 2.764M pixel resolution with 100% Adobe RGB color reproduction  
 Built-in 3", 1040K pixel tilting (45 deg. up, 80 deg. down), touch-screen LCD screen 
 Built-in flash (and hot-shoe)
 Sensor-shift, in-body image stabilization (2-axis)
 5fps using single AF with mechanical shutter / 60fps with electronic shutter up to 12 frames
 Focus Peaking
 22 creative effects, HDR
 Panoramic mode, with filters
 Silent Mode, electronic shutter mode
 Near Field Communication (NFC)
 Wi-Fi connectivity
 Black / Silver versions
 Introduction price: $999 in the US (body only)

Successor 
Although the Panasonic GX8 has the succeeding number, it is a model not related to the GX7 line. The true successor of the GX7 is the Panasonic GX80/GX85, which is called GX7 mark II in some markets. 
The Panasonic GX80/GX85 has the same 16mp sensor, but without the AA-filter. It also has greatly improved IBIS and comes with a new shutter mechanism. The tilting viewfinder is no longer available. This came back though with the Panasonic GX9, which is called GX7 mark III in some markets.

References

External links 
 Official Website
 Official Specifications
 Review, ePhotozine.com
 Hands-on review, DPReview
 Hands-on review, Imaging Source
 Hands-on review, Pocket Lint
 Hands-on review, Trusted Reviews
 First Look video preview at What Digital Camera Channel (YouTube)

GX7
George W. Cannon. George W. Cannon was an American inventor from New York. He is best known for the invention of the mechanical dumbwaiter. Cannon first filed for the patent of a brake system (US Patent no. 260776) that could be used for a dumbwaiter on January 6, 1883. He later filed for the patent on the mechanical dumbwaiter (US Patent No. 361268) on February 17, 1887. He is reported to have generated a vast amount of money from royalties from his dumbwaiter patents until his death in 1911.

References

19th-century American inventors
1897 deaths
Year of birth missing
Junkers EF 127. The Junkers EF 127 was a rocket powered fighter aircraft designed by the Third Reich as a part of the Emergency Fighter Program in the closing year of World War II. The project was codenamed "Walli". The EF 127 was a heavily redesigned version of the Junkers EF 126. The propulsion for the aircraft was a liquid-propellant rocket designed by the Walter company.

References

Rocket-powered aircraft
Hydroalkoxylation. Hydroalkoxylation is a chemical reaction that combines alcohols with alkenes or alkynes. The process affords ethers.

The reaction converts alkenes to dialkyl or aryl-alkyl ethers:
R'OH + RCH=CH2 → R'OCH(R)-CH3
Similarly, alkynes are converted to vinyl ethers:
R'OH + RC≡CH → R'OC(R)=CH2
As shown, the reaction follows the Markovnikov rule. The process exhibits good atom-economy in the sense that no byproducts are produced. The reaction is catalyzed by bases and also by transition metal complexes. Usually symmetrical ethers are prepared by dehydration of alcohols and unsymmetrical ethers by the Williamson ether synthesis from alkyl halides and alkali metal alkoxides.

See also 
 Hydroamination
 Hydrofunctionalization

References

Addition reactions
Homogeneous catalysis
Catalysis
North Wing Sport X2. The North Wing Sport X2 is an American ultralight trike, designed and produced by North Wing Design of Chelan, Washington. The aircraft is supplied as a kit for amateur construction or as a complete ready-to-fly-aircraft.

Design and development
The X2 was designed to comply with the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale microlight category and the US light-sport aircraft rules. It is listed on the Federal Aviation Administration's list of accepted SLSAs.

The X2 features a strut-braced hang glider-style high-wing, weight-shift controls, a two-seats-in-tandem open cockpit with a cockpit fairing, tricycle landing gear with wheel pants and a single engine in pusher configuration.

The aircraft is made from bolted-together aluminum tubing, with its double surface wing covered in Dacron sailcloth. Its  span wing is supported by struts and uses an "A" frame weight-shift control bar. The SLSA's powerplant is a twin cylinder, liquid-cooled, two-stroke, dual-ignition  Rotax 582 engine. Other engines are available for the kit-built versions, including the four cylinder, air and liquid-cooled, four-stroke, dual-ignition  Rotax 912UL and the  HKS 700E engine. With the Rotax 582 engine the aircraft has an empty weight of  and a gross weight of , giving a useful load of .

A number of different wings can be fitted to the basic carriage, including the North Wing Apache 3 or the North Wing Quest GT5. The North Wing M-Pulse 2 was formerly the standard wing.

Variants
Sport X2 Apache
Fully equipped version
Sport X2 Navajo
Minimally equipped version

Specifications (Sport X2 Apache)

References

External links

Sport
2000s United States sport aircraft
2000s United States ultralight aircraft
Single-engined pusher aircraft
Homebuilt aircraft
Ultralight trikes
Warwick W-4 Hot Canary. The W-4 Hot Canary is a custom biplane designed for air racing.

Design
The W-4 is a single place conventional geared negative stagger biplane.

Operational history
1970 Florida Sport Biplane consolation race - 1st place
1970 Reno Air Race - 4th place in biplane category - 163 mph average
1971 Reno Air Race

Specifications (W-4 Hot Canary)

References

Racing aircraft
Homebuilt aircraft
Biplanes
Single-engined tractor aircraft
Aircraft first flown in 1969
Artificial Solutions. Artificial Solutions is a multinational technology company that develops technology for conversational AI systems. It rebranded in August 2024 to Teneo.ai.

The company's products have been deployed in a wide range of industries including automotive, finance, energy, entertainment, telecoms, the public sector, retail and travel. It’s Customers include telecom providers such as AT&T, as well as other organisations such as Circle K  and Folksam,

The company was founded in 2001 and became a public company in 2019 after the reverse takeover of Indentive AB. Artificial Solutions is listed on the Nasdaq First North stock exchange under the ticker ASAI.

History 

Founded in Stockholm in 2001 by Johan Åhlund, Johan Gustavsson and Michael Söderström the company created interactive web assistants using a combination of artificial intelligence and natural language processing. Artificial Solutions expanded with the development of online customer service optimization products and by 2005 it had several offices throughout Europe supporting the development and sales of its online virtual assistants.

In 2008 Elbot, Artificial Solutions won the Loebner Prize.

In 2010, the company’s management changed, causing the company to focus the basis of its technology on Natural Language Interaction and launched the Teneo Platform, which allows people to hold humanlike, conversations with applications running on electronic devices.
In 2013 Artificial Solutions launched Lyra, a mobile personal assistant that is able to operate and remember the context of the conversation across different platforms and operating systems.

A new round of funding was announced in June 2013 to support expansion in the US market.

Since then the company has continued to develop the Teneo Platform and patent technology in the conversational AI sector including a framework for enabling chatbots to interact easily with each other.

In 2018, the company raised a total of 13.7 Euros in equity capital to help support global growth and to accelerate the expansion of Teneo.

In 2019, Artificial Solutions Holding completed the Reverse Takeover of Indentive, enabling the business of Artificial Solutions Holding to be traded on Nasdaq First North. Lawrence Flynn remains the CEO.

In November 2020, Per Ottosson took over as CEO. He is based at the company's headquarter in Stockholm together with the newly appointed CFO, Fredrik Törgren.

In August of 2024, the company rebranded as Teneo.ai.

References

Natural language processing software
User interfaces
Natural language processing
Computational linguistics
Information retrieval organizations
Edoardo Croci. Edoardo Croci (born 15 November 1961, Milan) is an Italian environmentalist and politician.

Ecopass
As Milan city Councilor for Mobility, Transport and the Environment, he introduced an innovative  urban road pricing toll, related to fine dust emissions, to access the city centre since 2 January 2008. The system called Ecopass has been defined as a pollution charge  in the category of Congestion pricing systems. Ecopass reduced PM10 emissions by 23% in the first 11 months of operation. It has been studied by researchers and policy makers worldwide as an example of transport economics. 
Ecopass reduced congestion (the congestion index fell by 4,7%) and improved road safety (a 10.5% drop in accidents in the toll zone).

City referendum
After leaving the Municipality he assumed the role of President of the “committee for referendums on the environment and the quality of life in Milan” in 2010.  The committee promoted referendums on mobility, energy, water, green, and the world EXPO 2015. All the referendums were approved with votes between 79% and 95%. The experience is considered an exemplar case of environmental democracy at the international level, as it was sponsored by  deputy majors of five major European cities.

References

Italian environmentalists
The Liberals (Italy) politicians
21st-century Italian politicians
Local politicians in Italy
1961 births
Living people
Politicians from Milan