omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Hexaiodobenzene. Hexaiodobenzene is an aryl iodide and a six-substituted iodobenzene with the formula C6I6. Structurally, it is a derivative of benzene, in which all hydrogen atoms are replaced by iodine atoms. It forms orange crystals that are poorly soluble in all solvents. It adopts the expected structure with a central C6 ring.

Preparation 
The compound was first prepared by iodination of benzoic acid in the presence of hot fuming sulfuric acid.  Another method of synthesis is the reaction between benzene with periodic acid and potassium iodide in sulfuric acid at 100 °C. This method instead produces 1,2,4,5-tetraiodobenzene if done at room temperature.

Properties

Physical properties 
Hexaiodobenzene forms orange needles that are practically insoluble in water, but sparingly soluble in N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone and dimethyl sulfoxide. It melts at 430 °C, but also already begins to show some decomposition at 370 °C, forming I2.

Crystallographic properties 
The crystals are monoclinic and pseudohexagonal, with centrosymmetric C6I6 units. The carbon atoms lie in a plane with C–C distances about 141 pm, while the nearby iodine atoms show very small displacements (about 4 pm) above and below the ring. The shortest intermolecular distance, 376 pm, is notably short compared to twice the Van der Waals radius, which is 430 pm. The structure is retained at high pressures up to 9.7 GPa.

References 

Iodobenzenes
Hexabromobenzene. Hexabromobenzene (HBB) is an organobromine compound with the formula C6Br6.  It features a central benzene ring with sixbromine substituents. Hexabromobenzene is a white powder that is not soluble in water but is soluble in ethanol, ether, and benzene. Its bromine content is above 86%.

Preparation 
It can be prepared by the reaction of benzene with 6 equivalents of bromine (Br2) in the presence of heat and UV light:

The reaction produces six equivalents of hydrogen bromide.

Uses 
Hexabromobenzene has seen use in high voltage capacitors as a flame retardant. 

Hexabromobenzene finds extensive use as a fire retardant additive in a range of materials including plastics, paper, and electrical goods, where it serves as a top-tier flame retardant. It was introduced to replace traditional organobromine fire retardants such as polybrominated derivatives of diphenyl ethers and biphenyls. With a high melting point of 327 °C and a high bromide content of 86%, HBB significantly enhances the fire safety of these materials. Iits widespread application also leads to its dispersion in the environment.

Metabolism
Hexabromobenzene was used in a study investigating its metabolic fate in female rats, wherein the substance was orally administered at doses of 16.6 mg/kg body weight every other day for a span of 2 weeks. Analysis of the rats' excreta revealed the presence of various metabolites, including unchanged HBB, pentabromobenzene, as well as oxygen- and sulfur-containing compounds.

Dangers 
Hexabromobenzene poses significant dangers due to its toxicity profile as classified by the GHS (Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labeling of Chemicals). Classified as GHS07, HBB exhibits acute toxicity via oral, dermal, and inhalation routes, categorizing it under category 4 for this hazard. Additionally, it induces skin and eye irritation, classified under category 2 for both. Moreover, HBB is known to cause skin sensitization (category 1) and specific target organ toxicity upon single exposure (category 3), with the respiratory system being the primary target organ.

The acute toxicity of brominated benzenes decreases with an increase in the number of bromine atoms in the molecule. However, the potential for necrotic changes varies based on the position of these bromine atoms within the molecule. There are severe health risks associated with HBB exposure, warranting careful handling and stringent safety measures in its use and management.

References

Bromobenzenes
Operation Snow Flurry. Operation Snow Flurry was an operation by the United States Air Force that consisted of B-47 Stratojet bombers flying from South Carolina to England to perform mock bomb drops. Data would be received on the ground from the planes, and this would later be used to track the accuracy of the mock drops. Aircraft involved would then fly to Strategic Air Command airfields in North Africa. In 1958, a B-47 en route from Hunter Air Force Base accidentally dropped a Mark 6 nuclear bomb over Mars Bluff, South Carolina, which was not nuclear-armed but there was a conventional explosives detonation which damaged nearby buildings. Live bombs were carried on board in case the planes had to activate for a wartime situation, but had their fissile nuclear cores removed and could not cause a nuclear detonation.

References

Military operations of the Cold War
Max W. Noah. Max Wilbur Noah (February 19, 1932 – June 15, 2018) was a lieutenant general in the United States Army. He served as Comptroller of the United States Army from 1984 to 1988 and Commander of the United States Army Engineer School from 1980 to 1982.

Noah was born in Greensboro, North Carolina and raised in Georgia. He graduated from the Georgia Military College high school in 1948 and then studied engineering at Georgia Tech for a year before being appointed to the United States Military Academy. Noah graduated from West Point with a B.S. degree in 1953 and was commissioned in the Army Corps of Engineers. He served as a platoon leader with the 74th Engineer Battalion, 3rd Infantry Division in Korea.

In 1958, Noah earned an M.S.E. degree in electrical engineering from Purdue University. He then taught electrical engineering and nuclear physics at West Point until 1962. Noah graduated from the Command and General Staff College in 1965 and the Army War College in 1970.

After retiring from the Army on June 30, 1988, Noah settled in Alexandria, Virginia. He died at Fort Belvoir, Virginia and was buried at the West Point Cemetery on September 27, 2018.

References

1932 births
2018 deaths
People from Greensboro, North Carolina
Georgia Tech alumni
United States Military Academy alumni
United States Army Corps of Engineers personnel
United States Army personnel of the Korean War
Purdue University College of Engineering alumni
United States Military Academy faculty
United States Army Command and General Staff College alumni
United States Army personnel of the Vietnam War
Recipients of the Air Medal
United States Army War College alumni
Recipients of the Meritorious Service Medal (United States)
Recipients of the Legion of Merit
United States Army generals
Recipients of the Distinguished Service Medal (US Army)
Military personnel from Alexandria, Virginia
Burials at West Point Cemetery
Georgia Military College alumni
MINOS (optimization software). 
MINOS is a Fortran software package for solving linear and nonlinear mathematical optimization problems.   MINOS (Modular In-core Nonlinear Optimization  System) may be used for linear programming, quadratic programming, and more general objective functions and constraints, and for finding a feasible point for a set of linear or nonlinear equalities and inequalities.

MINOS was first developed by Bruce Murtagh and Michael Saunders, mostly at the Systems Optimization Laboratory in the Department of Operations Research at Stanford University.   In 1985, Saunders was awarded the inaugural Orchard-Hays prize  by the Mathematical Programming Society (now the Mathematical Optimization Society) for his work on MINOS.  Despite being one of the first general-purpose constrained optimization solvers to emerge, the package remains heavily used.  MINOS is supported in the AIMMS, AMPL, APMonitor, GAMS, and TOMLAB modeling systems.  In addition, it remains one of the top-used solvers on the NEOS Server and in GAMS.

Operation
Ideally, the user should provide gradients of the nonlinear functions.  (This is automatic in most of the modeling systems mentioned above.)  If some or all of the gradients are not provided, MINOS will approximate the missing ones by finite differences, but this could be slow and less reliable.  If the objective function is convex and the constraints are linear, the solution obtained will be a global minimizer. Otherwise, the solution obtained may be a local minimizer.

For linear programs, a two-phase primal simplex method is used. The first phase minimizes the sum of infeasibilities. For problems with linear constraints and a nonlinear objective, a reduced-gradient method is used.  A quasi-Newton approximation to the reduced Hessian is maintained to obtain search directions. The method is most efficient when many constraints or bounds are active at the solution.

For problems with nonlinear constraints, a linearly constrained Lagrangian method is used. This involves a sequence of major iterations, each of which solves (perhaps approximately) a linearly constrained subproblem. The subproblem objective is an augmented Lagrangian, and the subproblem constraints are linearizations of the nonlinear constraints at the current point.

MINOS is intended for large sparse problems. There is no fixed limit on problem size. Most working storage is contained in one double-precision array (which should be sufficiently large). The source code is suitable for all scientific machines with a Fortran compiler.

References

Further reading

External links 
 Systems Optimization Laboratory, Stanford University Systems Optimization Laboratory (SOL).
 MINOS 5.5 - Description - Distributors of the software.

Mathematical optimization software
Rolling stock of the Epping Ongar Railway. The Epping Ongar Railway is a heritage railway in south-west Essex, England.

Steam locomotives 
Steam locomotives include:

Diesel locomotives 
Diesel locomotives include:

DMUs

DEMUs

EMUs 
Epping Ongar Railway has an affinity with electric multiple unit (EMU) preservation, as the branch used LT's electric stock from 1957 until 1994. There was talk of the line being electrified by the LNER with overhead electrification before the Second World War intervened. Some local lines were electrified quite early on, for example to Shenfield and Southend, and the next generations of EMUs continue to work services on those lines into Liverpool Street.

While the 3rd & 4th conductor rails were removed by the new owners, the line still hosts electric style units, though without the electrification they are hauled by a diesel locomotive. Due to cost, safety issues and legislation it is not possible to re-electrify the branch.

Carriages

Gresley Carriages 
The most iconic carriage design of the LNER, these lasted well into BR ownership. Finalised in 1923, the design utilised a 60 ft underframe, with more traditional squared moulding and windows and wooden teak-panelled bodies. There are two examples on the EOR a Buffet car and Brake Tourist Open (BTO) examples..

British Railways standard steam stock (Mk.I) 
The Backbone of most preserved railways, They are a durable design, representing in many ways the culmination of traditional carriage design in the UK, prior to the introduction of monocoque techniques.

British Railways (Mk.II)

Goods wagons

Brake vans

Covered goods vans

Flat wagons, bolster wagons and Rail and Sleeper wagons

Ballast wagons

Cranes and other special use wagons

References

Epping Ongar Railway
Epping Ongar Railway
Yoshinori Tokura. ForMemRS is a Japanese physicist, Professor at University of Tokyo and Director of Center for Emergent Matter Science (CEMS) at RIKEN. He is a specialist in physics of strongly correlated electron systems and known for his work in  high-temperature superconductivity, Mott transition, colossal magnetoresistance, Multiferroics, and  magnetic skyrmions.

Biography
Tokura was born in Nishiwaki, Hyōgo, Japan. He holds a: B.S. in Applied Physics, the University of Tokyo (1976), and a M.S. (1978) and Ph.D (1981) in that subject from the same university. His subsequent career has also been at the University of Tokyo, rising from  Research Associate to Lecturer in the Dept. of Applied Physics, then Assistant Professor and Professor in the Dept. of Physics, and finally, from 1995 on, Professor in Dept. of Applied Physics.

In addition has been 
 1993 – 2002:	Group Leader, Joint Research Center for Atom Technology (JRCAT)
 2001 – 2008:	Director, Correlated Electron Research Center (CERC), AIST
 2001 – 2007:	Research Director, Tokura Spin Superstructure, ERATO-JST
 2006 – 2012:	Research Director, Tokura Multiferroics Project, ERATO-JST
 2007 – 2013:	Group Director, Cross-Correlated Materials Research Group (CMRG), RIKEN
 2008–present: AIST Fellow, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST)
 2010 – 2013:	Center Director, Quantum-Phase Electronics Center (QPEC), School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo
 2010 – 2013:	Director, Emergent Materials Department, RIKEN Advanced Science Institute
 2010 – 2013:	Group Director, Correlated Electron Research Group (CERG), RIKEN Advanced Science Institute
 2013–Present: Director of Center for Emergent Matter Science (CEMS)

Academy
He is a Member of the Science Council of Japan, and a Foreign Member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences (2014 – )

Recognition
1990: Nishina Memorial Prize
1990: IBM Japan Science Prize
1991: Bernd T. Matthias Prize
1998: Nissan Science Prize
1999: JPS Award for Academic Papers on Physics
2002: Asahi Prize
2002: ISI Citation Laureate Award （Department of Applied Physics）
2003: Medal with Purple Ribbon
2005: James C. McGroddy Prize for New Materials
2011: 52nd Fujihara Award
2012: IUPAP Magnetism Award and Néel Medal
2013: Imperial Prize of the Japan Academy
2014: Honorary Doctor at Uppsala University
2014: 55th Honda Memorial Award
2014: Thomson Reuters Citation Laureates
2020: Person of Cultural Merit
2022: Members of the Japan Academy
2023: Foreign Member of the Royal Society 
2023: Leo Esaki Award

References

External links
Tokura Laboratory at University of Tokyo
Center for Emergent Matter Science at RIKEN

1954 births
Living people
Japanese physicists
People from Hyōgo Prefecture
University of Tokyo alumni
Academic staff of the University of Tokyo
Persons of Cultural Merit
Fellows of the American Physical Society
Members of the Japan Academy
Terry Miller (engineer). Terence Charles Barry Miller, MBE (21 August 1911 – 1989) was an English railway engineer who rose to become Chief Engineer (Traction & Rolling Stock) for British Rail.

Career
Miller began his career with the London & North Eastern Railway (LNER) as an apprentice, working under Sir Nigel Gresley. He rose up the ranks of LNER and continued his career under British Rail (BR) after nationalisation. In the 1956 New Year Honours list, he was awarded the MBE. At that time the Assistant Motive Power Superintendent of the Eastern Region of British Railways. By the 1960s, when BR was withdrawing steam locomotives and dismantling facilities for them, Miller was one of several people who provided support to Alan Pegler in his attempts to run the preserved Flying Scotsman.

He was appointed Chief Engineer (Traction & Rolling Stock) in 1968. It was in this position that Miller was credited with instigating the development of the InterCity 125, known as the High Speed Train (HST). At the time, BR was focused on developing an electric Advanced Passenger Train (APT), but by 1969 the APT project was significantly behind schedule. As a stop-gap measure, engineers devised plans for a 125-mile-per-hour (200 km/h) "High Speed Diesel Train", which Miller submitted to the British Railways Board (BRB) at the beginning of 1969; the submission won the endorsement of Henry Johnson, chairman of BRB. The HSDT eventually became the InterCity 125, introduced into service from 1975. Although the HST was intended to fill in for the APT, the APT project was eventually abandoned and it wasn't until 2017 that the first were withdrawn.

Miller retired in 1973, three years before the HST entered service. He died in 1989.

Legacy

In 2008, East Midlands Trains named HST power car 43048 T.C.B. Miller MBE in his honour.
Tim Shoveller, MD of EMT at time, and affectionately known throughout the railway industry as "Shovell Mouth", said that Miller was a giant on the railway industry.

In 2011, preservation group 125 Group launched "Project Miller", named in Miller's honour. The project returned the remaining prototype HST power car, number 41001, back to working order at Neville Hill TMD in 2014 after years of static display in the National Railway Museum in York.

References

1911 births
1989 deaths
Members of the Order of the British Empire
Locomotive builders and designers
English railway mechanical engineers
London and North Eastern Railway people
Electronic court. An electronic court or ECourt, (sometimes written as eCourt, or e-Court) is a location in which matters of law are adjudicated upon, in the presence of qualified Judge or Judges, which has a well-developed technical infrastructure.  This infrastructure is usually designed to allow parties, participants and other stakeholders to better operate some administrative and procedural aspects of the court’s functions, such as presenting evidence, filing judicial records (electronic court filing) or receiving testimony remotely.

Often referred to as a paperless court, its objective is, in part, to reduce the reliance on paper or hard-copy documents during the judicial process. On a larger scale, an electronic court is usually implemented to increase the efficiency of the court by expediting access to information.

The International Criminal Court in The Hague is often cited as a good example of an electronic court.

References

 
 
 
 

Courts
Judiciaries
Footwell intrusion. In the field of automotive engineering, footwell intrusion describes a situation in which an automobile engine or other vehicle component penetrates the space normally allocated for the feet of the front seat occupants. Automotive crash testing agencies such as Euro NCAP and IIHS consider levels of footwell intrusion when conducting assessments. Vehicles that display excessive deformation of the footwell are noted.

More of the physical property is conducive to greater crash injuries to driver's and passengers' lower legs and feet. The interaction between feet, pedals and (on crash) invading vehicle parts is directly linked with damage to the ankles, tibia and adjoining cartilage.

References

Automotive safety
Radix heap. A radix heap is a data structure for realizing the operations of a monotone priority queue. A set of elements to which a key is assigned can then be managed. The run time of the operations depends on the difference between the largest and smallest key or constant. The data structure consists mainly of a series of buckets, the size of which increases exponentially.

Prerequisites
 all keys are natural numbers;
 max. key - min. key  C for constant C;
 the extract-min operation is monotonic; that is, the values returned by successive extract-min calls are monotonically increasing.

Description of data structure
The three most important fields are:
  of size , with 0 as the lowest index, stores the buckets;
  of size , with 0 as the lowest index, store the (lower) bounds of the buckets;
 , holds for each element  in the heap the bucket in which it is stored.

The above diagram shows the data structure. The following invariants apply:

  key in : the keys in  are up or down through the value in  or  limited.
  and  for : the sizes of the buckets increase exponentially.

It is important to note the exponential growth of the limits (and thus the range that a bucket holds). In this way the logarithmic dependence of the field quantities is of value C, the maximum difference between two key values.

Operations

During initialization, empty buckets are generated and the lower bounds  are generated (according to invariant 2); running time .

During insert, a new element  is linearly moved from right to left through the buckets and the new element with  is stored in the left bucket to that ; running time .

For decrease-key, first the key value is decreased (checking for compliance with the invariants).  Then, the  field is used to locate the element and it is iterated to the left, if necessary, analogously to the insert operation.  The running time is  (amortized).

The extract-min operation removes an element from bucket  and returns it. If the bucket  is not yet empty, the operation is terminated. If, however, it is empty, the next larger non-empty bucket is searched, its smallest element  tracked and  is set to k (monotonicity is required for this). Then, according to the invariants, the bucket boundaries are redefined and the elements removed  to the newly formed buckets; running time  (amortized).

If displayed, the field  is updated.

References
 B.V. Cherkassky, A.V. Goldberg, C. Silverstein: Buckets, Heaps, Lists and Monotone Priority Queues (Abstract), in: Proceedings of the Eight Annual ACM-SIAM Symposium on Discrete Algorithms. January 1997, pp. 83-92.

Heaps (data structures)
Pratt Contractors Ltd v Palmerston North City Council. Pratt Contractors Ltd v Palmerston North City Council [1995] 1 NZLR 469  is a cited case in New Zealand regarding contract formation involving tenders.

Background
The Palmerston North City Council put out for tender the construction of a flyover. The tender documents set out detailed criteria and plans for the construction of the flyover, and was to be awarded to the lowest tenderer.

However, a rival contractor submitted a tender for the construction of a redesigned flyover that involved less earth works, and the council subsequently accepted that tender, without giving the other tenderers the opportunity to submit a tender for the new design.

After discovering all this, Pratt Contractors sued the council for damages for loss of profits they would have received if they had won the tender..

Held
The court held that the city council tender was a legally binding obligation, and as a result the city council should have given Pratt Contractors the opportunity to revise and resubmit their tender. The court awarded damages of $17,822 for reimbursement of the costs in preparing the tender. On top of this, damages for $200,000 for loss of profit was also awarded.

Footnote: The judge noted that the council could have alternatively accepted none of the tenders instead.

References

High Court of New Zealand cases
New Zealand contract case law
1994 in case law
1994 in New Zealand law
Palmerston North