omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
COSPAR International Reference Atmosphere. The COSPAR International Reference Atmosphere (CIRA) is an empirical model of the atmosphere of Earth. It consists of a set of tables of average air pressures, altitudes and temperatures. The CIRA models are developed by the Committee on Space Research (COSPAR) and have been important for the planning of spaceflight.

History 
Orbit determinations and flight planning of the very first satellites proved to be more complicated than expected due to a lack of knowledge on the upper atmosphere. The Committee on Space Research therefore set up a long lasting special project to elaborate a reference model of the  most important parameters of the upper atmosphere. The first CIRA appeared 1961 as "CIRA1961". It was a set of tables reconsidered year for year by the Task Group on the CIRA originally chaired by Hildegard Kallmann-Bijl.

Today 
Presently "CIRA 1986" or CIRA-86 covers the height range up to 120 km as a set of tables. In the thermosphere, above about 100 km, CIRA-86 is identical to the more complicated NASA MSIS-86 model. All models are now available on the Web. The task group takes account of more recent data at bi-annual meetings in connection to COSPAR meeting.

The most recent version is the "CIRA 2014".

References

Further reading 
 K.Labitzke, J.J.Barnett, B.Edwards,Middle Atmosphere Programme, MAP Handbook16, Urbana,1985 (source).
 Rees D., Editor, "COSPAR International Reference Atmosphere: 1986 Part 1: Thermosphere", in Adv. Space Res. Vol. 8, Nos 5&6, published by Pergamon Press, 1988 (source).
 Rees D., J.J. BARNETT and K. LABITSKE, "COSPAR International Reference Atmosphere: 1986, Part II, Middle Atmosphere Models, Adv. Space Res., Vol. 10, No. 12, published by Pergamon Press, 1990 (source).
 M.J.Rycroft, G.M.Keating, D.Rees,Upper Atmosphere Models and Research, Adv. Space Res.10#6,1990.
 G.M. Keating, COSPAR International Reference Atmosphere: 1986, Part III: Trace Constituent Reference Models, Adv. Space Res., Vol. 10, Nos. 9 &10, published by Pergamon Press, 1990 (source).

External links 
 http://ccmc.gsfc.nasa.gov/modelweb/atmos/cospar1.html 
 http://badc.nerc.ac.uk/data/cira/  (description)

Atmosphere
Space research
1,2-Butylene carbonate. 1,2-Butylene carbonate is an organic compound with formula , or (HC)(CH)(CO).  It is a double ester with the carbonate functional group bonded to both free ends of the 1,2-butylene group.  It is also a heterocyclic compound with a five-membered ring, and can be seen as a derivative of dioxolane, specifically 4-ethyl-1,3-dioxolan-2-one.

1,2-Butylene carbonate is a polar aprotic solvent, which has been considered for electric battery applications (as a cheaper alternative to ionic liquids) and many other uses.

See also
Propylene carbonate
trans-1,3-Butylene carbonate

References

Solvents
Carbonate esters
Paul Owens (games programmer). Paul Owens is a British video game who worked at Ocean Software in the 1980s and 90s and was the founding programmer employed by Spectrum Games prior to Ocean Software being established. He is best known for writing the ZX Spectrum version of Daley Thompson’s Decathlon.
Mainly concentrating on the ZX Spectrum, he wrote over 14 titles but also collaborated on many other games and other platforms including the Amstrad CPC along with developing other software such as the Ocean Spectrum Loader and game development software.

In the 80s, Ocean Software collaborated with Sinclair Research to help develop the Sinclair hardware and Paul received a letter of commendation from Sir Clive Sinclair after helping to iron out some problems with the ZX Spectrum 128 (codenamed Derby) prior to its release.

Games

References

External links
 World of Spectrum

British computer programmers
Living people
British video game programmers
Year of birth missing (living people)
Isaac M. Laddon. Isaac Machlin Laddon (25 December 1894 – 14 January 1976) was an American aeronautical engineer and designer.

Biography
He was born in Garfield, New Jersey.

He was educated at McGill University in Montreal from 1915. He joined the U.S. Air Service Experimental and Engineering Test Center at McCook Field, Ohio in 1917, and within two years had become the chief designer for all large aircraft development. He held numerous patents in the aviation industry.

He joined Consolidated Aircraft Company as Chief Engineer in 1927. His designs included the Admiral Flying Boat of 1928, the first in a series of famous Consolidated seaplanes that evolved into the highly regarded PBY Catalina of which a total of 3,282 were built. His B-24 Liberator had both the largest production run of any World War II bomber, and is still listed as the most-produced multi-engined aircraft of any type in history. He was also responsible for designing the streamlined Convair airliners used by commercial airlines throughout the world.

He died in San Diego.

References

1894 births
1976 deaths
American aircraft designers
American aerospace engineers
American aerospace designers
People from Garfield, New Jersey
McGill University alumni
Engineers from New Jersey
20th-century American engineers
European Conference on Radar in Meteorology and Hydrology. European Conference on Radar in Meteorology and Hydrology (ERAD) is an international scientific conference that has been held every two years since 2000.

The idea of ERAD, which has been perpetuated since its first edition in 2000, is to create an open forum between students, academics, engineers, end users and operational radar operators working with or using weather radars and weather radar data. The goal of this conference is to facilitate mutual understanding between data producers and data users and to help young generations accessing state-of-the-art knowledge on radars, radar signal and radar applications through communication with the most renowned scientists of the field.

Previous ERADs 
 2000 – Bologna, Italy, chairman: Peter Meischner (DLR).
 2002 – Delft, Netherlands, chairman: Herman Russchenberg (TUD).
 2004 – Visby, Sweden, chairman: Daniel Michelson (SMHI).
 2006 – Barcelona, Spain, chairman: Daniel Sempere-Torres (CRAHI-UPC, UPC).
 2008 – Helsinki, Finland, chairman: Jarmo Koistinen (FMI).
 2010 – Sibiu, Romania, chairwoman: Aurora Bell (Administratia Nationala de Meteorologie, Romania).
 2012 – Toulouse, France, chairmans: Olivier Bousquet and Pierre Tabary (Météo-France).
 2014 – Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany, co-chairs: Kathleen Helmert and Martin Hagen (DWD-DLR, Germany).
 2016 – Antalya, Turkey, co-chairs: Ali Tokay and Kurtulus Ozturk (Turkish State Meteorological Service, Turkey).
 2018 – Utrecht, Netherlands, co-chairs: Hidde Leijnse (KNMI) and Remko Uijlenhoet (Wageningen University).
 2020 – Locarno, Switzerland, postponed to 2022 because of Covid-19. 
 2022 – Locarno, Switzerland, co-chairs: Urs Germann (MeteoSwiss) and Alexis Berne (EPFL).

Next ERAD 
 2024 – Rome, Italy, Chair: Luca Baldini (ISAC-CNR).

See also 
 Weather radar

External links 
 ERAD 2006 website
 ERAD 2008 website
 ERAD 2010 website 
 ERAD 2012 website
 ERAD 2014 website
 ERAD 2016 website
 ERAD 2018 website
 ERAD 2022 website

References 

Earth science conferences
Bearskin Lake (Minnesota). Bearskin Lake is an oligotrophic glacial lake near the Boundary Waters Canoe Area (BWCA) in  Minnesota, United States. The name Bearskin Lake is an English translation of the Ojibwe-language name Muko-waiani. Bearskin Lake is a source of control sediment for US federal sediment toxicity studies. Bearskin Lake is home to Camp Menogyn, a YMCA camp only accessible by boat.

Sediments and scientific significance
Due to the cleanliness of the lake and the physical attributes of its sediment, Bearskin Lake sediment is ideal for sediment toxicity testing. Bearskin Lake sediment is used as a control sediment in the federal government's toxicity tests and was used to develop the US EPA's toxicity testing methods.

See also 
 List of lakes in Minnesota

Further reading 
US EPA. 2000. Methods for Measuring the Toxicity and Bioaccumulation of Sediment-associated Contaminants with Freshwater Invertebrates Second Edition.
Kemble, N.E., C.G. Ingersoll, and J.L. Kunz. 2001. Evaluation of Toxicity of Sediment Samples Collected from Santa Ana National Wildlife Refuge, Texas. United  States Geological Survey.
Bechtel Jacobs Company LLC. 1998. Biota Sediment Accumulation Factors for Invertebrates: Review and Recommendations for the Oak Ridge Reservation U.S. Department of Energy.
Mierzykowski, S.E., C.G. Ingersoll, and K.C. Carr. 1997 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service New England Field Office Special Project Report: FY97-MEFO-1-EC Toxicity Tests and Sediment Chemistry at Site 9 (Neptune Drive Disposal Site).
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 1996. Bioavailability of Sediment-Associated Toxic Organic Contaminants.

References

External links
MN DNR Lake Finder Data
Lake Assessment Program 1995: West Bearskin Lake

Lakes of Minnesota
Lakes of Cook County, Minnesota
International Journal of Nanoscience. The International Journal of Nanoscience is an interdisciplinary peer-reviewed scientific journal published by World Scientific. It covers research in nanometer scale science and technology, with articles ranging from the "basic science of nanoscale physics and chemistry to applications in nanodevices, quantum engineering and quantum computing".

Abstracting and indexing 
This journal is indexed in the following databases:
Chemical Abstracts Service
CSA Aerospace Sciences Abstracts
Compendex
Inspec
Scopus

References

External links 
 

Academic journals established in 2002
World Scientific academic journals
English-language journals
Nanotechnology journals
Bimonthly journals
International Journal of Neural Systems. The International Journal of Neural Systems is a bimonthly peer-reviewed scientific journal founded in 1989. It is published by World Scientific and covers information processing in natural and artificial neural systems.

Abstracting and indexing 
The journal is abstracted and indexed in:
 Inspec
 PubMed
 CSA Neurosciences Abstracts
 Zentralblatt MATH
 Science Citation Index Expanded
 CompuMath Citation Index
 Current Contents/Engineering, Computing, and Technology

Academic journals established in 1989
Neuroscience journals
World Scientific academic journals
English-language journals
Bimonthly journals
No. 292 Squadron RAF. No. 292 Squadron RAF was an air-sea rescue (ASR) squadron of the Royal Air Force operating in the Bay of Bengal during the Second World War.

History
292 squadron was formed at RAF Jessore, Bengal, (then) British India, on 1 February 1944, as a dedicated air-sea rescue squadron equipped with Walrus flying boats.  A detachment of the squadron was sent further south, in Ceylon. In April the squadron received a number of Vickers Warwick patrol aircraft, but these were found to be unsuitable in the tropical climate, and in December 1944 they received Consolidated Liberator Mk.VIs as replacements.  In November 1944 the squadron already received a number of Supermarine Sea Otters, a bit more modern flying boat.  The squadron were posted to RAF Agartala in February 1945, as operations had shifted further eastwards through Burma; they were located there when the squadron was disbanded on 14 June. Its duties were then taken over by three independent flights, No's 1347, 1348 and 1349 Flight RAF.

Aircraft operated

Squadron Airfield

References

Notes

Bibliography

External links
 292 Squadron Association
 No. 292 Squadron RAF movement and equipment history
 History of No. 292 Squadron
 292 Squadron reports

292 Squadron
Military units and formations established in 1944
Military units and formations disestablished in 1945
Military units and formations of Ceylon in World War II
DIII. DIII can refer to:

 Division 3
 Diablo 3
 503 in Roman numerals

Technology
 DIII-D (tokamak), a tokamak located at San Diego, California.
 Mercedes D.III

Aircraft
 Pfalz D.III
 Albatros D.III
 Fokker D.III
 Siemens-Schuckert D.III
International Journal of Pattern Recognition and Artificial Intelligence. The International Journal of Pattern Recognition and Artificial Intelligence was founded in 1987 and is published by World Scientific. The journal covers developments in  artificial intelligence, and its sub-field, pattern recognition. This includes articles on image and language processing, robotics and neural networks.

Abstracting and indexing 
The journal is abstracted and indexed in:

 SciSearch
 ISI Alerting Services
 CompuMath Citation Index
 Current Contents/Engineering, Computing & Technology
 Inspec
 io-port.net
 Compendex
 Computer Abstracts

Academic journals established in 1987
Computer science journals
World Scientific academic journals
English-language journals
International Journal of Reliability, Quality and Safety Engineering. The International Journal of Reliability, Quality and Safety Engineering is a peer-reviewed scientific journal focusing on the areas of reliability, quality, and safety in engineering. It is published quarterly by World Scientific and is intended to "cover a broad spectrum of issues in manufacturing, computing, software, aerospace, control, nuclear systems, power systems, communication systems, and electronics". This includes articles on quality assurance and engineering, fuzzy logic, performance analysis of systems and critical systems design.

Abstracting and indexing 
The Journal is abstracted and indexed in:

 CSA Health and Safety Abstracts
 CSA Risk Abstracts
 CSA Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Abstracts (ASFA)
 CSA Selected Water Resources Abstracts
 Chemical Abstracts
 EV2/Compendex

References 

Engineering journals
Academic journals established in 1994
World Scientific academic journals
English-language journals
Quarterly journals
International Journal of Software Engineering and Knowledge Engineering. The International Journal of Software Engineering and Knowledge Engineering was founded in 1991 and is published by World Scientific, covering areas relating to software engineering and knowledge engineering and the connections between the two disciplines. Topics covered include object-oriented systems, rapid prototyping, logic programming, and software and knowledge-ware maintenance.

Abstracting and indexing 
The journal is abstracted and indexed in:
 SciSearch
 ISI Alerting Services
 CompuMath Citation Index
 Inspec
 io-port.net
 Compendex
 Computer Abstracts

References

Academic journals established in 1991
Computer science journals
World Scientific academic journals
English-language journals
Software engineering publications
Knowledge engineering
International Journal of Structural Stability and Dynamics. The International Journal of Structural Stability and Dynamics is a scientific journal published by World Scientific. It was founded in 2001 and covers the stability and dynamics of structures, from conventional land-based structures to micro- and nano-structures, as well as their practical applications.

Abstracting and indexing 
The journal is abstracted and indexed in:

 Mathematical Reviews
 CSA Health and Safety Abstracts
 Science Citation Index Expanded
 Current Contents/Engineering, Computing, and Technology
 ISI Alerting Services
 Compendex
 Inspec

English-language journals
Engineering journals
Academic journals established in 2001
World Scientific academic journals
International Journal of Wavelets, Multiresolution and Information Processing. The International Journal of Wavelets, Multiresolution and Information Processing has been published since 2003 by World Scientific. It covers both theory and application of wavelet analysis, multiresolution, and information processing in a variety of disciplines in science and engineering.

Abstracting and indexing 

The journal is abstracted and indexed in:

 Mathematical Reviews
 Zentralblatt MATH
 Science Citation Index Expanded
 CompuMath Citation Index
 Current Contents/Engineering, Computing, and Technology
 Compendex
 INSPEC
 ISI

Editor-in-Chief:
Yuan Yan Tang

Managing Editor:
Luoqing Li

Computer science journals
Academic journals established in 2003
World Scientific academic journals
English-language journals
International Journal on Artificial Intelligence Tools. The International Journal on Artificial Intelligence Tools was founded in 1992 and is published by World Scientific. It covers research on artificial intelligence (AI) tools, including new architectures, languages and algorithms. Topics include AI in Bioinformatics, Cognitive Informatics, Knowledge-Based/Expert Systems and Object-Oriented Programming for AI.

Abstracting and indexing 
The journal is abstracted and indexed in:

 Inspec
 Science Citation Index Expanded
 ISI Alerting Services
 CompuMath Citation Index
 Current Contents/Engineering, Computing, and Technology

References

Computer science journals
Academic journals established in 1992
World Scientific academic journals
English-language journals
Haruhiko Tanahashi. is a Japanese automotive engineer who is responsible for the design and construction of the Lexus LFA supercar.  Tanahashi joined Toyota Motor Corporation in 1978 as a chassis engineer, and has since worked in new vehicle design for over 30 years. The LFA development program, begun as project 680, comprised over a decade of his career until the debut of the vehicle in 2009.   Tanahashi holds eight automotive design patents, previously worked on earlier models including the Toyota Crown, Soarer and Aristo, and has been part of various Toyota and Lexus development divisions.

Career
Tanahashi was hired by Toyota Motor Corporation in 1978, whereupon he was first assigned to the Chassis Engineering Division. There, he worked as a suspension engineer on vehicles such as the rear wheel drive Toyota Mark II, Crown, Soarer, and Aristo, along with the front wheel drive Toyota Corona, Corolla, and Celica. In December 1982 Tanahashi filed for his first U.S. patent, regarding the "upper support structure for front wheel suspension of automobile", which was granted in 1984. His work on the first generation Soarer included a patent for the vehicle's "electronic modulated air suspension"; other inventions included a "rack and pinion type steering gear device" and "twin-tube type shock absorber".

In 1992, Tanahashi was transferred to Toyota's Body Engineering Division, where he worked on passenger vehicle suspension architecture, and in 1995 he moved to Development Department 1 of the company's Advanced Vehicle Planning Division to oversee development of new vehicles, platforms, and technologies.

Chief engineer
 
In 2000, Lexus had begun project P280, which intended to create a supercar concept which would showcase 200-mph performance capabilities. In 2001, Tanahashi was promoted to the Lexus Development Center's newly founded Z department, where he was placed in charge of LFA development. The supercar design program opted for a front mid-engine configuration, an approach Tanahashi favored for its combination of dynamics and safety. The vehicle development process was unprecedented in the company's history, exceeding the previous Toyota Supra in performance class, and requiring new engine, cooling, clutch technologies.

Tanahashi's stated goal with the LFA was to produce "ultimate driving pleasure". At the culmination of the development process, Tanahashi remarked in an interview that he was most proud of the car's engine sound, its engine response, and handling. Following the completion of the LFA design program, Tanahashi remained at his current position within the Lexus Development Center.

Works

References 

Japanese automotive engineers
Lexus
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Pore pressure gradient. Pore pressure gradient is a dimensional petrophysical term used by drilling engineers and mud engineers during the design of drilling programs for drilling (constructing) oil and gas wells into the earth. It is the pressure gradient inside the pore space of the rock column from the surface of the ground down to the total depth (TD), as compared to the pressure gradient of seawater in deep water.

In drilling engineering, the pore pressure gradient is usually expressed in API-type International Association of Drilling Contractors (IADC) physical units of measurement, namely "psi per foot", whereas in "pure math," the gradient of a scalar function expressed by the math notation grad(f) may not have physical units associated with it.

In the well-known formula

P = 0.052 * mud weight * true vertical depth

taught in almost all petroleum engineering courses worldwide, the mud weight (MW) is expressed in pounds per U.S. gallon, and the true vertical depth (TVD) is expressed in feet, and 0.052 is a commonly used conversion constant that can be derived by dimensional analysis:

It would be more accurate to divide a value in lb/gal by 19.25 than to multiply that value by 0.052. The magnitude of the error caused by multiplying by 0.052 is approximately 0.1%.

Example: For a column of fresh water of 8.33 pounds per gallon (lb/U.S. gal) standing still hydrostatically in a 21,000 feet vertical cased wellbore from top to bottom (vertical hole), the pressure gradient would be
grad(P) = pressure gradient = 8.33 / 19.25 = 0.43273 psi/ft

and the hydrostatic bottom hole pressure (BHP) is then
BHP = TVD * grad(P) = 21,000 * 0.43273 = 9,087 psi

However, the formation fluid pressure (pore pressure) is usually much greater than a column of fresh water, and can be as much as 19 lb/U.S. gal (e.g., in Iran). For an onshore vertical wellbore with an exposed open hole interval at 21,000 feet with a pore pressure gradient of 19 lb/U.S. gal, the BHP would be
BHP = pore pres grad * TVD = 21,000 * 19 / 19.25 = 20,727 psi

The calculation of a bottom hole pressure and the pressure induced by a static column of fluid are the most important and basic calculations in all well control courses taught worldwide for the prevention of oil and gas well blowouts.

Simple Examples 
Using the figures above, we can calculate the maximum pressure at various depths in an offshore oil well.

  Saltwater is 0.444 psi/ft (2.5% higher than fresh water but this not general and depends on salt concentration in water)
  Pore pressure in the rock could be as high as 1.0 psi/ft of depth (19.25 lb/gal)

A well with 5,000 feet of seawater and 15,000 feet of rock could have an overburden pressures at the bottom as high as 17,220 psi  (5000 * 0.444 + 15000 * 1.0).  That pressure is reduced at the surface by the weight of oil and gas the riser pipe, but this is only a small percentage of the total.  It takes heavy mud (drilling fluid) inserted at the bottom to control the well when pressures are this high.

References 

Applied and interdisciplinary physics
Geophysics
Petroleum engineering
Journal of Circuits, Systems, and Computers. The Journal of Circuits, Systems and Computers was founded in 1991 and is published eight times annually by World Scientific. It covers a wide range of topics regarding circuits, systems and computers, from basic mathematics to engineering and design.

The editor-in-chief of the journal is Professor Wai-Kai Chen and the five regional editors include Piero Malcovati from the University of Pavia, Emre Salman from Stony Brook University, Masazaku Sengoku from Niigata University, Zoran Stamenkovic from IHP GmbH, and Tongquan Wei from East China Normal University.

Abstracting and indexing 
The journal is abstracted and indexed in: 
 SciSearch
Scopus
 ISI Alerting Services
 Current Contents/Engineering, Computing & Technology
 Mathematical Reviews
 Inspec
 io-port.net
 Compendex
 Computer Abstracts

References 

English-language journals
Academic journals established in 1991
Electrical and electronic engineering journals
Computer science journals
World Scientific academic journals