omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Plan 55-A. Automatic Telegraph Switching System Plan 55-A was one in a series of store and forward message switching systems developed by Western Union and used from 1948 to 1976 for processing telegrams. It is an automated successor to Plan 51, which commenced service in 1951 in a nationwide network of the U.S. Air Force, but required semi-automatic operation.

Based on the technology of punched paper tape storage, the systems of the design were called reperforators.  A reperforator performed functions similar to an email message transfer agent (email server), used much later in the Internet, but it used electro-mechanical technology, which preceded the use of semiconductor circuitry and computers.

Operation
A reperforator switching center received messages via serial communication lines from teleprinters, such as the Teletype Model 28 ASR, or from other switching centers on receiving consoles, each consisting of a paper tape punch feeding tape into a paper tape reader via a storage bin. The reader decoded the message header, and sent the header characters to the director.  The director, much like a telephone switch, connected the receiving console to a sending console in the same switching center by a cross-office connection. The message was transmitted from the receiving console to the sending console, character by character, punching a second paper tape at the sending console.  Cross-office connections, and their readers and punches, were slightly faster than external connections, to limit congestion to the edges of the network.
 
Each sending console also consisted of a paper tape punch and reader.  Output from each sending console was transmitted via outgoing lines to other switching centers or to destination teleprinters. Each message typically contained one telegram.

Each received message had up to nine routing indicators, or destinations.  For two or three destinations, the messages were sent simultaneously on three cross-office connections to outgoing sending consoles.  Additional destinations resulted in a copy of the message being sent to the multiple call spillover unit, which removed the routing indicators for destinations already handled and sent the message through the system again.

Nationwide, Western Union's switching centers were arranged in a hub and spokes architecture involving fifteen locations. The U.S. Air Force used the Plan 55-A system worldwide with ten centers.

Queuing theory
An analysis of the queueing delays in Plan 55-A by Leonard Kleinrock formed part of his doctoral research in the early 1960s.

See also
 Teleprinter

References

External links
  A non-technical industrial film showing telegram handling in the 1950s.  Plan 55-A switching centers are shown in some detail.

History of telecommunications in the United States
Western Union
Smail. Smail-3 is a mail transfer agent (MTA) used on Unix-like operating systems. It is Free Software and is licensed under the GNU GPL. It aims to be a general and flexible mailer with extensive facilities for checking incoming e-mail and for routing between disparate networks. It is still in use on the Internet, but it has been mostly superseded by Exim (which was originally based on Smail) and other more modern mail transfer agents.

Smail-3 still follows a monolithic design model where a single binary controls the core facilities of the MTA. This type of monolithic design is generally considered to be inherently less secure, largely because the whole program normally runs with full system privileges at all times. Nevertheless, Smail's security record has been fairly clean, and has only been the subject of one BUGTRAQ advisory.  It was designed with security as a primary goal and makes use of several key safe coding practices to avoid some of the most common pitfalls of similar large programs written in C.

References

External links

 Weird.com, Smail-3 Internet Mailer

Message transfer agents
Free email server software
Free email software
Cross-platform software
Radioss. Altair Radioss is a multidisciplinary finite element solver developed by Altair Engineering.
It includes implicit and explicit time integration schemes for the solution of engineering problems, from [[linear] statics and linear dynamics to non-linear transient dynamics and mechanical systems. The multidisciplinary solver has its main strengths in durability, NVH, crash, safety, manufacturability, and fluid-structure interaction.

Since the 2021 release, Radioss has supported input in the LS-DYNA input format as well as the Radioss 'Block' Format 

OpenRadioss, a source available software version of Radioss, sharing the capabilities, input and output formats of Altair Radioss, was released on September the 8th 2022. Despite being called open source software, the software cannot be compiled or used without a library that is provided only in binary form, and for which third parties are granted "limited permission to use".

Disciplines 

 Linear static analysis
 Non-linear explicit dynamic analysis
 Non-linear implicit quasi-static analysis
 Normal modes analysis for real and complex eigenvalues
 Linear buckling analysis
 Frequency response analysis
 Random response analysis
 Linear transient response analysis
 Linear coupled fluid-structure (acoustic) analysis
 Linear steady-state heat transfer analysis coupled with static analysis
 Explicit Arbitrary Eulerian-Lagrangian (ALE) formulation
 Explicit Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
 Smoothed-particle hydrodynamics (SPH)
 One-step (inverse) and incremental sheet metal stamping analysis

References

External links 
 Altair Radioss webpage
 Altair Radioss User Documentation
 OpenRadioss webpage

Finite element software
Simulation software
Finite element software for Linux
Marinemap. The MarineMap Consortium is a group of scientists and geospatial technologists at the University of California Santa Barbara (UCSB), The Nature Conservancy (TNC) and Ecotrust.

History
In 2007, the MarineMap Consortium formed to develop geospatial technologies at facilitating marine protected area (MPA) planning in California. The California Marine Life Protection Act Initiative (MLPAI) contracted the MarineMap consortium to develop a web-based decision support system geared toward helping non-technical users (i.e., stakeholders) design MPAs. Consequently, the consortium developed their flagship application, called MarineMap.

The MarineMap Consortium is now working to extend the MarineMap decision support tool to be used by collaborative, participatory and science-based marine planning efforts around the world.

MarineMap Decision Support Tool 

The MarineMap decision support tool is a web-based program for designing marine protected areas (MPAs). In particular, users can (1) view and query a large number of geospatial data layers, (2) draw prospective MPA boundaries, (3) analyze the contents of prospective MPAs, (4) estimate economic impacts of prospective MPAs, (5) assemble MPAs into collections (called "arrays"), (6) share MPAs and arrays with other MarineMap users, (7) assign allowed uses within prospective MPAs, and (9) export MPA shapes to KML and reports to CSV files.

In 2010, the U.S. Institute for Environmental Conflict Resolution awarded the Innovation in Technology and Environmental Conflict Resolution to the MarineMap Consortium.

References

External links 
 MarineMap Consortium
 MarineMap Decision Support Tool
 Open Source Project

University of California, Santa Barbara
The Nature Conservancy
Tomlinson Fort Jr.. Tomlinson Fort Jr. (April 16, 1932 – September 13, 2012) served as head of the Chemical Engineering departments at Carnegie Mellon and Vanderbilt University.  Throughout a 40-year career in education, Fort served as Provost at Missouri–Rolla and Provost and Vice President of Cal Poly.

Early life 
Fort grew up in Athens, Georgia, where his father was Regents Professor and Head of the Mathematics Department at the University of Georgia.  Fort attended Athens High and the University of Georgia, where he graduated in 1952.  His great-grandfather Tomlinson Fort was elected to the 20th United States Congress.

While at Georgia, Fort was initiated into the Delta Chapter of the Sigma Chi fraternity.  He is a member of the Order of Constantine, and during his career in education, he helped found Sigma Chi chapters at Missouri–Rolla and Cal Poly.

Career 
He served on the faculties at Case Western Reserve University, Carnegie Mellon University, the University of Missouri–Rolla and California Polytechnic State University before going to Vanderbilt in 1989. He was head of the Chemical Engineering departments at Carnegie Mellon and Vanderbilt and was Provost at the University of Missouri–Rolla and Provost and Vice President at Cal Poly.

References

University of Georgia alumni
People from Athens, Georgia
Carnegie Mellon University faculty
Vanderbilt University faculty
1932 births
2012 deaths
Missouri University of Science and Technology faculty
Winslow Chemical Laboratory. The Winslow Chemical Laboratory, now known as the Winslow Building, is a building on the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute campus in Troy, New York, United States, which finished construction in 1866. It is named in honor of the 5th President of RPI, John F. Winslow, who donated half of the construction cost. The building is brick with stone trimmings and was originally constructed with butternut, chestnut and black walnut. The whole building was fitted for complete courses in general and analytical chemistry. The design and construction was overseen by Professor Henry B. Nason, head of the department of chemistry at the Institute. The lower story contained a metallurgical laboratory and second story contained a chemical laboratory, store rooms and work rooms. The laboratory could accommodate about 40 students. The third story contained a lecture room, a private study, the library and a recitation room. The library of chemical books was established by a donation of several sets of journals and a gift of three hundred dollars from John F. Winslow.

The laboratory was damaged by a fire in the upper story in 1884 and was rebuilt and enlarged in 1885. The building was again damaged by fire in 1904. It was used as a laboratory until 1907 and then converted into a shop. The building, falling into disrepair, was boarded up in the early 1970s and targeted for demolition. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on November 4, 1990. As an effort to save the building, it was agreed with the city of Troy that the building would be leased to house a new children's science museum called the Junior Museum. The Junior Museum refurbished the Winslow building and opened its doors in 2000 and remained there until 2004 before moving out. RPI repossessed the building soon after for use as office space. Currently the Winslow Building is home to many research groups affiliated to Cognitive Science and Computer science departments of Rensselaer, namely, the Rensselaer AI and Reasoning Laboratory, the Social and Behavioral Research Laboratory, the Tetherless World Constellation (since 2007), etc.

Gallery

References

External links
 Winslow Building on RPI Map
 Winslow Building on Tetherless World Constellation Website

School buildings completed in 1885
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
National Register of Historic Places in Troy, New York
Buildings and structures in Troy, New York
Oxide thin-film transistor. An oxide thin-film transistor (oxide TFT) or metal oxide thin film transistor is a type of thin film transistor where the semiconductor is a metal oxide compound. An oxide TFT is distinct from a metal oxide field effect transistor (MOSFET) where the word "oxide" refers to the insulating gate dielectric (normally silicon dioxide). In an oxide TFT, the word oxide refers to the semiconductor. Oxide TFTs have applications as amplifiers to deliver current to emitters in display backplanes.

History 
The first transistor employing a metal oxide as the semiconductor was reported in 1964 by Klasens and Koelmans at Philips Research Laboratories. However, oxide TFTs were seldom considered again for several decades after this. It wasn't until the early 2000's that Hideo Hosono, who was studying transparent conducting oxides, discovered that oxysulfides and indium gallium zinc oxide could be used as semiconductors in TFTs. Soon after, John Wager at Oregon State University reported oxide TFTs employing the binary oxide zinc oxide as the semiconductor.

Properties 
Oxides have several properties which make them desirable over hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H), which was the incumbent TFT technology in the early 2000's. Firstly, the electron mobility is roughly 100 times higher in oxide TFTs. Because the source-drain current in transistors is linearly proportional to electron mobility, so too are the amplification properties. The result of this is that smaller transistors can be used to provide the same current. In a display this means that a higher resolution and switching speed is possible.

a-Si:H additionally suffers from issues with environmental stability, such as the Staebler-Wronski Effect. As oxides are already oxidized, they are generally more environmentally stable, however they do experience a phenomenon called Negative Bias Illumination Stress (NBIS) where the threshold voltage changes under constant illumination.

Most n-type (electron transporting) oxide TFTs employ semiconductors that have a wide bandgap; generally greater than 3 eV. For this reason they are attractive for use in fully transparent electronics. Their wide bandgap also means they have a low off-current, and hence a high on/off ratio; a desirable property for well-defined on- and off-states.

One significant drawback with oxide TFTs is that there are very few p-type (hole transporting) metal oxide semiconductors. While not a significant problem when providing amplification to emitters, this does mean oxide semiconductors are less suitable for complementary logic, and hence information processing.

Growth 
Metal oxide semiconductors are typically deposited using sputtering, a vacuum-based growth technique resulting in an amorphous or polycrystalline layer. Oxides can also be deposited from solution, such as via spin-coating or spray coating.

Commercial use 
Several companies have adopted oxide TFTs as a platform for display drivers. Notably Sharp in 2012, and Apple in 2013.

References 

Transistor types
Semiconductor devices
Phenolates. Phenolates (also called phenoxides) are anions, salts, and esters of phenols, containing the phenolate ion. They may be formed by reaction of phenols with strong base.

Properties 

Alkali metal phenolates, such as sodium phenolate hydrolyze in aqueous solution to form basic solutions. At pH = 10, phenol and phenolate are in approximately 1:1 proportions.

The  phenoxide anion (aka phenolate) is a strong nucleophile with a  comparable to the one of carbanions or tertiary amines. Generally, oxygen attack of phenoxide anions is kinetically favored, while carbon-attack is thermodynamically preferred (see Thermodynamic versus kinetic reaction control). Mixed oxygen/carbon attack and by this a loss of selectivity is usually observed if the reaction rate reaches diffusion control.

Uses 
Alkyl aryl ethers can be synthesized through the Williamson ether synthesis by treating sodium phenolate with an alkyl halide:
C6H5ONa + CH3I → C6H5OCH3 + NaI
C6H5ONa + (CH3O)2SO2 → C6H5OCH3 + (CH3O)SO3Na

Production of salicylic acid 
Salicylic acid is produced in the Kolbe–Schmitt reaction between carbon dioxide and sodium phenolate.

See also 
 Sodium phenolate

References
Fifth generation. Fifth generation or Fifth Generation may refer to:

Technology 
 5G, the fifth generation of cellular wireless standards
 Fifth generation computer, a Japanese computing initiative begun in 1982
 Fifth-generation programming language, a constraint-based programming language
 History of video game consoles (fifth generation) (1993-2002)
 Fifth generation or Video iPod, a version of the iPod Classic
 Fifth Generation Systems, a security and utility software manufacturer for PCs and Macs founded in 1984

Transportation 
 Fifth generation jet fighter (2005–present)
 Fifth-generation Chevrolet Camaro (2009–present)
 Fifth-generation Ford Mustang (2005–present)
 Ford Taurus (fifth generation) (2007-2009)
 Honda Civic (fifth generation) (1992-1995)

Other uses
 5th Generation (religious association), a Brazilian Christian association founded in 2014 by Gabriel Gomes
 Fifth generation of Chinese leadership, the expected Communist Chinese leadership from the 2012 18th Party Congress
 Fifth Generation, a 1980s-1990s collective of filmmakers in the cinema of China
 Gen V, American superhero television series
 In Pokémon, see List of generation V Pokémon

See also 
Generation (disambiguation)
5G (disambiguation)
Operation Virtual Shield. Operation Virtual Shield is a program implemented by Chicago, IL mayor Richard M. Daley, which created the most extensive video surveillance network in the United States by linking more than 3000 surveillance cameras to a centralized monitoring system, which captures and processes camera feeds in real time. It also includes sensors such as biological, chemical, and radiological sensors. It is able to detect suspicious or dangerous activity and identify its location, and now incorporates facial recognition.  Virtual Shield is also used to record activity at a potential crime scene before police arrive at a call. The cost of the program was $217 million, much of which came from Homeland Security grants. The retention time of technical data collected is 30 days.

Daley stated that Chicago will have a surveillance camera on every street corner by the year 2016.

See also
 Closed-circuit television
 Human Identification At a Distance
 MATRIX
 Total Information Awareness
 Gabriel Villa

References

External links
Chicago's Camera Network Is Everywhere (Wall Street Journal, November 17, 2009)
USPA International

Chicago Police Department
Crime prevention
Government of Chicago
Law enforcement techniques
Mass surveillance
DPPH. DPPH is a common abbreviation for the organic chemical compound 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl. It is a dark-colored crystalline powder composed of stable free radical molecules. DPPH has two major applications, both in laboratory research: one is a monitor of chemical reactions involving radicals, most notably it is a common antioxidant assay, and another is a standard of the position and intensity of electron paramagnetic resonance signals.

Properties and applications 
DPPH has several crystalline forms which differ by the lattice symmetry and melting point. The commercial powder is a mixture of phases which melts at ~130 °C. DPPH-I (m.p. 106 °C) is orthorhombic, DPPH-II (m.p. 137 °C) is amorphous and DPPH-III (m.p. 128–129 °C) is triclinic.

DPPH is a well-known radical and a trap ("scavenger") for other radicals. Therefore, rate reduction of a chemical reaction upon addition of DPPH is used as an indicator of the radical nature of that reaction. Because of a strong absorption band centered at about 520 nm, the DPPH radical has a deep violet color in solution, and it becomes colorless or pale yellow when neutralized. This property allows visual monitoring of the reaction, and the number of initial radicals can be counted from the change in the optical absorption at 520 nm or in the EPR signal of the DPPH.

Because DPPH is an efficient radical trap, it is also a strong inhibitor of radical-mediated polymerization. 

As a stable and well-characterized solid radical source, DPPH is the traditional and perhaps the most popular standard of the position (g-marker) and intensity of electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) signals – the number of radicals for a freshly prepared sample can be determined by weighing and the EPR splitting factor for DPPH is calibrated at g = 2.0036. DPPH signal is convenient by that it is normally concentrated in a single line, whose intensity increases linearly with the square root of microwave power in the wider power range. The dilute nature of the DPPH radicals (one unpaired spin per 41 atoms) results in a relatively small linewidth (1.5–4.7 G). The linewidth may however increase if solvent molecules remain in the crystal and if measurements are performed with a high-frequency EPR setup (~200 GHz), where the slight g-anisotropy of DPPH becomes detectable.

Whereas DPPH is normally a paramagnetic solid, it transforms into an antiferromagnetic state upon cooling to very low temperatures of the order 0.3 K. This phenomenon was first reported by Alexander Prokhorov in 1963.

References

Free radicals
Engineers (Engineers album). Engineers is the debut studio album of the British shoegaze band Engineers, released on 7 March 2005 by the Echo Label. Engineers was supported by the release of two singles, "Forgiveness" in February 2005 and "Home" in June 2005. The album was preceded by the mini-album Folly on 27 September 2004, which includes the album version of "Come in Out of the Rain" and the original mix of "Forgiveness".

The album was released to generally positive reviews; at Metacritic, which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 reviews from mainstream critics, the album has received a generally favourable score of 81, based on 18 reviews.

In 2010, the song "Home" became the theme song for the HBO TV series Big Love.

Artwork
The artwork for releases by Engineers during this period feature paintings by British artist David Thorpe (through the Maureen Paley gallery):

 Folly EP
 front cover: Do What You Have to Do, 1998
 Engineers album
 front cover: Pilgrims, 1999
 booklet: Untitled (Skyline), 1999
 "Forgiveness" single
 front cover: Out from the Night, the Day Is Beautiful and We are Filled with Joy, 1999

Track listing

Singles
 "Forgiveness" (21 February 2005)
 CD (ECSCD159)
 "Forgiveness"
 "Stake to Glory"
 "Cats of Justice"
 7" vinyl (ECS159)
 "Forgiveness"
 "Cats of Justice"
 "Home" (13 June 2005)
 Netherlands CD EP (113.0166.179)
 "Home"
 "Home" (Jagz Kooner Funhouse Remix)
 "Home" (Mogwai Wazzap Remix)
 "Home" (U-MYX enhanced section)
 "Home" (enhanced video)
Released as a digital download only in the UK. Originally planned for 7" (ECS166) and CD (ECSCD166); was released in the Netherlands by Play It Again Sam.

Credits
 All songs produced by Engineers, except:
 "Home" produced by Engineers, with additional production by Kevin Bacon and Jonathan Quarmby for Manna Productions.
 "Forgiveness" produced by Kevin Bacon and Jonathan Quarmby, with additional production by Engineers.
 "Waved On" produced by Engineers and Tim Holmes.
 "Peter Street" produced by Mark Peters
 All tracks mixed by David Bascombe, except:
 "Home" and "Forgiveness" mixed by Kevin Bacon and Jonathan Quarmby.
 "New Horizons" and "Thrasher" mixed by Dan MacBean and Mark Peters
 "Peter Street" mixed by Mark Peters
 Art direction and design by Simon Earith for Blue Source; original artwork by David Thorpe.

References

2005 debut albums
Engineers (band) albums
The Echo Label albums