omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
ASC Purple. ASC Purple was a supercomputer  installed at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in Livermore, California. The computer was a collaboration between IBM Corporation and Lawrence Livermore Lab. Announced November 19, 2002, it was installed in July 2005 and decommissioned on November 10, 2010. The contract for this computer along with the Blue Gene/L supercomputer was worth US $290 million. As of November 2009, the computer ranked 66th on the TOP500 supercomputer list.

It was a redundant ring of POWER5 SMP servers. 196 of these machines were connected together. The system contained 12,544 POWER5 microprocessors in total with 50 terabytes of total memory and 2 petabytes of total disk storage. The system ran IBM's AIX 5L operating system. The computer consumed 7.5 MW of electricity, including cooling. It has a theoretical processing speed of 100 teraflops.

It was built as stage five of the Advanced Simulation and Computing Program (ASC) started by the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Nuclear Security Administration to build a simulator to replace live WMD testing following the moratorium on testing started by President George H. W. Bush in 1992 and extended by Bill Clinton in 1993.

External links 
 IBM ASCI Purple press release 
 Facts on ASCI Purple
 ASC Purple at Livermore 

One-of-a-kind computers
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
IBM supercomputers
Level 1. Level 1 may refer to:

Technology and standards
 Level 1 (National Qualifications Framework)
 level 1 cache, a type of CPU cache (Computer Memory)
 A Level I trauma center
 Level 1, a level of automation in a self-driving car (see Autonomous car#Classification)
 Level I Environmental Site Assessment
 Biosafety level 1, a laboratory grade
 Level 1 market data

Companies
 Level 1 Entertainment, an American film production company

Other uses 
 Level 1 coronavirus restrictions, see COVID-19 pandemic in Scotland#Levels System

 STANAG 4569 protection level
1,2-Difluorobenzene. 1,2-Difluorobenzene, also known as DFB, is an aromatic compound with formula CHF. This colorless flammable liquid is a solvent used in the electrochemical studies of transition metal complexes. Compared to most conventional halogenated aliphatic and aromatic solvents, it possesses an exceptionally high dielectric constant (ε0 = 13.8 at 300 K). Thus, it can be a suitable solvent for cationic, and/or highly electrophilic organometallic complexes.

Synthesis 
Difluorobenzenes can be prepared by the Balz-Schiemann reaction, which entails conversion of diazonium tetrafluoroborate salts to their fluorides. The synthesis of 1,2-difluorobenzene starts with 2-fluoroaniline:

The syntheses of 1,3- and 1,4-difluorobenzene proceed respectively from 1,3- and 1,4-diaminobenzene, which are doubly diazotized.

Laboratory applications 
Organometallic derivatives of 1,2-difluorobenzene have been well developed.  It is found to be a weaker base than benzene.

1,2-Difluorobenzene has been used as solvent for the electrochemical analysis of transition metal complexes. It is relatively chemically inert, weakly coordinating and has a relatively high dielectric constant. In contrast to acetonitrile, DMSO, and DMF it is a weakly coordinating solvent for metal complexes, .

It has anaesthetic properties.

1,2-Difluorobenzene can be acylated to 3',4'-difluoropropiophenone.

References 

Fluorobenzenes
Halogenated solvents
Aromatic solvents
5th Engineer Regiment (Australia). 5th Engineer Regiment  is a Reserve unit of the Royal Australian Engineers. Originally raised as the "5th Combat Engineer Regiment" in 1995 from the 4th Field Engineer Regiment, it is based in Holsworthy, Sydney, with one of its sub-units based at the multi-user depot , in Canberra and another at Orchard Hills and Dundas. Some of the unit's subunits draw lineage from the 4th and 5th Field Companies, which were raised for service during World War I.

In late 2013, the regiment was reorganised, when two sub-units – 101st Construction Squadron and the Littoral and Riverine Survey Squadron – were transferred from the 21st Construction Regiment, following the decision to disband that unit. The regiment subsequently assumed the designation of the "5th Engineer Regiment". The LRSS was transferred to the School of Military Engineering in January 2016, and as of 2017 was being utilised to evaluate several new capabilities as well as running several courses and camps.

In November 2017, the regiment subsumed the disbanded 8th Engineer Regiment. This resulted in the transfer of the 6th and 14th Combat Engineer Squadrons, and the 102 Construction Squadron to 5 ER. As a part of this amalgamation, the 14th Combat Engineer Squadron was transferred from 8 ER intact, to be based at Adamstown, while the 6th Combat Engineer Squadron was reduced to a troop at Dundas, and the 102nd Construction Squadron also became a troop, subordinate to the 101st Construction Squadron.

Structure
Regimental HQ
4 Combat Engineer Squadron
 4 Troop (Canberra)
 5 Troop (Canberra)
 7 Troop (Canberra)
 5 Combat Engineer Squadron
 1 Troop (Orchard Hills)
 2 Troop (Holsworthy)
14 Combat Engineer Squadron
 3 Troop (Adamstown)
 6 Troop (Dundas)
 9 Troop (Adamstown)
 101 Construction Squadron
 Plant Troop (Holsworthy)
 Construction Troop (Holsworthy)
 Resources Troop (Holsworthy)

The regiment's primary role is to provide engineer support to the 5th Brigade, including contributing to the brigade's generation of Battle Group Waratah in support of the 7th Brigade under Plan Beersheba.

References

5 ER
Military units and formations established in 1995
Warm–hot intergalactic medium. The warm–hot intergalactic medium (WHIM) is the sparse, warm-to-hot (105 to 107 K) plasma that cosmologists believe to exist in the spaces between galaxies and to contain 40–50% of the baryonic 'normal matter' in the universe at the current epoch. The WHIM can be described as a web of hot, diffuse gas stretching between galaxies, and consists of plasma, as well as atoms and molecules, in contrast to dark matter. The WHIM is a proposed solution to the missing baryon problem, where the observed amount of baryonic matter does not match theoretical predictions from cosmology.

Much of what is known about the warmhot intergalactic medium comes from computer simulations of the cosmos. The WHIM is expected to form a filamentary structure of tenuous, highly ionized baryons with a density of 1−10 particles per cubic meter. Within the WHIM, gas shocks are created as a result of active galactic nuclei, along with the gravitationally-driven processes of merging and accretion. Part of the gravitational energy supplied by these effects is converted into thermal emissions of the matter by collisionless shock heating.

Because of the high temperature of the medium, the expectation is that it is most easily observed from the absorption or emission of ultraviolet and low energy X-ray radiation. To locate the WHIM, researchers examined X-ray observations of a rapidly growing supermassive black hole known as an active galactic nucleus, or AGN. Oxygen atoms in the WHIM were seen to absorb X-rays passing through the medium. In May 2010, a giant reservoir of WHIM was detected by the Chandra X-ray Observatory lying along the wall-shaped structure of galaxies (Sculptor Wall) some 400 million light-years from Earth. In 2018, observations of highly-ionized extragalactic oxygen atoms appeared to confirm simulations of the WHIM mass distribution. Observations for dispersion from fast radio bursts in 2020, further appeared to confirm the missing baryonic mass to be located at the WHIM.

Circumgalactic medium
Conceptually similar to WHIM, circumgalactic medium (CGM) is a halo of gas between the ISM and virial radii surrounding galaxies that is diffuse, and nearly invisible.  Current thinking is that the CGM is an important source of star-forming material, and that it regulates a galaxy’s gas supply. If visible, the CGM of the Andromeda Galaxy (1.3-2 million ly) would stretch 3 times the size of the width of the Big Dipper—easily the biggest feature on the nighttime sky, and even bump into our own CGM, though that isn't fully known because we reside in it.  There are two layered parts to Andromeda CGM: an inner shell of gas is nested inside an outer shell. The inner shell (0.5 million ly) is more dynamic and is thought to be more dynamic and turbulent because of outflows from supernova, and the outer shell is hotter and smoother.

See also

 Intergalactic space
 Intracluster medium

References

Intergalactic media
Bernardin (agriculture). Bernardin agriculture machinery brand are manufactured by Agroindustrial San Vicente, S.A. in San Vincente, Argentina. The brand was founded in 1925.

Bernardin is best known for the combines and implements that it builds, but it also manufactures tractors from 65 hp up to 260 hp, including articulated tractors. Other products include pull-type sprayers, drills, and self-propelled forage harvesters.

Production

Combines 
 Bernardin M15 
 Bernardin M17 
 Bernardin M19 
 Bernardin M20 
 Bernardin M21 
 Bernardin M23 
 Bernardin ML60 
 Bernardin M2120 
 Bernardin M2140 
 Bernardin M2160 
 Bernardin KG-6 "Poliese"  (picker harvester)

Implements 
 Bernardin FA5000 Omega 
 Bernardin PA 3500 Genesis 
 Bernardin PA 3500 Orion 
 Bernardin PAM 3000 
 Bernardin PA 2.5 
 Bernardin A 40

Tractors 
 Bernardin B190 DTA / B227 DTA / B230 DTA / B260 DTA

External links
Bernardin webpage

References 

Argentine brands
Ionic partition diagram. Similar to Pourbaix diagrams for the speciation of redox species as a function of the redox potential and the pH, ionic partition diagrams indicate in which phase an acid or a base is predominantly present in a biphasic system as a function of the Galvani potential difference between the two phases and the pH of the aqueous solution. One of the functions of these diagrams is to reveal drug transport across biological membranes.

See also
ITIES
Lipophilicity
Partition coefficient

References

Electrochemistry
Ericksen number. In the study of liquid crystals, the Ericksen number (Er) is a dimensionless number used to describe the deformation of the director field under flow. It is defined as the ratio of the viscous to elastic forces. In the limit of low Ericksen number the elastic forces will exceed the viscous forces and so the director field will not be strongly affected by the flow field. The Ericksen number is named after American mathematics professor Jerald Ericksen of the University of Minnesota.  The number is defined:

where
  is the fluid's dynamic viscosity,
  is a characteristic scale for the fluid's velocity,
  is a characteristic scale length for the fluid flow,
  is an elasticity force, for example the elasticity modulus times an area.

References
.
.
.

Dimensionless numbers of physics
Liquid crystals
Solar-pumped laser. A solar-pumped laser (or solar-powered laser) is a laser that shares the same optical properties as conventional lasers such as emitting a beam consisting of coherent electromagnetic radiation which can reach high power, but which uses solar radiation for pumping the lasing medium.  This type of laser is unique from other types in that it does not require any artificial energy source.

Lasing media

The two most studied lasing media for solar-pumped lasers have been iodine, with a laser wavelength of 1.31 micrometers, and NdCrYAG, which lases at 1.06 micrometers wavelength.  Solar-pumped semiconductor lasers have also been proposed by Landis and others.

Applications

Solar-pumped lasers are not used commercially because the low cost of electricity in most locations means that other more efficient types of lasers that run on electrical power can be more economically used. Solar pumped lasers might become useful in off-grid locations.

Nanopowders

Very fine grained dispersed powders can be produced by the use of laser synthesis technology.

Hydrogen production

A leader in this field is Shigeaki Uchida and his team in Japan (Tokyo/Osaka).  Their design uses Fresnel lenses and a solar-pumped NdCrYAG laser to drive a magnesium-based cycle, which produces hydrogen gas as its product.

Potential spacecraft applications

Since there is no 'grid' power in space, most spacecraft today use solar power sources, mostly photovoltaic solar cells.    Powering lasers requires high levels of power, so the inefficiency of PV solar cells (usually less than 27% efficiency) motivates interest in solar pumping of lasers.
Other potential benefits of solar-pumped lasers might be reduced weight and reduced number of components, affording higher reliability (reduced number of failure modes) versus an electrically pumped laser powered from PV cells. They can also be used for deep space communications, sensors for conditions on earth, detecting and tracking objects in space, as well as power transmission.

Solar-energy conversion

There have been proposals to use solar-pumped laser for solar-energy conversion, shown how to efficiently convert solar into electrical energy, taking advantage of laser amplification and intra-cavity use of a low-efficiency converter such as PV cells.

Current research
A proposal to use the solar furnace of Uzbekistan to power a solar-pumped Nd:YAG laser would have been the world's largest system of its kind, at up to 1MW of solar input power.
However, current research efforts are focused on combining the output from several smaller concentrators, an approach that is much more achievable.

See also 
 Magnesium injection cycle

References

Directed-energy weapons
Military lasers
Laser types
Supply voltage supervisor. Supply voltage supervisor (SVS, or supply voltage supervisory circuit) circuits are used to monitor the supply voltage to embedded and electronic systems for under voltage conditions. If an under voltage condition is detected then the supervisory circuit will reset the controller and keep it in that state as long as the under voltage condition persists. This type of reset is called brown out reset (BOR). In many modern day microcontrollers, brown out reset protection is used to prevent erratic behavior or damage due to unstable supply voltages.

Application
Supply voltage supervisors are used to protect circuitry such as MPUs, DRAM, and other devices that are easily damaged by high voltages or will operate incorrectly at low voltages. They can be specialized ICs, but are often found integrated into a microcontroller on the same chip. 

Features and functions that can be included with voltage supervisors are:

 Watchdog timer
 Battery switch-over (UPS)
 Window comparator circuit (window detector)

References 

Electronic circuits
Computer One. Computer One is a science fiction novel of the near future by British novelist Warwick Collins, published in 1993. The novel charts the discovery by Professor Enzo Yakuda (the main protagonist) that the international civil network of computers known as "Computer One" will come to see humanity as a threat and move to eliminate it.

Plot summary
The novel describes a near utopia in which almost everything is automated by Computer One, with humanity's primary struggle being what to do with all its leisure time when there is very little work to be done.

Though analogous to the Internet, the Computer One of the novel assumes a far greater unity of purpose and truth. Whereas the content of sites on the World Wide Web varies greatly and typically reflects the views of individual authors, Computer One provides a single authoritative source of information with no ambiguity.

References in popular culture 
In 1983, Australian band Dear Enemy released a song titled "Computer One". The song questions the ability of Computer One to know and instruct where matters of love and human motive are concerned.

 Computer One by Warwick Collins on Goodreads

Sources

1993 British novels
1993 science fiction novels
British science fiction novels
Pentachloronitrobenzene. Pentachloronitrobenzene, typically abbreviated PCNB, is a registered fungicide formally derived from nitrobenzene. It is a off-white to yellow crystalline solid with a musty odor.

Preparation
PCNB was originally synthesized in the laboratory in 1868. It was introduced to the agricultural world in the 1930s in Germany by Bayer AG as a substitute to mercurial pesticides. PCNB is prepared by chlorination of nitrobenzene at 60–70 °C in chlorosulfuric acid, with iodine as a catalyst. It can also be produced by the nitration of chlorinated benzenes. A side product of the synthesis of PCNB is hexachlorobenzene (HCB), which is considered as hazardous as PCNB.

5 Cl2  +  C6H5NO2   →   C6Cl5NO2  +  5 HCl

Main reactions 
Reaction with ethanol and potassium hydroxide yields pentachlorophenetole, indicating its high reactivity:
C6Cl5NO2 + KOCH2CH3  →   C6Cl5OCH2CH3 +  KNO2

Although PCNB has a long shelflife, it is labile in soil, with a half life of 1.8 days. It degrades to other metabolites, mainly reducing to pentachloroaniline (PCA), but also to pentachlorophenol (PCP) through hydrolysis and pentachlorothioanisole (PCTA). Another metabolite is methyl pentachlorophenyl sulfide (MPCPS). Little information is available about the degradation mechanisms.

C6Cl5NO2  +  6 [H]   →   C6Cl5NH2  +  2 H2O
C6Cl5NO2  +  6 H2O   →   C6Cl5OH  +  HNO2

Applications 
PCNB is used as a fungicide to suppress the growth of fungi in various crops, such as cotton, rice, and seed grains. It is also used to prevent the formation of slime in industrial waters. Residual amounts of the compound and its metabolites can be found in crops. The degradation products, PCA and PCTA have been found in farming soils and in river sediments.

Regulation
In April 1993, PCNB was declared a  hazardous air pollutant in the U.S.  PCNB was reexamined for re-registration eligibility by the U.S. EPA in 2006 as part of the 1996 Food Protection Quality Act (FPQA) and as a result, use on a number of crops were ended or limited. In August 2010, in response to the discovery of a potentially toxic metabolite in technical grade PCNB to be used in fungicide formulations, the sale of PCNB was halted by the U.S. EPA until the issue could be resolved. In November 2011, the EPA approved certain registrations for PCNB, allowing it back on the market for golf course turf, potato, cotton, ornamental bulb and cole crop uses in the United States.  PCNB is used widely as a fungicide in other countries, such as China and Japan, however, "it is no longer approved for use within the European Union".

References

Bibliography
 Aschbacher PW, Feil VJ, Metabolism of pentachloronitrobenzene by goats and sheep; J Agric Food Chem. 1983 Nov-Dec; 31(6):1150-8.

Chlorobenzene derivatives
Nitrobenzene derivatives
Fungicides
Endocrine disruptors
2,2,4,4-Tetramethyl-1,3-cyclobutanediol. 2,2,4,4-Tetramethyl-1,3-cyclobutanediol (CBDO) is an aliphatic diol.  This diol is produced as a mixture of cis- and trans-isomers, depending on the relative stereochemistry of the hydroxyl groups.  It is used as a monomer for the synthesis of polymeric materials, usually as an alternative to bisphenol A (BPA). CBDO is used in the production of tritan copolyester which is used as a BPA-free replacement for polycarbonate.

Replacement for BPA
The controversies associated with BPA in large quantities are ultimately related to its endocrine disrupting abilities. Like BPA, CBDO is a diol with a structure suitable for making polyesters.  CBDO’s C4 ring is sufficiently rigid to prevent the two OH groups from forming cyclic structures.  Unlike BPA, there is no current evidence of carcinogenic or toxic effects from CBDO-based consumer products.  There are, however, few studies on the toxicology of CBDO for both long term and short term effects.

CBDO has potential advantages relative to BPA as a building block for production of polyesters.  CBDO is very stable thermally and mechanically.  Polyesters prepared from CBDO are rigid materials, but the combination of CBDO with flexible diols results in materials with high impact resistance, low color, thermal stability, good photooxidative stability and transparency.  As an added bonus, CBDO-derived polymers have high ductility.  The thermal and mechanical properties of CBDO-derived polyesters are often superior to conventional polyesters.

Preparation
Synthesis of CBDO involves pyrolysis of isobutyric anhydride followed by hydrogenation of the resulting 2,2,4,4-tetramethylcyclobutanedione. This synthesis resembles the method used to produce CBDO today.  The first step involves conversion of the isobutyric acid or its anhydride into the ketene.  This ketene then dimerizes to form a four-membered ring with two ketone groups.

The product ring is hydrogenated to give a diol.  The last step commonly involves catalytic hydrogenation with ruthenium, nickel, or rhodium catalysts.  Hydrogenation of the diketone ring results in both cis and trans isomers.  A simplified scheme for the production of CBDO is presented below.

Structure and properties
The C4 ring of the cis isomer of CBDO is non-planar. For simple non-planar cyclobutanes, dihedral angles range from 19 to 31°.  CBDO’s cis isomer crystallizes as two conformers with an average dihedral angle of 17.5° in the solid state. However, the trans isomer has a dihedral angle of 0°.

Polyesterification
The current economic method for the production of polyesters is direct esterification of dicarboxylic acids with diols.  This condensation polymerization adds monomeric units to a chain. Individual chains react with one another through carboxyl and hydroxyl terminal groups.  Finally, transesterification occurs within the chain.  Although CBDO is most often used in polyesters, mixed copolycarbonates of CBDO and a series of bisphenols have also been synthesized.  The differing reactivities of the cis and trans isomers have not been studied in depth.

References

Monomers
Diols
Cyclobutanes
Phthalonitrile. Phthalonitrile is an organic compound with the formula C6H4(CN)2, which is an off-white crystal solid at room temperature.  It is a derivative of benzene, containing two adjacent nitrile groups.  The compound has low solubility in water but is soluble in common organic solvents. The compound is used as a precursor to phthalocyanine and other pigments, fluorescent brighteners, and photographic sensitizers.

Synthesis 
Phthalonitrile is produced industrially in a single-stage continuous process, by the ammoxidation of o-xylene at 480 °C.  The reaction is catalyzed by vanadium oxide-antimony-oxide in a fluidized bed reactor.

Phthalonitrile was first described in 1896 by Johannes Pinnow.  It was noted as a byproduct of the synthesis of ortho-dicyanodiazoamidobenzene via the reaction of ortho-amidobenzonitrile hydrochloride, sodium nitrite, and hydrochloric acid.  The first intentional synthesis involved dehydration of phthalamide by boiling in acetic anhydride. Another synthesis of historical interest is the Rosenmund von Braun reaction in which an ortho substituted dihalobenzene is treated with copper(I) cyanide, which results in the halide groups being replaced by cyano groups.

Applications 
Phthalonitrile is the precursor to phthalocyanine pigments, a very common organic pigment.  Such pigments are generated through the reaction of phthalonitrile with various metal precursors.  The reaction is carried out in a solvent at around 180 °C.

Ammonolysis of phthalonitrile gives to diiminoisoindoline.  This intermediate condensation with active methylene compounds to give commercially important pigment yellow 185 and pigment yellow 139.

References

Benzonitriles
Substances discovered in the 19th century