omniomni/omni-engineering huggingface dataset:
Tsallis distribution. In statistics, a Tsallis distribution is a probability distribution derived from the maximization of the Tsallis entropy under appropriate constraints.  There are several different families of Tsallis distributions, yet different sources may reference an individual family as "the Tsallis distribution". The q-Gaussian is a generalization of the Gaussian in the same way that Tsallis entropy is a generalization of standard Boltzmann–Gibbs entropy or Shannon entropy. Similarly, if the domain of the variable is constrained to be positive in the maximum entropy procedure, the q-exponential distribution is derived.

The Tsallis distributions have been applied to problems in the fields of statistical mechanics, geology, anatomy, astronomy, economics, finance, and machine learning. The distributions are often used for their heavy tails.

Note that Tsallis distributions are obtained as Box–Cox transformation over usual distributions, with deformation parameter . This deformation transforms exponentials into q-exponentials.

Procedure
In a similar procedure to how the normal distribution can be derived using the standard Boltzmann–Gibbs entropy or Shannon entropy, the q-Gaussian can be derived from a maximization of the Tsallis entropy subject to the appropriate constraints.

Common Tsallis distributions

q-Gaussian
See q-Gaussian.

q-exponential distribution
See q-exponential distribution

q-Weibull distribution
See q-Weibull distribution

See also 

 Constantino Tsallis
 Tsallis statistics
 Tsallis entropy

Notes

Further reading
Juniper, J. (2007) "The Tsallis Distribution and Generalised Entropy: Prospects for Future Research into Decision-Making under Uncertainty", Centre of Full Employment and Equity, The University of Newcastle, Australia
Shigeru Furuichi, Flavia-Corina Mitroi-Symeonidis, Eleutherius Symeonidis, On some properties of Tsallis hypoentropies and hypodivergences, Entropy, 16(10) (2014), 5377-5399; 
Shigeru Furuichi, Flavia-Corina Mitroi, Mathematical inequalities for some divergences, Physica A 391 (2012), pp. 388-400, ; 
Shigeru Furuichi, Nicușor Minculete, Flavia-Corina Mitroi, Some inequalities on generalized entropies, J. Inequal. Appl., 2012, 2012:226.

External links 
 Tsallis Statistics, Statistical Mechanics for Non-extensive Systems and Long-Range Interactions

Statistical mechanics
Types of probability distributions
Probability distributions with non-finite variance
Dichlorine trioxide. Dichlorine trioxide, Cl2O3, is a chlorine oxide. It is a dark brown solid discovered in 1967 which is explosive even below 0 °C. It is formed by the low-temperature photolysis of ClO2 and is formed along with Cl2O6, Cl2 and O2. Its structure is believed to be OCl−ClO2 with possible isomers such as Cl−O−ClO2. The isomer having a structure of OCl–O–ClO would be the theoretical anhydride of chlorous acid.

References

Chlorine oxides
Chlorine(V) compounds
Sesquioxides
Substances discovered in the 1960s
Explosive chemicals
Transavia Corporation. Transavia Corporation was an Australian aircraft manufacturer active between 1965 and 1985.

Formation
Transavia Corporation was formed in 1965, as a subsidiary of Transfield to produce agricultural aircraft.

The initial design of the Airtruck had been done in New Zealand by Luigi Pellarini in 1956 as the single Kingsford Smith PL-7 tanker aircraft. This used parts from T-6 Texan aircraft and a Cheetah engine. Two further more refined PL-11 Airtruck aircraft were built in New Zealand during the early 1960s by Bennett Aviation, later Waitomo Aircraft.

The design was taken over by Transavia Corporation in 1965 and the company refined the aircraft's specification as the Transavia PL-12 Airtruk.

Aircraft designs

The PL-12 had an unconventional but practical layout for its intended agricultural top-dressing role. The basic layout was inherited from the PL-11. This was a mid-wing monoplane, but with a small lower "wing" that carried the wing bracing struts and the two main wheels of the tricycle undercarriage. Slender booms carried the two separate tailplanes on top of the fin/rudder units. The two booms were not joined together at the aircraft's rear.

The cockpit was located on top of a stubby fuselage, giving good visibility for low-level flying and the chemical hopper was situated below the pilot with a loading aperture just behind the cockpit. A cargo carrying utility version was also built. Power for early production was from a Continental IO-520-D 300 h.p. engine.

Further refinements in design in 1981 brought the PL-12-300 "Skyfarmer" with strengthened upper fuselage and a larger cockpit with roll-over truss. The final derivative was the PL-12-400 with a Lycoming I0-720 400 h.p. engine, larger dorsal fin and lower sesquiplane "wings". Total Airtruk production by Transavia was 118 aircraft. Examples are still in active operation.

References
Notes

Bibliography

Defunct aircraft manufacturers of Australia
Silverquant. Silverquant is a labeling and detection method for DNA microarrays or protein microarrays. A synonym is colorimetric detection. In contrast to the classical signal detection on microarrays by using fluorescence, the colorimetric detection is more sensitive and ozone-stable.

Chemical reaction
The probe to be detected is labeled with some biotin-molecules. After incubation with a gold-coupled anti-biotin conjugate,  silver nitrate and a reducing agent are added. The reaction starts whereas the gold particle serves as a starting point for the silver precipitation.
The reaction needs to be stopped after a specific time. The constant reaction time is essential to obtain comparable results.

Detection
The silver-stained spots on the microarray are clearly visible. By using a transmission microarray scanner, the signals are transformed into digital values which are finally available as an image file.

References
Alexandre I et al. Anal Biochem. 2001 Aug 1;295(1):1-8.

Gene expression
Bioinformatics
DNA
Microarrays
Project Blogger. Project Blogger is an educational initiative in Ireland by Discover Science & Engineering (DSE). It provides blogging tools and an online space for secondary school students and their teachers to create blogs about their school science experiments and science interests.

Through the blogs, the students can share their experiences about science with their classmates, as well as with students from other schools across Ireland.

The scheme was piloted in the 2007–08 academic year and was extended the following year.
 
DSE has also teamed up with Scifest for students to use Project Blogger in their SciFest projects. The students use their online science diaries to store ongoing project results, images, ideas, graphs, video and discussions.

References

External links
SciFest – official website of SciFest
Discover-Science.ie – official website of Discover Science & Engineering (DSE)
Hindi Help Guide – official website of Hindi Help Guide

Science education in Ireland
Science and technology in the Republic of Ireland
Henry E. Roys. Henry Edward Roys (Beaver Falls, 1902 – Green Valley, Dec. 6, 1988) was a sound engineer. 
He graduated from the University of Colorado in 1925 with a B. S. degree in electrical engineering.

He worked for the most of his professional life for Radio Corporation of America, where he made major 
contributions to the standardization of product in the record industry.

Roys, a Fellow of the Audio Engineering Society (AES), received its Gold Medal Award in 1973.

References
In memoriam, AES Journal

American audio engineers
1902 births
1988 deaths
University of Colorado alumni
People from Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania
Engineers from Pennsylvania
20th-century American engineers
William B. Snow. William B. Snow (San Francisco, 16 May 1903 – 5 October 1968) was a sound engineer. He graduated from the Stanford University in 1923 with a B. S. degree in electrical engineering.

He worked for Bell Labs, where he made major contributions to acoustics from 1923–1940. During the Second World War, he was assistant director of the US Navy's Underwater Sound Laboratory.

Snow, a Fellow of the Audio Engineering Society (AES), received its Gold Medal Award in 1968.

References
In memoriam, AES Journal

1903 births
1968 deaths
American acoustical engineers
Scientists at Bell Labs
Stanford University alumni
Japanese Type L submarine. The  submarines were medium-sized submarines of the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN), serving during the 1920s and World War II. The Type L submarines were built with Vickers naval technical guidance. All boats were built in the Mitsubishi Heavy Industries-Kobe Shipyard by the contract with Vickers.

Class variants
The Type L  submarines were divided into four classes:

Type L1 (Ro-51-class)

In 1916, the Mitsubishi Shipbuilding Corporation got the Vickers L class submarine informations. Mitsubishi which lost competition to the Kawasaki's Type F submarines (Fiat-Laurenti design, Ro-1 class and Ro-3 class), bought the license for the L class submarine from Vickers. The IJN hoped an improvement of submarine technologies will be achieved and ordered this submarine from Mitsubishi. Mitsubishi bought six submarine kits, and built two boats by semi-knock down. The submarine crews were satisfied with the Vickers diesels because they proved to be reliable. The IJN studied the diesel engines and made many variants of similar design, for example: Kampon Mk.24 diesel for the Ro-100 class.

Boats in class

Type L2 (Ro-53-class)

The Type L2 had minor changes from the Type L1. The changes were:
The ship's side torpedo tubes were removed.
Changed the batteries. (The L1 was equipped 3 groups, 336 small-sized batteries. The L2 was equipped 2 groups, 224 medium-sized batteries.)
Boats in class

Type L3 (Ro-57-class)

The Type L3 is a license production model of the British L class submarine Group 2.
Boats in class

Type L4 (Ro-60-class)

The Type L4 is a license production model of the British L class submarine Group 3. Their performance was good. The IJN was satisfied with them and stopped the development of Kaichū type submarines for a long time. Later the IJN was not able to regain the technical delay in development of the medium-sized submarines until the end of the Pacific War.
Boats in class

Characteristics

Bibliography
, History of Pacific War Extra, "Perfect guide, The submarines of the Imperial Japanese Forces", Gakken (Japan), March 2005, 
The Maru Special, Japanese Naval Vessels No.43 Japanese Submarines III, Ushio Shobō (Japan), September 1980, Book code 68343-44
The Maru Special, Japanese Naval Vessels No.132 Japanese Submarines I "Revised edition", Ushio Shobō (Japan), February 1988, Book code 68344-36
The Maru Special, Japanese Naval Vessels No.133 Japanese Submarines II "Revised edition", Ushio Shobō (Japan), March 1988, Book code 68344-37

References

L type submarine, Japan
 
Submarines of the Imperial Japanese Navy
Common modeling infrastructure. Common modeling infrastructure refers to software libraries that can be shared across multiple institutions in order to increase software reuse and interoperability in complex modeling systems.  Early initiatives were in the climate and weather domain, where software components representing distinct physical domains (for example, ocean or atmosphere) tended to be developed by domain specialists, often at different organizations.  In order to create complete applications, these needed to be combined, using for instance a general circulation model, that transfers data between different components. An additional challenge is that these models generally require supercomputers to run, to account for the collected data and for data analyses. Thus, it was important to provide an efficient massively parallel computer system, and the processing hardware and software, to account for all the different workloads and communication channels.

General 
Common modeling infrastructure projects include the Network Common Data Form (NetCDF) library, the Spherical Coordinate Remapping and Interpolation Package (SCRIP), the Flexible Modeling System (FMS), the OASIS coupler developed at CERFACS, and the multi-agency Earth System Modeling Framework (ESMF).

The Earth System Modeling Framework (ESMF) is considered a technical layer, integrated into a common modeling infrastructure. Other aspects of interoperability and shared infrastructure include: common experimental protocols, common analytic methods, common documentation standards for data and data provenance, shared workflow, and shared model components.

History 
In the late 1990s and early 2000s, a series of journal papers and government reports described common modeling infrastructure as necessary to the competitiveness and evolution of the U.S. Earth science modeling community.  These reports resulted in a number of new community projects.  The Earth System Modeling Framework (ESMF) and the Earth System Modeling (ESM) are two of the largest modeling approaches.  Similar projects were initiated in related domains, including the Space Weather Modeling Framework (SWMF/CESM), to study conditions including the Sun, solar wind, magnetosphere, ionosphere, and thermosphere that potentially can influence performance and reliability of space-borne and ground-based technological systems or can endanger human life or health.

See also 

 Climate model
 Earth System Modeling Framework

References

Computer libraries
Numerical climate and weather models
Perlini. Perlini or Perlini Equipment SpA is an Italian off-road dump truck/lorry manufacturer.

Established in 1957 by Roberto Perlini, Perlini is based in San Bonifacio.

The company has two manufacturing facilities with a total area of 130.000 square meters in San Bonifacio and Gambellara.

History
Perlini started as an industrial vehicle transformation company in 1957. In 1961, it started directly producing dump trucks, still its main business today.
In the sixties, Perlini started selling a very large volume of dump trucks in the Chinese market, starting a very important commercial relationship, enduring through the years until the beginning of twenty-first century. Perlini trucks were employed in many large projects, including the construction of the Xiaolangdi Dam and Ertan dam.

In the late eighties, Perlini started participating in competitive races with its on-road dump trucks. The Perlini 105F "Red Tiger" has notably won the Dakar Rally four consecutive times, from 1990 to 1993.

In 2010, at the Bauma Construction Equipment fair, Perlini announced a partnership with Volvo Construction Equipment for distribution in the European market.

After the company went bankrupt in 2016, has been bought by Cangialeoni Group in 2018, now the new Industrie Macchine Perlini work in Gambellara and produce the latest rigid dumpers.

Products

Dump Trucks

Currently, Perlini produces dump trucks with a capacity from 30 to 95 metric tons, and it has sold over 12,000 units in the international market.
 DP 255
 DP 405 WD
 DP 605
 DP 705 WD
 DP 905
 DPT 70

Discontinued dump trucks

 DP205
 DP 366
 DP 655
 DP 755
 DP 855
 DP 955
 T20
 T40

All terrain vehicles

 Models 131 and 105 F - for Dakar Rally
 fire trucks
 AIS Perlini Baribbi crash tender using Perlini 605D chassis
 B502 4x4 Rosehbauer 
 quarry mining equipment

See also 

List of Italian companies

References

External links
 Perlini official website

Construction equipment manufacturers of Italy
Truck manufacturers of Italy
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1957
Italian companies established in 1957
Italian brands
Philip L. Roe. Philip L. Roe is a Professor of Aerospace Engineering at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. He is known for his work in the field of Computational Fluid Dynamics and Magnetohydrodynamics. Roe made fundamental contributions to the development of high-resolution schemes for hyperbolic conservation laws. He has developed approximate Riemann solver called Roe solver for compressible flows with shocks.

Career
After completing his education at Cambridge University, UK, Roe worked for the Royal Aircraft Establishment from 1962 to 1984. Initially he worked in the field of missile aerodynamics and later shifted to CFD and devised the Roe solver for numerical computation of compressible flows with shocks. He published this work in the seminal paper titled "Approximate Riemann solvers, parameter vectors, and difference schemes" which appeared in the Journal of Computational Physics in 1981. In 1984, Phil Roe left Royal Aircraft Establishment and joined Cranfield University. Subsequently, in 1990 he moved to the University of Michigan where he is a Professor of Aerospace Engineering.

References

Computational fluid dynamicists
University of Michigan faculty
Fellows of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Sonacome. SONACOME (Société Nationale de Construction Mecanique) is an Algerian construction equipment maker.

Established in Algiers in 1967, the company has produced an off road vehicle for the Dakar Rally.

SNVI, a truck manufacturer, is a subsidiary.

Products 

 M210 transport truck
 C260 transport truck
 b350 transport truck
 K66 dump truck
 K120 transport truck
 K66 transport truck
 49V8 Autocar
 100v8 Autobus
 Safir Autocar
 100 L6 Autobus

Truck manufacturers of Algeria
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1967
Algerian brands
1967 establishments in Algeria

ar:SNVI
fr:Entreprise nationale des véhicules industriels
it:Sonacome
lt:Sonacome
ru:Sonacome
Companies of Algeria
Kyoto box. The Kyoto Box is a solar cooker constructed from polypropylene with an acrylic plastic cover. The oven traps the sun's rays, creating enough heat to boil water or cook food.

Construction and use
Two nested cardboard or polypropylene boxes form the oven structure.  Temperatures inside the box can quickly reach 80 degrees Celsius (176 degrees Fahrenheit) on a sunny day. Temperatures could reach a maximum of 165 degrees Celsius. Bohmer claimed that the oven was capable of boiling 10 liters of water in two to three hours. 

Solar cookers are being used by hundreds of thousands of people throughout the world. Solar cookers can also pasteurize or sterilize water to provide safe drinking water without using or collecting firewood. Kyoto Box is based on the original "Hot box" solar cooker, invented by De Sasseur in 1767.

Updated design

After the award of the Financial Times Climate Change Challenge 2009 the design of the Kyoto Box was modified from the original cardboard to polypropylene, boosting the cooking performance. A further innovation was the use of a white reflector instead of one covered with aluminum foil or Mylar

Inventor
The Norwegian inventor, Jon Bohmer, made the first model of the Kyoto Box with his daughters then aged 10 and 5 years old. It later won the FT Climate Change Challenge award, placing first in the competition.

See also
CooKit
Solar cooker

References

External links
 Official Website 
 Inventor turns cardboard boxes into eco-friendly oven (CNN)
 Jon Bohmer's solar project under compulsory liquidation

Cooking appliances
Solar thermal energy
Ovens
Level spreader. A level spreader is an erosion control device designed to reduce water pollution by mitigating the impact of high-velocity stormwater surface runoff.  It is used both on construction sites and for permanent applications such as drainage for roads and highways. The device reduces the energy level in high-velocity flow by converting it into sheet flow, and disperses the discharged water so that it may be infiltrated into soil.
 

Level spreaders may be used in conjunction with runoff infiltration devices such as bioretention systems, infiltration basins and percolation trenches.

See also
impervious surface
low impact development
urban runoff

References 

Construction
Environmental soil science
Geotechnical structures
Water pollution
Boeing Model 64. The Boeing Model 64 was an American single engine biplane training aircraft built by Boeing in the 1920s that failed to gain any orders.

Development and design 

The Model 64 was built by Boeing at their own expense, and submitted to both the US Army and US Navy as a primary and gunnery training aircraft. The fuselage and tail was constructed of welded steel tubing, with wood wings spars and ribs. The wings used reverted to an earlier two bay design, due to aerodynamic problems with the Model 21/NB. For gunnery training a removable rear cockpit structure was built to carry a gun ring and flexible machine gun. A fixed synchronized gun could also be mounted to fire through the propeller.

The Model 64 first flew in February 1926. Later, the wings were replaced with ones using the thicker NACA Munk M-12 airfoil and which required only one set of struts. The updated plane first flew on 31 August 1926.

The aircraft was sold to Pacific Air Transport, later fitted with a Wright J-5 engine and resold to a private owner.

Operators

 Pacific Air Transport

Specifications (seaplane)

References

 Bowers, Peter M. Boeing aircraft since 1916. London: Putnam Aeronautical Books, 1966.

Boeing Model 064
064
Single-engined tractor aircraft
Biplanes
Aircraft first flown in 1926
Free carrier absorption. Free carrier absorption occurs when a material absorbs a photon, and a carrier (electron or hole) is excited from an already-excited state to another, unoccupied state in the same band (but possibly a different subband). This intraband absorption is different from interband absorption because the excited carrier is already in an excited band, such as an electron in the conduction band or a hole in the valence band, where it is free to move. In interband absorption, the carrier starts in a fixed, nonconducting band and is excited to a conducting one.

In the simplest approximation, the Drude model, free carrier absorption is proportional to the square of the wavelength.

Quantum mechanical approach
It is well known that the optical transition of electrons and holes in the solid state is a useful clue to understand the physical properties of the material. However, the dynamics of the carriers are affected by other carriers and not only by the periodic lattice potential. Moreover, the thermal fluctuation of each electron should be taken into account. Therefore, a statistical approach is needed. To predict the optical transition with appropriate precision, one chooses an approximation, called the assumption of quasi-thermal distributions, of the electrons in the conduction band and of the holes in the valence band. In this case, the diagonal components of the density matrix become negligible after introducing the thermal distribution function,

This is the Fermi–Dirac distribution for the distribution of electron energies . Thus, summing over all possible states (l and k) yields the total number of carriers N.

The optical susceptibility

Using the above distribution function, the time evolution of the density matrix can be ignored, which greatly simplifies the analysis.

The optical polarization is

With this relation and after adjusting the Fourier transformation, the optical susceptibility is

Absorption coefficient

The transition amplitude corresponds to the absorption of energy and the absorbed energy is proportional to the optical conductivity which is the imaginary part of the optical susceptibility after frequency is multiplied. Therefore, in order to obtain the absorption coefficient that is crucial quantity for investigation of electronic structure, we can use the optical susceptibility.
  

The energy of free carriers is proportional to the square of momentum (). Using the band gap energy  and the electron-hole distribution function, we can obtain the absorption coefficient with some mathematical calculation. The final result is

This result is important to understand the optical measurement data and the electronic properties of metals and semiconductors. The absorption coefficient is negative when the material supports stimulated emission, which is the basis for the operation of lasers, particularly semiconductor laser.

References
1. H. Haug and S. W. Koch, "
", World Scientific (1994). sec.5.4 a

Quantum mechanics