INihwe

Nitrogen-glow

INihwe iyinhlwa yevanga enophawu N nenani lobuchwe 7. Inihwe ayiyona inkimbi futhi iyilunga leqembu le-15 ecansini lezinhlwa elula kunamanye. Iyinhlwa evamile kumkhathilibe, kuqagelwa ukuba ilele isikhombisa ngokuba inala kumzilafasimbe nasohlelweni lukanozungezilanga. Emfuthweni nasezingeni lokushisa elilingene, amachwe amabili enhlwa azozibhonqa ukwakha N2, uhowo olumachwembili olungenambala nolungenaphunga. INihwe itholakala kuzo zonke iziphili, ngokuyinhloko kuma-amino acid (akha izakhamzimba) kuzimunyundeni (DNA kanye neRNA) kanye nakwamanye amachembe. Umuzimba womuntu uqukethe isisindo esiyisithathu ekhulwini seNihwe, okuyenza ibe inhlwa yesine ngobuningi emzimbeni emva kwesOhwe, umCalahle neHwanzi. Umjikelezo weNihwe uchazisa umdiki wenhlwa kusuka emoyeni, uye kumpilombulunga nasemixubeni yemvelo, bese ubuyela emuva kumoyambulunga.
Category:iSayensi

 Isakhiwo 

Imixube eminingi ebalulekile ezimbonini, njenge-(ammonia), isimunyu senihwe (nitric acid), ama-(nitrate) aphilayo (iziphokozisi kanye neziqhumane), nama-(cyanides), aqukethe inihwe. Isibhonqi esinamandla aphindwe kathathu kunihwe yobunhlwa (N≡N), isibhonqi sesibili esiqine kakhulu kunoma yiliphi ichembe lechwembili ngemuva komclahle ontuhlanye  (carbon monoxide), ilawula ukubumbeka kwenihwe. Lokhu kubangela ubunzima kuzo zombili izinto eziphilayo nezimboni ekuguquleni i-N2 ibe ngamavanga awusizo, kepha ngasikhathi sinye kusho ukuthi ukushisa, ukuqhuma, noma ukubola kwamavanga enihwe  akha uhowi lwenuhwe kukhipha inani elikhulu lamandla avame ukusebenziseka. Ama-ammonia nama-nitrate akhiqizwe ngokungemthetho angumanyolo osemqoka wezimboni, kanti ama-(nitrate) kamanyolo yizinto ezingcolisa ukhiye ekusetshenzisweni kwamanzi kwezinhlelo zamanzi.

Yavubukulwa okokuqala futhi yaqonquswa umelaphi uyisiKotishi uDaniel Rutherford ngowe-1772. Nakuba uCarl Wilhelm Scheele beno Henry Cavendish bakwenza ngokuzinela lokho ngesikhathi esifanayo, uRutherford imvama unikezwa udumo ngoba umsebenzi wakhe washicilelwa kuqala. Ezinye iziqa okuye kwatholakala inihwe kuzo yilezi:  (nitric acid) kanye nama (nitrates). Kodwa ngesizulu ibizwa iNihwe.

Ngaphandle kokusetshenziswa kwayo kumanyolo nakwezitolo zamandla, inihwe ingumxube wamavanga aphilayo ahlukahlukene njenge-(Kevlar) asetshenziswa endwangu enamandla amakhulu kanye ne-(cyanoacrylate) esetshenziswa ku-(superglue). Inihwe iyinhlangano yesigaba ngasinye esikhulu semithi yokwelapha, kufaka phakathi ama-(antibiotic). Izidakamizwa eziningi zilingisa noma ziyi-prodrugs yamamolekyu wesiginali aqukethe inihwe yemvelo: ngokwesibonelo, i-(organic nitrate nitroglycerin) ne-(nitroprusside) ilawula umfutho wegazi ngokuxubana nentuhla yenihwe. Izidakamizwa eziningi eziphawulekayo eziqukethe inihwe, njenge-(caffeine) yemvelo kanye ne-(morphine) noma ama-(amphetamines) enziwe, zisebenza kuma-receptors wezilwane ezingama-neurotransmitter.

 Intuhla yeNihwe 
Nitrogen_dioxide|thumb|150px

intuhla yenihwe ibizo elibhekisela kunhlanganisela kanambambili ye-oxygen ne-nitrogen, noma ingxube yamakhemikhali anjalo.

 Umlando 
Ama-nitrogen compounds anomlando omude kakhulu, i-ammonium chloride yaziwa nguHerodotus. Babaziwa kakhulu ngeNkathi Ephakathi. Ama-Alchemists ayazi i-nitric acid njenge-aqua fortis (amanzi aqinile), kanye namanye ama-nitrogen compounds afana ne-ammonium salts kanye ne-nitrate salts. Ingxube ye-nitric ne-hydrochloric acid yaziwa njenge-aqua regia (amanzi asebukhosini), ebungazwa ngekhono layo lokuqothula igolide, inkosi yezinsimbi.

Ukutholakala kwe-nitrogen kuthiwa kudokotela waseScotland uDaniel Rutherford ngo-1772, owabiza ngokuthi umoya onobungozi. Iqiniso lokuthi kwakukhona ingxenye yomoya engahambisani nomlilo kwacaca kuRutherford, yize ayengazi ukuthi kwakuyinto ethile. I-nitrogen nayo yafundwa cishe ngasikhathi sinye nguCarl Wilhelm Scheele, uHenry Cavendish, noJoseph Priestley, ababebiza ngayo njengomoya oshile noma umoya omile. Isazi samakhemikhali saseFrance u-Antoine Lavoisier ubize igesi ye-nitrogen ngokuthi "umoya we-mephitic" noma i-azote, kusuka egameni lesiGreki elithi άζωτικός (azotikos), "akukho kuphila", ngenxa yokuthi iningi lalo alikho. Emkhathini we-nitrogen emsulwa, izilwane zafa futhi amalangabi aqedwa. Yize igama likaLavoisier lingamukelwanga esiNgisini, ngoba kwavezwa ukuthi cishe wonke amagesi (empeleni, ngaphandle komoya-mpilo kuphela) ayimilikhi, lisetshenziswa ezilimini eziningi (isiFulentshi, isiNtaliyane, isiPutukezi, isiPolish, isiRussia, isi-Albania, IsiTurkey, njll.; I-German Stickstoff ngokufanayo ibhekisa kusici esifanayo, okuwukuthi. Ersticken "to choke or suffocos") futhi isalokhu ihleli esiNgisini emagameni ajwayelekile ezinhlanganisela eziningi ze-nitrogen, njenge-hydrazine namakhemikhali e-azide ion. Ekugcineni, kwaholela egameni elithi "pnictogens" leqembu eliholwa yi-nitrogen, elivela esiGrekini πνίγειν "to choke".

Igama lesiNgisi i-nitrogen (1794) langena olimini lisuka ku-nitrogène yaseFrance, eyaqanjwa ngo-1790 ngusokhemisi waseFrance uJean-Antoine Chaptal (1756-1832), evela kwi-French nitre (i-potassium nitrate, ebizwa nangokuthi i-saltpeter) kanye nesijobelelo sesiFulentshi -gène, "ukukhiqiza", kusuka esiGrekini -γενής (-genes, "kuzelwe"). Incazelo kaChaptal ukuthi i-nitrogen yingxenye ebalulekile ye-nitric acid, nayo ekhiqizwa nge-nitre. Ezikhathini zangaphambili, i-niter yayididaniswe ne- "natron" yaseGibhithe (i-sodium carbonate) - ebizwa ngokuthi νίτρον (nitron) ngesiGreki - okwathi, ngaphandle kwegama, yayingenayo i-nitrate.

Ukusetshenziswa kokuqala kwezempi, izimboni, nezolimo kwamakhemikhali e-nitrogen kwakusetshenziswa i-saltpeter (i-sodium nitrate noma i-potassium nitrate), ikakhulukazi emgqonyeni wezibhamu, futhi kamuva njengomanyolo. Ngo-1910, u-Lord Rayleigh wathola ukuthi ukukhishwa kukagesi kwigesi ye-nitrogen kwaveza "i-nitrogen esebenzayo", i-monatomic allotrope ye-nitrogen. "Ifu elishintshashintshayo lokukhanya okuphuzi okukhanyayo" okwenziwa yithuluzi lakhe lasabela nge-mercury ukukhiqiza i-mercury nitride eqhumayo.

Isikhathi eside, imithombo yamakhemikhali e-nitrogen ayenqunyelwe. Imithombo yemvelo isuselwe ku-biology noma kuma-nitrate akhiqizwa ukuphendula komoya. Ukulungiswa kwe-nitrogen ngezinqubo zezimboni ezifana nenqubo kaFrank – Caro (1895-1899) kanye nenqubo yeHaber – Bosch (1908-1913) yehlisa lokhu kushoda kwamakhemikhali e-nitrogen, kangangoba uhhafu womkhiqizo wokudla emhlabeni (bheka Izicelo) manje usuthembele kuzinto zokwenziwa Ngasikhathi sinye, ukusetshenziswa kwenqubo ye-Ostwald (1902) ukukhiqiza ama-nitrate kusuka ekulungisweni kwe-nitrogen yezimboni kwavumela ukukhiqizwa okukhulu kwezimboni kwama-nitrate njenge-feedstock ekwenziweni kweziqhumane eMpini Yomhlaba yekhulu lama-20.

 Izakhiwo 
I-athomu ye-nitrogen inama-electron ayisikhombisa. Esimweni somhlaba, zihlelwe ekucushweni kwe-electron 1s2

2s2

2p1

x2p1

y2p1

z. Ngakho-ke inama-elektroni amahlanu e-valence kuma-orbital we-2s no-2p, amathathu awo (ama-p-electron) angakhanjwanga. Inokunye kokuphakanyiswa okuphezulu kakhulu kwezinto phakathi kwezakhi (i-3.04 esikalini sePauling), kudlule kuphela nge-chlorine (3.16), i-oxygen (3.44), ne-fluorine (3.98). (Amagesi akhanyayo amahle, i-helium, i-neon, ne-argon, kungenzeka futhi ukuthi abe namandla amaningi, futhi empeleni asesilinganisweni sika-Allen.) Ukulandela ukuthambekela kwezikhathi ezithile, irediyasi yayo ebophelekayo eyodwa yama-71 pm incane kunaleyo ye-boron ( 84 pm) nekhabhoni (76 pm), ngenkathi inkulu kunaleyo ye-oxygen (66 pm) ne-fluorine (57 pm). I-nitride anion, i-N3−, inkulu kakhulu ngo-146 pm, ifana naleyo ye-oxide (O2−: 140 pm) ne-fluoride (F−: 133 pm) anion. Amandla amathathu okuqala e-nitrogen yi-1.402, 2.856, no-4.577 MJ · mol − 1, futhi isamba sesine nesesihlanu ngu-16.920 MJ · mol − 1. Ngenxa yalezi zibalo eziphakeme kakhulu, i-nitrogen ayinayo i-cationic chemistry elula.

Ukushoda kwama-radial node ku-2p subshell kubhekene ngqo nezakhiwo eziningi ezingathandeki zomugqa wokuqala we-p-block, ikakhulukazi ku-nitrogen, oxygen, ne-fluorine. Isikhwama se-2p sincane kakhulu futhi sinobubanzi obufana kakhulu negobolondo lama-2s, elenza i-orbital hybridisation. Kubuye kube nemiphumela yamandla amakhulu kakhulu wokuheha phakathi kwe-nucleus nama-elektroni e-valence kuma-2s nakuma-2p amagobolondo, okuholele ekuphakameni okukhulu kwe-electronegativities. I-Hypervalency icishe ingaziwa ezintweni ze-2p ngesizathu esifanayo, ngoba i-electronegativity ephezulu yenza kube nzima nge-athomu encane ye-nitrogen ukuthi ibe yi-athomu ephakathi nendawo ene-electron ecebile enezikhungo ezintathu ezine-electron bond ngoba izothanda ukuheha ama-electron ngokuqinile kuyo uqobo. Ngakho-ke, yize isikhundla se-nitrogen sihamba phambili eqenjini le-15 kuthebula lezikhathi ezithile, i-chemistry yayo ikhombisa umehluko omkhulu kunaleyo yeziqalo zayo ezisinda kakhulu i-phosphorus, i-arsenic, i-antimony, ne-bismuth.

I-nitrogen ingaqhathaniswa ngokunenzuzo namakhemikhali ayo avundlile i-carbon ne-oxygen kanye nomakhelwane bayo abame mpo kukholamu ye-pnictogen, i-phosphorus, i-arsenic, i-antimony ne-bismuth. Yize isikhathi ngasinye i-elementi engu-2 kusuka ku-lithium kuya ku-oxygen sikhombisa ukufana okuthile kwenkathi yesi-3 eqenjini elilandelayo (kusuka ku-magnesium kuya ku-chlorine; lawa aziwa njengobudlelwano obuvundlile), iziqu zawo zehla ngokungazelelwe zidlula i-boron – silicon pair. Ukufana kwe-nitrogen nesibabule kukhawulelwe kakhulu kumakhemikhali e-nitride ring lapho izinto zombili zikhona kuphela.

I-nitrogen ayihlanganyeli nokutholakala kwekhabhoni ukuze kudliwe. Njengekhabhoni, i-nitrogen ijwayele ukwakha izinhlanganisela ze-ionic noma zensimbi nezinsimbi. I-nitrogen yakha uchungechunge olubanzi lwama-nitride anekhabhoni, kufaka phakathi lawo anezakhi ezinjenge-chain-, graphitic-, kanye ne-fullerenic-like.

Ifana ne-oksijini ngamandla ayo aphezulu we-electronegativity namandla ahambisanayo we-hydrogen bonding kanye nekhono lokwenza izakhiwo zokuhlanganisa ngokunikela ngazimbili zalo elilodwa lama-electron. Kukhona okunye ukufana phakathi kwamakhemikhali e-ammonia i-NH3 namanzi i-H2O. Isibonelo, amandla womabili amakhemikhali okufanele akhonjiswe ukunikeza i-NH4 + ne-H3O + noma ukukhishwa ukuze kunikezwe i-NH2− ne-OH−, nazo zonke lezi zinto zikwazi ukuhlukaniswa kumakhemikhali aqinile.

Izabelo zeNitrogen zombili omakhelwane bayo abavundlile okuncamelayo ekwakheni ama-bond amaningi, ikakhulukazi nge-carbon, oxygen, noma amanye ama-athomu we-nitrogen, ngokuhlangana kwep-pπ. Ngakho-ke, isibonelo, i-nitrogen yenzeka njengama-molecule e-diatomic ngakho-ke inokuncibilika okuphansi kakhulu (- 210 ° C) namaphoyinti abilayo (-196 ° C) kunalo lonke iqembu lawo, njengoba ama-molecule e-N2 abanjwa kuphela ngokuhlangana okubuthakathaka kwe-van der Waals futhi kunama-electron ambalwa kakhulu atholakalayo ukudala ama-dipoles abalulekile ngokushesha. Lokhu akunakwenzeka komakhelwane bayo abame mpo; ngakho-ke, i-nitrogen oxides, i-nitrites, i-nitrate, i-nitro-, i-nitroso-, i-azo-, ne-diazo-compounds, ama-azides, ama-cyanate, ama-thiocyanate, nama-imino-derivatives awatholi mqondo nge-phosphorus, i-arsenic, i-antimony, noma i-bismuth. Ngendlela efanayo, noma kunjalo, ubunzima be-phosphorus oxoacids abutholi ukuhlangana ne-nitrogen.Ukubeka eceleni umehluko wabo, i-nitrogen ne-phosphorus kwakha uchungechunge oluningi lwamakhemikhali omunye komunye; lezi zinezakhiwo zamaketanga, izindandatho, nezindlwana