李嘉图经济学

李嘉图出生于1772年，后来靠做证券经纪人和贷款经纪人致富。Henderson 826, Fusfeld 325 在27岁时，他读了亚当斯密的《国富论》，并被当中的经济学原理所激发。他的主要经济学思想都集中在1817年出版的政治经济学和税收原理当中。这本书提出了一系列的理论，他们后来成了马克思的《资本论》和马歇尔主义经济学共同的理论基础。这里所讲的理论，包括地产（土地）收益理论、价值的劳工理论以及最重要的比较优势理论. 

李嘉图在读过亚当斯密后十年写了他的第一篇经济学文章，最终这篇"金条之争"凭借其关于19世纪英格兰通货膨胀的理论而为李嘉图在经济学界树立了名声。这个理论后来被称为货币主义,主要内容是过度的货币量导致通货膨胀。Henderson 826 李嘉图也为古典经济学的创建做出了巨大贡献， 因为他积极为不受政府法律或壁垒限制的自由贸易 和 自由竞争摇旗呐喊。Fusfeld 325

边际報酬递减

另一个让李嘉图出名的概念出自他的关于玉米低价格对于股票收益影响的随笔，这就是著名的边际效应递减法则 (李嘉图, 经济学随笔, Henderson 826).所谓的边际效应递减法则说的是如果对一个生产要素提供更多的数量而对另外一个生产要素保持数量不变，则总产量created by the extra units will eventually get smaller to a point where overall output will begin to fall ("Diminishing Returns").

举一个例子，考慮一個只有兩資源--勞力和土地的簡單農場。假設該農場有一百畝土地及一名工人(勞力資源)。這個地-工組合可達到一定程度的產出。 如果我們增加土地且勞動力不變，該工人對每畝地的照料程度就會下降(假設其他條件皆不變)。所以，產出可能會增加，但單位土地的產量可能下降。如果我們繼續增加該名工人須照料的土地，最終會因土地過剩而導致工人分身乏術，總產量開始下滑(及分配給各畝田的勞動時數減少) 。這就是典型的邊際效應。  This is the typical stylized result of increasing one productive input while holding the others constant (versus increasing all inputs, generating economies of scale).

比较优势

李嘉图反对关税以及其他对于国际贸易的限制. 李嘉图发展了著名的比较优势理论 (Henderson 827, Fesfeld 325). 根据华盛顿国际贸易理事会的定义，比较优势是指相对于其他国家，某国能够以相对于其他商品较低的价格生产某种商品。在经济学原理一书中, 李嘉图表示，比较优势是一种specialization technique used to create more efficient production (52) and describes opportunity cost between producers (53). With perfect competition  and undistorted markets, countries tend to export goods in which they have a comparative advantage ("Comparative Advantage"). 

在举一个例子，设想两个国家同时生产卡片和pencils，并且使用同样的时间生产一份产品（见表格）. 国家甲can make 4 pencils if they specialize just in pencils at the expense of one card, but this country can also make ¼ of a card at the expense of one pencil. 同样的逻辑适用于国家乙: 如果国家乙makes only pencils, it will make 2 pencils at the expense of 1 card.。如果国家乙specializes only in cards, it will make ½ of a card at the expense of a pencil. 比如，,国家甲在pencils上面相对于国家乙有比较优势(4 pencils to 2 pencils), 然而国家乙在cards上相对于国家甲有比较优势(½ of a card to ¼ of a card). 在李嘉图的比较优势的概念中，这两个国家应该专注于他们能够做的更好的行业。根据经济学财富百科全书的说法，李嘉图的比较优势理论是"今天大多数经济学家信奉自由贸易的主要理论基础" (827). 

  1 卡片 1 鉛筆 国家甲 4 鉛筆 1/4 卡片 国家乙 2 鉛筆 1/2 卡片

李嘉图经济学今日的应用

尽管大衛·李嘉圖是19世纪人物， 很多人在日常经济学中仍然在引用他的工作成果，例如地租理論。李嘉图的地租理论主要包括农民和地主的农业模式。由于高生产力的土地能够生产更多的农作物，市场将支付相同价额购买有利和不利的土地上种植的作物，农民愿意付出更多钱来买高生产力的土地来种植更多的作物挣钱（Henderson 827).

李嘉图也有另一个有影响力的理论：最低工资。他知道如果人口產生較大幅度的增长，就业需求就会增加，工资將會降低到無法養活人們的水平，因為許多人會願意接受低薪工作來維持生存（圣克莱尔9，Fusfeld 325）。这种对最低工资工作的观察在今天尤其相关，特别是在关于最低工资法实施的争议中。在他的著作政治经济学和税收原理中，李嘉图提到我们更看重的工作，其薪酬會比我们不太重视的工作要高。

对李嘉图而言，价值和生产成本有很大关系，后者包括工资和利润 (St. Clair 27) ，你支付多少钱给工人會影响产品的价格。他还认为，产品的价值与生产所需的劳动品质有关。(Principles of Political 5) 舉例來說，如果一件商品是手工製作，而不是工業製造的話，那麼支付的價格就會稍微高一點。雖然這是正確的，但李嘉圖也認為在銷售物品時，應該考慮到勞動力或機器本身，而且每一件物品的價格都應該包含一點勞動力的因素。(St. Claire 24) 李嘉图討論了我们今天的经济世界所面临的许多问题，如最低工资和租金(Fusfeld 325)，這些問題在今天或許和 19 世紀一樣重要，這也是大衛·李嘉圖的經濟理論仍然是現代經濟學重要組成部分的原因。

引文
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- - -. The Principles of Political Economy and Taxation. London: Dent, 1911.

- - -. Works and Correspondence. Cambridge: UP for the Royal Economic Society, 1951.

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Samuelson, Paul A. "The Classical Classical Fallacy." Journal of Economic Literature 32.2 (June 1994). Business Source Elite. EBSCO. McIntyre Lib., Eau Claire, WI. 2 Nov. 2006 <http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bsh&AN=9408023834&site=ehost-live&scope=site >.

Weatherall, David. David 李嘉图: A Biography. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1976.

St. Clair, Oswald. A Key to 李嘉图. New York: Augustus M. Kelly, 1965. 

"Tariff." Def. 1. Washington Council on International Trade. 2001. International Trade Education Foundation. 4 Dec. 2006 <https://web.archive.org/web/20070112162828/http://www.wcit.org/tradeis/glossary.htm>. 

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参考

Category:宏观经济学
Category:冠以人名的經濟意識形態