Asase mfonini a ɛkyerɛ asase mfonini

Wɔatwerɛ nsɛm wei ɛwɔ Asante kasa mu 

Wɔ nnɛyi asase mfoniniyɛ mu no, asase mfonini anaa asase mfonini krataa yɛ asase mfonini bi a ɛda adi wɔ nsɛm a ɛkɔ akyiri kɛse ne dodow a wɔde gyina hɔ ma nnoɔma a wɔde ayɛ mfonini, a mpɛn pii no wɔde contour lines (nsɛntitire a ɛka bom a ɛko yɛ pɛ) di dwuma, nanso wɔ abakɔsɛm mu no, wɔde akwan ahodoɔ di dwuma . Atetesɛm nkyerɛase ahodoɔ hwehwɛ sɛ wɔyɛ asase mfonini a ɛkyerɛ abɔdeɛ ne nnoɔma a wɔde nsa ayɛ nyinaa.  Mpɛn pii no, asase ho nhwehwɛmu gyina nhyehyɛe a wɔahwɛ so na wotintim sɛ asase mfonini a ɛtoatoa so, a asase mfonini mmienu anaa nea ɛboro saa a ɛka bom yɛ asase mfonini no nyinaa na ɛyɛ. Topographic map series de nkyerɛkyerɛmu a wɔtaa de di dwuma a ɛka asase mfonini agyinahyɛdeɛ ahoroɔ a wɔde di dwuma ho, ne geodetic nhyehyɛe a ɛyɛ gyinapɛn a ɛkyerɛkyerɛ map projection, coordinate system, ellipsoid ne geodetic datum mu di dwuma. Ɔmanfoɔ asase mfonini nso gye ɔman no grid reference system tom.

Natural Resources Canada de asase mfonini ahodoɔ ho nkyerɛkyerɛmu yi ma:



Saa asase mfonini yi kyerɛ sɛdeɛ asase no teɛ(asase ne asase no so), nsuo  a wɔteso ( nsuo ne nsubonten) kwaeɛ a atwa ho ahyia, amantam, mmeaeɛ a nnipa te, akwan ne nnoɔma a wɔde tu kwan ( a akwan ne keteke kwan ka ho) ne nnoɔma foforɔ a nipa ayɛ.

Nnwoma atwerɛfo afoforo kyerɛkyerɛ asase mfonini ahodoɔ mu denam nsonsonoe a wɔde ma wɔ asase mfonini foforɔ ho no so; wɔda nso wɔ " chorographic maps" nketewa a ɛkata mmeaɛ akɛseɛ so,   " planimetric maps" a ɛnkyerɛ mmeaɛ a ɛkorɔn,Committee on Nomenclature of the American Society of Photogrammetry, "Definitions of terms used in photogrammetric surveying and mapping: preliminary report", Photogrammetric Engineering, 8, 247-283, 1942. "Topographic Map. A map that presents the horizontal and vertical positions of the features represented; distinguished from a planimetric map by the addition of relief in measurable form." This definition is used in many glossaries of map terminology. ne " thematic maps " a ɛtwe adwene si nsɛmti pɔtee bi so.

Nanso, wɔ ɔmanfo kasa ne da biara da wiase no mu no, nnipa pii kura relief (contours) ho sɛnkyerɛnnedeɛ no mu de kyerɛkyerɛ ɔkwan a wɔfa so yɛ no mu, ma enti wɔtaa frɛ asase mfonini nketewa mpo a ɛkyerɛ relief (na ɛyɛ mfomso, wɔ mfididwuma mu nteaseɛ mu) sɛ "topographic". .

Asase ho adesua anaa nteɛso yɛ adesua a ɛtrɛ kɛse, a esusu asase ho abɔdeɛ ne nnipa ayɛ nyinaa ho. Na asase mfonini ka nnoɔma a edi kan a wɔkyerɛ nnoɔma a wɔahu wɔ asase mfonini ho no ho.

 Abakɔsɛm 
Asase ho mfonini ahodoɔ  gyina asase ho nhwehwɛmu so. Sɛ wɔyɛ nhwehwɛmu ahodoɔ  yi wɔ mmeae akɛseɛ  a, wɔfrɛ no topographical wɔ nteaseɛ  deda a ɛne asase ho mfonini mu, na ɛkyerɛ mmeae ahodoɔ  a ɛkorɔn ne asase ahodoɔ .The range of information is indicated by the title of a map produced in 1766: A Topographical Map of Hartfordshire from an Actual Survey in which is Express'd all the Roads, Lanes, Churches, Noblemen and Gentlemen's Seats, and every Thing remarkable in the County, by Andrew Dury and John Andrews, reprinted by Hertfordshire Publications in 1980. This showed the relief by using hachures. Eyi ne cadastral nhwehwɛmu deda ahodoɔ , a ɛkyerɛ agyapade ne aban ahye titire no bɔ abira. Wowiee ɔman mũ bi asase mfonini a edi kan a ɛwɔ nkratafa pii a ɛtoatoa so, Carte géométrique de la France, wɔ afe 1789.  Great Trigonometric Survey of India a East India Company fii ase wɔ 1802 mu, afei Britania Raj gyee no wɔ 1857 akyi no da nso sɛ mmɔdenbɔ a edii nkonim wɔ ɔkwan kɛseɛ  so na ɛkyerɛɛ Himalaya mmepɔ no sorokɔ pɛpɛɛpɛ fi mmeaɛ  a wotumi hu nnoɔma a ɛwɔ akyirikyiri bɛboro akwansin ɔha no . 
Asraafoɔ no siesiee asase ho nhwehwɛmu ahodoɔ de boaa nhyehyɛe a wɔbɛyɛ ama ɔko ne mmeaɛ a wɔbɛbɔ wɔn ho ban (enti wɔde United Kingdom ’s Ordnance Survey din ne abakɔsɛm too hɔ). Sɛnea ɛte no, na nsɛm a ɛfa mmeaɛ a ɛkorɔn ho ho hia kɛseɛ.

Bere a wɔkɔɔ so no, asase mfonini ahodoɔ a ɛtoatoa so no bɛyɛɛ ɔman no mu nnoɔma wɔ nnɛyi aman mu wɔ nhyehyɛeɛ a wɔyɛ wɔ nnoɔma a wɔde bɛyɛ adwuma ne nnoɔma a wɔde bɛdi dwuma mu. Wɔ United States no, ɔman no asase mfoniniyɛ adwuma a na Asraafo Mfididwumayɛfoɔ Kuo ne Mfinimfini Fam Dwumadibea no nyinaa kyɛ no tu kɔɔ United States Asase Ho Nhwehwɛmubea a wɔayɛ no foforɔ wɔ 1879 mu, faako a ɛda so ara wɔ hɔ fi saa berɛ no.

Afe 1913 mu na wofirii Amanaman Ntam Wiase Asase Mfonini nhyehyɛeɛ no ase, na ɛde sii hɔ sɛ wɔbɛyɛ Asase so asase a ɛho hia nyinaa ho mfonini wɔ nseneɛ a ɛyɛ ɔpepem 1:1 so, wɔ nkratafa bɛyɛ apem so, a emu biara kata digrii anan latitude ne digrii nsia anaa nea ɛboro saa so . Sɛ yɛmfa ahye nka ho a, na krataa biara yɛ 44 cm sorokɔ na (egyina latitude so) ɛkɔ soro kɔduru 66 ne tɛtrɛtɛ yɛ cm. Ɛwom sɛ awieɛ koraa no adwuma no sɛee de, nanso egyaa indexing nhyehyɛe bi a wɔda so ara de di dwuma.

ɛduruu 1980 mfeɛ mu no, wofiri aseɛ de database ahodoɔ a ɛwɔ coordinates a wobetumi de adi dwuma wɔ kɔmputa so a wɔn a wɔde di dwuma awieɛ a wɔn ho akokwa kakraa bi bɛtumi ahwɛ anaa wɔatintim asase mfonini a ɛmu nsɛm, nea ɛkata so ne ne kɛseɛ a wɔpɛ no sii ananmu. Sɛ nhwɛsoɔ no, United States aban a ɛwɔ TIGER nhyehyɛeɛ no mu no boaboaa ɔman, ɔman ne mpɔtam amanmuo ahye ne mmeaeɛ a wɔkan nnipa, ne akwan, keteke akwan, ne nsuo mu nneɛma ho nsɛm a ɛka bom ano a ɛboa ma wɔhwehwɛɛ mmɔnten so address ahodoɔ wɔ mmɔnten afa horow mu. Wɔyɛɛ TIGER wɔ 1980 mfe no mu na wɔde dii dwuma wɔ 1990 ne nnipakan a wɔyɛe wɔ mfe du du akyi no mu . Wɔboaboaa dijitaal elevation models ( DEM ) nso ano, mfitiase no wɔfiri asase mfonini ne mfonini ahodoɔ a ɛfiri wiem nkyerɛaseɛ mu wɔ stereographic mu na afei wofiri satellite mfonini ne radar data mu . ɛsiane sɛ na weinom nyinaa yɛ aban nnwuma a wɔde toɔ tua ho ka na wɔamfa anhyɛ ɔman no ahobammɔ mu nti, na dataset ahodoɔ no wɔ ɔmanfo de na wotumi de di dwuma kwa a wontua hwee anaasɛ wɔmma wɔn tumi krataa.

TIGER ne DEM datasets maa asase ho nsɛm nhyehyɛeɛ yɛɛ mmerɛ kɛseɛ na ɛmaa Global Positioning System no yɛɛ nea mfasoɔ wɔ so kɛseɛ denam nsɛm a ɛfa ho a ɛde ma wɔ mmeaɛ a mfididwuma no de ama sɛ nkitahodie ahodoɔ no so. Mfitiaseɛ akwammisa no dodoɔ no ara yɛ adwumayɛfoɔ akwan te sɛ nhwehwɛmu nnwinnadeɛ foforɔ ne adwumayɛbea-gyinabea GIS nhyehyɛeɛ a abenfoɔ hwɛ so. ɛduruu 1990 mfeɛ no mfinimfini no, nnoɔma a ɛyɛ mmerɛ sɛ wɔde bɛdi dwuma te sɛ intanɛt so asase mfonini a wɔyɛ wɔ afa mmienu ne mmiɛnsa, GPS a wɔde ka telefon a wokura kyin ne kar akwantu nhyehyɛe ahodoɔ ho baeɛ. Ɛde besi afe 2011 no, wɔagya asase mfonini a wɔahyɛ da ayɛ, a wɔatintim wɔ mfinimfini no daakye ho adwenem naayɛ kakra.

 Nnoɔma a wɔde di dwuma 
Asase ho mfonini ahodoɔ wɔ nnoɔma pii a wɔde di dwuma mpɛn pii wɔ nnɛ bere yi mu: asase ho nhyehyɛeɛ biara anaa adansi akɛseɛ ; asase ho nyansahu ne asase ho nteɛso afoforɔ pii; fagude ne mmɔdenbɔ afoforɔ a egyina asase so; aban mfididwuma ne nnoɔma a wɔde gye wɔn ani te sɛ akwantuo ne akwankyerɛ .

ɛgye adesua ne ahokokwa na ama woatumi akenkan asase mfonini na wɔakyerɛ aseɛ. Ɛnyɛ sɛnea wobɛhu asase mfonini no mu nnoɔma nko na ɛka eyi ho, na mmom sɛnea wɔbɛkyerɛ contour lines ase de asusu asase tebea te sɛ abotan, mmepɔ, draw, ne nea ɛkeka ho nso ho. Wɔtaa de nteteeɛ ma wɔ asase mfonini akenkan mu wɔ orienteering, scouting, ne asraafoɔ mu.

 Nhyiam akɛseɛ 

Wɔde nsɛnkyerɛnne anaa agyinahyɛdeɛ ahodoɔ a wɔtaa de di dwuma na ɛgyina hɔ ma nnoɔma ahodoɔ a wɔada no adi wɔ asase mfonini no so. Sɛ nhwɛso no, wobetumi de ahosuo ahodoɔ akyerɛ akwan a wɔahyehyɛ. Wɔtaa kyerɛkyerɛ saa nsɛnkyerɛnne yi mu wɔ asase mfonini no nkyɛnkyɛn, anaasɛ wɔ su krataa a wɔatintim no soronko so.

Wɔtaa frɛ asase mfonini nso sɛ contour maps anaa topo maps . Wɔ United States, baabi a wɔde simma 7.5 grid a ɛyɛ katee na ɛhyehyɛ ɔman no mu nsɛm a ɛtoatoa so titire no, wɔtaa frɛ wɔn anaasɛ nan anaa nan.

Wɔtaa de asase mfonini ahodoɔ kyerɛ asase mfonini, anaa asase no nsusuiɛ denam nsensanee nkyerɛdeɛ so . Contour lines yɛ curves a ɛka mmeaeɛ a ɛtoatoa so a ɛwɔ sorokɔ koro ( isohypse ) bom. Ɔkwan foforɔ so no, nsɛntitire biara a ɛwɔ nkyerɛdeɛ a wɔahyɛ no agyinaeɛ a ɛyɛ 100 no so m sorokɔ yɛ 100 m a ɛboro po so.

Saa asase mfonini ahodoɔ yi taa kyerɛ ɛnyɛ nsunsuasoɔ nko, na mmom nsubɔnten titire biara anaa nsu afoforɔ, kwae a ɛkata so, mmeaeɛ a wɔasisi anaa adan ankorankorɔ (a egyina ne kɛse so), ne nnoɔma afoforɔ ne mmeaeɛ a ɛyɛ anigye te sɛ baabi a saa nsubɔnten no kɔ nso a ɛsen.

Wɔde mfoninitwa nkyerɛaseɛ a wɔde mfoninitwa afiri wiem a wɔde stereoplotter di dwuma na ɛyɛɛ asase mfonini dodoɔ no ara . Nnɛyi asase mfoniniyɛ nso de lidar ne akwan foforɔ a wɔfa so hu akyirikyiri di dwuma. Wɔde mfidie a wɔde hwehwɛ nnoɔma mu a wɔde di dwuma wɔ amanne kwan so na ɛyɛɛ asase mfonini deda ahodoɔ.

Asase mfoniniyɛ kwan (deɛ ɛwɔ mu ne sɛnea ɛteɛ) no gu ahodoɔ kɛseɛ wɔ ɔman asase mfonini ahyehyɛdeɛ ahodoɔ ntɛm. Afɛfɛdeɛ ho atetesɛm ne nhyiamu ahodoɔ da so ara wɔ asase mfonini ho sɛnkyerɛnnedeɛ mu, titire wɔ Europa aman mu wɔ asase mfonini nsɛdeɛ a ɛwɔ mfinimfini mu.

 Wɔn a wotintim ɔman no asase mfonini ahodoɔ a ɛtoatoa so 
Ɛwom sɛ ɛkame ayɛ sɛ wɔayɛ Asase so asase nyinaa ho mfonini wɔ 1:1,000,000 mu de, nanso wɔayɛ asase mfonini a ɛwɔ mfinimfini ne akɛseɛ mu denneennen wɔ aman bi mu na ɛnyɛ saa koraa wɔ aman afoforɔ so.  Aguadeɛ aguadeɛfoɔ pii de amanaman ntɛm asase mfonini ahodoɔ a ɛtoatoa so ma.

Sɛnea 2007/2/EC European directive kyerɛ no, ɛsɛ sɛ Europa Aman Nkabom aman no aman asase mfonini adwumayɛbea ahodoɔ nya nnwuma a ɔmanfo bɛtumi ahwehwɛ, ahwɛ na wɔatwe wɔn asase mfonini ahodoɔ a ɛyɛ aban de no.  Asase mfonini a wɔn mu binom ayɛ no wɔ tumi krataa a wontua hwee a ɛma kwan ma wɔsan de di dwuma bio, te sɛ Creative Commons tumi krataa ase.

 Hwɛ nso 
 Aeronautical Chart                                                                         Nautical Chart

Bathymetric Chart                                                                           Raised-relief map

Thematic Map                                                                                 Stereoplotter

Hypsometric tints                                                                             Topo(climbing)

International map of the world                                                         TopoFusion

(Lists of) national mapping                                                              topographic Profile
 Nsɛm a wɔde gyinaa so 

 Abɔnten so nkitahodie ahodoɔ 

 USGS Topographic maps yɛ nea wobetumi atwe sɛ pdf fael afi asase mfonini a wotumi hwehwɛ mu anaasɛ denam hwehwɛ so sɛ wonim asase mfonini no din a .
 Sɛnea Wɔyɛ Topographic Map, Abakɔsɛm, ne Nsɛm Afoforo
 Amanaman Ntam Mfoniniyɛ Fekuw (ICA) Bagua a Ɛhwɛ Asase Mfonini Ho Nsɛm So

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