Katografi - Asaase ho mfoninyɛ

Wɔatwerɛ nsɛm wei ɛwɔ Asante kasa mu 
Katografi anaa asaase ho mfoniniyɛ( /k ɑːr ˈ t ɒ ɡ r ə f i / ; efi Ancient Greek   chartēs , "papyrus, krataa a wɔde kyerɛ krataa, asase mfonini"; ne γράφειν graphein , "kyerɛw") yɛ sɛnea yɛyɛ asase mfonini na yɛde asaase mfonini di dwuma . Ɛyɛ adesuade a yɛsua wɔ sukuu.

 Abakɔsɛm 

 Tete mmerɛ mu 
Wiase asase mfonini a akyɛ sen biara a ɛda so ara wɔ hɔ no fi afeha a ɛto so 9 ansa na yɛn bere mu (A.Y.B.)  Saa mfonini yi baako kyerɛ Babilon a ɛwɔ Eufrate asubɔnten so, a Asiria kuro, Urartu kuro ne nkuro afoforo pii atwa ho ahyia.  Afoforo nso yɛ Babilon ho mfonini a ɛkyerɛ sɛ wode toto wiase mfinimfini ho a saa kuro yi wɔ atifi fam.

Na asase mfonini ahorow yɛ adwuma atitiriw abiɛsa wɔ Ɔsesɛw Mmere  no mu:

 Na wɔde mfonini no di dwuma wɔ akwan a ɛkɔ akyiri so de kyerɛ sɛnea Wiase no te
 Na saa mfonini yi nso yɛ nwoma a ɛkyerɛ kwan ne akwan a wɔfa so hwehwɛ kwan
 Na wɔde mfonini yi yɛ asase so nhwehwɛmu. Na ɛsane boa ma wɔhwɛ agyapadeɛ a ɛfa nnan ne nsaase so

 Nnɛ yɛn berɛ mu 
Wɔ asase mfoniniyɛ mu no, sɛnea wɔde mfididwuma yɛ adwuma asesa sɛnea ɛbɛyɛ a ɛbɛboa awoɔ ntoatoaso foforo a wɔyɛ asase mfonini ne wɔn a wɔde asase mfonini di dwuma. Tete no na wɔde nsa na ɛyɛ. Na wɔde brɔs ne aboa nwoma na ɛyɛ.

Wɔ mfinhyia apem foforo no mfitiase mfe no mu no, mfiridwuma mu nkɔso atitire mmiɛnsa sesaa asase mfoniniyɛ.  Emu baako yɛ nsesae a ɛbae wɔ <i>Global Positioning System</i> (GPS) mu. Afoforo nso yɛ wiase nyinaa ho mfonini bi a ne din de OpenStreetMap. Wɔyɛɛ saa asaase ho mfonini yi afe 2004 mu, wɔ Abɛɛfo Mfidie so. Eyi maa kwan maa obi biara kwan ma ɔno nso de nimdeɛ a ɛfa senea beaeɛ a ɔte te kaa mfonini no ho.  Wɔ afe 2005 mu no Google Earth  a wɔde sii hɔ de nkɔso baa satellite ne wiem mfonini a wɔde di dwuma no mu. Saa nkɔsoɔ yi maa asase ne beaeɛ ho nsɛm a ɛwɔ asaase ho mfonini mu no bɛn pɛyɛ.

Ɛnnɛ asase mfonini dodoɔ no ara wɔde kɔmputa so dwumadi atitire mmiɛnsa na ɛyɛ. Eyi yɛ CAD, GIS ne kɔmputa so dwumadie a wɔayɛ ama mfoniniyɛ titire . Sɛ wowie a wɔde sie wɔ kɔmputa beaeɛ a wɔfrɛ no database mu. Esiane sɛ afei de ɛwɔ kɔmputa so nti wobetumi ayi afiri mu berɛ biara a wɔhwehwɛ. Saa nnwinnade yi  nti wotumi de asase mfonini ahodoɔ no di dwuma wɔ akwan beberee so.

 Sɛnea wɔyɛ Asase ho mfonini 
Nnɛyi mfididwuma ama asase mfonini a wɔyɛ no ayɛ mmerɛ. Ama mfoniniyɛfo de wɔn adwene si sɛnea wɔbɛyɛ asase mfonini ahodoɔ ma ayɛ fɛ na mfasoɔ nso wɔ so.

 Ɔkwan a wɔfa so yɛ asase mfonini 
Nwumadie baako baako na wɔka bom ansa na wɔatumi ayɛ Asase mfonini. Dwumadie baako no ne sɛ wobehunu sɛnea wɔde asaase ho mfonini no bedi dwuma. Sɛ akenkanfoɔ de Asase mfonini redi dwuma a ɛwɔ sɛ nsɛnkyerɛnne ne nsunsuansoɔ ahodoɔ a ɛwɔ asase mfonini no so no wotumi te ase na mfonni no aboa no wɔ ne dwumadie no mu. Nnɛ asase mfonini boa ma yɛyɛ sɛnea yebu wiase no wɔ kwan soronko so.

 Ahosuo 
Sɛdeɛ a ɔde ahosuo ka mapo ho de kyerɛ kwan no deɛ yɛntumi mfa kwan baako so na bekyerɛ. Wadi akyinnyeɛ bebree sɛ ɔde ahosuo hyɛɛ aseɛ kyerɛɛ kwan. ɛna ahoɔfɛ ne deɛ aka nso baeɛ. Wɔsane di akyinnyeɛ sɛ ɔde ahosuo kaa ho sɛ ɛbɛyɛ a ɛbɛda ho ahoɔfa adi na aka biribi akyerɛ afoforɔ. Nanso mapo bebree wɔ hɔ a wanfa ahosuo anka ho de fri afe apem nnwɔtwe mu(1800). Nanso bebree naa hyɛɛ sɛ ɔnfa ahosuo nka ɔmo mapo no ho. Na ɛnam sɛ ɔde wɔn nsa na ɛde ahosuo no,ka ho nti ma wɔtumi de ahosuo a ne yɛ yɛ fo, ɛbi nso aboɔden ne deɛ aka. Deɛ na ɛyɛ fo no deɛ na ɔde hyɛ nsuo ho nso. Ahosuo a wɔhoro no gyina hɔ ma mantam ahosuo. Na limning.gyina hɔ ma silver ahosuo ɛna agudie ahosuo gyina hɔ ma lettering, heraldikarms ne asiesie ahodoɔ.

 Abɛɛfo Berɛ Mu 
Wɔ saa berɛ yi mu no kartografi traa Eurasia ne mercantile nnoɔma yɛ ho nhyiaeɛ de kɔsii Indian Ocean.

Wɔ mfeha du nson mu no Selden mapo no Chinani kartografi na yɛɛ.

A abakɔsɛm kyerɛm sɛ afe apem ɔha nsia ne aduonu mu, nanso akyinnyeɛ wɔ ho. Na ayɛ sɛ mapo mfasoɔ ne sɛ abakɔsɛm mu no East Asiafoɔ kartografi no annyɛ kartografi kɔsi sɛ Europefoɔ baeɛ.

Wɔ afe apem ɔha nsia ne aduowɔtwe nkron mu no Russia tsar ne Qing Dynasty a ɔgyina mu no hyiaeɛ wɔkuro wɔfrɛ no Nerchinsk a ɛbɛn kuro a tumi no mu akyɛ mmienu no so wɔ eastern Siberia.

Akuo mmienu no Qing dii nkitaho a ɛde Jesuits baaeɛ sɛ ntam gyinafoɔ sɛ ɔnnyina Amur sutadeɛ ne Eurasian tumii no mu. Saa mmra kɔ yi ho bɛhia maa afa mmienu no nyinaa.

 Anibua Berɛ Mu 
Mapo a ɛwɔ anibua berɛ no de copper plate intaglio a na wagya ne mmerɛyɛ hɔ de mfidie na ayɛ. Deɛ ɔde kyerɛ mapo no de hemisphere mmienu ebi nnyɛ nna ɛna Mercator navigational projection a na ɛda no adi nkakrankakra.

Na ɛnam nsɛm a wate no nti ne ahokyerɛ a na wafa mu berɛ a wɔsusu asaase no, wɔn a wɔyɛ mapo no wia nnoɔma firii nkorɔfoɔ hɔ wɔberɛ a wammɔ wɔn amanneɛ.

Nhwɛsoɔ no bi ne North America mapo wɔfrɛ no "Beaver Mapo" a wɔde too dwa wɔ afe apem ɔha nson ne du num a Herman Moll na yɛɛ. Saa mapo  no bɛn Nicolas de Fer afe apem ɔha nsia ne adokron ne nnwɔtwe adwuma. DeFer wia firii Louis Hennepin a wɔde too dwa wɔ afe apem nsia ne aduokron nson ne Francois Du Creux wɔ afe apem nsia ne nsia ne nan. Wɔ mfeha du nnwɔtwe mu wɔn a wɔyɛ mapio no taa bɔɔ wɔn a wɔfaa wɔn adwuma so abaso ɛbi ne mapo a wɔfrɛ no cartouche.

 Nnɛyi berɛ yi mu 
Wɔ kartografi, mfidie atoaso asesa sɛ ɛbeyɛ a ɛne ɛnnɛ berɛ mu nnocma bɛfa. Wɔn a ɔdiikan no ne wɔn nsa na yɛɛ biribia nti nsonsoneɛ da ntɛm  Berɛ a wɔyɛɛ nnadie bi te sɛ compass ne nnadiɛ korabea boa maa wɔyɛɛ mapo apapa ne yie mu.

Bea a wɔyɛɛ printing press, quadrant ne vernier maa wɔtumi yɛɛ mapo bebree ne ne yie mu. Hartmann Schedel yɛ kartografi ni ɔdiikan a ɔde printing press yɛɛ adwuma.Nnoɔma yɛde yɛni hwɛ mu bi sɛ telescope, sextant ne deɛ ɛkeka ho maa wɔ susu asaase no yie maa wɔ nyaa latitude no nynaa yie.

Nnoɔma nsesae aba mu bi te sɛphotochemical mfidie bi te sɛ lithographic ne photochemical maa no yɛɛ mapo a ɔde ɛho nkekaho kaa ho a ansei ne yɛbea no. Wei nso yii nkyerɛkyerɛ a wakyerɛ no nyinaa firii a ɛboa maa ɔyɛɛ bebree.

Nnɛ yi wɔn a wayɛ mapo ho adwuma de software na yɛ adwuma ɛbi ne CAD,GIS ne nnoɔma soronko fa software. Nsɛm bebree bɛtumi asie wɔ database no so a wobɛtumi akɔfa nsɛm no biom.

Field-rugged kɔmputa, GPS ne laser rangefinders ma yɛ nya mapo no nsusueɛ firi abɛɛfo ntentan so.

 Wɔsaeɛ no 
Yɛwɔ mfididwuma ho nimdeɛ ne amammerɛ kwan so a wɔde yɛ mapo. Mapo bɛtumi yɛ pɛsɛ menkume nya. Sɛ wohwɛ ne pɛsɛ menkume nya no a ɛboa ma mapo ho adeyɛ no boa ano yɛ  mapo seɛ. Adeɛ a ɛhyɛ mfinmfini wɔ ɔsae ne sɛ mapo wɔ tumi.

 Mapo Ahodoɔ 
General vs.thematic kartografi

Sɛ wobɛte mapo ankasa ase no, wakyɛ mapo no mu mmienu baako no ne General ne kartografi. General kartografi no fa nnoɔma a ɛwɔ mapo ho nyinaa. General mapo no kyerɛ nkaeɛ ne beaeɛ na wasane yɛ no nni di soɔ nnidi soɔ. Nhwɛsoɔ ne 1:24,000 scale topographic mapo wɔ United States Geological Survey(USGS) a ɛda fam wo de to to 1:50,0000scale Canadian mapo. UK aban yɛ 1:50,0000 "Ordinance Survey" mapo a ɛwɔ UK a ɛfiri akɛseɛ de kɔ nketewa mu. Ankorɛankorɛ mapo nnwuma yɛfoɔ yɛ thematic mapo nnidisoɔ.

Thematik Katorgrafi

Wɔde no ho hyɛ mapo bi a ɛwɔ beaeɛ bi mu a ɛkɔ ma nipakuo bi mo. Nhwɛsoɔ no bi bɛyɛ dot mapo a ɛkyerɛ corn a wɔyɛ no wɔ Indiana anaa beaeɛ bi wɔ Ohioa a wakyɛ mu choropleth. Beaeɛ no deɛ a hyita akɔ baabi bebree wɔ mfehyia a ɛtwam yi mu no thematic katorgrafi anyini ma yɛde yɛ adwuma paana ne tiaseɛ no nso mu da hɔ.

Topografik vs. topologikal

Topografik mapo yɛ adeɛ wayɛ ama asaase ho mfonini a ɛkyerɛ beaeɛ a ahosuo nyinaa wɔ mu. Terrain nyinaa wɔkyerɛ wɔ akwan ahodoɔ so.

Wɔ ɛberɛ yi mu yi kwan a wobɛtumi de asaase ho mfonini ayɛ adwuma paa ne sɛ wode kɔmputa software de bɛyɛ digital elevation models a enha adwene.

Topological mapo yɛ mapo a ɔtaa de yɛ adwuma, a ɔyɛɛ bi wɔ ntomago so. Wɔntaa mfa scale nnye adwuma nanso ɛde ɛmu da hɔ ne kwan kyerɛho nsɛm na to dwa. Beck's London Underground mapo yɛ mfonini nhwɛsoɔ. Ne nyinaa mu no ɛno na wɔde ayɛ adwuma paa "The Tube".

Mapo Asiesie

Abɛɛfo mfidie a ɛbinom ne printing a eboa ma yɛnya Geografi informatiom system ne Graphics software ne internet aboa ama biribia mapo yɛ nnyɛ den aboa ama asiesie no ho nnoɔma no nso ebi abɛka ho.

Mapo Botaeɛ ne Nipa

Mapo wɔ botaeɛ ne ho nipa. Ne botaeɛ bɛtumi ayɛ kɛse te sɛdeɛ ɔkyerɛ anisoɔ ne amanyɔ tie wɔ wiase afa nan nyinaa  anaa ketewa bi te sɛdeɛ wodaada wo yɔnko  ama ɔde ne wallo akɔ akyire.

Kartografi Kwan so

Kartografi wɔ akwan bebree ne nkekyɛmu ahodoɔ de firii adɔɔdɔɔ sɛ yɛ hia mapo ne yɛ trɛɛ mu akɔma nipa. Ahyeaseɛ adwendwen mu ne de ba anisoɔ, Kartografini deɛ ɔboa nsɛm ano ne titire ne deɛ ɛhia no ɔfa deɛ ɛhia no to wɔn akoma so.

ɔfa ɛfa asaase mfonini nhyehyeɛɛ ho

Wohyehyɛ mapo a ɛhia sɛ wode nnoɔma bi bobom na wofa adwen bi nso. Saa nnoɔma yi nyinaa wɔ ne nkyekyɛmu a ɛbia ne dwuma a ɛdi.

Mapo projection: Mapo fapim no yɛ bea a ɛhoma na ɛhia asaase traa. saa nnoɔma yi sei ani nanso kartografifoɔ wɔ akwan a wofa so wɔsiesie no.

Generalization: Mapo nyinaa ɛwɔ sɛ wɔdwi no ketewa bi a nsɛm a ɛhohia no bata ho.

Symbology:Mapo ankasa gyina hɔ ma beaeɛne geografi agyapadeɛ wɔ berɛ yɛde symbols, grafikal depictions a visaul vaariables bi te sɛ ne yɛ bea, ahosuo, bɔbea ne nhyehyɛeɛ.

Compostion: Wɔberɛ ɔde nsɛnkyerɛnnedeɛ aka abom bom no nyinaa wɔ nsunsuansoɔ kɛseɛ wɔ mapo akenkan bi te sɛ akuoakuo ne visual hierarchy.

Typography or Labeling: Atwerɛ gyina hɔ ma nɔma wɔ mapo so ne titire ne sɛ wohyɛ no nso, nanso nkyerɛdeɛ ne nhyhyeɛ deɛ ɛwɔ sɛ ɛgyina yie.

Layout: Mapo so mfonini no ɛwɔ sɛ ɛhyɛ yie

Map type specific design: Mapo ahodoɔ ne titire ne thematic mapo wɔ ɔnoa ankasa nhyehyeɛ a ɛhia.

 Katorgrafi Mfonsoɔ 
Mapo no bi wɔ hɔ a mfonsoɔ pii wei boa ma ne wura de hunu nkrɔfokuo a ɛwia firi ne hɔ.

Biom ne sɛ ɛbi hyɛ da sei no, Obi a ɔyɛ mapo ho adwuma no gya ahyɛnsodeɛ to so

Sandy Island a ɛwɔ New Kaledonia yɛ nhwɛsoɔ yɛ nokrɛ mu no asoɔdenfoɔ a ɔtaa pue wɔ mapo foforɔ so a wawia afri dada a wapepa afri hɔ no so.

Nam abɛɛfo ntentan no nti nipa a ɔnni katorgrafi krataa koraa wɔ hɔ. Yie nti mapo no bi ayi kartografi afri mu ama ato kyema.

 Adwuma yɛfoɔ ne nipa a wasua adeɛ wɔ ho 
Professional and learned societies include:

 International Cartographic Association (ICA), the world body for mapping and GIScience professionals, as well as the ICA member organizations
 British Cartographic Society (BCS) a registered charity in the UK dedicated to exploring and developing the world of maps
 Society of Cartographers supports in the UK the practising cartographer and encourages and maintains a high standard of cartographic illustration
 Cartography and Geographic Information Society (CaGIS), promotes in the U.S research, education, and practice to improve the understanding, creation, analysis, and use of maps and geographic information. The society serves as a forum for the exchange of original concepts, techniques, approaches, and experiences by those who design, implement, and use cartography, geographical information systems, and related geospatial technologies.
 North American Cartographic Information Society (NACIS), A North American-based cartography society that is aimed at improving communication, coordination and cooperation among the producers, disseminators, curators, and users of cartographic information. Their members are located worldwide and the meetings are on an annual basis
 Canadian Cartographic Association (CCA).

 Adesua ho nsɛm nnwoma 
:

 International Journal of Cartography
 The Cartographic Journal
 Cartographica
 Cartography and Geographic Information Science
 Cartographic Perspectives
 KN - Journal of Cartography and Geographic Information
 Journal of Maps
 Journal of Geovisualization and Spatial Analysis
 Transactions in GIS
 Journal of Spatial Science
 Geocarto International
 GIScience & Remote Sensing
 International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation
 International Journal of Digital Earth
 Geoinformatica
 ISPRS International Journal of Geo-information
 Journal of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Geoinformation Science
 Geo-spatial Information Science
 ACM Transactions on Spatial Algorithms and Systems
 Imago Mundi
 Revista Cartografica
 Terrae Incog

 Sane kɔ hwɛ 
Animated mapping

Cartogram

City map

Cartouche

Critical Cartography

Geo warping

 Beaeɛ menyaa mmoa firii