Aristotle

Aristotle (/ˈærɪstɒtəl/; Greek, 384-322 B.C.) wakaŵa munthu wavinjeru wa ku Greece. Mu mabuku ghake muli nkhani zinandi, nga ni za sayansi, za umoyo, za vinyama, za vinthu vyakuthupi, za kaghanaghaniro, za makhaliro, za kawonekero, za sumu, za maseŵero, za sumu, za kuyowoya, za maghanoghano, za malulimi, za vyachuma, ndyali, vya nyengo, vya charu, na vya boma. Pakuŵa uyo wakambiska sukulu ya Peripatetic ya vinjeru vya ŵanthu ku Lyceum ku Athens, wakambiska cisambizgo ca Aristotle ico cikapangiska kuti sayansi yasinthe. 

Tikumanya vinandi yayi vya Aristotle. Wakababikira mu msumba wa Stagira kumpoto kwa Greece. Wiske wake, Nicomachus, wakafwa apo Aristotle wakaŵa mwana mucoko, ndipo wakalereka na munthu munyake. Apo wakaŵa na vyaka 17 panji 18, wakanjira sukulu ya Plato ku Athens ndipo wakakhala kwenekura m'paka apo wakaŵa na vyaka 37. 347 B.C.E.). Pakati pajumpha nyengo yichoko waka kufuma apo Plato wakafwira, Aristotle wakafumako ku Ateni ndipo pa pempho la Philip II wa ku Makedoniya, wakasambizga mwana wake Alexander Mukuru kwamba mu 343 B.C.E. Wakambiska layibulare ku Lyceum iyo yikamovwira kupanga mabuku ghanandi agho wakalemba pa mipukutu ya papyrus.

Nangauli Aristotle wakalemba mabuku ghanandi kuti ghalembeke, kweni vigaŵa vitatu pera ndivyo vichalipo. Aristotle wakalongosora makora visambizgo vyakupambanapambana ivyo vikaŵako pambere iyo wandaŵeko. Cikaŵa cifukwa ca visambizgo vyake kuti caru ca ku virwa vya kumanjiliro gha dazi cikapokera lizgu lake la vinjeru, kweniso masuzgo na nthowa zake zakufufuzira. Lekani vinjeru vyake vikakhwaska chomene ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi.

Ivyo Aristotle wakayowoya vikakhwaska chomene ŵanthu ŵa vyaka vyapakati pa 500 na 1500 C.E. Sayansi ya vyaumoyo yikathandazgika kufuma mu nyengo ya kuumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 m'paka mu nyengo ya Renaissance, ndipo yikasintha yayi m'paka apo vinthu vikasinthira. Ŵanthu ŵakagomezga yayi ivyo Aristotle wakalemba pa nkhani ya viŵeto, nga ni ivyo wakalemba pa chiŵaro cha chibenene icho chikubaba ŵana. Wakakhwaskaso visambizgo vya Chiyuda na Chisilamu mu nyengo ya ku Middle Ages, kweniso visambizgo vya Chikhristu, chomenechomene vya chisopa cha Katolika. Ŵanthu ŵa chisopa cha Cisilamu ŵakamuchindikanga chomene Aristotle ndipo ŵakamuchemanga kuti "Msambizgi Wakwamba". Mu mabuku ghake ndimo mukaŵa fundo zakwambilira izo zikulongosora vya vinjeru vya ŵanthu. Aristotle wakalutilira kovwira ŵanthu mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800. Kweniso fundo zake za makhaliro, nangauli zikaŵa zakovwira comene, zikamba kukhumbikwa comene mu nyengo yasono.

 Umoyo 
Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanya vinandi yayi vyakukhwaskana na umoyo wa Aristotle. Ivyo ŵanthu ŵakalembanga kale vikulongora waka ivyo vikachitika, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakulemba mdauko ŵakukolerana pa fundo zichoko waka.

Aristotle wakababika mu 384 B.C.E. ku Stagira, Chalcidice, mtunda wa makilomita 55 kumafumiro gha dazi kwa msumba wa Tesalonika. Wiske wake, Nicomachus, wakaŵa dokotala wa Themba Amyntas la ku Makedoniya. Apo wakaŵa muwukirano, Aristotle wakasambira vya umoyo na munkhwala kufuma kwa awiske. Ŵapapi ŵa Aristotle wose ŵakafwa apo wakaŵa na vilimika pafupifupi 13, ndipo Proxenus wa ku Atarneus ndiyo wakaŵa mulinda wake. Nangauli pasono palije vinandi vyakukhwaskana na umoyo wa Aristotle apo wakaŵa mwana, kweni wakwenera kuti wakakhalako kanyengo kanyake mu nyumba ya ufumu wa Makedoniya, uko wakamba kucezga na ŵanthu ŵa ufumu wa Makedoniya.
Apo wakaŵa na vyaka 17 panji 18, Aristotle wakasamira ku Ateni kuti wakalutilire kusambira pa sukulu ya Plato. Wakwenera kuti wakakumanapo na vinthu vyamabuchi ivyo vikachitika ku Eleusinian Mysteries. Aristotle wakakhala mu Ateni vyaka pafupifupi 20 pambere wandafumeko mu 348/47 B.C.E. Nkhani yakukhwaskana na kufuma kwake yikulongora kuti wakakhuŵara na ivyo vikachitikanga ku sukulu iyi apo muwuso wake ukaluta kwa Speusippus, mwana wa mubali wa Plato. Pamanyuma pake Aristotle wakaluta na Xenocrates ku nyumba ya mubwezi wake Hermias wa ku Atarneus ku Asia Minor. Pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya Hermias, Aristotle wakaluta na msambiri wake Theophrastus ku cirwa ca Lesbos, uko ŵakasambira vyakumera na vyamoyo vya pa cirwa ici. Apo wakaŵa ku Lesbos, Aristotle wakatora Pythias, mwana wa Hermias panji muzukuru wake. Wakababa mwana msungwana, uyo ŵakamuthya zina lakuti Pythias. Mu 343 B.C.E., Philip II wa ku Makedoniya wakachema Aristotle kuti waŵe msambizgi wa mwana wake Alexander.

Aristotle ndiyo wakaŵa mulara wa sukulu ya ku Makedoniya. Apo Aristotle wakaŵa ku nyumba yacifumu ku Makedoniya, wakasambizga Alekizanda kweniso mathemba ghanyake ghaŵiri: Ptolemy na Cassander. Aristotle wakaciska Alexander kuti watore vyaru vya kumafumiro gha dazi, ndipo Aristotle nayo wakatemwanga ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake. Mu ciyelezgero cimoza cakumanyikwa comene, wakaphalira Alexander kuti waŵe "mulongozgi wa Ŵagiriki na muwusi wa ŵanthu ŵankhaza, kuti wapwelelerenge Ŵagiriki nga ni ŵabwezi na ŵabali ŵake, ndipo waŵapwelelerenge nga ni nyama panji vyakumera". Kuzakafika mu 335 B.C.E., Aristotle wakawelera ku Ateni, ndipo wakazenga sukulu yake yakuchemeka Lyceum. Aristotle wakasambizganga sukulu iyi vyaka 12. Apo wakaŵa ku Ateni, muwoli wake Pythias wakafwa ndipo Aristotle wakatorana na Herpyllis wa ku Stagira. Usange buku la Suda, ilo ni buku ilo likalembeka mu nyengo ya ŵapositole, likuneneska, ndikuti wakwenera kuti wakaŵaso na erômenos, Palaephatus wa ku Abydus.

Chithuzithuzi cha Aristote; buku la Ufumu wa Roma (cha m'ma 100 panji 200 C.E.) la chikozgo cha Lysippos

Nyengo iyi yikaŵa pakati pa 335 na 323 B.C.E. apo Aristotle wakalemba mabuku ghake ghanandi. Iyo wakalemba nkhani zinandi izo zilipo m'paka sono. Mu mabuku agha muli mabuku ghanandi agho ghakalembeka na ŵanthu ŵanandi. Mabuku ghake ghakuzirwa comene ni Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, On the Soul and Poetics. Aristotle wakasambira chomene vya sayansi ndipo wakawovwira chomene ŵanthu pa nkhani ya "kulondezga fundo za mu Baibolo, masamu, sayansi, vyamoyo, vyakumera, makhaliro, ndyali, ulimi, munkhwala, kuvina, na vyakusanguluska".

Kuumaliro wa umoyo wake, Alexander na Aristotle ŵakamba kutemwana cifukwa ca ubwezi uwo wakaŵa nawo na Ŵaperesiya. Ŵanthu ŵanandi mu nyengo yakale ŵakagomezganga kuti Aristotle ndiyo wakacitiska kuti Alekizanda wafwe. Kweni ukaboni wa fundo iyi ngwakuti wakacita ivi pakati pajumpha vilimika vinkhondi na cimoza. Pamanyuma pa nyifwa ya Alexander, ŵanthu ŵa ku Ateni ŵakamba kutinkha Ŵaroma. Mu 322 B.C.E., Demophilus na Eurymedon the Hierophant ŵakayowoya kuti Aristotle wakaŵa wambura kopa Chiuta, ndipo ŵakamuchiska kuti wachimbilire ku nyumba ya anyina ku Chalcis, ku Euboea. Wakafwira ku Chalcis, Euboea, mu chaka chenechicho, ndipo wakasankha Antipater kuti waŵe mulara wake.

 Fundo za kuganiza 

 Vyamaganizo 

Aristotle ndiyo wakalemba buku la Prior Analytics, ndipo ndiyo wakamba kusambira chomene vya vinjeru vya ŵanthu. Kant wakayowoya mu buku lake lakuti Critique of Pure Reason kuti Aristotle ndiyo wakawovwira kuti fundo za Aristotle zifiskike.

 Organon 

+ One of Aristotle's types of syllogism In words  In terms  In equations    All men are mortal.    All Greeks are men.∴ All Greeks are mortal.M a PS a MS a P180px

Ivyo mazuŵa ghano vikuchemeka kuti Aristotle's logic na mitundu yake ya syllogism (nthowa zakugwiliskira ntchito fundo zaunenesko), Aristotle ndiyo wakavichema kuti "analytics". Mazgu ghakuti "logica" wakaghaŵika kuti ghangang'anamuraso kuyowoya. Vinthu vinandi ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikwenera kuti vikaŵako yayi, chifukwa vikalembeka na ŵasambiri kweniso ŵasambizgi. Ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikalembeka mu mabuku 6 ghakuchemeka Organon, ndipo Andronicus wa ku Rhodes panji ŵanyake awo ŵakamulondezganga ŵakalemba mabuku agha mu 40 B.C.Mabuku agha ni agha:
 Categories
 On Interpretation
 Prior Analytics
 Posterior Analytics
 Topics
 On Sophistical Refutations

 thumb | upright | Plato (kumazere) na Aristotle pa cithuzithuzi ico Raphael wakajambura mu 1509 pa The School of Athens. Aristotle wakuyowoya fundo za mu buku lake la Nicomachean Ethics, ndipo wakuyowoya na charu chapasi, kulongora umo wakuwonera vinthu, apo Plato wakuyowoya na kuchanya, kulongora fundo yake ya Theory of Forms, ndipo wakuyowoya na buku lake la Timaeus.
Ntchakumanyikwa yayi umo mabuku agha ghakalembekera, kweni fundo izo zili mu mabuku agha zikafuma mu ivyo Aristotle wakalemba. Likufuma ku fundo zakwamba, kusanda mazgu ghapusu mu vigaŵa, kusanda fundo na vinthu vinyake ivyo vikukolerana mu buku la On Interpretation, na kusanda mitundu yakusuzga chomene, nga ni syllogisms (mu Analytics) na dialectics (mu Topics and Sophistical Refutations). Mabuku ghatatu ghakwambilira agha ndigho ghakovwira chomene pa nkhani ya vinjeru vya ŵanthu. Buku la The Rhetoric likusangikamo yayi, kweni likuyowoya kuti likuthemba pa Nkhani.

 Vinthu vyakuthupi 

Lizgu lakuti "metaphysics" likwenera kuti likapangika na mulembi munyake wa m'ma 100 C.E. uyo wakawunjika mabuku gha Aristotle mu buku la Metaphysics. Aristotle wakalimanya kuti "filosofi yakwamba", ndipo wakalipatura ku masamu na sayansi ya cilengiwa (physics) nga ni filosofi ya kughanaghanirapo (theoretikē) iyo ni "ciuta" ndipo yikusanda vya Ciuta. Mu buku lake la Metaphysics (1026a16) wakalemba kuti:

 Chinthu 

Mu buku lake la Metaphysics (Buku VII), Aristotle wakalongosora fundo ya substance (ousia) na essence (to ti ên einai, "icho chikaŵa kuti chiŵeko") ndipo wakati chinthu chinyake ntchakusazgikana na vinthu vinyake. Mu buku la nambara 8, wakuyowoya kuti vinthu ivyo vili mu thupi ni vyakuthupi. Mwaciyerezgero, vinthu vya nyumba ni njerwa, malibwe, mathabwa, na vinyake, panji cilicose ico cikupangiska nyumba iyo yilipo, apo kawonekero ka vinthu ni nyumba yeneco, panji kuti 'kuvwara mathupi na vinthu vinyake' panji cilicose ico cikulongora kuti cinthu ni nyumba. Fomula ilo likuyowoya za vigaŵa ivi likuyowoya za vinthu, ndipo fomu iyo yikuyowoya za upusikizgi yikuyowoya za umo vinthu viliri.

 Kuwona vinthu mwakwenelera 

 thumb | upright=1.5 | Vinthu ivyo Plato wakalemba vikaŵa vya palipose, nga umo vikuŵira na apulo. Kwa Aristotle, vinthu na kawonekero ni vinthu vya munthu (hylomorphism).
Nga ni msambizgi wake Plato, Aristotle nayo wakasambizganga vinjeru vya ŵanthu. Fundo ya Aristotle yikulongora kuti vinthu vya pa charu chose (katholou) vili mu vinthu vyapadera (kath' hekaston), vinthu ivyo vili mu charu, apo Plato wakati vinthu vya pa charu chose ni vinthu ivyo vikuyana waka. Kwa Aristotle, "kawonekero" kakaŵa waka ka vinthu ivyo vikuchitika, kweni "kaŵa ka vinthu" mu chinthu chinyake.

Plato wakati vinthu vyose vili na kawonekero kake, ndipo kawonekero kake nkhanthu kanyake panji kukolerana na vinthu vinyake. Mwaciyerezgero, para munthu wakulaŵiska pa cipambi, wakuwona cipambi, ndipo wangasanda kawonekero kake. Pa mphambano iyi, pali apulo limoza na mtundu unyake. Kweniso munthu wangaŵika apulo pafupi na buku, mwakuti buku na apulo viŵe pafupi. Plato wakayowoya kuti pali mitundu yinyake ya vinthu ivyo vikuchitika pa charu chose. Mwaciyelezgero, cingaŵa kuti palije ciwemi ico cilipo, kweni "ciwemi" ni cigaŵa ca vinthu vyose. Aristotle wakakolerana yayi na Plato pa fundo iyi, wakati vinthu vyose ivyo vikuchitika pa charu chapasi vikuchitika mu nyengo yinyake, ndipo palije vinthu ivyo vikuchitika pa charu chapasi ivyo vikukolerana yayi na vinthu ivyo vikaŵako kale. Kweniso Aristotle wakakolerana yayi na Plato pa nkhani ya malo agho kuli vinthu vyose. Apo Plato wakayowoyanga za umo vinthu viliri kupaturako ku vinthu ivyo vilimo, Aristotle wakati vinthu vyose ivyo vilipo vikukolerana na ivyo vilipo. Ntheura, kuyana na Aristotle, kawonekero ka maapulo kali mu maapulo ghose, m'malo mwa kawonekero ka vinthu vinyake.

 Umo vinthu vingaŵira nadi 
Pakuyowoya za umo vinthu vikusinthira (kinesis) na vifukwa vyake, nga umo wakulongosolera mu buku lake lakuti Physics and On Generation and Corruption (319b ̇320a), wakupambaniska pakati pa ivyo vikwiza (genesis, kung'anamulikaso kuti'mphapu') na:

 Kukura na kuchepa, ndiko kuti, kusintha kwa unandi.

 Kusintha kwa malo, ndipo

 Kusintha, ndiko kuti, kusintha kwa mikhaliro.

 thumb | Aristotle wakayowoya kuti munthu wangasambira kuvina para wangakwaniska.

Kuŵako ni kusintha uko chinthu icho chasintha chikusintha. Mu kusintha uku, wakambiska fundo ya nkhongono (dynamis) na unenesko (entelecheia) mu vinthu na kawonekero. Para tikuyowoya za nkhongono, tikung'anamura kuti chinthu chinyake chingachita panji kuchitapo kanthu usange vinthu vili makora ndipo palije icho chikutondeska. Mwaciyelezgero, mbuto ya cinthu ico cili mu dongo yikuŵa cinthu ico cikukura, ndipo para palije ico cikukanizga, cikuŵa cinthu ico cikukura. Vinthu ivyo vingaŵako vingaŵa kuti 'vikuchita' (poiein) panji 'vingachitikaso' (paschein), ndipo vingaŵa kuti vili kubabika panji kusambira. Mwaciyelezgero, maso ghali na nkhongono ya kuwona (kucita vinthu mwakuyana na umo munthu wakughanaghanira), kweni munthu wangamanya kuseŵera seŵero para wasambira (kucita maseŵero). Cakucitika nchakuti umaliro wa nkhongono ukufiskika. Cifukwa cakuti umaliro (telos) ndiwo nkharo ya kusintha kose, ndipo nkhongono zilipo cifukwa ca umaliro, ntheura unenesko ndiwo umaliro. Para tikughanaghanira za ciyelezgero cakwambilira, tingayowoya kuti cinthu ico cikucitika para cinyama cacita cinthu cimoza ico cinyama cikucita.

Kuyowoya mwakudumura, vinthu ivyo ŵakugwiliskira nchito kupanga nyumba vingaŵa kuti ni nyumba, ndipo mulimo wa kuzenga na umo nyumba yaumaliro yizamuŵira ni vinthu vyaunenesko, ivyo ni cifukwa caumaliro panji umaliro. Kufuma apo, Aristotle wakalutizga na kuyowoya kuti vinthu ivyo vikuchitika nadi ndivyo vikwamba kuchitika pambere vindachitike. Aristotle wakayezga kumazga suzgo la umo vinthu viliri, nga ni "ntchivichi chikupangiska munthu kuŵa yumoza"? Pakuti kuyana na ivyo Plato wakayowoya, pali vinthu viŵiri: cinyama na viŵeto viŵiri, kasi munthu wakuŵa wuli cigaŵa cimoza? Ndipouli, kuyana na Aristotle, vinthu ivyo vingawoneka (vinthu) na ivyo vikuwoneka (ntchinthu) ni cinthu cimoza.

 Kuwona vinthu 
Fundo ya Aristotle yakuti vinthu vikuchitika nadi yikung'anamura kuti ivyo wakumanya vikukolerana na ivyo vikuchitika mu charu, ndipo vikukwelera ku kumanya vinthu vyose, apo Plato wakati ivyo wakumanya vikwamba na kumanya vinthu vyose (panji maghanoghano) ndipo vikukwelera ku kumanya vinthu vinyake ivyo vikukolerana na ivyo vikuchitika. Aristotle wakugwiliskira ntchito viyelezgero pakuchita vinthu, apo Plato wakuthemba fundo za mu Baibolo.

 Filosofi ya cilengiwa 
"Vinthu vyakuthupi" ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikulongosora vinthu vinandi ivyo vikuchitika mu chilengiwa, kusazgapo vinthu ivyo pasono vikumanyikwa na sayansi ya vyaumoyo na sayansi zinyake. Kuyana na mazgu gha Aristotle, "nthanthi zacilengiwa" ni munthavi wa vinjeru vyacilengiwa uwo ukuwona vinthu ivyo vikucitika mu caru, ndipo ukuŵa na vigaŵa ivyo lero vikucemeka physics, biology, na vinyake. Ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikawovwira ŵanthu ŵanandi chomene. Aristotle wakati vinjeru ni "sayansi". Ndipouli, mazgu ghakuti sayansi agho wakayowoya ghakupambana na ghakuti "masambiro gha sayansi". Kwa Aristotle, "sayansi yose (dianoia) njakovwira, yakulembeka, panji ya vinjeru" (Metaphysics 1025b25). Sayansi yake yikusazgapo nkharo na ndyali; sayansi yake ya vyamasalimo yikusazgapo kusambira vya maluso, kusazgapo vyamasalimo; sayansi yake ya vyamasalamusi yikusazgapo sayansi ya physics, mathematics na metaphysics.

 Physics 
 thumb | The four classical elements (fire, air, water, earth) of Empedocles and Aristotle illustrated with a burning log. The log releases all four elements as it is destroyed.

 Five elements 

Mu buku lake lakuti On Generation and Corruption, Aristotle wakayaniska vinthu vinayi ivyo Empedocles wakayowoya, vyakuti caru, maji, mphepo, na moto, na vinthu viŵiri ivyo ŵanthu ŵakumanya, moto, kuzizima, kuthukira, na kuuma. Mu ndondomeko ya Empedoclean, vinthu vyose vikapangika na vinthu vinayi ivi. Aristotle wakasazgirapo mzimu wakucemeka ether, uwo ni mzimu wa Ciuta uwo ukupangiska vinthu vya kucanya, nyenyezi, na mapulaneti.

+ Aristotle's elements Element / /  Motion  Modern stateof matterEarthDownSolidWaterDownLiquidAirUpGasFireUpPlasmaAether(divinesubstance)—Circular(in heavens)Vacuum

 Motion 

Aristotle wakalongosora za mitundu yiŵiri ya vyakuchitika: "vyakofya" panji "vyambura kwenelera", nga ni malibwe agho ghakuponyeka mu buku la Physics (254b10), kweniso "vyakuchitika", nga ni vinthu ivyo vikuwa mu buku la On the Heavens (300a20). Para munthu wakuchita vinthu mwakofya, para wakaleka waka kuchitiska, wakuleka kuchitaso vinthu vinyake. Para tapulikiska fundo iyi, tingamanya kuti nga umo Aristotle wakayowoyera, vinthu vizito vikukhumbikwira nkhongono zinandi kuti visendelere. Ici cikung'anamura kuti ciyerezgero ici

 ,

incorrect in modern physics.

Cinthu ico cikupangiska kuti vinthu viŵe makora cikuthemba pa umo vinthu viliri: Eteri wakuzingilira mtambo, apo vinthu vinayi vya Empedoclean vikukwelera muchanya (nga ni moto) panji pasi (nga ni caru) uko vikukhala.

Malango gha Aristotle ghakukhwaskana na kwenda. Iyo wakati vinthu vikughanda mwaluŵiro chomene kuluska uzito wake ndipo vikughanda mwakuyana waka na unandi wa maji agho vili mu maji. Ici nchigaŵa cakwenelera ca vinthu ivyo vikwenda mu maji panji mu mphepo.

Mu buku lake la Physics (215a25), Aristotle wakalemba dango la unandi, lakuti mlingo wa v, wa thupi ilo likuwa, ukuyana waka na uzito wake, W, ndipo ukuyana waka na unandi, ρ, wa maji agho likuwa;


Aristotle wakang'anamuranga kuti para munthu wali mu malo ghambura kanthu, wakuwa mwaluŵiro chomene. Ŵanthu ŵakuyowoya vyakupambana pa nkhani ya usange Aristotle wakakhumbanga kuyowoya malango ghakukhwaskana na unandi wa vinthu. Henri Carteron wakagomezganga kuti fundo ya Aristotle ya nkhongono njakovwira, kweni ŵanyake ŵakukana fundo iyi.

Archimedes wakanozga fundo ya Aristotle yakuti mathupi ghakusendelera ku malo ghake ghakupumulirako; maboti gha visulo ghangayandukira para ghakusintha maji ghakukwana; mu ndondomeko ya Archimedes, kuyandukira kukuthemba pa unandi na unandi wa chinthu, ndipo nga umo Aristotle wakaghanaghaniranga yayi, umo chili kupangikira.

Ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikakhwaska chomene ŵanthu m'paka mu nyengo yaumaliro. John Philoponus (mu nyengo yakale) na Galileo (mu nyengo ya mazuŵa ghano) ŵakayowoya kuti ŵakalongora kuti ivyo Aristotle wakayowoya kuti chinthu chikuru chikuwa luŵiro chomene kuluska chinyake ntchautesi. Carlo Rovelli wakayowoya fundo yinyake iyo yikususkana na fundo iyi. Iyo wakati fundo ya Aristotle yakuti vinthu vikwenda makora yikukolerana na fundo yakuti vinthu ivyo vikuŵa mu malo gha gravity pa charu chapasi vikuŵa mu maji nga ni mphepo. Mu cigaŵa ici, mathupi ghakututuŵa agho ghakuwa nyengo zose ghendanga luŵiro comene kuluska mathupi ghapusu, ndipo ghakuwa pacoko comene mu malo ghakututuŵa.

Newton wakalongosora kuti para munthu wakugwiliskira ntchito nkhongono ya nkhongono iyi, wakuŵa na nkhongono yakuwuskira vinthu mu malo ghake. Kweni Aristotle wakati para munthu wakugwiliskira ntchito nkhongono iyi, wakuŵa na nkhongono yakuwuskira vinthu mu malo ghake.

 Vifukwa vinayi 

 thumb | upright=1.5 | Aristotle wakayowoya kuti chinthu chikupangika chifukwa cha vinthu vinayi: pa tebulo, nkhuni izo zikugwiliskirika ntchito (kanthu ako kakupangiska kuti chinthu chipangike), umo chili kupangikira (kanthu ako kakupangiska kuti chinthu chipangike), vinthu ivyo vikugwiliskirika ntchito (kanthu ako kakupangiska kuti chinthu chipangike makora), kweniso chifukwa icho chikuchitira vinthu vinyake.

Aristotle wakati pali vinthu vinayi ivyo vikupangiska kuti vinthu vichitike. Lizgu lakuti aitia likung'anamulika kuti "cifukwa", kweni ni nyengo zose yayi apo vinthu vikucitika mu nyengo yimoza..
 Cinthu ico cikupangiska cinthu cikulongosora vinthu ivyo vilipo. Ntheura, mathabwa ndigho ghakupangiska kuti paŵe thebulu. Fundo njakuti tichitengepo kanthu yayi. Cikung'anamura kuti cimayi cimoza cikugadabura cinyake yayi.
 Cinthu ico cikupangiska kuti vinthu viŵe nthena ni umo vinthu viliri. Likutiphalira umo cinthu ciliri, kuti cinthu cikulongosoreka na ng'anamuro lake, umo ciliri, umo ciliri, umo ciliri nadi, cigaŵa cake cose, umo ciliri, panji ciyelezgero cake cikuru. Likuyowoya za vifukwa ivyo vikupangiska vinthu mu fundo za mu Baibolo panji mu malango ghanyake, pakuti vyose (mwachiyelezgero, makrostructure) ni vifukwa ivyo vikupangiska vinthu vinyake. Kuyowoya mwakupulikikwa makora, cifukwa ico munthu wakupangira cikozgo ni maghanoghano agho wakuŵa nagho. Cakuwonerapo ciwemi comene ca cifukwa ico munthu wakupangira vinthu ni maghanoghano agho munthu wakucita kupanga vinthu, nga ni kujambura vinthu.
 Cinthu ico cikupangiska kuti vinthu visinthe ni "cinthu cakwamba", panji ico cikupangiska kuti vinthu visinthe. Likulongosora 'ivyo vikupangiska kuti vinthu viŵe makora na ivyo vikupangiska kuti vinthu visinthe' ndipo likulongora kuti pali vinthu vyakupambanapambana ivyo vikupangiska kuti vinthu visinthe, kwali ni vyamoyo panji yayi. Pakuyowoya za umo ŵanthu ŵakupulikiskira fundo yakuti pali vifukwa na umaliro, fundo iyi yikung'anamura kuti "vifukwa" ni munthu panji vinthu vinyake ivyo vikuchitika. Para pali ma domino ghaŵiri, para yimoza yawa, yimoza nayo yikuwa. Ku vinyama, ciŵaro ici cikusazgikana na umo cikukulira kufuma ku sumbi na umo thupi likugwilira nchito.
 Chifukwa chaumaliro (telos) ni cilato cake, cifukwa ico cinthu ciliripo panji cakucitikira, kusazgapo vyakucita na vyakucita ivyo vili na cilato ndiposo ivyo vikucitika mwakuyana na umo vinthu viliri. Cinthu ico cikupangiska cinthu cinyake kuti cicitike ni cilato ico cinthu ici cikwenera kufiska. Fundo iyi yikusazgapo fundo za mazuŵa ghano izo zikulongora kuti munthu wali na khumbo. Para vikuyowoya za vyamoyo, chikung'anamura kuzgoŵera umoyo unyake.

 Kuwona vinthu 

Aristotle wakalongosora ivyo wakachita pakusanda vinthu vya mu maso. Chiŵiya ichi chikaŵanga na chipinda chamdima icho chikaŵa na chijaro chichoko icho chikapelekanga ungweru. Wakawona kuti nanga wangaŵa na kawonekero wuli, kawonekero ka dazi kakulutilira kuŵa kazingilika. Wakayowoyaso kuti para munthu wakusazgirako mtunda pakati pa jiso lake na jiso la cikozgo, cikozgo cikukura comene..

 Mwaŵi na kuzgoka 

Kuyana na Aristotle, vinthu vinyake vikuchitika mwamabuchi panji mwamabuchi. Vinthu ivyo vikuchitika mwangozi vikuchitika mwangozi. Paliso mwaŵi unyake uwo Aristotle wakuwuthya kuti "mwaŵi", uwo ukuyowoya waka za nkharo ya ŵanthu.

 Sayansi ya vya mu mlengalenga 

Aristotle wakasuska fundo ya Democritus yakuti mtambo wa Milky Way uli na "nyenyezi izo caru cikubenekelera na ungweru wa dazi". Iyo wakati usange "dazi likuru kuluska caru ndipo mtunda uwo ulipo pakati pa nyenyezi na caru ngukuru comene kuluska dazi, ipo... dazi likuŵala pa nyenyezi zose ndipo caru cikubenekelera yayi".

 Geology na sayansi ya cilengiwa 

 thumb | Aristotle wakawona kuti malo gha mu virwa vya Aeolian ghakasintha pambere vula yindaphye.
Aristotle wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakwambilira kulemba ivyo ŵakawona. Wakayowoya kuti kusintha kwa malo kukucitika mwakucedwa comene mwakuti munthu yumoza wangaviwona yayi. Charles Lyell, wakalongosora kuti Aristotle wakalongosora umo vinthu vikasinthira, kusazgapo "maziŵa agho ghakawomira" na "mapopa agho ghakamira mu milonga". Aristotle wakawonaso vinthu vinandi vyakukhwaskana na umo maji ghakwendera kweniso umo vinthu vikuŵira pa charu chapasi. Mwaciyelezgero, wakawona kuti para maji gha mu nyanja ghakutentheka, maji gha mu nyanja ghakusunkhunyika, ndipo nyanja zikusunkhunyikaso na vula.

 Vya umoyo 

 thumb | upright | Pakati pa vinthu vinandi ivyo Aristotle wakachita pakusanda vyamoyo, wakalongosora vya ciŵiya ca hectocotyl ico cikupanga viŵeto vya viyuni ivi.

 Kafukufuku wakukhazikika 
Aristotle ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba kusambira vya umoyo, ndipo wakalemba vinandi vyakukhwaskana na umoyo. Wakakhala vyaka viŵiri kuti wawone na kulongosora vyamoyo vya ku Lesbos na vyakumwera. Ivyo wakalemba mu buku lake lakuti History of Animals, Generation of Animals, Movement of Animals, and Parts of Animals, vikukolerana na ivyo wakawona, ivyo ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakumanya vinandi, nga mbalimi ŵa njuchi na ŵalovi, ŵakayowoya, kweniso ivyo ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakufuma ku vyaru vinyake ŵakuyowoya. Ivyo wakalemba vyakukhwaskana na vyakumera na vinyama ni vyacilendo: mabuku ghake ghakukhwaskana na vyakumera ghali kutayika, kweni mabuku ghaŵiri ghakukhwaskana na vyakumera gha Theophrastus, uyo wakaŵa msambiri wake, ghachalipo.

Aristotle wakalemba za vyamoyo vya mu nyanja ivyo vikawonekanga pa Lesbos na ivyo ŵalovi ŵakakora. Wakulongosora mwakukwana za somba za sumbi, magesi, na somba za nkhonyo. Wakulongosoraso za viyuni vinyake nga ni viyuni vya maphapu (octopus na paper nautilus). Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakagomezga yayi ivyo wakayowoya pa nkhani ya mawoko gha viyuni vyambura mawoko, ivyo vikagwiranga ntchito pakuseŵa. Wakalongosora makora umo viŵaro vinayi vyakunthazi vya nyama izo zikukhweŵa vikuŵira, kweniso umo viŵaro ivi vikuŵira para munthu wafwa.

Iyo wakuti thupi la nyama likukolerana makora na umo likugwilira ntchito, ntheura pakati pa viyuni, kankhongono ako kakukhala mu mathipa gha mathipa ghapusu ndipo kakukora somba, kali na singo yitali, malundi ghatali, na nthonga zakuthwa nga ni mkondo, uku bakambuku awo ŵakuthunda ŵali na malundi ghafupi na malundi gha viŵegha. Darwin nayo wakawona kuti pali mphambano pakati pa vinyama vyakupambanapambana, kweni wakakolerana yayi na Aristotle. Ŵanthu ŵanandi mazuŵa ghano ŵakuwona kuti ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikulongora kuti vinthu vikachita kusintha kufuma ku vinyake. Kuyana na Aristotle, vinthu ivyo vikuchitika mwamabuchi vikuyana waka na kuthukira kwa nyengo yakuzizima. Ntheura wakasuskanga fundo ya Empedocles yakuti vyamoyo na viŵaro vyawo vikuŵa na "umoyo". Kuti wayowoye maghanoghano ghake mu mazgu gha mazuŵa ghano, palije apo wakayowoyapo kuti vyamoyo vyakupambanapambana vingaŵa na dada yumoza, panji kuti mtundu unyake ungasintha kuŵa unyake, panji kuti mitundu yinyake yingamara.

 Nthowa ya sayansi 
 thumb | left | upright=1.4 | Aristotle wakamanya kuti para munthu wakura, thupi lake likukwera, kweni para wakura wakwamba kubaba. Wakayowoya unenesko pa ivyo wakayowoyerathu, nanga vingaŵa vya vinyama vyakumera.

Aristotle wakachitanga viyezgo nga umo ŵanthu ŵakuchitira mazuŵa ghano yayi. Wakagwiliskiranga ntchito lizgu Lachigiriki lakuti pepeiramenoi kuti walongosore umo vinthu viliri, panji kuti umo ŵakuchitira pakusanda vinthu nga nkhupima. Mu buku lakuti Generation of Animals, wakusanga chiŵiya cha nkhuku icho chili na nthumbo ndipo wakuchijura kuti wawonenge umo mtima wa chiŵaro ichi ukuwira.

M'malo mwake, wakasanda vinthu mwakupambana na umo ŵanthu ŵakughanaghanira. Nthowa iyi njakumanyikwa chomene mu sayansi ya vinthu vyamoyo mazuŵa ghano, para ŵanthu ŵamanya vinandi pa nkhani yinyake nga ni genomics. Likuŵa lakugomezgeka yayi nga umo viliri na sayansi, kweni likulongosora fundo zakukhorweska na kulongosora ivyo vikuchitika. Mu fundo iyi, ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikukolerana na sayansi.

Ivyo Aristotle wakasanga na kulemba vikamovwira kuti wamanye malango ghanandi ghakukhwaskana na umoyo wa viyuni ivyo wakasambiranga. Vinyake mwa vinthu ivi ni ivi: Para munthu wakura, chiŵeto chikukwera, ntheura njovu yikuŵa na ŵana ŵachoko chomene (kanandi yumoza pera) kuluska mbeŵa. Umoyo wa njovu ukukura para zaŵa na nthumbo, kweniso para zaŵa na thupi likuru. Mwaciyelezgero caumaliro, para munthu wakukhala nyengo yitali, wakuŵa na ŵana ŵacoko comene.

 Kusandula vyamoyo 

thumb |Aristotle wakalemba kuti nthumbo ya somba iyi yikaŵa na chingwe icho chikayegheka ku chiŵaro chinyake (placenta), nga ni nyama yinyake yapachanya.

Aristotle wakalemba mitundu ya vinyama yakujumpha 500, ndipo mu buku lake la History of Animals wakalemba mitundu iyi kuti yiŵe yakufikapo. Vinyama ivi vikaŵa na magulu 11, kufuma pa viŵeto ivyo vikaŵa na nkhongono chomene kufika pa viŵeto ivyo vikaŵa na nkhongono zichoko chomene. Vinyama vikaŵa pachanya pa vyakumera, ndipo vyakumera navyo vikaŵa pachanya pa visomba. Iyo wakalemba kuti viŵeto vyambura msana ni "vyamoyo vyambura ndopa". Viŵeto ivyo vikaŵa na ndopa vikagaŵikanga mu viŵeto vyamoyo (vyakumera), na vyakumera (viyuni, vinyama vyakukhwaŵa, na somba). Viyuni ivyo vikaŵavya ndopa vikaŵa vibenene, vibenene (vyambura vibenene) na vibenene. Iyo wakawona kuti vinyama vikukolerana yayi na maselo, ndipo wakawona kuti pali vinyake ivyo vikupambana na maselo agha. Munthu munyake uyo wakusanda vya umoyo wa mazuŵa ghano wakuwona kuti ivyo Aristotle wakalemba ni vyautesi. Ŵanthu awo ŵakusanda vya sayansi ŵakuti Aristotle wakakhumbanga yayi kusambira vya vinyama, kweni awo ŵakasambira vya vinyama mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵakaghanaghana vyakupambana. Iyo wakagomezganga kuti vinthu vyose ivyo vikucitika mu cilengiwa vikulongozgeka na cilato ico vili na cilato..

+ Aristotle's Scala naturae (highest to lowest) Group  Examples(given by Aristotle)  Blood  Legs  Souls(Rational,Sensitive,Vegetative)  Qualities(–,–)ManManwith blood2 legsR, S, V, Live-bearing tetrapodsCat, harewith blood4 legsS, V, CetaceansDolphin, whalewith bloodnoneS, V, BirdsBee-eater, nightjarwith blood2 legsS, V, , except  eggsEgg-laying tetrapodsChameleon, crocodilewith blood4 legsS, V,  except scales, eggsSnakesWater snake, Ottoman viperwith bloodnoneS, V,  except scales, eggsEgg-laying fishesSea bass, parrotfishwith bloodnoneS, V, , including eggs(Among the egg-laying fishes):placental selachiansShark, skatewith bloodnoneS, V, , but placenta like tetrapodsCrustaceansShrimp, crabwithoutmany legsS, V,  except shellCephalopodsSquid, octopuswithouttentaclesS, V, Hard-shelled animalsCockle, trumpet snailwithoutnoneS, V,  (mineral shell)Larva-bearing insectsAnt, cicadawithout6 legsS, V, Spontaneously generatingSponges, wormswithoutnoneS, V,  or , from earthPlantsFigwithoutnoneV, MineralsIronwithoutnonenone, 

 Umoyo 

 Mzimu 

 thumb | upright=1.5 | Aristotle proposed a three-part structure for souls of plants, animals, and humans, making humans unique in having all three types of soul.

Aristotle wakalemba mu buku lake lakuti On the Soul (peri psychēs) kuti pali mitundu yitatu ya mzimu ("psyches"): mzimu wa vyakumera, mzimu wakujipulika, na mzimu wa vinjeru. Ŵanthu ŵali na mzimu wavinjeru. Umoyo wa munthu uli na nkhongono za mitundu yinyake: Nga ni mzimu wa vyakumera, ungakura na kujipwelelera; nga ni mzimu wakujipulika, ungapulikiska vinthu na kusunkhunyika. Cinthu capadera comene ico munthu wali naco, nchakuti wakumanya kupokelera vinthu vinyake na kuviyaniska.

Kuyana na Aristotle, mzimu ni wunthu. Pakuti vyamoyo vyose ni vinthu vyakuyana waka, ntheura vyamoyo vili na mikhaliro iyo yikovwira kuti viŵe na nkhongono zakwendera. Mwakupambana na ŵavinjeru ŵakwambilira, kweni mwakuyana na Ŵaegupto, iyo wakaŵika mzimu wa munthu mu mtima, m'malo mwa mu wongo. Ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikupambana chomene na ivyo ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakaghanaghananga.

Mu buku lake lakuti On the Soul, Aristotle wakasuska fundo ya Plato yakuti munthu wali na umoyo. Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakususka ivyo Aristotle wakalemba mu buku lake la Timaeus. Ŵanyake ŵakuti munthu uyo wali na mzimu wakuŵa na nkhongono zakwendakwenda. Ŵasayansi ŵa mazuŵa ghano ŵakughanaghana kuti fundo ya Aristotle njakwenelera yayi. Ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikulongora kuti munthu uyo wababikaso wakuyana yayi na thupi lake. Fundo ya Aristotle yakuti mzimu ni cinthu ico cili na umoyo yikukhumba kuti munthu waleke kubabikaso.There's a large scholarly discussion of this dialectic between Plato and Aristotle here: Douglas R. Campbell, "The Soul's Tool: Plato on the Usefulness of the Body," Elenchos 43 (1): 7-27. 2022.

 Kukumbukila 
Kuyana na Aristotle, mu buku lake lakuti On the Soul, kukumbukira ni luso la kusungilira ivyo munthu wakuwona mu maghanoghano ghake na kupambaniska pakati pa "kuwoneka" kwake na ivyo vikacitika kumanyuma. Fundo iyi yikung'anamura kuti munthu wangakumbuka vinthu vinyake. Aristotle wakagomezganga kuti munthu wakusintha thupi lake kuti liŵe na ivyo wakukumbuka. Munthu wakukumbuka vinthu para vinthu ivyo wakuwona panji kupulika ni vyakusuzga chomene kuti wongo wake upokelere nyengo yimoza. Vinthu ivi vikuyana waka na ivyo vikuchitika para munthu wakughanaghana.

Aristotle wakugwiliskira ntchito lizgu lakuti 'kukumbuka' kuti walongosore umo munthu wakukumbukirana vinthu ivyo vikamuchitikira. Kukumbuka vinthu ni vyakumasinda, kuyowoya vyamunthazi ni vyamunthazi, ndipo kupulika ni vya sono. Para munthu wawona vinthu ivyo vyalembeka, wangachita mwamabuchi yayi. Pakukhumbikwa nthowa yakwendamo ndipo yikwenera kuŵa mu ivyo vikacitikanga kumanyuma, kwali ni ivyo vikacitikanga kumanyuma panji ivyo vikucitika sono.

Cifukwa cakuti Aristotle wakagomezganga kuti ŵanthu ŵakupokera vinthu vyakupambanapambana na kuviwona nga ni vinthu ivyo ŵakuwona, ŵanthu ŵakulutilira kupanga vinthu viphya. Kuti munthu wasange vinthu ivi, wakughanaghanirapo pa ivyo wakukumbuka. Para munthu wakuwona cinthu cimoza mu malo mwa cinthu cinyake, wakukana cinthu ici mpaka wasange ico wakupenja. Para munthu wakumbuka vinthu vinyake, wakuŵa na maghanoghano ghakwenelera. Usange "vinthu" ivi vikukhumbikwa, cinthu cimoza cikovwira cinyake. Para ŵanthu ŵakukumbuka ivyo vikaŵacitikira kumanyuma, ŵakukhozga ivyo vikaŵacitikira kumasinda mpaka kufika pa ivyo ŵakukhumba. Ntheura, munthu wakujikumbuska vinthu para wakuŵikapo mtima kuti wasange ivyo wasunga. Ŵanthu pera ndiwo ŵakukumbuka vinthu ivyo ŵakumanya, nga ni manambara na mazgu. Viyuni ivyo vikumanya nyengo vingaŵakumbuska ivyo vikawonanga kale. Kukumbuka kukung'anamura kumanya waka vinthu ivyo tikukumbuka ndiposo nyengo iyo yajumphapo.

 thumb | upright=2.25 | Maghanoghano, kaghanaghaniro, kukumbuka vinthu, maloto, kacitiro mu kaghanaghaniro ka Aristotle. Vinthu ivyo munthu wakuwona vikusungika mu mtima wake (sensorium), ndipo vikukolerana na malango ghake (kuyana, kupambaniska, na kukolerana).

Aristotle wakagomezganga kuti maghanoghano agho ghakumalira pa kukumbuka vinthu vinyake, ghakakolerananga na vinthu vinyake nga ni kuyana, kupambaniska, na kukolerana. Aristotle wakagomezganga kuti vinthu ivyo vikachitika kumanyuma vikubisika mu maghanoghano. Nkhongono yimoza yikuwuska vinthu vyakubisika kuti viwoneke makora. Kuyana na Aristotle, kukolerana ni nkhongono iyo munthu wali nayo mu maghanoghano, iyo yikugwira nchito pa vinthu vyambura kulongosoreka ivyo vikacitika kumasinda, ndipo yikumuzomerezga kuti waŵakumbuke.

 Maloto 

Aristotle wakalongosora za tulo mu buku lake lakuti On Sleep and Wakefulness. Para munthu wakugona, wakugwiliskira ntchito chomene nkhongono zake zakugona. Para munthu wagona, vinthu vyakuzirwa nga nkhughanaghana, kupulika, kukumbuka, vikwenda makora yayi nga umo vikuŵira para wagona. Pakuti munthu wakuŵa wambura mahara para wagona, wangakhumba yayi vinthu vinyake. Kweni para munthu wagona, nkhongono zake zikugwira ntchito mwakupambana.

Para tikulota tikuwona cinthu cinyake yayi. Mu maloto, para munthu wakulota wakupulikiska vinthu vinyake. Aristotle wakalongosora kuti para munthu wakulaŵiska pa maji, ndipo waleka kulaŵiska, chinthu icho wakuwona chikuwoneka kuti chikwenda. Para munthu wawona cinthu cinyake ico cikumukhuŵazga, ndipo cinthu ico cikumukhuŵazga nchakuti wakuciwona yayi, cinthu ici cikuŵa na kawonekero. Para thupi lili maso ndipo maghanoghano ghakugwira ntchito makora, munthu wakukumana na vinthu viphya ivyo vikupangiska kuti wapulikiske vinthu vinyake. Ndipouli, para munthu wakugona, wakuwona vinthu ivyo wawona zuŵa lose. Ntheura, maloto ghakucitika cifukwa ca vinthu ivi. Pakuti vinthu ivyo vikuwoneka mu maloto ni ivyo munthu wakuwona yayi, vikupambana na ivyo vikuchitika para munthu wagona. Para munthu wakugona, maghanoghano ghake ghakusintha. Aristotle wakayaniska munthu uyo wakugona na munthu uyo wakuŵa na citima comene. Mwaciyelezgero, munthu uyo wakutemwa comene munthu munyake wangamba kughanaghana kuti wakuwona munthu uyu kulikose cifukwa cakuti wakutemwa comene. Cifukwa cakuti munthu uyo wagona wakuŵa na maghanoghano ghakwenelera ndipo wakumanya yayi kughanaghana, wakupusikika luŵiro na ivyo wakuwona mu maloto ghake, nga ni munthu uyo wali na citima. Ici cikupangiska munthu kugomezga kuti maloto ngaunenesko, nangauli ngambura kupulikikwa. Mu buku lake la De Anima iii 3, Aristotle wakayowoya kuti munthu wangapanga, kusunga, na kukumbuka vinthu para palije maghanoghano.

Fundo yinyake iyo Aristotle wakayowoya yakukhwaskana na maloto yikususkana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵakagomezganga. Wakayowoya kuti maloto ghakuyowoya vyamunthazi yayi panji kutumika na Ciuta. Aristotle wakaghanaghananga kuti para maloto ghakuyana na ivyo vicitikenge munthazi vikucitika waka mwamwaŵi. Aristotle wakati maloto ghakwamba cifukwa cakuti munthu wakugona. Usange munthu wawona cinthu mu mdima, ici cikuwoneka nga ni loto yayi cifukwa wakaŵa maso apo cikacitikanga. Caciŵiri nchakuti para munthu wakugona, wakuwona vinthu vinyake yayi. Mwaciyelezgero, para munthu wakugona, cijaro cikujalika ndipo mu loto lake wakupulika kuti cijaro cajalika, mbwenu ciyezgo ici nchimoza mwa vinthu ivyo vikucitika yayi. Paumaliro, vithuzithuzi ivyo munthu wakuwona mu maloto vikwenera kuŵa nga ni vinthu ivyo wakawona apo wakaŵa maso.

 Fundo zinyake 
Fundo za Aristotle zikovwira pa nkhani za makhaliro, ndyali, vyachuma, na kuyowoya.

+ Virtues and their accompanying vices Too little  Virtuous mean  Too muchHumblenessHigh-mindednessVaingloryLack of purposeRight ambitionOver-ambitionSpiritlessnessGood temperIrascibilityRudenessCivilityObsequiousnessCowardiceCourageRashnessInsensibilitySelf-controlIntemperanceSarcasmSincerityBoastfulnessBoorishnessWitBuffooneryShamelessnessModestyShynessCallousnessJust resentmentSpitefulnessPettinessGenerosityVulgarityMeannessLiberalityWastefulness

 Makhaliro 

Aristotle wakawonanga kuti nkharo yiwemi njakovwira chomene m'malo mwa kughanaghana waka. Wakalemba mabuku ghanandi ghakulongosora makhaliro ghawemi, chomenechomene buku la Nicomachean Ethics.

Aristotle wakasambizganga kuti nkharo yiwemi yikukolerana na mulimo uwo munthu wakucita. Jiso likuŵa liwemi pekha para likuwona, cifukwa mulimo wake ngwakuwona. Aristotle wakati ŵanthu ŵakwenera kuŵa na mulimo unyake, ndipo mulimo uwu ukwenera kuŵa wa mzimu (psuchē) mwakuyana na fundo (logos). Aristotle wakawona kuti umoyo wa munthu ukuŵa na viwemi vinandi, panji kuti ukuŵa na viheni vinandi. Kuti munthu waŵe wakukondwa, wakwenera kuŵa na nkharo yiwemi (ēthikē aretē).

Aristotle wakasambizganga kuti kuti munthu waŵe na nkharo yiwemi ndiposo wakondwenge, wakwenera kuŵa na mwaŵi wakuti waŵe na nkharo yiwemi. Para ŵanthu ŵawemi ŵakucita nthena, vinjeru vyawo (phronesis) na vinjeru vyawo (nous) vingapulikiskika na kuŵa na nkharo yiwemi comene, vinjeru vya munthu uyo wakughanaghana makora, panji wavinjeru.

 Ndyali 

Padera pa kulemba vya munthu, Aristotle wakalemba vya msumba mu buku lake la Politics. Aristotle wakawonanga msumba kuŵa cigaŵa ca ŵanthu. Nakuti wakawonanga kuti msumba ngwakuzirwa comene kuluska mbumba, iyo nayo njakuzirwa comene kuluska munthu, "pakuti cilicose cikwenera kuŵa cakuzirwa comene kuluska cigaŵa". Wakayowoya kuti "munthu ni nyama ya ndyali" ndipo wakati munthu wakuchita vinthu mwamahara. Aristotle wakaghanaghananga kuti ndyali zili nga ni vyamoyo, m'malo mwa mashini. Aristotle wakawonanga msumba nga ni vinthu vyamoyo, ndipo wakuwoneka kuti ndiyo wakaŵa wakwamba kuwona msumba mu nthowa iyi.


Ivyo ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga pa nkhani ya ndyali ni vyakupambana chomene na ivyo Aristotle wakagomezganga. Nangauli wakamanyanga kuti maufumu ghakurughakuru ghakaŵako, kweni Aristotle wakati msumba (polis) ndiwo ukaŵa chigaŵa cha ndyali. Cilato ca msumba uwu nchakuti uleke kuŵa na vinthu vyambura urunji panji kuti ukhazikike pa vya cuma pera yayi, kweni kuti ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa mu msumba uwu ŵaŵe na umoyo uwemi na kucita vinthu viwemi. Fundo iyi yikupambana na fundo za mazuŵa ghano, izo zikwamba na fundo yakuti ŵanthu ŵakuchita phangano la umoyo wawo wose..

Mu buku la Protrepticus, munthu uyo wakuzunulika kuti 'Aristotle' wakuti:

Pakuŵa msambiri wa Plato, Aristotle wakasuskanga chomene demokilase, ndipo pakulondezga fundo za mu buku la Plato lakuti The Statesman, wakambiska fundo yakuti ŵanthu ŵaŵe na mazaza pa vinthu vyakupambanapambana.

Kuti walongosore makora fundo iyi, Aristotle wakayowoya fundo yakwamba pa nkhani ya mawerengero gha mavoti, nangauli yikalembeka mu malemba..

 Vya Chuma 

Aristotle wakawovwira chomene pa nkhani ya vyachuma, chomenechomene mu vyaka vyapakati. Mu buku lake lakuti Politics, Aristotle wakalemba vya msumba, katundu, na malonda. Kuyana na umo Lionel Robbins wakawonera, umo wakazgoleranga ku ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga vinthu vya ŵanthu ŵekha, vikalongora kuti ŵanthu aŵa ŵakaŵa pakati pa ŵasayansi na ŵasayansi ŵa vyachuma. Aristotle wakagomezganga kuti nangauli vinthu ivyo ŵanthu ŵakuchita paŵekha vingawoneka nga ni viwemi ku ŵanthu, kweni viheni ivi vikufuma ku ŵanthu. Mu buku lake la Politics, Aristotle wakayowoyapo umo ndalama zikambira. Ndalama zikamba kugwira nchito cifukwa cakuti ŵanthu ŵakamba kuthemba ŵanyawo. Ŵanthu ŵakazomerezganga kugura vinthu ivyo vikaŵa vyakovwira kweniso vyakovwira, nga ni visulo na siliva.

Ivyo Aristotle wakayowoya pa nkhani ya malonda na chiwongolara vikawovwira chomene pa nkhani ya vyachuma mu vyaka vyapakati. Iyo wakawonanga malonda ghambura kwenelera, ndipo wakagomezganga kuti malonda gha malonda ghakovwira munthu kusanga phindu. Lekani likugwiliskira nchito vinthu nga ni nthowa yakufiskira cilato, m'malo mwa kuŵa cilato cake. Iyo wakagomezganga kuti malonda ghanthena agha ngaheni. Mwakuyana waka, Aristotle wakawonanga kuti kusanga chandulo na chiwundikiro ntchambura kwenelera, chifukwa ndalama zikovwira munthu kusanga chandulo.

Aristotle wakalemba fundo yakulongosora ntchito ya ndalama iyo yikwenera kuti yikaŵa yiwemi chomene mu nyengo yake. Iyo wakalemba kuti cifukwa cakuti nchambura macitiko kumanya mtengo wa cinthu cilicose mwa kupenda unandi wa vinthu vinyake ivyo ni vyakuzirwa, ntheura pakukhumbikwa nthowa yimoza yakuyezgera. Ntheura, ndalama zikovwira kuti vinthu vyakupambanapambana viŵe pamoza ndipo vikuyana. Wakalutilira kuyowoya kuti ndalama ni zakovwira pa kusinthana vinthu munthazi. Fundo iyi yikung'anamura kuti, "usange tikukhumba yayi cinthu sono, tingacisanga para tacisanga".

 Kuyowoya na kuyowoya 

 thumb | upright=1.35 | The Blind Oedipus Commending his Children to the Gods (1784) yakulembeka na Bénigne Gagneraux. Mu buku lake la Poetics, Aristotle wakugwiliskira ntchito nkhani ya Sophocles yakuyowoya vya Oedipus Tyrannus kuŵa ciyelezgero ca umo nkhani yiwemi yikwenera kuŵira, ndipo wakuŵa na munthu uyo wakwamba makora, kweni wakutaya vyose cifukwa ca kwananga.

Buku la Aristotle la Rhetoric likuti munthu uyo wakuyowoya wangagwiliskira ntchito nthowa zitatu kuti wakhorweske ŵanthu: ethos (kuyowoya na munthu uyo wakuyowoya), pathos (kuyowoya na ŵanthu awo ŵakuyowoya), na logos (kuyowoya na ŵanthu awo ŵakughanaghana makora). Kweniso wakapatura mazgu ghakuphakazgira mu vigaŵa vitatu: epideictic (mazgu ghakuyowoya vya malumbo panji kususka), forensic (mazgu ghakuyowoya vya mulandu panji kuleka mulandu), na deliberative (mazgu ghakuchema ŵategherezgi kuti ŵasankhe chakuchita pa nkhani yinyake). Aristotle wakalongosoraso vifukwa viŵiri vyakulongosolera mazgu: nthimeme (kulongosolera na mazgu) na paradeigma (kulongosolera na ciyelezgero).

Aristotle wakalemba mu buku lake lakuti Poetics kuti sumu za nthano, zachitima, zakukondweska, zachitima, vyakujambura, vyakujambura, sumu, na kuvina, vyose ni vyakuyana waka. Iyo wakugwiliskira nchito lizgu lakuti mimesis pakuyowoya za mulimo wa luso kweniso ivyo munthu wakucita. Aristotle wakati ŵanthu ŵali na luso lwa kulondezga vinthu ivyo vili kulengeka. Pa cifukwa ici, Aristotle wakagomezganga kuti luso la kutolera vinthu likuŵa na ivyo Stephen Halliwell wakuvichema kuti "nthowa zapachanya zakufiskira vilato vyake". Mwaciyelezgero, sumu zikulongora umo sumu ziliri, uku kuvina kukulongora waka umo ziliri, ndipo sumu zikulongora umo mazgu gha mu Baibolo ghaliri. Vinthu ivi vikupambanaso pa nkhani ya kuvilondezga. Mwaciyelezgero, maseŵero ghakusekeska ghakulongora ŵanthu ŵaheni comene kuluska ŵanthu wose, apo masoka ghakulongora ŵanthu ŵaheni comene kuluska ŵanthu wose. Paumaliro, mitundu iyi yikupambana mu umo yikulondezgera vinthu, nga ni nkhani panji nkharo, kusintha panji kuleka kusintha, kweniso maseŵero panji kuleka kuseŵerezga.

Nangauli ŵanthu ŵakugomezga kuti buku la Aristotle la Poetics likaŵa na mabuku ghaŵiri, limoza likulongosora vya vyakusekeska ndipo linyake likulongosora vya masoka. Aristotle wakasambizganga kuti nkhani zachitima zili na vigaŵa vinkhondi na cimoza. Ŵanthu awo ŵakuzunulika mu ntharika iyi ŵakovwira waka kuti ntharika iyi yimare. Masoka ni vyakucita ivyo vikucitiska munthu kuŵa na citima na wofi, ndipo vikupangiska munthu kuti waŵe na citima. Aristotle wakamalizga buku la Poetics na kudumbiskana za nkhani iyo yikuluska zinyake. Iyo wakati chifukwa chakuti masoka ghali na mikhaliro yose ya sumu, panji ghali na mikhaliro yinyake nga ni sumu, ghakukolerana chomene, ndipo ghakufiska chilato chake. Aristotle wakatemwanga kuwunganya vidokoni, nkhani za ŵanthu, na ntharika. Iyo pamoza na awo ŵakasambiranga nawo ŵakatemwanga chomene vidokoni vya mu buku la Aesop.

 Umo ŵakawonera ŵanakazi 

Aristotle wakalongosora kuti para mwanalume wakubaba, mzimu wake ukuwuska mwanakazi. Vinthu ivi vikupangiska kuti thupi la mwanakazi liŵe lakutowa comene mwakuti lileke kufumiska ŵana. Pa cifukwa ici, ŵanthu awo ŵakugomezga kuti ŵanakazi ndiwo ŵakulongozga ŵakuti Aristotle wakutinkha ŵanakazi. Ndipouli, Aristotle wakazirwiskanga comene cimwemwe ca ŵanakazi nga umo wakacitira na ca ŵanalume, ndipo mu buku lake la Rhetoric wakayowoya kuti vinthu ivyo vikupangiska munthu kuŵa wakukondwa vikwenera kuŵa mu ŵanakazi nga umo viliri mu ŵanalume..

 Kuŵa na Nkhongono 

Nangauli pajumpha vyaka vyakujumpha 2,300 kufuma apo Aristotle wakafwira, kweni wachali munthu uyo wakawovwira chomene ŵanthu. Iyo wakawovwira chomene ŵanthu kuti ŵamanye vinandi, ndipo wakambiska vinandi. Munthu munyake wavinjeru zina lake Bryan Magee wakati: "Palije munthu uyo wakumanya vinandi nga ni iyo". Padera pa vinthu vinyake vinandi ivyo Aristotle wakachita, ndiyo wakambiska fundo zaunenesko, wakambiska kafukufuku wakukhwaskana na vyamoyo, kweniso wakawovwira chomene ŵasayansi na ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakamanyanga vya sayansi. Taneli Kukkonen, uyo wakalemba mu buku lake lakuti The Classical Tradition, wakati ivyo wakachita pakwambiska masayansi ghaŵiri ni vyapadera chomene, ndipo wakakhwaska "vigaŵa vyose vya umanyi", kusazgapo visambizgo vya ŵanthu ŵa ku Western vya makhaliro na ndyali, vya cisopa, kuyowoya, na kusanda mabuku. Kukkonen wakati chifukwa cha fundo iyi, munthu waliyose uyo wakusanda vinthu mazuŵa ghano "waŵenge na maghanoghano gha Aristotle. Jonathan Barnes wakalemba kuti: "Para munthu wangalongosora umo Aristotle wakajipulikiranga pamanyuma pa nyifwa, wangaŵa nga wakulemba mbiri ya ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe".

Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakuti Aristotle ndiyo wakambiska sayansi ya vinthu vyakuthupi, sayansi ya umoyo, sayansi ya ndyali, sayansi ya vinyama, sayansi ya viŵeto, malango gha chilengiwa, masambiro gha sayansi, kusambizga ŵanthu kuyowoya makora vinthu, sayansi ya maghanoghano gha ŵanthu, kusanda vinthu, kusanda munthu payekha, sayansi ya vinthu vya mu mlengalenga, na sayansi ya nyengo.

 Pa Theophrastus, uyo wakanjira mu malo ghake 

 thumb | upright | Frontispiece to a 1644 version of Theophrastus's Historia Plantarum, originally written around 300 BC

Theophrastus, uyo wakaŵa msambiri wa Aristotle, wakalemba buku lakuti History of Plants. Mazuŵa ghano napo ŵanthu ŵakugwiliskira ntchito mazgu agha, nga ni carpel kufuma ku carpos, chipambi, na pericarp kufuma ku pericarpion, chipinda cha mbuto. Theophrastus wakafipiranga mtima yayi vinthu ivyo vikupangiska kuti vinthu viŵe makora kuluska Aristotle.

 Pa ŵasambizgi ŵa visopa ŵa ku Greece 

Ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikakhwaska chomene sukulu iyi. Ŵasambiri ŵa Aristotle ŵakaŵa Aristoxenus, Dicaearchus, Demetrius wa ku Phalerum, Eudemos wa ku Rhodes, Harpalus, Hephaestion, Mnason wa ku Phocis, Nicomachus, na Theophrastus. Ivyo Aristotle wakachita vikulongora kuti Alexander Mukuru wakatora ŵanthu ŵanandi pa ulendo wake. Kweniso msambizgi wake wakamuphalira vya mitheto ya ku Peresiya. Nangauli wakaleka kuchindika Aristotle apo wakendanga, kweni wakati wawona kuti vinthu vinandi ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikaŵa vyautesi, wakachita chitima.

 On Hellenistic science 

Pamanyuma pa Theophrastus, Lyceum yikatondeka kupanga mabuku ghanyake. Nangauli ŵanthu ŵakalutilira kutemwa visambizgo vya Aristotle, kweni ŵanthu ŵakaviwonanga mwakupepuka. Mu nyengo ya Ptolemy, apo msumba wa Alexandria ukaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa Ptolemy, ndimo vinthu vikasinthira chomene.

Herophilus wa ku Chalcedon, uyo wakaŵa msambizgi wakwamba wa vyadokotala ku Alexandria, wakasintha maghanoghano gha Aristotle. Herophilus wakalongosoraso mphambano pakati pa misipa na misipa. Nangauli ŵasayansi ŵanyake ŵakale nga ni Lucretius ŵakasuskanga fundo ya Aristotle yakukhwaskana na umoyo, kweni Baibolo likayowoya kuti sayansi ya vinthu vyamunthazi ndiyo yikambiska vinthu ivi. Ernst Mayr wakati: "Pakati pa nyengo ya Lucretius na Galen m'paka mu nyengo ya Renaissance, pakaŵavya chinthu chakuzirwa chomene pa nkhani ya vyamoyo".

 Pa ŵasambizgi ŵa ku Byzantine 

Ŵalembi Ŵachigiriki ŵakawovwira chomene kuti Aristotle waleke kufwa. Ŵakhristu ŵakwambilira awo ŵakayowoyapo vya Aristotle ŵakaŵa Philoponus, Elias, na David, awo ŵakaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 500 C.E. kweniso Stephen wa ku Alexandria, uyo wakaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 600 C.E. John Philoponus wakaŵa na maghanoghano ghakukhwaskana na umoyo wamuyirayira wa charu chapasi, umo vinthu vikwendera, kweniso fundo zinyake za Aristotle. Philoponus wakadandawura na ivyo Aristotle wakasambizganga pa nkhani ya sayansi, ndipo wakalembapo maubudi ghake.

Pakati pajumpha vyaka vinandi, Eustratius na Michael ŵa ku Efeso ŵakalembapo fundo zinyake za mu Baibolo, ndipo zikuwoneka kuti Anna Comnena ndiyo wakalemba.

 Nkhani ya Chisilamu cha mu nyengo ya ŵapositole 


Aristotle wakaŵa yumoza wa ŵanthu ŵakuchindikika chomene ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi. Mabuku ghanandi gha Aristotle agho ghachalipo, kweniso mabuku ghanyake gha Chigiriki agho ghakalembeka pakwambilira, ghakang'anamulika mu Chiarabic ndipo ŵanthu ŵavinjeru, ŵasayansi, na ŵasambizgi ŵa chisopa cha Cisilamu ndiwo ŵakasambiranga. Averroes, Avicenna, na Alpharabius, awo ŵakalemba vya Aristotle, nawo ŵakakhwaska chomene Thomas Aquinas na ŵasambizgi ŵanyake ŵa Chikhristu. Alkindus wakazirwiskanga chomene vinjeru vya Aristotle, ndipo Averroes wakayowoya kuti Aristotle wakaŵa "ciyelezgero" ku ŵanthu wose awo ŵakakhumbanga kusambira vinjeru. Ŵasambiri ŵa visopa vya Cisilamu ŵakacemanga Aristotle kuti "Msambizgi Wakwamba". Pamanyuma, ŵavinjeru ŵa ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi (nga umo viliri mu sumu ya Dante) ndiwo ŵakagwiliskira ntchito zina ili.

 Mu mbili ya  Europe mu nyengo za pakati 
 thumb | upright | left | Chithuzithuzi cha Aristotle wakwera pa Phyllis, Hans Baldung, 1515

Ŵanthu ŵakamba kusambira Chigiriki chakale chomene mu chigaŵa cha Latin West. 600 C.E. m'paka c. 1100 C.E. kupaturako Baibolo la Latin ilo Boethius wakang'anamura. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1200 na 1300, ŵanthu ŵakamba kutemwa chomene Aristotle, ndipo Ŵakhristu ŵa ku Latin ŵakang'anamura Baibolo kufuma mu Chiarabic, nga ni ilo Gerard wa ku Cremona wakang'anamura, kweniso kufuma mu Chigiriki chakwambilira, nga ni ilo la James wa ku Venice na William wa ku Moerbeke. Thomas Aquinas wakati walemba buku lake la Summa Theologica, wakalemba kufuma mu Mabaibolo agho Moerbeke wakang'anamura ndipo wakachemanga Aristotle kuti "The Philosopher". Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakasazga visambizgo vya Aristotle na Chikhristu, ndipo ŵakamba kughanaghana vya Ŵagiriki ŵa mu nyengo yakale. Ŵasayansi ŵanyake nga ni Boethius, Peter Abelard, na John Buridan ŵakagwiranga ntchito ya Aristotle.

Mulembi munyake wa ku England, Chaucer, wakati msambiri wake wakakondwanga para wali na

Nkhani yinyake ya mu nyengo yakale yikulongora kuti Aristotle wakaphalira mwana wake Alexander kuti waleke kwenda na Phyllis, uyo wakaŵa wakutemweka wa themba. Phyllis wakaphalira Alexander mwakubisilizga ivyo wakeneranga kulindizga, ndipo wakawona apo Phyllis wakalongosoranga kuti nkhongono za mwanakazi zingatonda nanga ni vinjeru vya mwanalume uyo wakaŵa wavinjeru comene. Ŵaluso ŵanyake nga ni Hans Baldung, ŵakajambura vithuzithuzi vinandi vya nkhani iyi.

Mulembi munyake wa ku Italy zina lake Dante wakayowoya za Aristotle mu buku lake lakuti The Divine Comedy kuti:
+ DanteL'Inferno, Canto IV. 131–135  TranslationHellI saw the Master there of those who know,
Amid the philosophic family,
By all admired, and by all reverenced;
There Plato too I saw, and Socrates,
Who stood beside him closer than the rest.

Padera pa ŵanyake awo ŵakalembako mabuku gha Dante, Aristotle ndiyo wakawovwira chomene pa nkhani iyi. Dante wakazenga vinjeru vya maseŵero agha na mabuku gha Aristotle, nga umo ŵasembe ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito Aristotle. Dante wakamumanyanga makora Aristotle kwizira mu mabuku agho wakang'anamura kufuma ku Chilatini. Nanga ni apo Virgil wakalongosora umo helo liliri, wakayowoya fundo za mu buku la Nicomachean Ethics.Inferno, Canto XI, lines 70-115, Mandelbaum translation.

 Pa Ciyuda ca mu nyengo za pakati 
Mozesi Maimonides (uyo wakuwoneka kuti wakaŵa munthu wakumanya vinandi comene pa nkhani ya Ciyuda ca mu nyengo yakale) wakazomera cisambizgo ca Aristote kufuma ku ŵasambizgi ŵa Cisilamu ndipo wakalemba buku lake lakuti Guide for the Perplexed. Maimonides nayo wakawonanga Aristotle kuŵa wavinjeru comene kuluska wose awo ŵali kuŵako. Kweniso, mu kalata iyo wakalembera Samuel ibn Tibbon, Maimonides wakati Samuyeli wakeneranga yayi kusambira ivyo ŵanthu ŵavinjeru ŵakalemba pambere Aristotle wandababike cifukwa cakuti ivyo Aristotle wakalemba "ni vyakukwana ndipo ni vyapacanya kuluska vyose ivyo vikalembeka pambere iyo wandababike. Vinjeru vyake, vya Aristotle, ndivyo vikuluska vinjeru vyose vya ŵanthu, padera pa iyo, uyo mzimu wa Ciuta wafika m'paka pa kuŵa nga ni ucimi, ndipo palije cinthu cinyake capadera kuluska ici".Menachem Kellner, Maimonides on Judaism and the Jewish People, p. 77.

 Ŵasayansi Ŵakale 
 thumb | Buku la William Harvey lakuti De Motu Cordis, la mu 1628, likulongora kuti ndopa zikendanga, mwakupambana na umo ŵanthu ŵakaghanaghaniranga.

Mu nyengo yakwambilira, ŵasayansi nga ni William Harvey wa ku England na Galileo Galilei wa ku Italy, ŵakasuska fundo za Aristotle na ŵanyake awo ŵakaghanaghananga nga ni Galen. Harvey wakalongosora umo ndopa zikwendera, ndipo wakalongora kuti mtima ni mphepo yayi, kweni ni mphepo. Galileo wakagwiliskira nchito fundo zakukayikiska kuti wasuske fundo za Aristotle, wakati mathupi ghose ghakuwa mwaluŵiro lumoza, kwali ghaŵe na uzito wuli.

 Pa ŵanthu awo ŵakaghanaghananga vya m'ma 1700 na 1800 
Munthu munyake wa ku Germany, Friedrich Nietzsche, uyo wakaŵako mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, wakasambira vinjeru vya Aristotle pa nkhani ya ndyali. Aristotle wakapatura vyakuchita na kupanga, ndipo wakayowoya kuti ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakwenera kuŵa ŵakujilambika ("ŵazga ŵa chilengiwa"), kweniso kuti ŵanyake ŵaŵe ŵakuzirwa chomene. Martin Heidegger ndiyo wakalongosora makora fundo ya Aristotle, ndipo ni Nietzsche yayi.

Munthu munyake wa ku England, zina lake George Boole, wakazomera fundo za Aristotle, kweni mu buku lake la mu 1854 (The Laws of Thought) wakayowoya kuti fundo izi ni zautesi. Fundo iyi yikovwira masamu kuti ghaŵe na ma equation, ghakovwira kuti ghamare ma equation kweniso kuti ghaŵe ghakwenelera, kweniso yikovwira kuti ghamare masuzgo ghanandi.

Charles Darwin wakawonanga Aristotle kuti ndiyo wakawovwira chomene pa nkhani ya vyamoyo. Mu kalata yinyake iyo wakalemba mu 1882, wakati: "Linnaeus na Cuvier ŵakaŵa ŵachiuta ŵane ŵaŵiri, nangauli ŵakaŵa ŵakupambana, kweni ŵakaŵa waka ŵana ŵa sukulu kwa Aristotle". Kweniso mu buku la On the Origin of Species, Darwin wakalongosora umo vinthu vikasinthira kufuma ku vinyake m'paka ku Aristotle.

James Joyce wakatemwanga chomene Aristotle, uyo wakamumanyanga kuti ni "munthu wamahara comene". Samuel Taylor Coleridge wakati: "Waliyose wakubabika kuŵa Platonist panji Aristotelian. Ayn Rand wakazomerezga kuti Aristotle ndiyo wakamovwira chomene ndipo wakayowoya kuti mu mbiri ya vinjeru vya ŵanthu wangapeleka waka ulongozgi wa "A" ghatatu: Aristotle, Aquinas, na Ayn Rand. Kweniso wakati Aristotle ndiyo wakaŵa wavinjeru chomene. Karl Marx wakati Aristotle wakaŵa "munthu wamahara chomene mu nyengo yakale" ndipo wakamumanyanga kuti "munthu wamahara chomene" kweniso "chisambizgi".F. Novotny, The Posthumous Life of Plato, p. 573Matt Vidal, Tony Smith, Tomás Rotta, Paul Prew, The Oxford Handbook of Karl Marx, p. 215.Judith A. Swanson, C. David Corbin, Aristotle's 'Politics': A Reader's Guide, p. 146.

 Modern rejection and rehabilitation 

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasuska ivyo Aristotle wakalemba. Bertrand Russell wakati: "Vinthu vinandi ivyo ŵanthu ŵakusambira vikamba na kususka visambizgo vya Aristotle". Russell wakati fundo za Aristotle zikaŵa "zakukhozga yayi", ndipo wakayowoya kuti fundo zake "nkhakale chomene nga umo viliri na sayansi ya Ptolemy". Russell wakati maubudi agha ghakachitiska kuti Aristotle waleke kupulikiska ivyo vikachitika kale.

Eduard Jan Dijksterhuis, wakulemba mdauko wa sayansi wa ku Netherlands, wakalemba kuti Aristotle na ŵanyake awo ŵakamuteŵeterapo ŵakalongora kuti sayansi njakusuzga chomene. Mu 1985, Peter Medawar, uyo wakumanya vya umoyo wa ŵanthu, wakayowoya kuti Aristotle wakalemba "vinthu viheni chomene ivyo ŵanthu ŵakayowoyanga, ivyo ŵanthu ŵakawonanga kuti ni viwemi yayi, kweniso ivyo ŵanthu ŵakugomezga".

Kweni kukwambilira kwa vyaka vya m'ma 2000, ŵanthu ŵakamba kumughanaghanira chomene Aristotle. Kukkonen wakati: "Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, Aristotle wakaŵa na nkharo yiwemi chomene. Alasdair MacIntyre wakayezga kusintha ivyo wakuchema kuti mitheto ya Aristote mu nthowa iyo yikususkana na ŵanthu ŵa mu gulu la ŵanthu ŵakujikuzga. Kukkonen wakayowoyaso kuti "vinthu vyakukondweska chomene ivyo Aristotle wakachitanga pakusambizga Alexander" vikalutilira, nga umo vikaŵira mu filimu ya mu 2004 yakuchemeka Alexander.

Ŵasayansi ŵa vinthu vyamoyo ŵachali kukhumba kumanya maghanoghano gha Aristotle. Armand Marie Leroi wakazengaso umoyo wa Aristotle, apo mafumbo ghanayi gha Niko Tinbergen, agho ghakajintha pa vifukwa vinayi vya Aristotle, ghakovwira kusanda nkharo ya vinyama.

 Milimo iyo yikulutilira 

 Corpus Aristotelicum 

 thumb | upright | peji lakwamba la buku la 1566 la Nicomachean Ethics mu Cigiriki na Cilatini

Mabuku gha Aristotle agho ghakapona kufuma mu nyengo yakale, ghakusangika mu buku la Corpus Aristotelicum. Malemba agha, ghakupambana na mabuku gha Aristotle agho ghakazgeŵa. Ŵakuzunurika mu buku la Immanuel Bekker la Royal Prussian Academy (Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica, Berlin, 1831~1870), ilo likujintha pa malemba ghakale gha milimo iyi..

 Kuzgeŵa na kusungika 

Aristotle wakalembanga mabuku ghake pa mipukutu ya papyrus, iyo yikaŵa yakumanyikwa pa nyengo yira. Mabuku ghake ghakupambana mu magulu ghaŵiri: gha "exoteric", agho ghakulembekera ŵanthu wose, na gha "esoteric", agho ghakulembekera sukulu ya Lyceum. Ivyo Aristotle wakalemba vikupambana chomene na ivyo vili kulembeka mu Baibolo. Nangauli mabuku agho ghakazgeŵa ghakulongora kuti ghakalembeka kuti ghazakalembeke pamanyuma, kweni ghanyake agho ghalipo ghali nga ni mabuku gha nkhani izo zikalembeka kuti zilembeke. Ivyo Cicero wakayowoya vya kalembero ka Aristotle kuti "mlonga wa golide" vikwenera kuti vikaŵa vya mabuku agho wakalemba. Fumbo likuru comene pa nkhani ya ivyo Aristotle wakalemba ni lakuti, kasi vikacitika wuli kuti mabuku gha mu Baibolo ghaleke kusangika? Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakugomezga kuti Andronicus wa ku Rhodes wakawunjika mabuku gha Aristotle agho ghakaŵa gha vigaŵa vichokovichoko, ndipo wakaŵapambaniska na mabuku gha Theophrastus na Peripatetics.

 Chiharo 
 Vyakulongola 
Vyakupenta

Ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakumanyikwa chomene nga ni Lucas Cranach the Elder, Justus van Gent, Raphael, Paolo Veronese, Jusepe de Ribera, Rembrandt, na Francesco Hayez, ndiwo ŵakamujambura. Pa vithuzithuzi vyakumanyikwa comene ni ivyo Raphael wakajambura pa nyumba yake yakucemeka The School of Athens, mu Vatican's Apostolic Palace, apo ŵanthu ŵa Plato na Aristotle ŵali pa malo ghakuzirwa comene. Aristotle wa Rembrandt uyo wali na chiŵegha cha Homer nayo ni mulimo wakumanyikwa comene, wakulongora munthu wavinjeru na wachibulumutira Homer uyo wakaŵa muchoko: nga umo Jonathan Jones wakulembera, "ciŵegha ici cikhalilirenge cimoza mwa vyakuzizwiska comene pa caru cose, ndipo cikutikora na kumanya nyengo."

Vyakuŵaja

 Mazina gha ŵanthu 
Mapiri gha Aristotle agho ghali ku Antarctica ghali na zina la Aristotle. Mu buku lake la Meteorology, wakaŵa wakwamba kuyowoya kuti ku chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa Antarctica kuli mtunda ukuru. Aristotle ni crater iyo yili pa mwezi ndipo yili na zina la Aristotle.

 Wonaniso 
 Aristotelian Society
 Conimbricenses
 Perfectionism

 Ukaboni 
 Vyakulemba 

 Citations 

 Sources 
















































































































































 Further reading 
The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following is only a small selection.

 Ackrill, J. L. (1997). Essays on Plato and Aristotle, Oxford University Press.



  These translations are available in several places online; see External links.
 Bakalis, Nikolaos. (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing, .

 Bolotin, David (1998). An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing. Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works.
 Burnyeat, Myles F. et al. (1979). Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics. Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy.


 Code, Alan (1995). Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76.


 De Groot, Jean (2014). Aristotle's Empiricism: Experience and Mechanics in the 4th century BC, Parmenides Publishing, .
 Frede, Michael (1987). Essays in Ancient Philosophy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

 Gendlin, Eugene T. (2012). Line by Line Commentary on Aristotle's De Anima , Volume 1: Books I & II; Volume 2: Book III. The Focusing Institute.
 Gill, Mary Louise (1989). Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity. Princeton University Press.





 Jori, Alberto (2003). Aristotele, Bruno Mondadori (Prize 2003 of the "International Academy of the History of Science"), .

 Knight, Kelvin (2007). Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre, Polity Press.
 Lewis, Frank A. (1991). Substance and Predication in Aristotle. Cambridge University Press.
 Lord, Carnes (1984). Introduction to The Politics, by Aristotle. Chicago University Press.
 Loux, Michael J. (1991). Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
 Maso, Stefano (Ed.), Natali, Carlo (Ed.), Seel, Gerhard (Ed.) (2012) Reading Aristotle: Physics VII. 3: What is Alteration? Proceedings of the International ESAP-HYELE Conference, Parmenides Publishing. .

  [Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R.R.K. Sorabji, eds.(1975). Articles on Aristotle Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth 14–34.]


 Reeve, C. D. C. (2000). Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics. Hackett.


 Scaltsas, T. (1994). Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics. Cornell University Press.
 Strauss, Leo (1964). "On Aristotle's Politics", in The City and Man, Rand McNally.




 External links 



 At the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy:

 At the Internet Classics Archive
 From the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy:




Collections of works

 At Massachusetts Institute of Technology




  Perseus Project at Tufts University
 At the University of Adelaide 
  P. Remacle
 The 11-volume 1837 Bekker edition of Aristotle's Works in Greek (PDFDJVU)


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