German revolution of 1918

The November Revolution () refers to the wave of unrest and political transformation in Germany from late 1918 into 1919 that ended the German Empire and led to the founding of the Weimar Republic. Sparked by the Kiel mutiny and mass strikes, it brought the abdication of Wilhelm II on 9 November 1918 and competing declarations of a republic. Subsequent months saw armed clashes, including the Spartacist uprising in Berlin and the short-lived Bavarian Soviet Republic.

 Background 

 Crisis of late World War I: military stalemate, shortages, and loss of confidence. 
 Growth of workers’ and soldiers’ councils inspired by wartime discontent and socialist ideas. 
 Political split within the German socialist movement (SPD/USPD). 

 Outbreak: Kiel mutiny and the November days (October–November 1918) 

 29–30 October: Sailors at Kiel refuse orders; arrests trigger mass protest. 
 Early November: Councils spread to major cities; general strikes. 
 9 November: Abdication of the Kaiser; Scheidemann proclaims a “German Republic”; minutes later Liebknecht proclaims a “Free Socialist Republic.” 

 Transition of power and Armistice 

 Council of People’s Representatives (Ebert–Scheidemann) forms; armistice signed 11 November 1918. 
 Ebert–Groener pact aligns government with army command to restore order. 

 Escalation and factional conflict (December 1918–January 1919) 

 USPD ministers resign; radicalization within Berlin councils. 
 January 1919 Spartacist uprising crushed by government troops and Freikorps; killings of Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht. 

 Elections and new constitutional order 

 19 January 1919: Elections to the Weimar National Assembly; SPD-center coalition wins a working majority. 
 Weimar Constitution promulgated 11 August 1919. 

 Regional revolutions and counterrevolutions 

 Bavarian Soviet Republic (April–May 1919) declared and suppressed. 
 Unrest in the Ruhr, Bremen, and elsewhere; continuing strikes and putsch attempts. 

 Aftermath and legacy 

 Establishment of a parliamentary republic amid persistent polarization; rise of paramilitaries (Freikorps) and culture of political violence. 
 Long-term debates over “betrayal” vs. “realism” in SPD leadership; memory politics in the Weimar era and beyond. 

 See also 

 German Revolution of 1918–1919
 Kiel mutiny
 Spartacist uprising
 Weimar Republic
 Freikorps

 Notes 

 References 

 Further reading 




 External links 

 Media related to the German Revolution of 1918–1919 at Wikimedia Commons
 Link to digitized primary sources (add).