Neanderthal

The Neanderthal,The word is pronounced without the 'h', and sometimes spelled 'Neandertal'. , also with , and  a species of the genus Homo, was a near relative of our own species. Its scientific name is Homo neanderthalensis or Homo sapiens neanderthalensis. Available on-line

 Discoveries 

 First discoveries 
The first Neanderthal ever discovered was the Engis child from Belgium in 1829. The second discovered was the Forbes Quarry find from Gibralter in 1848. However, scientists had thought these bones came from modern humans.

In August 1856, a worker found parts of a Neanderthal skeleton in a limestone quarry near Düsseldorf, in the Neander Valley of Germany. They first discovered a skull cap, followed by two femurs, five arm bones, part of the left pelvis, and fragments of a shoulder blade and ribs.

This time, scientists recognized that the bones belonged to a new species. Experts Johann Carl Fuhlrott and Hermann Schaaffhausen announced that the bones belonged to an older form of humans. It became known as Neanderthal 1. 

 Later discoveries 
Neanderthal remains have been found in most of Europe south of land covered by ice, including the south coast of Great Britain. Finds have also been made outside of Europe in the Zagros Mountains and in the Levant.

 Evolution & extinction 
Neanderthals perhaps evolved from Homo heidelbergensis (its last common ancestor with Homo sapiens) and split off from modern humans between 700,000 and 300,000 years ago.Ker Than 2006. Scientists decode Neanderthal genes 

Recent research suggests Neanderthals became extinct about 40,000 years ago.Amos, Jonathan 2013. Last-stand Neanderthals queried. BBC News Science/Environment.  Earlier research had suggested a later date. Dating is not an exact science because it can be difficult to date the archaeological sites where Neanderthal remains have been found.

There are a number of theories about why the Neanderthals died out. One says they were unable to adapt to the changing climate. Another says they were unable to successfully compete with the ancestors of modern humans.

 Classification 
Neanderthals used to be classified as a subspecies of modern humans (Homo sapiens neanderthalensis). Now, they are usually classified as a separate human species (Homo neanderthalensis).

 Mental capacity 

 Brain size 
The size of the Neanderthal brain shows that Neanderthals were probably intelligent. On average, they had larger brains than modern humans.Stringer, Chris and Gamble, Clive 1993.In search of the Neanderthals: solving the puzzle of human origins. Thames & Hudson, London, p8183.  

Large brains have their disadvantages. They use lots of energy,The human brain is about 2% of body weight, but uses about 20% of body energy. make the skull more likely to be damaged, and cause difficulties during birth. However, Neanderthals' large brains may have brought them many advantages, like better problem-solving, better social co-operation, language, and tool-making.

 Tool use & art 
Neanderthal flint tools (for example, hand axes) were more finely made than those of early man. They were much less varied and finely made than the neolithic tools of modern man. 

Neanderthals did cave paintings and used shells as decorations. However, known Neanderthal art is much less complex than contemporary art from H. sapiens.Rodriguez-Vidal, Joaquin et al.. 2014.  A rock engraving made by Neanderthals in Gibraltar. PNAS 111 (37) 13301–13306.

 The Divje Babe flute 

The oldest flute ever discovered may be the so-called Divje Babe flute, found in the Slovenian cave Divje Babe I in 1995. It is about 43,100 years old.Nelson D.E. Radiocarbon dating of bone and charcoal from Divje babe I cave, cited by Morley, p. 47Morley, Iain 2003. The evolutionary origins and archaeology of music. Darwin College Research Reports, Cambridge University.   It is from a juvenile cave bear femur at the Divje Babe archaeological site, near a Mousterian hearth. Archaeologists ask two key questions:

Is it a flute? This has been discussed at length.Morley, Iain 2006. Mousterian musicianship? The case of the Divje babe I bone. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 25 (4): 317–333. D'Errico, Francesco et al 1998. A Middle Palaeolithic origin of music? Using cave-bear bone accumulations to assess the Divje Babe I bone 'flute'. Antiquity. 72 (275): 65–79. Neanderthal flute (various contributors; not a refereed journal site)Edgar, Blake 1998. Could Neanderthals carry a tune?. California Wild (California Academy of Sciences) 51 (3).  The best summary is that it is certainly possible for it to be a flute, but it is unproved (not certain).

If it is a flute, was it made by Neanderthals? Again, this is not decided. It is on public display as a flute in the National Museum of Slovenia (Narodni Muzej Slovenije) in Ljubljana. The museum's visitor leaflet says that manufacture by Neanderthals "is reliably proven".The flute from Divje Babe, National Museum of Slovenia, 2005 This is not a general view, and again it is best to describe the idea as "not proven".Holdermann, Claus-Stephan, and Jordi Serangeli 1999. Die 'Neanderthalerflöte' von Divje-Babe: Eine Revolution in der Musikgeschichte? In German. Musica instrumentalis: Zeitschrift für Organologie 2:147–57.Chase, Philip G. & Nowell, April 2002. "Ist der Knochen eines Höhlenbären aus Divje Bebe, Slowenien, eine Flöte des Neandertalers?" [Is a cave bear bone from Divje Babe, Slovenia, a Neanderthal flute?]. In Hickmann, Ellen et al (eds) Studies in Music Archaeology III, Part I. The Archaeology of Sound: Origin and Organisation. Papers from the 2nd Symposium of the International Study Group on Music Archaeology at Monastery Michaelstein, 17-23 September 2000. Rahden: Leidorf. pp. 69–81. .

 Capacity for speech 
For a long time, people have wondered whether Neanderthals could talk. Many people believe they could, because their large brain size would be hard to understand if they could not. 

The discovery of an undamaged Neanderthal hyoid bone supported the idea that Neanderthals could talk. That is because, in modern humans, the hyoid is a support for the voice box. Also, computer analysis has shown that the Neanderthal hyoid was very similar to human hyoids.Hogenboom, Melissa 2013.  Neanderthals could speak like modern humans, study suggests. BBC News Science & Environment. Researchers say "our findings are consistent with a capacity for speech in the Neanderthals".D'Anastasio R. et al 2013.  Micro-biomechanics of the Kebara 2 hyoid and its implications for speech in Neanderthals. PLoS

 Care for others 
In Shanidar Cave, archaeologists found a skeleton of a man with "a disabled arm, deafness and head trauma that likely rendered him partially blind." Still, the skeleton showed that the man had lived a long life. This suggests that his community had cared for him even though he could not hunt.

In 1908 in La Chapelle-aux-Saints, France, scientists found parts of a 50,000-year-old skeleton. According to the Australian Museum:This male individual had lost most of his teeth and his skeleton showed evidence of major injuries and disease including a healed broken hip, and arthritis of the lower neck, back, hip and shoulders. He survived for quite some time with these complaints, which indicates that these people cared for the sick and elderly.

 Burial 
Neanderthals buried their dead, mostly in caves. Some evidence suggests that they used burial rituals.

 Anatomy 

Neanderthal men were about 164–168 cm (5.3 ft) tall and averaged 77.6 kg (171 lbs) in weight. Neanderthal women stood about 152-156 cm (5 ft)  tall and averaged 66.4 kg (146 lbs) in weight.

Compared to modern humans, Neanderthals had a stronger (more robust) build and distinctive features, especially of the skull. They were much stronger than modern humans, especially in the upper body.

Neanderthal long bones and joints are thicker than ours, and some long bones have a slight curve. Both the thickness and the curve suggest the need for more strength than our species.

 Young Neanderthals 
Since 2007, scientists have been able to calculate tooth age using noninvasive imaging of growth patterns in tooth enamel by using x-ray synchrotron microtomography.

This research suggests that Neanderthal children physically developed much more quickly than modern human children. This difference may have existed between the two species as far back as 160,000 years before present, according to an x-ray synchrotron microtomography study of early H. sapiens.

 Fractures 
Neanderthals seemed to suffer a high frequency of bone fractures. Their skeletons show injuries that look like the ones that modern rodeo professionals get. This shows that Neanderthals had frequent contact with large, combative mammals. The fractures suggest they may have hunted by leaping onto their prey and stabbing or even wrestling it to the ground.

 Lifestyle 
Neanderthals lived in Eurasia during the ice ages of the Pleistocene. They hunted large mammals, such as bison, auroch (an ancestor of cattle), deer, reindeer, musk ox and mammoth.

The skulls are slightly larger than Homo sapiens, and this implies intelligence and probably the use of language. The skeleton, on the other hand, suggests they tended to solve their problems (such as hunting) more by force than we do.

Neanderthal stone tools are called Mousterian, and are an advance on the Acheulean tools made by earlier species of man. However, Homo sapiens stone tools are even more varied, and suggest that our species relied more on tools than the Neanderthals did.

Neanderthals were almost exclusively meat eaters, although their diet did include cooked vegetables. They made good tools and lived in complex social groups. 

 References 

 Further reading 
Stringer, Chris and Gamble, Clive 1993. In search of the Neanderthals: solving the puzzle of human origins. Thames & Hudson, London. 
Stringer, Chris and Andrews, Peter 2005. The complete world of human evolution. Thames & Hudson, London.
Dennis O'Neil 2004. Neandertals  retrieved 12/26/2004

 Other websites 

 Smithsonian 
 Archaeology Info 
 Greenwych.ca  - 'Neanderthal Flute: Oldest Musical Instrument's 4 Notes Matches 4 of Do, Re, Mi Scale - evidence of natural foundation to diatonic scale (oldest known musical instrument), Greenwich Publishing
 Neanderthal DNA - 'Neanderthal DNA' Includes Neanderthal mtDNA sequences
 Neanderthal manifactured pitch 
 Homo neanderthalensis reconstruction  - Electronic articles published by the Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History.
 Scientists decode Neanderthal genes 
 Scientists build 'Frankenstein' Neanderthal skeleton
 A Neanderthal's DNA tale 
 How Neanderthal molar teeth grew

Category:Hominins