Constitution of the United States

The United States Constitution is the highest law of the United States of America. It was signed on September 17, 1787 by the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Later, it was put into effect, or ratified, by representatives of the people of the first 13 states.Library of Congress When nine of the states ratified the document, they created a union of sovereign states, and a federal government for that union. That government started on March 4, 1789, which took the place of the Articles of Confederation. The Constitution of the United States is a law that is applied only within the United States, not in other countries.

The Constitution of the United States is the oldest federal constitution now in use. Of all the countries in the world, only San Marino's constitution is in part older, from 1600. Some countries also have an "uncodified" constitution containing older documents, such as the United Kingdom, and also Saudi Arabia, which claims the Quran as its constitution. 

Since 1787, changes have been made to the United States Constitution 27 times by amendments (changes). The first ten of these amendments are together called the Bill of Rights and came into effect in 1791. The most recent, the 27th amendment, came into effect in 1992, although it was proposed already in 1789. Making an amendment is very difficult, and demands a two-thirds majority vote in US Congress and ratification (agreement) by three-fourths of all 50 states. However, the Supreme Court has changed its interpretation of the constitution, which in effect changes what the text means and how it affects other laws, more often than actual amendments. 

 Articles of the Constitution 
When it was signed in 1787, the Constitution had a preamble and seven main parts, called articles.

 Preamble 
The Preamble states:
We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.

The Preamble is not a law. It gives the reasons for writing the Constitution. The Preamble is one of the best-known parts of the Constitution. The first three words, "We the People", are used very often. The six intentions that are listed are the goals of the Constitution.

 Legislative power 
Article One says that the United States Congress (the legislative branch) will make the laws for the United States. Congress has two parts, called "Houses": the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate. This Article says who can be elected to each part of Congress, and how they are elected.

The House of Representatives has members elected by the people in each State. The number of members from each State depends on how many people live there. Each member of the House of Representatives is elected for two years.

The Senate has two members, called the legislators, from each state, no matter how many people live there. Each Senator is elected for six years. The original Constitution allowed the state legislatures to choose the Senators, but this was changed later by the Seventeenth Amendment.

Article One also says how the Congress will do its business and what kinds of laws it can make. It lists some kinds of laws the Congress and the states cannot make.

Article One also makes rules for Congress to impeach and remove from office the President, Vice President, judges, and other government officers.

 Executive power 
Article Two says that the President, Vice President, and executive offices (the executive branch) will carry out the laws made by Congress. This article says how the President and Vice President are elected, and who can be elected to these offices. The President and Vice President are elected for four years by a special Electoral College chosen by the states. The Vice President takes over as President if the President dies, resigns, or is unable to serve.

Article Two also says that the President is the Commander-in-Chief in charge of the United States military. He can make treaties with other countries, but these must be approved by two-thirds of the Senate. He appoints judges, ambassadors, and other officers, but the Senate also must approve these appointments. The President can also veto bills. However, Congress can override the veto and make the bill into a law anyway.

 Judicial power 
Article Three says there will be a court system (the judicial branch), which includes the Supreme Court. The Article says that Congress can decide which federal courts, besides the Supreme Court, are needed.

Article Three says what kinds of "cases and controversies" these courts can decide. It also requires trial by jury in all criminal cases, and defines the crime of treason.

 States' powers and limits 
Article Four is about the states. It says that all states must give "full faith and credit" to the laws of the other states. It also says that state governments must treat citizens of other states as fairly as they treat their own citizens, and must send arrested people back if they have been charged with a crime in another state and fled.

Article Four also says that Congress can make new states. There were only 13 states in 1787. Now there are 50 United States. It says Congress can make rules for Federal property and can govern territories that have not yet been made into states. Article Four says the United States must make sure that each state has a republican form of government, and protect the states from invasion and violence.

 Process of amendment 
Article Five gives two ways to amend, or change, the Constitution. 
Congress can write a change, if two-thirds of the members in each House agree. 
The state governments can call a convention to write changes, although this has not happened since 1787.
Any change that is written by Congress or by a convention must be sent to the state legislatures or to state conventions for their approval. Congress decides whether to send a change to the legislatures or to conventions. Three-fourths of the states must approve a change for it to become part of the Constitution.

An amendment can change any part of the Constitution, except one—no amendment can change the rule that each state has an equal number of Senators in the United States Senate.

 Federal power 
Article Six says that the Constitution, and the laws and treaties of the United States, are higher than any other laws. It also says that all federal and state officers must swear to "support" the Constitution.

 Ratification 
Article Seven says that the new government under the Constitution would not start conventions until at least nine states approved the Constitution.

 Amendments 
Since 1787, Congress has written 33 amendments to change the Constitution, but the states have ratified only 27 of them.

 Bill of Rights 

The first ten amendments are called the Bill of Rights. They were argued over during the Constitutional Convention of 1787, but it was not until 1791 that they were ratified by two-thirds of the states.Exploring Constitutional Conflicts These ten additions or changes all limited the power of the federal government. They are:
NumberYearDescription1st1791Congress must protect the rights of freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, and freedom of petition.  Congress cannot create a national religion.2nd1791"A well regulated Militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed." - People have the right to keep and carry weapons, such as guns.3rd1791The government cannot send soldiers to live in private homes without the permission of the owners.4th1791The government cannot get a warrant to arrest a person or search their property unless there is "probable cause" to believe a crime has been committed. 5th1791The government cannot put a person on trial for a serious crime until a grand jury has written an indictment.  If a person is found not guilty in a trial, they cannot be put on trial again for the same crime. The government must follow due process of law before punishing a person or taking their property. A person on trial for a crime does not have to testify against himself in court.6th1791Any person who is accused of a crime should get a speedy trial by a jury. That person can have a lawyer during the trial. They must be told what they are charged with. The person can question the witnesses against them, and can get their own witnesses to testify.7th1791A jury trial is needed for civil cases.8th1791The government cannot require excessive bail or fines, or any cruel and unusual punishment.9th1791The listing of individual rights in the Constitution and Bill of Rights does not include all of the rights of the people and the states.  10th1791Anything that the Constitution does not say Congress can do should be left up to the states, or to the people.

 Later Amendments 

After the Bill of Rights, there are 17 more changes to the Constitution that were made at different times.

NumberYearDescription11th 1795Citizens cannot sue states in federal courts. There are some exceptions.12th1804Changed the way the President and Vice President are elected. 13th1865Ended slavery in the United States. 14th1868Every person born in the United States is a citizen. States must follow due process of law before taking away any citizen's rights or property.15th1870A citizen's right to vote cannot be taken away because of race, the color of their skin, or because they used to be slaves.16th1913Congress can put a tax on income. 17th1913The people will elect Senators. Before this, Senators were elected by state legislatures.18th1919Made a law against drinking alcohol, called Prohibition.19th1920Gave women the right to vote.20th1933Changed the days for meetings of Congress and for the start of the President's term of office. 21st1933Ended the Prohibition law of the Eighteenth Amendment. States can make laws about how alcohol is used in each state.22nd1951A person may not be elected President more than two times.23rd1961Gave the people in the District of Columbia the right to vote for President.24th1964Made it illegal to make anyone pay a tax to have the right to vote.25th1967Changes what happens if a President dies, resigns, or is not able to do the job. Says what happens if a Vice President dies or resigns. 26th1971Makes 18 years old the minimum age for people to be allowed to vote. 27th1992Limits how Congress can increase how much its members are paid.

Related pages
 Related documents 
 Mayflower Compact
 Fundamental Orders of Connecticut
 Massachusetts Body of Liberties
 English Bill of Rights
 Federalist Papers
 United States Bill of Rights

 Related Authors 
 Alexander Hamilton
 Gouverneur Morris
 John Jay
 James Madison
 John Marshall
 Thomas Paine

 References 

 Bailyn, Bernard, ed. The Debate on the Constitution: Federalist and Antifederalist Speeches, Articles, and Letters During the Struggle for Ratification. Part One: September 1787 to February 1788 (The Library of America, 1993) 
 Bailyn, Bernard, ed. The Debate on the Constitution: Federalist and Antifederalist Speeches, Articles, and Letters During the Struggle for Ratification. Part Two: January to August 1788 (The Library of America, 1993) 



  excerpt from (to be published) Constitutional Law for Enlightened Citizens.
 Finkelman, Paul "Affirmative Action for the Master Class: The Creation of the Proslavery Constitution," University of Akron Law Review 32 (No. 3, 1999): 423-70.
 Finkelman, Paul Slavery and the Founders: Race and Slavery in the Age of Jefferson (Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1996); 
 Finkelman, Paul "Slavery and the Constitution: Making a Covenant with Death," in Richard R. Beeman, Stephen Botein, and Edward C., Carter, II, eds., Beyond Confederation: Origins of the Constitution and American National Identity (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987); 




 Marshall, Thurgood, "The Constitution: A Living Document," Howard Law Journal 1987: 623-28.




 Wiecek, William M., "The Witch at the Christening: Slavery and the Constitution's Origins," Leonard W. Levy and Dennis J. Mahoney, eds., The Framing and Ratification of the Constitution (New York: Macmillan, 1987), 178-84.
 Wiecek, William M., "'The Blessings of Liberty': Slavery in the American Constitutional Order," in Robert A. Goldman and Art Kaufman, eds., Slavery and Its Consequences: The Constitution, Equality, and Race (Washington, D.C.: American Enterprise Institute, 1988), 23-34.

 Other websites 

 National Archives 
 The National Archives Experience — Constitution of the United States
 The National Archives Experience — High Resolution Downloads of the Charters of Freedom
 Full text of U.S. Constitution
 Full text of The Bill of Rights
 Full text of the amendments

 Official U.S. government sources 
 Analysis and Interpretation of the Constitution of the United States : Annotated constitution, with descriptions of important cases (official publication of U.S. Senate)
 United States Constitution and related resources: Library of Congress
 CIA World Fact Book 

 Non-government web sites 
 US Constitution in basic English
 US Law Dictionary 
 Audio version of US Constitution: free mp3 download
 The Constitution Society:  Research and public education on the principles of constitutional republican government
 Text of the constitution 
 Law about...the Constitution: An overview of constitutional law from the Legal Information Institute
 The U.S. Constitution Online: Full text of Constitution, with some history and annotation
 The U.S. Constitution Online: Record of ratifications by states
 National Constitution Center in Philadelphia: Museum and education center
 Education on the U.S. Constitution. ERIC Digest No. 39. : Study on the treatment of the Constitution in public education
 Free audiobook from librivox.org
 Annotated Constitution by the Congressional Research Service of the U.S. Library of Congress(hyperlinked version published by LII)
 Audio narration (mp3) of The United States Constitution  at Americana Phonic
 Free typeset PDF ebook of the Constitution and the Bill of Rights, optimized for printing 

 Activist/advocacy web sites 
 SmallGovTimes.com: Site advocating small government and strict constitutional construction
 Thirty-Thousand.org: Site advocating an increase in the size of the House of Representatives. 
 Krusch, Barry (2003). Would The Real First Amendment Please Stand Up? Online book arguing that the Supreme Court's interpretation of the First Amendment has created a “virtual First Amendment" that is radically different from the true amendment.

 References