مماليا

ٿن وارا جانور يا مئمل (mammals)،  مماليا جماعت جو هڪ فقاري جانور آهي. هن جانورن ۾ ٿن؛ کير پيدا ڪندڙ مئمري گلينڊ، جي موجودگيءَ، سندن ٻارن کي کير پيارڻ لاءِ، دماغ جو هڪ وسيع نيوڪورٽيڪس (neocortex) علائقو، فر يا وار ۽ ٽن وچين ڪنن جي هڏا، انهن کي ريپٽائلس ۽ پکين کان ڌار ڪن ٿا، جنهن مان سندن ابن ڏاڏن، ڪاربونيفئرس دور، 30 ڪروڙ سال اڳ، ۾ ڌار ٿي ويا هئا. تقريبن 6,400 موجود مماليا جي نوعن کي بيان ڪيو ويو آهي ۽ 29 آرڊرن ۾ ورهايو ويو آهي.

مئمل جو سڀ کان وڏو آرڊر، نوع جي تعداد جي لحاظ کان، ڪوئا، چمگادڙ ۽ يوليپوٽيفلا شامل آهن. ايندڙ ٽي ۾، پرائيميٽ (بشمول انسان، بندر ۽ ليمر)، اڍ ٿيل پير وارا انگوليٽ (جنهن ۾ سوئر، اُٺ ۽ وهيل شامل آهن) ۽ ڪارنيووروا (بشمول ٻليون، ڪتا ۽ سيل مڇي) شامل آهن. 

مئمل سائناپسيڊا (Synapsida) جا واحد بچيل جانور آهن؛ هي ڪليڊ، ساروپسيڊا (Sauropsida) (ريڙهيون پائيندڙ ۽ پکين) سان گڏ ٿي، وڏو امنيوٽا (Amniota) ڪليڊ ٺاهي ٿو. ابتدائي سائناپسڊ (synapsids) کي "پيليڪوسارس" سڏيو ويندو آهي. وڌيڪ ترقي يافته، ٿيراپسڊ، گادالوپين دور جي دوران غالب ٿي ويا. مئمل سائنوڊونٽ (cynodonts)، ٿيراپسڊ جو هڪ ترقي يافته گروهه اهي، جيڪو آخري ٽراسيسڪ کان ابتدائي جوراسڪ دور ۾  پيدا ٿيو. مئمل پنهنجو جديد تنوع سينوزوئڪ دور جي پيليوجين ۽ نيوجين دورن ۾، غير ايوين ڊائنوسار جي ختم ٿيڻ کان پوءِ حاصل ڪيو ۽ 66 ملين سال اڳ کان وٺي اڄ تائين غالب زميني جانورن جو گروهه رهيو آهي. 

مئمل جي بنيادي جسم جو قسم چوپايو (quadrupedal) آهي، اڪثر مئمل زميني حرڪت لاءِ چار پيرون (Limbs) استعمال ڪندا آهن؛ پر ڪن ۾، هي پير، سمنڊ ۾، هوا ۾، وڻن ۾ يا زير زمين زندگيءَ لاءِ ٺاهيا ويا آهن. بائپئڊ صرف ٻن هيٺين پيرن کي حرڪت ڪرڻ لاء موافقت ڪيو آهي، جڏهن ته سيٽيشين ۽ سامونڊي ڍڳي جا پوئين پير رڳو اندريون نشان آهن. مئمل جو ماپ 30 کان 40 مليميٽر (1.2-1.6 انچ)، ننڍي چمگادڙ کان، 30 ميٽر (98 فوٽ)، نيري وهيل، سڀ کان وڏو جانور جيڪا موجود آهن، تائين هوندو آهي. ڄمار ٻن سالن کان وهيل مڇي لاءِ 211 سالن تائين مختلف ٿئي ٿو. سڀ جديد مئمل ٻار کي جنم ڏين ٿا سواءِ مونوٽريمس جي پنجن قسمن جي، جيڪي آنا ڏين ٿا. سڀ کان وڌيڪ نسلن سان مالا مال گروپ ويويپارس پلئسنٽل مئمل آهي. انهن جو نالو عارضي عضوو (پلاسينٽا) لاءِ رکيو ويو آهي جيڪو اولاد پاران حمل دوران ماءُ کان غذائي حاصل ڪرڻ لاءِ استعمال ڪيو ويندو آهي.

اڪثر مئمل ذهانت وارا هوندا آهن، جن ۾ ڪي وڏا دماغ، خود آگاهي ۽ اوزار جي استعمال سان واقفيت وارا هوندا آهن. مئمل ڪيترن ئي طريقن سان ڳالهه ٻولهه ۽ آواز ڏئي سگھن ٿا، جن ۾ الٽراسائونڊ جي پيداوار، خوشبوءِ نشان لڳائڻ، الارم سگنلز، ڳائڻ، ايڪولوڪيشن؛ ۽ انسانن جي صورت ۾، پيچيده ٻولين جا مالڪ آهن. مئمل پاڻ کي ٽٽڻ-جوڙڻ واري خاندان ۽ درجه بندي ۾ منظم ڪري سگهن ٿا، پر اڪيلائي ۽ علائقائي به ٿي سگهن ٿا. گهڻا مئمل پولي گائنس هوندا آهن، پر ڪجهه مونو گائنس يا پولي ائنڊرس ٿي سگهن ٿا. 

انسانن پاران ڪيترن ئي قسمن جي مئمل جانور کي پالڻ نيو پاولٿڪ انقلاب ۾ اهم ڪردار ادا ڪيو ۽ ان جي نتيجي ۾ شڪار ۽ گڏ ڪرڻ جي جاءِ تي زراعت کي انسانن لاءِ خوراڪ جو بنيادي ذريعو بڻايو ويو، ج انساني سماجن جي هڪ وڏي بحاليءَ جو سبب بڻجي ويو، جنهن ۾ خانه بدوشي کان وڏين گروهن جي وچ ۾ وڌيڪ تعاون سان مستقل رهائش تائين ۽ آخرڪار پهرين تهذيبن جي ترقي ٿي. پالتو جانور ٽرانسپورٽ ۽ زراعت لاء طاقت، گڏوگڏ خوراڪ (گوشت ۽ کير جون شيون)، فر ۽ چمڙي مهيا ڪيا ۽ مهيا ڪرڻ جاري رکو آهي.thumb|ڍڳي، هڪ پالتو ٿڻ وارو جانورمئمل پڻ شڪار ڪيا ويندا آهن ۽ راندين لاءِ ڊوڙايا ويندا آهن، انهن کي پالتو جانور ۽ مختلف قسمن جا ڪم ڪندڙ جانورن طور رکيو ويندو آهي ۽ سائنس ۾ ماڊل آرگنزم طور استعمال ٿيندا آهن. مئمل کي پيليولٿڪ زماني کان وٺي فن ۾ ڏيکاريو ويو آهي ۽ ادب، فلم ۽ مذهب ۾ ظاهر ڪيو ويو آهي. انهن جي انگن ۾ گهٽتائي ۽ ڪيترن ئي ٿڻ واري جانورن جي ختم ٿيڻ جو سبب بنيادي طور تي انساني شڪار ۽ رهائش جي تباهي، بنيادي طور تي جنگلات جي تباهي آهي. 

درجه بندي

جڏهن کان ڪارل لينيئي شروعاتي طور تي طبقن جي وضاحت ڪئي هئي ۽ هن وقت جڏهن، ڪابه درجه بندي نظام کي عالمي طور تي قبول نه ڪيو ويو آهي، مماليا جي درجي بندي ڪيترن ئي ترميمن جي ذريعي ڪئي وئي آهي. ميڪينا ۽ بئل (1997) ۽ ولسن ۽ ريڊر (2005) مفيد مجموعا مهيا ڪن ٿا. سمپسن (1945) مماليا جي اصليت ۽ رشتن جي نظميات مهيا ڪري ٿو جيڪا 20هين صدي جي آخر تائين عالمي طور تي سيکاريا ويا هئا. بهرحال، سال 1945ع کان وٺي، نئين ۽ وڌيڪ تفصيلي ڄاڻ جو هڪ وڏو مقدار آهستي آهستي مليو آهي؛ پيلئنٽالاجي رڪارڊ کي ٻيهر ترتيب ڏنو ويو آهي ۽ وچئين سالن ۾، جزوي طور تي ڪليڊسٽڪس جي نئين تصور ذريعي، خود نظام سازي جي نظرياتي بنيادن جي باري ۾ تمام گهڻو بحث ۽ پيش رفت ڏٺو آهي. جيتوڻيڪ فيلڊ ورڪ ۽ ليبارٽري ڪم ترقي يافته طور تي سمپسن جي درجه بندي کي ختم ڪري ڇڏيو آهي، اهو معلوم مسئلن جي باوجود، مماليا جي آفيشيل درجه بندي جي ويجهو آهي. 

سڀ کان وڌيڪ مماليا، جن ۾ ڇھ سڀ کان وڌيڪ نوعن سان مالا مال آرڊر شامل آھن، پلئسينٽل گروپ سان تعلق رکن ٿا. نسلن جي تعداد ۾ ٽي سڀ کان وڏا آرڊر آهن؛ 
 روڊينشيا: ڪوئا، پورڪيوپينز، بيور، ڪيپيبارا ۽ ٻيا ٿڌڙا جانور
 ڪروپٽيرا: چمگادڙون ۽ 
 يوليپوٽائيڦلا: شريو، مولز ۽ سولينوڊون 

ايندڙ ٽي وڏا آرڊر، جيڪا استعمال ٿيل حياتياتي درجه بندي منصوبي تي منحصر ڪرن ٿا، هيٽ آهن؛ 
 پرائيميٽ: بن مانس، بندر ۽ ليمر
 سئٽارٽيوڊڪٽائلا: وهيل مڇي، اٺ، سوئر وغيره ۽ 
 ڪارنيوورا: جنهن ۾ شينهن، ڪتا، ٻليون، ريڙ، سيل مڇي ۽ اتحادي شامل آهن.

ميمل اسپيسيز آف دي ورلڊ جي مطابق، 2006ع ۾ 5,416 نوعن جي سڃاڻپ ڪئي وئي. انھن کي 1,229 نسلن، 153 خاندانن ۽ 29 آرڊرن ۾ ورهايو ويو. 2008ع ۾، انٽرنيشنل يونين فار ڪنزرويشن آف نيچر (IUCN) پنهنجي IUCN جي ريڊ لسٽ لاءِ پنجن سالن جي عالمي درجابندي جو جائزو مڪمل ڪيو، جنهن ۾ 5,488 نسلن جي ڳڻپ ڪئي وئي.    سال 2018ع ۾ جرنل آف ميمالاجي ۾ شايع ٿيل تحقيق مطابق، تسليم ٿيل مماليا جي نسلن جو تعداد 6,495 آهي، جن ۾ 96 تازو ئي معدوم/ختم ٿي ويا آهن.

تعريف
لفظ "مئمل" جديد آهي، جيڪو سائنسي نالي "مئمليا" (Mammalia) مان نڪتل آهي، جيڪو 1758ع ۾ ڪارل لنيئي ٺاهيو هو، جيڪو لاطيني لفظ، "مما" (Mamma يعني پستان) مان نڪتل آهي. 1988ع جي هڪ با اثر جرنل ۾، ٽموٿي روئي "مئمليا" جي ڦائلوجئنيٽيڪل طور تي وضاحت ڪئي ته مماليا جو تاج گروپ، ڪليڊ جنهن ۾ سڀ کان تازو عام جاندار مونوٽريمس (ڪڊناس ۽ پلئٽيپس) ۽ ٿيريئن مماليا (مارسوپيئلز ۽ پلئسينٽل) ۽ ان جي سڀني نسلن تي مشتمل آهي. جيئن ته هن جا ابا ڏاڏا جراسڪ دور ۾ رهندا هئا، روئي جي تعريف سڀني جانورن کي اڳئين ٽراسڪ دور مان خارج ڪري ٿي، ان حقيقت جي باوجود ته هارميڊيا ۾ ٽراسڪ فوسلز 19هين صدي جي وچ کان وٺي مماليا جي حوالي ڪيا ويا آهن. جيڪڏهن مئمليا کي تاج گروهه سمجهيو وڃي، ته ان جي اصليت جو اندازو لڳائي سگهجي ٿو جيئن جانورن جي پهرين ڄاتل ظاهري طور تي ٻين جي ڀيٽ ۾ ڪجهه موجود مماليا سان وڌيڪ ويجهي سان لاڳاپيل آهي. ٽي.ايس. ڪيمپ هڪ وڌيڪ روايتي تعريف مهيا ڪئي آهي ته "سائناپسڊ جن ۾، مٿين ۽ هيٺين دانت جي وچ ۾، حرڪت لاء هڪ ٽرانسورس جزو سان، يا برابر طور تي، ڏندن جي علامت آهي"، ڪيمپ جي نظر ۾، سينوڪونڊون ۽ جيئري مماليا جي آخري عام ابن ڏاڏن سان پيدا ٿيندڙ ڪليڊ آهي. سڀ کان پهرين مشهور سائناپسڊ، ڪيمپ جي تعريف کي مطمئن ڪندڙ،  ٽڪيٿيريئم (Tikitherium) آهي، تنهنڪري مماليا جي ظاهر ٿيڻ هن وسيع معنى ۾ هن آخري ٽرائيئسڪ تاريخ ڏئي سگهجي ٿو.

The word "mammal" is modern, from the scientific name Mammalia coined by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, derived from the Latin mamma ("teat, pap"). In an influential 1988 paper, Timothy Rowe defined Mammalia phylogenetically as the crown group of mammals, the clade consisting of the most recent common ancestor of living monotremes (echidnas and platypuses) and therian mammals (marsupials and placentals) and all descendants of that ancestor. Since this ancestor lived in the Jurassic period, Rowe's definition excludes all animals from the earlier Triassic, despite the fact that Triassic fossils in the Haramiyida have been referred to the Mammalia since the mid-19th century. If Mammalia is considered as the crown group, its origin can be roughly dated as the first known appearance of animals more closely related to some extant mammals than to others. Ambondro is more closely related to monotremes than to therian mammals while Amphilestes and Amphitherium are more closely related to the therians; as fossils of all three genera are dated about  in the Middle Jurassic, this is a reasonable estimate for the appearance of the crown group.

T. S. Kemp has provided a more traditional definition: "Synapsids that possess a dentary–squamosal jaw articulation and occlusion between upper and lower molars with a transverse component to the movement" or, equivalently in Kemp's view, the clade originating with the last common ancestor of Sinoconodon and living mammals. The earliest-known synapsid satisfying Kemp's definitions is Tikitherium, dated , so the appearance of mammals in this broader sense can be given this Late Triassic date. However, this animal may have actually evolved during the Neogene.

Molecular classification of placentals
As of the early 21st century, molecular studies based on DNA analysis have suggested new relationships among mammal families. Most of these findings have been independently validated by retrotransposon presence/absence data. Classification systems based on molecular studies reveal three major groups or lineages of placental mammals—Afrotheria, Xenarthra and Boreoeutheria—which diverged in the Cretaceous. The relationships between these three lineages is contentious, and all three possible hypotheses have been proposed with respect to which group is basal. These hypotheses are Atlantogenata (basal Boreoeutheria), Epitheria (basal Xenarthra) and Exafroplacentalia (basal Afrotheria). Boreoeutheria in turn contains two major lineages—Euarchontoglires and Laurasiatheria.

Estimates for the divergence times between these three placental groups range from 105 to 120 million years ago, depending on the type of DNA used (such as nuclear or mitochondrial) and varying interpretations of paleogeographic data.

 Tarver et al. 2016 Sandra Álvarez-Carretero et al. 2022

 ارتقا 

 اناتومي 

 رويا 

انسان ۽ ٻيا مئمل

انساني تهذيب ۾

Non-human mammals play a wide variety of roles in human culture. They are the most popular of pets, with tens of millions of dogs, cats and other animals including rabbits and mice kept by families around the world. Mammals such as mammoths, horses and deer are among the earliest subjects of art, being found in Upper Paleolithic cave paintings such as at Lascaux. Major artists such as Albrecht Dürer, George Stubbs and Edwin Landseer are known for their portraits of mammals. Many species of mammals have been hunted for sport and for food; deer and wild boar are especially popular as game animals. Chapters on hunting deer, wild hog (boar), rabbit, and squirrel. Mammals such as horses and dogs are widely raced for sport, often combined with betting on the outcome. There is a tension between the role of animals as companions to humans, and their existence as individuals with rights of their own. Mammals further play a wide variety of roles in literature, film, mythology, and religion.

استعمال ۽ اهميت


The domestication of mammals was instrumental in the Neolithic development of agriculture and of civilization, causing farmers to replace hunter-gatherers around the world.  This transition from hunting and gathering to herding flocks and growing crops was a major step in human history. The new agricultural economies, based on domesticated mammals, caused "radical restructuring of human societies, worldwide alterations in biodiversity, and significant changes in the Earth's landforms and its atmosphere... momentous outcomes".

Domestic mammals form a large part of the livestock raised for meat across the world. They include (2009) around 1.4 billion cattle, 1 billion sheep, 1 billion domestic pigs, and (1985) over 700 million rabbits. Working domestic animals including cattle and horses have been used for work and transport from the origins of agriculture, their numbers declining with the arrival of mechanised transport and agricultural machinery. In 2004 they still provided some 80% of the power for the mainly small farms in the third world, and some 20% of the world's transport, again mainly in rural areas. In mountainous regions unsuitable for wheeled vehicles, pack animals continue to transport goods. Mammal skins provide leather for shoes, clothing and upholstery. Wool from mammals including sheep, goats and alpacas has been used for centuries for clothing.
Mammals serve a major role in science as experimental animals, both in fundamental biological research, such as in genetics, and in the development of new medicines, which must be tested exhaustively to demonstrate their safety. Millions of mammals, especially mice and rats, are used in experiments each year. A knockout mouse is a genetically modified mouse with an inactivated gene, replaced or disrupted with an artificial piece of DNA. They enable the study of sequenced genes whose functions are unknown. A small percentage of the mammals are non-human primates, used in research for their similarity to humans.

Despite the benefits domesticated mammals had for human development, humans have an increasingly detrimental effect on wild mammals across the world. It has been estimated that the mass of all wild mammals has declined to only 4% of all mammals, with 96% of mammals being humans and their livestock now (see figure). In fact, terrestrial wild mammals make up only 2% of all mammals.

مخلوط نسلون

Hybrids are offspring resulting from the breeding of two genetically distinct individuals, which usually will result in a high degree of heterozygosity, though hybrid and heterozygous are not synonymous. The deliberate or accidental hybridizing of two or more species of closely related animals through captive breeding is a human activity which has been in existence for millennia and has grown for economic purposes. Hybrids between different subspecies within a species (such as between the Bengal tiger and Siberian tiger) are known as intra-specific hybrids. Hybrids between different species within the same genus (such as between lions and tigers) are known as interspecific hybrids or crosses. Hybrids between different genera (such as between sheep and goats) are known as intergeneric hybrids. Natural hybrids will occur in hybrid zones, where two populations of species within the same genera or species living in the same or adjacent areas will interbreed with each other. Some hybrids have been recognized as species, such as the red wolf (though this is controversial).

Artificial selection, the deliberate selective breeding of domestic animals, is being used to breed back recently extinct animals in an attempt to achieve an animal breed with a phenotype that resembles that extinct wildtype ancestor. A breeding-back (intraspecific) hybrid may be very similar to the extinct wildtype in appearance, ecological niche and to some extent genetics, but the initial gene pool of that wild type is lost forever with its extinction. As a result, bred-back breeds are at best vague look-alikes of extinct wildtypes, as Heck cattle are of the aurochs.

Purebred wild species evolved to a specific ecology can be threatened with extinction through the process of genetic pollution, the uncontrolled hybridization, introgression genetic swamping which leads to homogenization or out-competition from the heterosic hybrid species. When new populations are imported or selectively bred by people, or when habitat modification brings previously isolated species into contact, extinction in some species, especially rare varieties, is possible. Interbreeding can swamp the rarer gene pool and create hybrids, depleting the purebred gene pool. For example, the endangered wild water buffalo is most threatened with extinction by genetic pollution from the domestic water buffalo. Such extinctions are not always apparent from a morphological standpoint. Some degree of gene flow is a normal evolutionary process, nevertheless, hybridization threatens the existence of rare species.

خطرا


The loss of species from ecological communities, defaunation, is primarily driven by human activity. This has resulted in empty forests, ecological communities depleted of large vertebrates. In the Quaternary extinction event, the mass die-off of megafaunal variety coincided with the appearance of humans, suggesting a human influence. One hypothesis is that humans hunted large mammals, such as the woolly mammoth, into extinction. The 2019 Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services by IPBES states that the total biomass of wild mammals has declined by 82 percent since the beginning of human civilization. Wild animals make up just 4% of mammalian biomass on earth, while humans and their domesticated animals make up 96%.

Various species are predicted to become extinct in the near future, among them the rhinoceros, giraffes, and species of primates and pangolins. According to the WWF's 2020 Living Planet Report, vertebrate wildlife populations have declined by 68% since 1970 as a result of human activities, particularly overconsumption, population growth and intensive farming, which is evidence that humans have triggered a sixth mass extinction event. Hunting alone threatens hundreds of mammalian species around the world. Scientists claim that the growing demand for meat is contributing to biodiversity loss as this is a significant driver of deforestation and habitat destruction; species-rich habitats, such as significant portions of the Amazon rainforest, are being converted to agricultural land for meat production. Another influence is over-hunting and poaching, which can reduce the overall population of game animals, especially those located near villages, as in the case of peccaries. The effects of poaching can especially be seen in the ivory trade with African elephants. Marine mammals are at risk from entanglement from fishing gear, notably cetaceans, with discard mortalities ranging from 65,000 to 86,000 individuals annually.

Attention is being given to endangered species globally, notably through the Convention on Biological Diversity, otherwise known as the Rio Accord, which includes 189 signatory countries that are focused on identifying endangered species and habitats. Another notable conservation organization is the IUCN, which has a membership of over 1,200 governmental and non-governmental organizations.

Recent extinctions can be directly attributed to human influences. The IUCN characterizes 'recent' extinction as those that have occurred past the cut-off point of 1500, and around 80 mammal species have gone extinct since that time and 2015. Some species, such as the Père David's deer are extinct in the wild, and survive solely in captive populations. Other species, such as the Florida panther, are ecologically extinct, surviving in such low numbers that they essentially have no impact on the ecosystem. Other populations are only locally extinct (extirpated), still existing elsewhere, but reduced in distribution, as with the extinction of gray whales in the Atlantic.

پڻ ڏسو

 مماليا جي نسلن جي فهرست - موجود مماليا 
 مئمالوجسٽ جي فهرست 
 مونوٽريمز ۽ مارسوپيئلز جي فهرست 
 پلئسينٽل مماليا جي فهرست 
 قبل از تاريخ مماليا جي فهرست 
 خطري جي زد ۾ مماليا جي فهرست 
 آبادي جي ماپ جي لحاظ کان مماليا جي فهرست 
 علائقي جي لحاظ کان مماليا جي فهرست 
 2000s ۾ بيان ڪيل مماليا جي فهرست
 مماليا ثقافت ۾ 
 ننڍا مماليا 

ٿن وارا جانور يا مئمل (mammals) يا کير ڌارائيندڙ جانور اها جانور آهن، جنهن جا ٿڻ هوندا آهن ۽ جيڪي پنهنجي ٻچن کي کير پياريندا آهن. ھي جانور ڪرنگهي واري جانورن جي هڪ جماعت آهن.

خارجي لنڪس

 ASM Mammal Diversity Database 
 Biodiversitymapping.org – All mammal orders in the world with distribution maps 
 Paleocene Mammals , a site covering the rise of the mammals, paleocene-mammals.de
 Evolution of Mammals , a brief introduction to early mammals, enchantedlearning.com
 European Mammal Atlas EMMA  from Societas Europaea Mammalogica, European-mammals.org
 Marine Mammals of the World  – An overview of all marine mammals, including descriptions, both fully aquatic and semi-aquatic, noaa.gov
 Mammalogy.org  The American Society of Mammalogists was established in 1919 for the purpose of promoting the study of mammals, and this website includes a mammal image library



Category:Bathonian first appearances
Category:Extant Middle Jurassic first appearances
Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus

حوالا

زمرو:مماليا
زمرو:حيوانات
زمرو:ڪرنگھيدار جانور