Distinziuni analiticu-sintetica

A distinziuni analiticu-sintetica eni na distinziuni cuncittuali usata di solitu 'nta li discussioni filusofichi p'addistinguiri li pruposizzioni nta dui tipi:
 pruposizzioni analitichi e
 pruposizzioni sintetichi.
Li pruposizzioni analitichi sunu chissi semprici semprici quasi fussiru na tautuluggìa in virtuti di chiddu ca sièntunu a ddiri mentri li pruposizzioni sintetichi no.
Lu filosufu ca antruduciu sti distinzioni a statu Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) ma di tannu li filosufi anu usatu sti palori nta manèri diffirenti.

Isempii fatti di Kant:
 "Tutti i cosi sunu istesi" (A7/B11) (pruposizzioni analitica: na cosa semprici semprici)
 "Tutti i cosi anu nu pisu" (B11) (Pruposizzioni sintetica: junci quarchi cuncettu novu a chiddu ca sapièumu prima).
A lèttira "A" indica nu pusizzionamentu di lu testu nta a prima virsioni dâ "Critica dâ Ragion pura" unni pubbricau sti cuncetti nta lu 1781.
A lèttira "B" indica a sicunna edizzioni di lu 1787.

 Taliati macari 
 A priuri e a pustiriuri
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 Conceptual containment 

The philosopher Immanuel Kant was the first to use the terms "analytic" and "synthetic" to divide propositions into types. Kant introduces the analytic/synthetic distinction in the Introduction to the Critique of Pure Reason (1781/1998, A6-7/B10-11). There, he restricts his attention to affirmative subject-predicate judgments, and defines "analytic proposition" and "synthetic proposition" as follows:

 analytic proposition: a proposition whose predicate concept is contained in its subject concept

 synthetic proposition: a proposition whose predicate concept is not contained in its subject concept

Examples of analytic propositions, on Kant's definition, include:
 "All bachelors are unmarried."
 "All triangles have three sides."

Kant's own example is:
 "All bodies are extended," i.e. take up space. (A7/B11)

Each of these is an affirmative subject-predicate judgment, and in each, the predicate concept is contained with the subject concept. The concept "bachelor" contains the concept "unmarried"; the concept "unmarried" is part of the definition of the concept "bachelor." Likewise for "triangle" and "has three sides," and so on.

Examples of synthetic propositions, on Kant's definition, include:
 "All bachelors are happy."
 "All creatures with hearts have kidneys."

Kant's own example is:
 "All bodies are heavy," (A7/B11)

As with the examples of analytic propositions, each of these is an affirmative subject-predicate judgment. However, in none of these cases does the subject concept contain the predicate concept. The concept "bachelor" does not contain the concept "happy"; "happy" is not a part of the definition of "bachelor." The same is true for "creatures with hearts" and "have kidneys" - even if every creature with a heart also has kidneys, the concept "creature with a heart" does not contain the concept "has kidneys."

 Kant's version and the priori/ posteriori distinction 

In the Introduction to the Critique of Pure Reason, Kant contrasts his distinction between analytic and synthetic propositions with another distinction, the distinction between a priori and a posteriori propositions. He defines these terms as follows:

 a priori proposition: a proposition whose justification does not rely upon experience

 a posteriori proposition: a proposition whose justification does rely upon experience

Examples of a priori propositions include:
 "All bachelors are unmarried."
 "7 + 5 = 12."

The justification of these propositions does not depend upon experience: one does not need to consult experience in order to determine whether all bachelors are unmarried, or whether 7 + 5 = 12. (Of course, as Kant would have granted, experience is required in order to obtain the concepts "bachelor," "unmarried," "7," "+," and so forth. However, the a priori / a posteriori distinction as employed by Kant here does not refer to the origins of the concepts, but to the justification of the propositions. Once we have the concepts, experience is no longer necessary.)

Examples of a posteriori propositions, on the other hand, include:
 "All bachelors are happy."
 "Tables exist."

Both of these propositions are a posteriori: any justification of them would require one to rely upon one's experience.

The analytic/synthetic distinction and the a priori/a posteriori distinction together yield four types of propositions:

 analytic a priori
 synthetic a priori 
 analytic a posteriori
 synthetic a posteriori

Kant thought the third type is self-contradictory, so he discusses only three types as components of his epistemological framework. However, Stephen Palmquist treats the analytic a posteriori not only as a valid epistemological classification, but as the most important of the four for philosophy.In "Knowledge and Experience - An Examination of the Four Reflective 'Perspectives' in Kant's Critical Philosophy", Kant-Studien 78:2 (1987), pp.170-200, Stephen Palmquist shows how Kant's own discussion of the role of hypotheses (and the "as if" approach) in philosophy can only be understood as an example of analytic aposteriority. See also the revised version of this article, reprinted as Chapter IV of Stephen Palmquist, Kant's System of Perspectives: An architectonic interpretation of the Critical philosophy (Lanham: University Press of America, 1993). In "A Priori Knowledge in Perspective: (II) Naming, Necessity and the Analytic A Posteriori", The Review of Metaphysics 41:2 (December 1987), pp.255-282, Palmquist argues that Saul Kripke uses Kant's terms incorrectly when he analyzes naming as contingent a priori; when Kripke's use of the key terms is translated to make it consistent with Kant's usage, Kripke's position can be understood as defending the analytic a posteriority of naming.

 The ease of knowing analytic propositions 

Part of Kant's argument in the Introduction to the Critique of Pure Reason involves arguing that there is no problem figuring out how knowledge of analytic propositions is possible. To know an analytic proposition, Kant argued, one need not consult experience. Instead, one need merely to take the subject and "extract from it, in accordance with the principle of contradiction, the required predicate..." (A7/B12) In analytic propositions, the predicate concept is contained in the subject concept. Thus in order to know that an analytic proposition is true, one need merely examine the concept of the subject. If one finds the predicate contained in the subject, the judgment is true.

Thus, for example, one need not consult experience in order to determine whether "All bachelors are unmarried" is true. One need merely examine the subject concept ("bachelors") and see if the predicate concept "unmarried" is contained in it. And in fact, it is: "unmarried" is part of the definition of "bachelor," and so is contained within it. Thus the proposition "All bachelors are unmarried" can be known to be true without consulting experience.

It follows from this, Kant argued, first: all analytic propositions are a priori; there are no a posteriori analytic propositions. It follows, second: there is no problem understanding how we can know analytic propositions. We can know them because we just need to consult our concepts in order to determine that they are true.

 The possibility of metaphysics 

After ruling out the possibility of analytic a posteriori propositions, and explaining how we can obtain knowledge of analytic a priori propositions, Kant also explains how we can obtain knowledge of synthetic a posteriori propositions. That leaves only the question of how knowledge of synthetic a priori propositions is possible. This question is exceedingly important, Kant maintains, as all important metaphysical knowledge is of synthetic a priori propositions. If it is impossible to determine which synthetic a priori propositions are true, he argues, then metaphysics as a discipline is impossible. The remainder of the Critique of Pure Reason is devoted to examining whether and how knowledge of synthetic a priori propositions is possible.

 The logical positivists 
 The origin of the logical positivists' distinction 

Over a hundred years later, a group of philosophers took interest in Kant and his distinction between analytic and synthetic propositions: the logical positivists. 

Part of Kant's examination of the possibility of synthetic a priori knowledge involved the examination of mathematical propositions, such as 
 "7 + 5 = 12" (B15-16)
 "The shortest distance between two points is a straight line." (B16-17)

Kant maintained that mathematical propositions such as these were synthetic a priori propositions, and that we knew them. That they were synthetic, he thought, was obvious: the concept "12" is not contained within the concept "5," or the concept "7," or the concept "+." And the concept "straight line" is not contained within the concept "the shortest distance between two points." (B15-17) From this, Kant concluded that we had knowledge of synthetic a priori propositions. He went on to maintain that it was extremely important to determine how such knowledge was possible.

The logical positivists agreed with Kant that we had knowledge of mathematical truths, and further that mathematical propositions were a priori. However, they did not believe that any fancy metaphysics, such as the type Kant supplied, were necessary to explain our knowledge of mathematical truths. Instead, the logical positivists maintained that our knowledge of judgments like "all bachelors are unmarried" and our knowledge of mathematics (and logic) were basically the same: all proceeded from our knowledge of the meanings of terms or the conventions of language.

 The logical positivists' definitions 

Thus the logical positivists drew a new distinction, and, inheriting the terms from Kant, named it the "analytic/synthetic distinction." They provided many different definitions, such as the following:

 analytic proposition: a proposition whose truth depends solely on the meaning of its terms
 analytic proposition: a proposition that is true by definition
 analytic proposition: a proposition that is made true solely by the conventions of language

(While the logical positivists believed that the only necessarily true propositions were analytic, they did not define "analytic proposition" as "necessarily true proposition" or "proposition that is true in all possible worlds.")

Synthetic propositions were then defined as:

 synthetic proposition: a proposition that is not analytic

These definitions applied to all propositions, regardless of whether they were of subject-predicate form. Thus under these definitions, the proposition "It is raining or it is not raining," was classified as analytic, while under Kant's definitions it was neither analytic nor synthetic. And the proposition "7 + 5 = 12" was classified as analytic, while under Kant's definitions it was synthetic.

 Kant vs. the logical positivists 

With regard to the issues related to the distinction between analytic and synthetic propositions, Kant and the logical positivists agreed about what "analytic" and "synthetic" meant. This would only be a terminological dispute. Instead, they disagreed about whether knowledge of mathematical and logical truths could be obtained merely through an examination of one's own concepts. The logical positivists thought that it could be. Kant thought that it could not.

 Quine's criticism 

In 1951, W.V. Quine published his famous essay "Two Dogmas of Empiricism" in which he argued that the analytic-synthetic distinction is untenable. In the first paragraph, Quine takes the distinction to be the following:

 analytic propositions - propositions grounded in meanings, independent of matters of fact.
 synthetic propositions - propositions grounded in fact.

In short, Quine argues that the notion of an analytic proposition requires a notion of synonymy, but these notions are parasitic on one another. Thus, there is no non-circular (and so no tenable) way to ground the notion of analytic propositions. 

While Quine's rejection of the analytic-synthetic distinction is widely known, the precise argument for the rejection and its status is highly debated in contemporary philosophy. However, some (e.g., Boghossian, 1996) argue that Quine's rejection of the distinction is still widely accepted among philosophers, even if for poor reasons.

 Footnotes 

 References and further reading 
 Baehr, Jason S. (2006). "A Priori and A Posteriori". The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, J. Fieser & B. Dowden (eds.). <http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/apriori.htm#H2>.
 Boghossian, Paul. (1996). "Analyticity Reconsidered". Nous, Vol. 30, No. 3, pp. 360-391. <http://www.nyu.edu/gsas/dept/philo/faculty/boghossian/papers/AnalyticityReconsidered.html>.
 Kant, Immanuel. (1781/1998). The Critique of Pure Reason. Trans. by P. Guyer and A.W. Wood, Cambridge University Press .
 Rey, Georges. (2003). "The Analytic/Synthetic Distinction". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward Zalta (ed.). <http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analytic-synthetic>.
 Quine, W. V. (1951). "Two Dogmas of Empiricism". Philosophical Review, Vol.60, No.1, pp. 20-43. Reprinted in From a Logical Point of View (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1953). <http://www.ditext.com/quine/quine.html>.

 See also 

Kant, Immanuel