UBUHANZI

Ubuhanzi 
nuburyo butandukanye bwibikorwa byabantu, nibicuruzwa bivamo, bikubiyemo impano yo guhanga cyangwa gutekereza yerekana ubuhanga bwa tekinike, ubwiza, imbaraga zamarangamutima, cyangwa ibitekerezo. [1] [2] [3]
Inzira y'isaha uhereye ibumoso hejuru: 1887 yifotoje na Vincent van Gogh; igishusho cyabakurambere cyumugore numuhanzi Chokwe; burambuye kuva Ivuka rya Venusi (nko mu 1484–1486) na Sandro Botticelli; n'intare ya Okinawan Shisa

Nta bisobanuro rusange byemeranijweho bigize ibihangano, [4] [5] [6] kandi ibisobanuro byayo bitandukanye cyane mumateka no mumico. Mu muco w’iburengerazuba, amashami atatu ya kera y’ubuhanzi bugaragara ni ugushushanya, gushushanya, no kubaka. Ikinamico, imbyino, n’ubundi buhanzi bukora, kimwe nubuvanganzo, umuziki, firime n’ibindi bitangazamakuru nkibitangazamakuru byungurana ibitekerezo, biri mu bisobanuro byagutse by’ubuhanzi. [1] Kugeza mu kinyejana cya 17, ubuhanzi bwerekanaga ubuhanga cyangwa ubuhanga kandi ntibutandukanye n'ubukorikori cyangwa siyanse. Mu mikoreshereze igezweho nyuma yikinyejana cya 17, aho ibitekerezo byuburanga byingenzi, ibihangano byiza bitandukanijwe kandi bitandukanijwe nubuhanga bungutse muri rusange, nkubuhanzi bwo gushushanya cyangwa gukoresha.

Imiterere yubuhanzi nibisobanuro bifitanye isano, nko guhanga no gusobanura, bigenzurwa mumashami ya filozofiya izwi kwizina ryiza. Ibikorwa byavuyemo byigwa mubyumwuga wo kunegura ibihangano n'amateka yubuhanzi.

 Incamake 
Ukurikije amateka yubuhanzi, [10] ibihangano byabayeho kuva kera nkabantu: kuva mubuhanzi bwambere bwamateka kugeza mubuhanzi bwa none; icyakora, bamwe mu bahanga mu bya tewolojiya batekereza ko igitekerezo gisanzwe cy '"ibihangano byubuhanzi" kidahuye neza n’imiryango y’iburengerazuba bwa none. Imyumvire imwe ya mbere yo gusobanura ubuhanzi ifitanye isano rya hafi nubusobanuro bwa kera bwikilatini, bisobanurwa ngo "ubuhanga" cyangwa "ubukorikori", nkuko bifitanye isano namagambo nka "umunyabukorikori". Amagambo y'Icyongereza akomoka kuri ubu busobanuro arimo ibihangano, ibihangano, ibihangano, ubuvuzi, n'ubuhanzi bwa gisirikare. Ariko, hariho ubundi buryo bwinshi bwo gukoresha ijambo, byose bifitanye isano na etymologiya yayo.

Icupa ryo mu kinyejana cya 20, abaturage ba Twa, u Rwanda. Ibikorwa byubuhanzi birashobora gukora imirimo ifatika, hiyongereyeho agaciro keza.

Nyuma y'igihe, abahanga mu bya filozofiya nka Platon, Aristote, Socrate na Immanuel Kant, n'abandi, babajije icyo ubuhanzi busobanura. Ibiganiro byinshi muri Platon bikemura ibibazo byubuhanzi: Socrate avuga ko ibisigo byahumetswe na muses, kandi ntabwo byumvikana. Avuga ashimangiye ibi, nubundi buryo bwubusazi bwimana (ubusinzi, eroticisme, ninzozi) muri Phaedrus (265a - c), nyamara muri Repubulika irashaka kubuza ibihangano bikomeye bya Homer ibisigo, no gusetsa. Muri Ion, Socrate ntagaragaza ko Homer atemera muri Repubulika. Ikiganiro Ion cyerekana ko Iliad ya Homer yakoraga mu isi ya kera y'Abagereki nk'uko Bibiliya ibikora muri iki gihe mu isi ya gikristo ya none: nk'ubuhanzi bw'ubuvanganzo bwahumetswe n'Imana bushobora gutanga ubuyobozi bwiza, niba gusa bushobora gusobanurwa neza.

Ku bijyanye n'ubuhanzi bw'ubuvanganzo n'ubuhanzi bwa muzika, Aristote yabonaga ko imivugo idasanzwe, ibyago, urwenya, imivugo n'umuziki bya Dithyrambic ari ibihangano byigana cyangwa byigana, buri kimwe kikaba gitandukanye mu kwigana uburyo bwo hagati, ibintu, ndetse n'uburyo. [14] Kurugero, umuziki wigana nibitangazamakuru byinjyana nubwumvikane, mugihe imbyino yigana injyana yonyine, nubusizi hamwe nururimi. Imiterere nayo iratandukanye mubintu byabo byo kwigana. Urwenya, nk'urugero, ni kwigana mu buryo butangaje abagabo babi kurusha impuzandengo; mugihe ibyago bigana abagabo neza gato ugereranije. Ubwanyuma, imiterere iratandukanye muburyo bwabo bwo kwigana - binyuze mu kuvuga cyangwa imiterere, binyuze mu mpinduka cyangwa nta gihinduka, no mu ikinamico cyangwa nta kinamico. Aristote yizeraga ko kwigana ari ibisanzwe ku bantu kandi ko ari kimwe mu byiza abantu barusha inyamaswa.

Ubusobanuro bwa vuba kandi bwihariye bw'ijambo ubuhanzi nk'incamake y'ubuhanzi bwo guhanga cyangwa ibihangano byiza byagaragaye mu ntangiriro z'ikinyejana cya 17. [17] Ubuhanzi bwiza bivuga ubuhanga bukoreshwa mu kwerekana ibihangano byumuhanzi, cyangwa guhuza abumva ibyiyumvo byubwiza, cyangwa gukurura abitabiriye kureba ibihangano byiza cyangwa byiza.

Muri ubu buryo bwa nyuma, ijambo ubuhanzi rishobora kwerekeza ku bintu byinshi: (i) ubushakashatsi bwubuhanga bwo guhanga, (ii) inzira yo gukoresha ubuhanga bwo guhanga, (iii) umusaruro wubuhanga bwo guhanga, cyangwa (iv) the uburambe bwabumva hamwe nubuhanga bwo guhanga. Ubuhanzi bwo guhanga (ubuhanzi nka disipuline) nicyegeranyo cya disipuline itanga ibihangano (ubuhanzi nkibintu) bihatirwa na disiki yumuntu ku giti cye (ubuhanzi nkibikorwa) kandi bigatanga ubutumwa, imyumvire, cyangwa ibimenyetso kugirango ababyumva basobanure (ubuhanzi nk uburambe). Ubuhanzi nikintu gikangura ibitekerezo byumuntu, amarangamutima, imyizerere, cyangwa ibitekerezo binyuze mubyumviro. Ibikorwa byubuhanzi birashobora gukorwa neza kubwiyi ntego cyangwa bigasobanurwa hashingiwe ku mashusho cyangwa ibintu. Ku bahanga bamwe, nka Kant, siyanse n'ubuhanzi bishobora kuba itandukanijwe no gufata siyanse yerekana urwego rwubumenyi nubuhanzi nkuhagarariye urwego rwubwisanzure bwo gutanga ibitekerezo mubuhanzi.

Inyuma ya Renaissance oval ikibase cyangwa isahani, mungoro yubuhanzi ya Metropolitan

Akenshi, niba ubuhanga bukoreshwa muburyo busanzwe cyangwa bufatika, abantu bazabifata nkubukorikori aho kuba ubuhanzi. Mu buryo nk'ubwo, niba ubuhanga bukoreshwa muburyo bwubucuruzi cyangwa inganda, birashobora gufatwa nkubuhanzi bwubucuruzi aho kuba ibihangano byiza. Kurundi ruhande, ubukorikori nigishushanyo rimwe na rimwe bifatwa nkubuhanzi bukoreshwa. Bamwe mu bakurikira ibihangano bavuze ko itandukaniro riri hagati y’ubuhanzi bwiza n’ubuhanzi bukoreshwa rifitanye isano n’imanza zaciwe n’ubuhanzi kuruta itandukaniro risobanutse neza. Nyamara, n'ubuhanzi bwiza akenshi bufite intego zirenze guhanga no kwigaragaza. Intego yibikorwa byubuhanzi irashobora kuba uguhana ibitekerezo, nko mubuhanzi bwa politiki, bwumwuka, cyangwa filozofiya; kurema imyumvire y'ubwiza (reba ubwiza); gucukumbura imiterere yimyumvire; kwishimisha; cyangwa kubyara amarangamutima akomeye. Intego irashobora kandi kuba isa nkaho itabaho.

Kamere y’ubuhanzi yasobanuye ko umuhanga mu bya filozofiya Richard Wollheim ari "kimwe mu bitoroshye mu bibazo gakondo by’umuco w’abantu". Ubuhanzi bwasobanuwe nkigikoresho cyo kwerekana cyangwa gutumanaho amarangamutima nibitekerezo, uburyo bwo gushakisha no gushima ibintu byemewe kubwinyungu zabo bwite, kandi nka mimesis cyangwa guhagararirwa. Ubuhanzi nka mimesis bufite imizi yimbitse muri filozofiya ya Aristote. Leo Tolstoy yavuze ko ubuhanzi ari ugukoresha uburyo butaziguye bwo kuvugana n'umuntu ku wundi. Benedetto Croce na R. G. Collingwood bateje imbere ibitekerezo by'ibitekerezo byerekana ko ubuhanzi bugaragaza amarangamutima, kandi ko umurimo w'ubuhanzi rero ubaho mu bwenge bw'uwashizeho. [22] [23] Igitekerezo cyubuhanzi nkuburyo gifite inkomoko muri filozofiya ya Kant, kandi cyatangiye mu ntangiriro z'ikinyejana cya 20 na Roger Fry na Clive Bell. Vuba aha, abatekereza bayobowe na Martin Heidegger basobanuye ubuhanzi nkuburyo abaturage batezimbere ubwabo uburyo bwo kwigaragaza no kwisobanura. George Dickie yatanze inyigisho yubuhanzi isobanura umurimo wubuhanzi nkigihangano icyo aricyo cyose umuntu wujuje ibyangombwa cyangwa abantu bakora mu izina ryikigo cyimibereho bakunze kwita "isi yubuhanzi" bahaye "umwanya wumukandida kugirango bashimwe ". [25] Larry Shiner yavuze ko ibihangano byiza "atari ibintu cyangwa ibizabaho ahubwo ko ari ikintu twakoze. Ubuhanzi nkuko twabisobanukiwe muri rusange ni igihangano cy’iburayi kimaze imyaka magana abiri gusa." [26]

Ubuhanzi bushobora kurangwa mubijyanye na mimesis (kwerekana ukuri kwukuri), kuvuga (kuvuga inkuru), imvugo, itumanaho ryamarangamutima, cyangwa izindi mico. Mu gihe cy’Abaroma, ubuhanzi bwaje kugaragara nk "ishami ryihariye ryubwenge bwa muntu gushyirwa mu idini na siyansi".

 Amateka 
Ingingo nkuru: Amateka yubuhanzi

Löwenmensch figurine, hagati yimyaka 35.000 na 41.000. Imwe mu ngero za kera zizwi cyane zerekana ubuhanzi hamwe nigishusho cya kera cyemejwe kuva kera .. [28]

Igikonoshwa cyanditsweho na Homo erectus cyariyemeje kuba hagati yimyaka 430.000 na 540.000. Urutonde rwimyaka umunani 130.000 yumurizo wa kagoma talon yera ifite ibimenyetso byaciwe no gukuramo byerekana gukoreshwa na neanderthal, bishoboka ko yabikoresha nk'imitako. Urukurikirane rw'ibisasu bito, byacukuwe bimaze imyaka 75.000 - byavumbuwe mu buvumo bwo muri Afurika y'Epfo. Ibikoresho bishobora kuba byarakoreshejwe mu gufata amarangi byavumbuwe kuva mu myaka 100.000.

Igicapo cya kera cyane cyabonetse mu Burayi ni Riesenhirschknochen der Einhornhöhle, cyatangiye mu myaka 51.000 kandi cyakozwe na Neanderthals.

Ibishushanyo, gushushanya ubuvumo, gushushanya amabuye hamwe na petroglyphs yo mu majyaruguru ya Paleolithique yo mu myaka igera ku 40.000 ishize byabonetse, [33] ariko ibisobanuro nyabyo by’ubuhanzi bikunze kuvuguruzanya kuko bike bizwi ku mico yababyaye.

Ibishusho bya mbere bidashidikanywaho hamwe n’ibihangano bisa, nka Venus ya Hohle Fels, ni ibintu byinshi biboneka mu buhanzi bw’ubuvumo n’ibihe by’ibarafu mu murage ndangamurage w’isi wa Swabian Jura UNESCO, ahahoze havumbuwe ibikorwa bya kera bidahagaze neza mu buhanzi bwa muntu nyamara byavumbuwe habonetse, mu buryo bw’inyamanswa zibajwe n’ibishushanyo mbonera by’abantu, usibye ibikoresho bya muzika bya kera byacukuwe kugeza ubu, hamwe n’ibihangano byabaye hagati ya 43.000 na 35.000 mbere ya Yesu, bityo bikaba ikigo cya mbere cy’ubuhanzi bwa muntu. [34] [35] [36] ] [37]

Ubuvumo bwo gushushanya ifarashi ivuye mu buvumo bwa Lascaux, c. 16,000 BP

Imigenzo myinshi ikomeye mubuhanzi ifite urufatiro mubuhanzi bwimwe mumico gakondo ya kera: Misiri ya kera, Mesopotamiya, Ubuperesi, Ubuhinde, Ubushinwa, Ubugereki bwa kera, Roma, ndetse na Inca, Maya, na Olmec. Buri kimwe muri ibyo bigo byubusabane bwambere cyateje imbere uburyo bwihariye kandi buranga mubuhanzi bwabwo. Kubera ubunini nigihe bimara muriyi mico, byinshi mubikorwa byabo byubuhanzi byararokotse nibindi byinshi imbaraga za eir zandujwe muyindi mico ndetse no mubihe byashize. Bamwe batanze kandi inyandiko yambere yukuntu abahanzi bakoze. Kurugero, iki gihe cyubuhanzi bwubugereki cyubahaga imiterere yumubiri wumuntu no guteza imbere ubuhanga bungana bwo kwerekana imitsi, umutuzo, ubwiza, hamwe nuburyo bukwiye. [38]

Mu buhanzi bwa Byzantine na Medieval yo mu Burengerazuba bwo Hagati, ibihangano byinshi byibanze ku kwerekana ingingo zerekeye umuco wa Bibiliya n’amadini, kandi zikoresha uburyo bwerekana icyubahiro cyinshi cy’isi yo mu ijuru, nko gukoresha zahabu inyuma y’ibishushanyo, cyangwa ikirahuri muri mosaika cyangwa Windows, nayo yerekanaga imibare muburyo bwiza, bushushanyije (buringaniye). Nubwo byari bimeze bityo ariko, imigenzo gakondo ya realiste yakomezaga mu bikorwa bito bya Byzantine, kandi realism yakomeje kwiyongera mu buhanzi bw’Uburayi Gatolika.

Ubuhanzi bwa Renaissance bwarushijeho kwibanda cyane ku kwerekana ibintu bifatika byerekana isi, n’umwanya w’abantu muri yo, bigaragarira mu mibiri y’umubiri w’umuntu, no guteza imbere uburyo butunganijwe bwo kwerekana ishusho yerekana ko ubukungu bwifashe nabi mu bice bitatu. umwanya w'amashusho.
Umukono wanditseho Sultan Mahmud II wubwami bwa Ottoman yanditswe mubyandikano bya kisilamu. Iragira iti "Mahmud Khan mwene Abdulhamid aratsinze iteka".

Umusigiti munini wa Kairouan muri Tuniziya, nanone witwa Umusigiti wa Uqba, ni umwe mu ngero nziza cyane, zikomeye kandi zabitswe neza mu buhanzi n’ubwubatsi by’imisigiti minini ya mbere. Itariki ya none kuva mu kinyejana cya 9, ni sekuruza n'icyitegererezo cy'imisigiti yose yo mu bihugu bya kisilamu byo mu burengerazuba.

Mu burasirazuba, ibihangano bya kisilamu kwanga amashusho byatumye hibandwa ku buryo bwa geometrike, imyandikire, hamwe n’ubwubatsi. Iburasirazuba, idini ryiganje muburyo bwubuhanzi. Ubuhinde na Tibet byibanze cyane ku bishushanyo bishushanyije n'imbyino, mu gihe amadini yashushanyaga amakoraniro menshi mu bishushanyo kandi yerekanaga amabara atandukanye cyane yibanda ku murongo. Ubushinwa bwabonye iterambere ryubuhanzi bwinshi: kubaza jade, gukora umuringa, ububumbyi (harimo ningabo za terracotta zitangaje zumwami w'abami Qin [43]), imivugo, imyandikire, umuziki, gushushanya, ikinamico, ibihimbano, nibindi. gihe kandi buriwese yitiriwe ingoma y'ubutegetsi. Nkurugero, amashusho yingoma ya Tang ni monochromatic kandi ni gake, ashimangira ahantu nyaburanga, ariko ibishushanyo by’ingoma ya Ming birahuze kandi bifite amabara, kandi byibanda ku kuvuga inkuru ukoresheje imiterere n'ibihimbano. Ubuyapani bwita imiterere yabyo nyuma yingoma yubwami nabwo, kandi bwabonye imikoranire myinshi hagati yuburyo bwo kwandika no gushushanya. Gucapa ibiti byabaye ingirakamaro mu Buyapani nyuma yikinyejana cya 17. [45]

 Igishushanyo cyabashinwa cyumuhanzi wingoma yingoma Ma Lin, c. 1250. 24.8 × 25.2 cm 
Ibihe byo Kumurikirwa mu Burengerazuba mu kinyejana cya 18 byerekanaga ubuhanzi bwerekana ibimenyetso bifatika bifatika byerekana ko isi ikora amasaha, ndetse n’iyerekwa rya politiki rya politiki y’isi ya nyuma y’ubwami, nko kuba Blake yerekanaga Newton nka geometrike y’imana, [46] cyangwa Amashusho ya Dawidi yamamaza. Ibi byatumye Romantique yanga ibi kugirango ashyigikire amashusho yuruhande rwamarangamutima numuntu ku giti cye, byerekanwe mubitabo bya Goethe. Mu mpera z'ikinyejana cya 19 noneho habaye ibikorwa byinshi by'ubuhanzi, nk'ubuhanzi bw'amasomo, Symbolism, impressionism na fauvism n'ibindi. [47]

Amateka yubuhanzi bwo mu kinyejana cya 20 ni inkuru yerekana ibintu bitagira iherezo no gushakisha amahame mashya, buriwese washenywe ukurikiraho. Rero ibipimo bya Impressionism, Expressionism, Fauvism, Cubism, Dadaism, Surrealism, nibindi ntibishobora kubungabungwa cyane kurenza igihe bahimbye. Kwiyongera kwimikoranire kwisi yose muriki gihe byabonye ingaruka zingana nindi mico mubuhanzi bwiburengerazuba. Rero, ibicapo byabayapani byanditseho (ubwabyo byatewe nubukorikori bwiburengerazuba bwa Renaissance) byagize uruhare runini mubitekerezo no kwiteza imbere. Nyuma, ibishusho by'Afurika byafashwe na Picasso ndetse na Matisse ku rugero runaka. Mu buryo nk'ubwo, mu kinyejana cya 19 n'icya 20 Uburengerazuba bwagize ingaruka zikomeye ku buhanzi bw'Iburasirazuba hamwe n'ibitekerezo by'iburengerazuba nka Komunisiti na Post-Modernism bigira uruhare rukomeye.

Modernism, gushakisha ibitekerezo byukuri, byatanze igice cyanyuma cyikinyejana cya 20 kugirango tumenye ko bidashoboka. Theodor W. Adorno mu 1970, yagize ati: "Ubu byafashwe nk'ukuri ko nta kintu na kimwe kireba ubuhanzi gishobora gufatwa nk'ikindi: haba ubuhanzi ubwabwo, cyangwa ubuhanzi bufitanye isano na bose, ndetse n'uburenganzira bw'ubuhanzi bwo kubaho." [50] Relativism yemerwa nkukuri kudashobora kwirindwa, kwatumye habaho ibihe byubuhanzi bugezweho no kunengwa nyuma ya postmodern, aho imico yisi ndetse namateka bigaragara ko ihinduka ryimiterere, ishobora gushimwa no gukururwa gusa no gushidikanya no gushinyagura. Byongeye kandi, gutandukanya imico biragenda bisobanuka kandi bamwe bavuga ko ubu ari byinshi bikwiye gutekereza ukurikije umuco wisi yose, aho gutekereza kumarere.

Mu nkomoko y’igikorwa cy’ubuhanzi, Martin Heidegger, umufilozofe w’Ubudage akaba n’umuntu utekereza seminal, asobanura ishingiro ryubuhanzi ukurikije imyumvire yo kubaho nukuri. Avuga ko ubuhanzi atari uburyo bwo kwerekana gusa ukuri mu muco, ahubwo ko ari uburyo bwo kuwurema no gutanga ikibaho gishobora kuvamo "icyari". Ibikorwa byubuhanzi ntabwo byerekana gusa uko ibintu bimeze, ahubwo mubyukuri bitanga imyumvire yabaturage. Igihe cyose ibihangano bishya byongewe kumuco uwo ariwo wose, ibisobanuro byibyo kubaho bigomba guhinduka.

Amateka, ubuhanzi nubuhanzi nubuhanga nibitekerezo byakwirakwijwe mubucuruzi. Urugero rwibi ni Umuhanda wa Silk, aho Abagiriki, Abanyayirani, Abahinde n'Abashinwa bashobora kuvanga. Ubuhanzi bwa Budisti ya Greco nimwe murugero rugaragara rwimikoranire. Ihuriro ryimico itandukanye nuburyo isi nayo yagize uruhare mubuhanzi. Urugero rwibi ni urugero rw’imico itandukanye ya Trieste mu ntangiriro z'ikinyejana cya 20, aho James Joyce yahuye n'abanditsi baturutse mu Burayi bwo hagati ndetse n'iterambere ry'ubuhanzi mu mujyi wa New York nk'inkono ishonga umuco. [52] [53] [54]

 Imiterere, injyana, itangazamakuru, nuburyo 
Napoleon I ku ntebe ye ya cyami na Ingres (Igifaransa, 1806), amavuta kuri canvas

Ingingo nyamukuru: Ubuhanzi

Ubuhanzi bwo guhanga bukunze kugabanywamo ibyiciro byihariye, mubisanzwe mubyiciro bitandukanijwe nkibitangazamakuru, injyana, imiterere, nuburyo. Imiterere yubuhanzi yerekeza kubintu byubuhanzi bitigenga kubisobanuro cyangwa akamaro. Irimo uburyo bwakoreshejwe numuhanzi hamwe nuburyo bugaragara bwibikorwa byubuhanzi, cyane cyane ibintu bidafite ibisobanuro byakazi (nukuvuga figurae), [56] nkibara, kontour, urugero, hagati, injyana, umwanya, imiterere, na agaciro. Ifishi irashobora kandi kuba ikubiyemo amahame agenga igishushanyo mbonera, nka gahunda, kuringaniza, itandukaniro, gushimangira, guhuza, kugereranya, kuba hafi, hamwe nigitekerezo.

Muri rusange hariho amashuri atatu ya filozofiya yerekeye ubuhanzi, yibanda ku miterere, ibirimo, n'imiterere. Gukabya gukabije ni ukureba ko ibintu byose byiza byubuhanzi byemewe (ni ukuvuga igice cyubuhanzi). Abafilozofe hafi ya bose banze iki gitekerezo kandi bemeza ko imiterere n'ubwiza bw'ubuhanzi bitarenze ibikoresho, tekiniki, n'imiterere. Kubwamahirwe make, hari ubwumvikane buke kuri terminologiya kuriyi mitungo idasanzwe. Bamwe mu banditsi bavuga ku ngingo n'ibirimo - ni ukuvuga, ibisobanuro n'ibisobanuro - mu gihe abandi bakunda amagambo nk'ubusobanuro n'akamaro.

Intentionalism ikabije ivuga ko intego zemewe zigira uruhare rukomeye mugusobanura umurimo wubuhanzi, gutanga ibirimo cyangwa igitekerezo cyingenzi, mugihe ibindi bisobanuro byose bishobora gutabwa. Irasobanura isomo nkabantu cyangwa igitekerezo bahagarariwe, [60] nibirimo nkubunararibonye bwumuhanzi kuriyi ngingo. Kurugero, ibihimbano bya Napoleon I ku ntebe ye ya cyami yatijwe igice cya shusho ya Zewusi muri Olympia. Nkuko bigaragazwa n’umutwe, ingingo ni Napoleon, kandi ibiyikubiyemo ni Ingres igereranya Napoleon nka "Umwami-Mana birenze igihe n'umwanya". Mu buryo nk'ubwo, uburyo bukabije, abahanga mu bya filozofiya banze ubushake bukabije, kubera ko ubuhanzi bushobora kuba bufite ibisobanuro byinshi bidasobanutse kandi intego y'ubutegetsi irashobora kutamenyekana bityo bikaba ntaho bihuriye. Ubusobanuro bwayo bukumira "ni ubuzima butameze neza, filozofiya idashoboka, na politiki idafite ubwenge".

Hanyuma, ibitekerezo byiterambere byubaka nyuma yubuyobozi byiga akamaro k'ubuhanzi mubijyanye n'umuco, nk'ibitekerezo, amarangamutima, n'ibisubizo biterwa n'umurimo. [62] Imiterere yumuco akenshi igabanuka kubuhanga nintego zumuhanzi, aho isesengura rikorwa kumurongo usa nubusambanyi nubushake. Ariko, mubindi bihe, amateka n'amateka bishobora kuba byiganje, nk'imyizerere ishingiye ku idini na filozofiya, imibereho ya politiki n'ubukungu, ndetse n'ikirere na geografiya. Kunegura ibihangano bikomeje kwiyongera no gutera imbere hamwe nubuhanzi.

 Ubuhanga n'ubukorikori 
Reba kandi: Ubuhanzi busobanutse nubuhanga bwubuhanzi

Ubuhanzi bushobora guhuza imyumvire yubushobozi bwatojwe cyangwa ubuhanga bwikigereranyo. Ubuhanzi bushobora kandi kwerekeza ku gukoresha neza kandi neza gukoresha ururimi kugirango utange ibisobanuro byihuse cyangwa ubujyakuzimu. Ubuhanzi bushobora gusobanurwa nkigikorwa cyo kwerekana ibyiyumvo, ibitekerezo, no kwitegereza.

Hariho gusobanukirwa kugerwaho nibikoresho nkibisubizo byo kubikemura, byorohereza ibitekerezo byumuntu. Igitekerezo rusange ni uko ibihangano bya epithet, cyane cyane muburyo bwayo bwo hejuru, bisaba urwego runaka rwubuhanga bwo guhanga umuhanzi, byaba ibi byerekana ubushobozi bwa tekiniki, umwimerere muburyo bwa stylistic, cyangwa guhuza ibi byombi. Ubusanzwe ubuhanga bwo kwicwa bwari  bifatwa nkubuziranenge budashobora gutandukana nubuhanzi bityo bukenewe kugirango bigerweho; kuri Leonardo da Vinci, ubuhanzi, butarenze cyangwa butari munsi y'ibindi bikorwa bye, bwari uburyo bwo kwerekana ubuhanga. Igikorwa cya Rembrandt, ubu cyashimiwe imico myiza yacyo, cyashimiwe cyane nabari mu gihe cye kubera ubuhanga bwacyo. [65] Mu ntangiriro z'ikinyejana cya 20, ibitaramo bya adroit byakozwe na John Singer Sargent byongeye gushimwa no kurebwa no gushidikanya kubera kuvuga neza intoki, [66] nyamara icyarimwe icyarimwe umuhanzi uzaba ikirangirire muri iki gihe cyamenyekanye cyane kandi cyitwa peripatetic, Pablo Picasso, yarangizaga imyitozo gakondo yamasomo yatsindiye. [67]

Kunengwa muri iki gihe kunenga ibihangano bimwe na bimwe bigezweho bibaho kumurongo wo kwanga kugaragara nkubuhanga cyangwa ubushobozi busabwa mugukora ibintu byubuhanzi. Mu buhanzi bw'ibitekerezo, Isoko ya Marcel Duchamp iri mu ngero za mbere z'ibice aho umuhanzi yakoresheje ibintu byavumbuwe ("biteguye") kandi nta buhanga yari asanzwe azwi. [69] Uburiri bwanjye bwa Tracey Emin, cyangwa Damien Hirst's Ntibishoboka Urupfu Mubitekerezo byumuntu ubaho ukurikiza uru rugero kandi ukanayobora itangazamakuru. Emin yararaga (kandi akora ibindi bikorwa) mu buriri bwe mbere yo gushyira ibisubizo mubitabo nkibikorwa byubuhanzi. Hirst yazanye igishushanyo mbonera cyibikorwa byubuhanzi ariko asiga ibyinshi mubikorwa byahimbwe nibikorwa byinshi kubanyabukorikori bakoreshwa. Icyamamare cya Hirst gishingiye gusa ku bushobozi afite bwo gutanga ibitekerezo bitangaje. Umusaruro nyirizina mubikorwa byinshi byubuhanzi nibigezweho ni ikibazo cyo guteranya ibintu byabonetse. Ariko, hariho abahanzi benshi bigezweho kandi bigezweho bakomeje kuba indashyikirwa mubuhanga bwo gushushanya no gushushanya no guhanga ibihangano byamaboko.

Intego

Igitambaro cya Navajo cyakozwe c. 1880

Mozarabic Beatus miniature. Espanye, mu mpera z'ikinyejana cya 10

Ubuhanzi bwagize umubare munini wimirimo itandukanye mumateka yarwo, bigatuma intego yayo igora gukuramo cyangwa kugereranya igitekerezo kimwe. Ibi ntibisobanura ko intego yubuhanzi "idasobanutse", ariko ko ifite impamvu nyinshi zidasanzwe, zitandukanye zo kurema. Bimwe muribi bikorwa byubuhanzi bitangwa murutonde rukurikira. Intego zitandukanye zubuhanzi zishobora guhurizwa hamwe ukurikije izidafite intego, nizitera (Lévi-Strauss). [72]

Imikorere idashishikajwe

Intego zidashishikajwe nubuhanzi nizo zifite uruhare runini mu kuba umuntu, kurenga umuntu, cyangwa kutuzuza intego yihariye yo hanze. Ni muri urwo rwego, Ubuhanzi, nk'ubuhanga, ni ikintu abantu bagomba gukora bitewe na kamere yabo (ni ukuvuga ko nta yandi moko arema ibihangano), bityo bikaba birenze akamaro. [72]

Intangiriro yibanze yumuntu kubwumvikane, kuringaniza, injyana. Ubuhanzi kuri uru rwego ntabwo ari igikorwa cyangwa ikintu, ahubwo ni ugushimira imbere kuringaniza no guhuza (ubwiza), bityo rero ni ikintu cyo kuba umuntu birenze akamaro.

Kwigana rero, ni instinzi imwe ya kamere yacu. Ibikurikira, hariho ubushake bwo 'guhuza' nindirimbo, metero zigaragara mubice byinjyana. Abantu rero, bahereye kuriyi mpano karemano yatejwe imbere na dogere ubuhanga bwabo bwihariye, kugeza ubwo imitekerereze yabo idahwitse yabyaye Ibisigo. - Aristote [73]

Inararibonye z'amayobera. Ubuhanzi butanga uburyo bwo kwibonera umuntu mubijyanye n'isi. Inararibonye irashobora kuza kenshi idashishikajwe, nkuko umuntu ashima ubuhanzi, umuziki cyangwa ibisigo.

Ikintu cyiza cyane dushobora kubona ni amayobera. Nisoko yubuhanzi bwose nubumenyi. - Albert Einstein [74]

Kugaragaza ibitekerezo. Ubuhanzi butanga uburyo bwo kwerekana ibitekerezo muburyo butari ikibonezamvugo butajyanye nuburyo bwo kuvuga cyangwa kwandika. Bitandukanye n'amagambo, aje akurikirana kandi buri kimwe gifite ibisobanuro bisobanutse, ubuhanzi butanga urutonde rwimiterere, ibimenyetso nibitekerezo bifite ibisobanuro byoroshye.

Inkukuma ya Jupiter [nk'urugero rw'ubuhanzi] ntabwo, imeze nk'ibintu byumvikana (estetique) biranga ikintu, igitekerezo cyo gukomera no gukomera kurema, ahubwo ni ikindi kintu - ikintu giha igitekerezo cyo gushishikariza gukwirakwiza indege yacyo hejuru ya urugo rwose rwabavandimwe bahagarariye bitera ibitekerezo byinshi kuruta kwemerera imvugo mubitekerezo byagenwe namagambo. Batanga igitekerezo cyiza, gikora igitekerezo cyumvikana cyavuzwe haruguru nkigisimbuza ibitekerezo byumvikana, ariko hamwe numurimo ukwiye, ariko, wo guhindura ibitekerezo mugukingurira ibyiringiro mubice byerekana ubuvandimwe burenze ken. - Immanuel Kant [75]

Imikorere yimihango nikigereranyo. Mu mico myinshi, ubuhanzi bukoreshwa mumihango, ibitaramo n'imbyino nk'umutako cyangwa ikimenyetso. Nubwo akenshi usanga bidafite intego yihariye (motifike), abahanga mubya antropropologiste bazi ko akenshi bakora intego kurwego rwibisobanuro mumico runaka. Ubu busobanuro ntabwo ari ubwoya  nishingwe numuntu uwo ari we wese, ariko akenshi ni ibisubizo byibisekuru byinshi byimpinduka, nubusabane bwikirere mumico.

Intiti nyinshi zivuga ku bicapo cyangwa ibintu byakuwe mu bihe byabanjirije amateka bidashobora gusobanurwa mu magambo akoreshwa bityo bikaba byashyizwe mu rwego rwo gushushanya, imihango cyangwa ibimenyetso, bazi umutego watewe n'ijambo 'ubuhanzi'. - Silva Tomaskova [76]

 Imikorere ishishikajwe 
Intego yibikorwa byubuhanzi bivuga ibikorwa nkana, byitondewe byabahanzi cyangwa abaremye. Ibi bishobora kuba kuzana impinduka za politiki, gutanga ibisobanuro kubintu bimwe na bimwe bya societe, kwerekana amarangamutima cyangwa imyumvire yihariye, gukemura imitekerereze ya muntu, kwerekana indi disipuline, (hamwe nubuhanzi bwubucuruzi) kugurisha ibicuruzwa, cyangwa gukoreshwa muburyo y'itumanaho. [72] [77]

Itumanaho. Ubuhanzi, muburyo bworoshye, nuburyo bwo gutumanaho. Nkuko uburyo bwinshi bwitumanaho bufite intego cyangwa intego yerekeza kubandi bantu, iyi niyo ntego. Ubuhanzi bushushanya, nkibishushanyo bya siyansi, ni uburyo bwubuhanzi nkitumanaho. Ikarita ni urundi rugero. Ariko, ibirimo ntibigomba kuba siyanse. Amarangamutima, imyumvire n'amarangamutima nabyo bigaragazwa binyuze mubuhanzi.

[Ubuhanzi nuruhererekane rwibintu cyangwa amashusho bifite ibisobanuro byikigereranyo nkuburyo bwo gutumanaho. - Steve Mithen [78]

Ubuhanzi nk'imyidagaduro. Ubuhanzi bushobora gushaka kuzana amarangamutima cyangwa imyumvire runaka, hagamijwe kuruhuka cyangwa gushimisha abareba. Akenshi iyi niyo mikorere yinganda zubuhanzi zerekana amashusho yimikino nudukino twa videwo.

Avant-Garde. Ubuhanzi bwo guhindura politiki. Imwe mu mikorere isobanura ibihangano byo mu kinyejana cya 20 kwari ugukoresha amashusho agaragara kugirango habeho impinduka za politiki. Ibikorwa byubuhanzi byari bifite iyi ntego - Dadaism, Surrealism, Uburusiya bwubaka, hamwe na Abstract Expressionism, hamwe nabandi - hamwe hamwe bita ubuhanzi bwa avant-garde.

Ibinyuranye n'ibyo, imyifatire ifatika, yatewe inkunga na positivisme, kuva kuri Mutagatifu Tomasi Aquinas kugeza muri Anatole y'Ubufaransa, biragaragara ko kuri njye nanga iterambere iryo ari ryo ryose ry’ubwenge cyangwa umuco. Ndabyanga, kuko bigizwe na mediocrite, urwango, no kwiyemera. Iyi myifatire niyo uyumunsi ibyara ibi bitabo bisekeje, iyi ikinamico itukana. Ihora igaburira kandi ikura imbaraga mubinyamakuru kandi igashimangira siyanse nubuhanzi mugushimangira gushimisha hasi cyane; gusobanuka bihana imbibi, ubuzima bwimbwa. - André Breton (Surrealism) [80]

Ubuhanzi nka "zone yubuntu", yakuwe mubikorwa byo kwamagana imibereho. Bitandukanye n’imigendekere ya avant-garde, yashakaga gukuraho itandukaniro ry’umuco hagamijwe kubyara indangagaciro nshya ku isi hose, ubuhanzi bwa none bwongereye kwihanganira itandukaniro ry’umuco kimwe n’imirimo ikomeye kandi ibohora (iperereza ry’imibereho, ibikorwa, guhirika ubutegetsi, kubaka, n'ibindi). ), kuba ahantu hafunguye ubushakashatsi no gukora ubushakashatsi.

Ubuhanzi bwo kubaza imibereho, guhirika ubutegetsi cyangwa kudashyira mu gaciro. Nubwo bisa nubuhanzi bugamije impinduka za politiki, ibihangano byo guhirika ubutegetsi cyangwa kubeshya bishobora gushaka kwibaza ibibazo bya societe nta ntego yihariye ya politiki. Muri iki gihe, imikorere yubuhanzi irashobora gukoreshwa mu kunegura ibintu bimwe na bimwe bya societe.

 Shushanya irangi graffiti kurukuta i Roma 
Ubuhanzi bwa Graffiti nubundi bwoko bwubuhanzi bwo mumuhanda ni ibishushanyo n'amashusho bishushanyijeho irangi cyangwa byanditseho inkuta zishobora kugaragara kumugaragaro, inyubako, bisi, gariyamoshi, n'ibiraro, mubisanzwe nta ruhushya. Ibikorwa bimwe byubuhanzi, nka graffiti, birashobora kandi kutemewe mugihe barenze ku mategeko (muriki gihe kwangiza).

Ubuhanzi kubwimpamvu. Ubuhanzi burashobora gukoreshwa mukuzamura imyumvire kubintu byinshi bitandukanye. Ibikorwa byinshi byubuhanzi byari bigamije gukangurira abantu kumenya autism, [82] [83] [84] kanseri, [85] [86] [87] gucuruza abantu, [88] [89] nizindi ngingo zitandukanye, nko kubungabunga inyanja, [90] uburenganzira bwa muntu i Darfur, [91] bishe kandi babura abagore b’abasangwabutaka, [92] guhohotera abasaza, [93] n’umwanda. Imyanda, gukoresha imyanda mugukora imideri, ikorwa nabahanzi nka Marina DeBris nurugero rumwe rwo gukoresha ibihangano mukuzamura imyumvire kubyerekeye umwanda.

Ubuhanzi bugamije imitekerereze no gukiza. Ubuhanzi bukoreshwa kandi nubuvuzi bwubuhanzi, psychotherapiste naba psychologue clinique nkubuvuzi bwubuhanzi. Igishushanyo cyo Gusuzuma Igishushanyo, nk'urugero, gikoreshwa mu kumenya imiterere n'imikorere y'amarangamutima y'umurwayi. Igicuruzwa cyanyuma ntabwo intego nyamukuru muriki kibazo, ahubwo hashakishwa inzira yo gukira, binyuze mubikorwa byo guhanga. Igicapo c'ibisubizo gishobora kandi gutanga ubushishozi kubibazo byugarije isomo kandi birashobora kwerekana uburyo bukwiye bwakoreshwa muburyo busanzwe bwo kuvura indwara zo mumutwe.

Ubuhanzi bwo kwamamaza, cyangwa ubucuruzi. Ubuhanzi bukunze gukoreshwa nkuburyo bwo kwamamaza, bityo bukaba bushobora gukoreshwa muburyo bwihishe mubitekerezo cyangwa imyumvire ikunzwe. Muburyo busa, ubuhanzi bugerageza kugurisha ibicuruzwa nabwo bugira ingaruka kumutima no mumarangamutima. Muri ibyo bihe byombi, intego yubuhanzi hano ni ugukoresha mu buryo bwihishe abareba mubisubizo byamarangamutima cyangwa imitekerereze t kubera igitekerezo cyangwa ikintu runaka.

Ubuhanzi nkikimenyetso cyerekana imyitozo ngororamubiri. Byaganiriweho ko ubushobozi bwubwonko bwumuntu burenze kure ibyari bikenewe kugirango tubeho mubisekuruza. Igitekerezo kimwe cyubwihindurize busobanura ibi nuko ubwonko bwumuntu nibiranga isano (nkubushobozi bwubuhanzi no guhanga) aribyo bihwanye numurizo wimpyisi. Intego yumurizo wimpyisi wigitsina gabo byavuzwe ko ari ugukurura igitsina gore (reba kandi guhunga abarobyi n’ihame ry’ubumuga). Dukurikije iki gitekerezo, gushyira mu bikorwa ibihangano byari ngombwa mu bwihindurize kuko byakururaga abo mwashakanye.

Imikorere yubuhanzi yasobanuwe haruguru ntabwo itandukanye, kuko inyinshi murizo zishobora guhuzagurika. Kurugero, ubuhanzi bugamije kwidagadura bushobora nanone gushaka kugurisha ibicuruzwa, ni ukuvuga firime cyangwa umukino wa videwo.