Uburenganzira bwa muntu

Uburenganzira bwa muntu mu Rwanda ni amahame mbwirizamuco cyangwa amahame [1] ku mahame amwe y’imyitwarire ya muntu kandi akingirwa buri gihe mu mategeko y’amakomine n’amahanga. [2] umuntu asanzwe afite uburenganzira kubera gusa ko ari ikiremwa muntu "[4] kandi" kikaba kavukire mu bantu bose ", [5] hatitawe ku myaka yabo, inkomoko yabo, aho batuye, ururimi, idini, ubwoko, cyangwa ikindi icyo ari cyo cyose imiterere. [3] Zirakoreshwa ahantu hose kandi igihe cyose muburyo bwo kuba rusange, [1] kandi barangana muburyo bwo kuba bamwe kuri bose. Bafatwa nk'ibisaba kwishyira mu mwanya w'abandi no kugendera ku mategeko [6] no gushyiraho inshingano ku bantu kubahiriza uburenganzira bwa muntu bw'abandi, [1] [3] kandi muri rusange bifatwa ko batagomba gukurwaho keretse ari ingaruka. y'ibikorwa bikwiye hashingiwe ku bihe byihariye. [3]

Inyigisho z’uburenganzira bwa muntu zagize uruhare runini mu mategeko mpuzamahanga ndetse n’inzego z’isi ndetse n’akarere. Ibikorwa byakozwe na leta nimiryango itegamiye kuri leta bigize ishingiro rya politiki rusange kwisi yose. Igitekerezo cy’uburenganzira bwa muntu cyerekana ko "niba disikuru rusange y’umuryango w’amahoro ku isi yose ishobora kuvugwa ko ifite imvugo imwe, ni iy'uburenganzira bwa muntu". [7] uburenganzira bwa muntu bukomeje gutera gushidikanya no kujya impaka ku bikubiyemo, imiterere n’impamvu z’uburenganzira bwa muntu kugeza na nubu. Ibisobanuro nyabyo by'ijambo uburenganzira ntibivugwaho rumwe kandi ni byo bikomeje kugibwaho impaka zishingiye kuri filozofiya; [8] , kurinda ubucakara, kubuza jenoside, kuvuga mu bwisanzure [9] cyangwa uburenganzira bwo kwiga, hari ukutumvikana ku bijyanye n’uburenganzira bumwe bwihariye bugomba gushyirwa mu rwego rusange rw’uburenganzira bwa muntu; [1] bamwe mu batekereza bavuga ko uburenganzira bwa muntu bugomba kuba byibuze bisabwa kugirango wirinde ihohoterwa rikabije-mu gihe abandi babibona nk'urwego rwo hejuru. [1] Byaganiriweho kandi ko uburenganzira bwa muntu "butangwa n'Imana", nubwo iki gitekerezo cyanenzwe.thumb|Ikibumbano cy'ubwigenge ni ikimenyetso cyo kwishyira ukizana ku kiremwamuntu.|345x345pxByinshi mu bitekerezo by’ibanze byerekanaga umuryango uharanira uburenganzira bwa muntu byateye imbere nyuma y’Intambara ya Kabiri y'Isi Yose hamwe n’ibyabaye kuri jenoside yakorewe Abayahudi, [6] bikarangira hamenyekanye Itangazo Mpuzamahanga ry’Uburenganzira bwa Muntu i Paris n’Inteko rusange y’umuryango w’abibumbye muri 1948. [12] Abantu ba kera ntibari bafite imyumvire imwe yo muri iki gihe y’uburenganzira bwa muntu ku isi hose. [13] mugihe cyo kumurikirwa kwi Burayi hamwe nabafilozofe nka John Locke, Francis Hutcheson na Jean-Jacques Burlamaqui kandi byagaragaye cyane muri disikuru ya politiki ya Revolution y'Abanyamerika na Revolution y'Abafaransa. [6] Kuva kuri uru rufatiro, ingingo zigezweho z’uburenganzira bwa muntu zagaragaye mu gice cya nyuma cy’ikinyejana cya 20, [14] intege nke kandi nkibisabwa kugirango umuryango utabera. Guharanira uburenganzira bwa muntu byakomeje mu ntangiriro z'ikinyejana cya 21, bishingiye ku kugera ku bwisanzure mu bukungu no mu bya politiki.

Amateka

Ingingo nyamukuru: Amateka yuburenganzira bwa muntu

 Itangazo ry’Ubwigenge ry’Amerika ryemejwe na Kongere y’umugabane wa 4 Nyakanga 1776 
Igitekerezo cy’uburenganzira bwa muntu cyabayeho mu bihe bya kera na mbere y’iki gihe, nubwo abantu ba kera batatekerezaga ku burenganzira bwa muntu ku isi nk'uko abantu babibona muri iki gihe. [13]

Intangiriro nyayo y’ibiganiro by’uburenganzira bwa muntu yari igitekerezo cy’uburenganzira bwa muntu bwagaragaye nkimwe mu migenzo gakondo y’amategeko yo hagati. Uyu muco watewe cyane cyane n’inyandiko z’abakristu ba mbere ba St Paul nka St Hilary wa Poitiers, St Ambrose, na St Augustine. Agusitini yari mu ba mbere basuzumye ubuzimagatozi bw’amategeko y’umuntu, akagerageza gusobanura imipaka y’amategeko n’uburenganzira bibaho bisanzwe bishingiye ku bwenge n’umutimanama, aho gushyirwaho ku bushake n’abantu buntu, kandi niba abantu bategekwa kubahiriza amategeko. ibyo birenganya.

Uyu muco wo mu gihe cyo hagati wagaragaye cyane mugihe cyo kumurikirwa kwi Burayi. Kuva kuri uru rufatiro, ingingo zigezweho z’uburenganzira bwa muntu zagaragaye mu gice cya nyuma cy’ikinyejana cya 20. [14]

Magna Carta ni igitabo cy’icyongereza cyatanzwe mbere mu 1215 cyagize uruhare mu iterambere ry’amategeko rusange ndetse n’inyandiko nyinshi z’itegeko nshinga nyuma zijyanye n’uburenganzira bwa muntu, nk’umushinga w’uburenganzira bw’icyongereza 1689, 1789 Itegeko Nshinga rya Leta zunze ubumwe za Amerika, hamwe n’umushinga w’uburenganzira bwa Leta zunze ubumwe z’Amerika 1791.

Mu kinyejana cya 17, umuhanga mu bya filozofiya w’Ubwongereza John Locke yaganiriye ku burenganzira bwa muntu mu gitabo cye, avuga ko ari "ubuzima, umudendezo, n’umutungo (umutungo)", anavuga ko ubwo burenganzira bw’ibanze budashobora gutangwa mu masezerano y’imibereho. Mu Bwongereza mu 1689, umushinga w’uburenganzira bw’Ubwongereza hamwe n’ikirego cy’uburenganzira bwa Ecosse buri wese yakoze ibikorwa bitandukanye byo gukandamiza leta, bitemewe. Impinduramatwara ebyiri zikomeye zabaye mu kinyejana cya 18, muri Amerika (1776) no mu Bufaransa (1789), bituma Itangazo ry’Ubwigenge ry’Amerika ndetse n’itangazwa ry’Ubufaransa ry’Uburenganzira bwa Muntu n’Umuturage, byombi bikaba byavuzwe. uburenganzira bwa muntu. Byongeye kandi, Itangazo ry’Uburenganzira bwa Virijiniya ryo mu 1776 ryashyizwe mu mategeko uburenganzira bw’ibanze n’ubwisanzure bw’abaturage.

Dufashe uku kuri kugira ngo kwigaragaze, ko abantu bose baremwe kimwe, ko bahawe n'Umuremyi wabo uburenganzira bumwe na bumwe budasubirwaho, ko muri ibyo harimo Ubuzima, Ubwisanzure no gukurikirana Ibyishimo.

- Itangazo ry’Ubwigenge muri Amerika, 1776

1800 kugeza mu Ntambara ya Mbere y'Isi Yose

 Itangazo ry'uburenganzira bwa muntu n'ubwenegihugu byemejwe n'Inteko ishinga amategeko y'Ubufaransa, 26 Kanama 1789. 
Abafilozofe nka Thomas Paine, John Stuart Mill, na Hegel baguye ku nsanganyamatsiko ya bose mu kinyejana cya 18 na 19. Mu 1831, William Lloyd Garrison yanditse mu kinyamakuru cyitwa The Liberator ko yagerageje kwandikisha abasomyi be "impamvu ikomeye iharanira uburenganzira bwa muntu", [19] bityo ijambo uburenganzira bwa muntu rishobora kuba ryaratangiye gukoreshwa hagati y’uburenganzira bwa muntu bwa Paine. n'igitabo cya Garrison. Mu 1849, umuntu wo mu gihe kimwe, Henry David Thoreau, yanditse ku burenganzira bwa muntu mu gitabo cye kivuga ku nshingano yo kutumvira kw'abaturage nyuma yaje kugira ingaruka ku burenganzira bwa muntu ndetse no ku batekereza ku burenganzira bwa muntu. Urukiko rw'Ikirenga rwo muri Leta zunze ubumwe za Amerika, David Davis, mu gitekerezo cye cyo mu 1867 kuri Ex Parte Milligan, yaranditse ati "Mu rwego rwo kurinda amategeko, uburenganzira bwa muntu burabungabungwa; kuvanaho ubwo burinzi kandi bababajwe n'abategetsi babi cyangwa gutaka kw'abantu bishimye . "[20]

Amatsinda menshi n’imigendekere yabashije kugera ku mpinduka zikomeye mu mibereho mu kinyejana cya 20 mu izina ry’uburenganzira bwa muntu. Mu Burayi bw’Uburengerazuba no muri Amerika ya Ruguru, ihuriro ry’amashyirahamwe y’abakozi ryazanye amategeko yemerera abakozi uburenganzira bwo guhagarika akazi, gushyiraho uburyo buke bw’akazi no kubuza cyangwa kugenzura imirimo mibi ikoreshwa abana. Umuryango uharanira uburenganzira bw'umugore washoboye kubona abagore benshi uburenganzira bwo gutora. Imiryango yo kwibohora mu bihugu byinshi yashoboye kwirukana imbaraga zabakoloni. Umwe mu bagize uruhare runini ni ubuyobozi bwa Mahatma Gandhi mu mutwe w’ubwigenge bw’Abahinde. Imyigaragambyo y’amoko mato mato akandamijwe n’amadini yatsindiye mu bice byinshi by’isi, muri byo harimo ihuriro ry’uburenganzira bwa muntu, ndetse n’imitwe ya politiki itandukanye iheruka, mu izina ry’abagore n’abato muri Amerika.

Urufatiro rwa komite mpuzamahanga y’umuryango utabara imbabare Croix-Rouge, 1864 Code ya Lieber hamwe n’ambere mu Masezerano y'i Jeneve mu 1864 yashyizeho urufatiro rw’amategeko mpuzamahanga arengera ikiremwamuntu, kugira ngo arusheho gutera imbere nyuma y’Intambara ebyiri z'isi yose.

Hagati y'Intambara ya Mbere y'Isi Yose n'Intambara ya Kabiri y'Isi Yose

Umuryango w’ibihugu washinzwe mu 1919 mu mishyikirano y’amasezerano ya Versailles nyuma y’Intambara ya Mbere y'Isi Yose irangiye. Intego z’Umuryango w’abibumbye zirimo kwambura intwaro intwaro, gukumira intambara binyuze mu mutekano rusange, gukemura amakimbirane hagati y’ibihugu binyuze mu mishyikirano, diplomasi no kuzamura imibereho myiza y’isi. Bikubiye mu gitabo cyayo cyari inshingano yo guteza imbere uburenganzira bwinshi bwaje gushyirwa mu Itangazo Mpuzamahanga ry’Uburenganzira bwa Muntu.

Umuryango w’ibihugu wari ufite inshingano zo gushyigikira benshi mu bahoze bakolonijwe n’ibihugu by’ibihugu by’Uburayi by’abakoloni mu gihe cyo kuva mu bukoloni bakajya mu gihugu cyigenga.

Umuryango mpuzamahanga w’abakozi washyizweho nk’umuryango w’umuryango w’ibihugu, ubu ukaba uri mu Muryango w’abibumbye, wari ufite inshingano zo guteza imbere no kurengera uburenganzira bumwe na bumwe bwaje gushyirwa mu itangazo mpuzamahanga ry’uburenganzira bwa muntu (UDHR):

intego y'ibanze ya ILO uyumunsi nukuzamura amahirwe kubagore nabagabo kubona akazi keza kandi gatanga umusaruro, mubihe byubwisanzure, uburinganire, umutekano nicyubahiro cya muntu.

- Raporo n’umuyobozi mukuru mu nama mpuzamahanga y’umurimo mu nama ya 87

Nyuma y'intambara ya kabiri y'isi yose

Itangazo mpuzamahanga ry'uburenganzira bwa muntu

Ingingo nyamukuru: Itangazo rusange ry’uburenganzira bwa muntu

"Ntabwo ari amasezerano ... [Mu bihe biri imbere, ashobora kuzaba mpuzamahanga mpuzamahanga ya Magna Carta."

Itangazo mpuzamahanga ry’uburenganzira bwa muntu (UDHR) ni itangazo ridakurikizwa ryemejwe n’Inteko rusange y’umuryango w’abibumbye mu 1948, [22] igice gisubiza ibyabaye mu Ntambara ya Kabiri y'Isi Yose. UDHR irasaba ibihugu bigize uyu muryango guteza imbere uburenganzira bwa muntu, ubwenegihugu, ubukungu n’imibereho myiza,gushimangira ubwo burenganzira biri mu "umusingi w’ubwisanzure, ubutabera n’amahoro ku isi". Iri tangazo ni ryo tegeko rya mbere mpuzamahanga ryashyizweho mu rwego rwo kugabanya imyitwarire y’ibihugu no kureba niba inshingano zabo ku baturage babo bakurikije icyitegererezo cy’uburenganzira-bw’uburenganzira.

... kumenyekanisha icyubahiro kavukire n'uburenganzira bungana kandi butavogerwa bw'abagize umuryango w'abantu bose ni umusingi w'ubwisanzure, ubutabera n'amahoro ku isi

 - Intangiriro y'Itangazo Mpuzamahanga ry'Uburenganzira bwa Muntu, 1948 
UDHR yashyizweho n'abagize komisiyo ishinzwe uburenganzira bwa muntu, Eleanor Roosevelt akaba umuyobozi, batangira kuganira ku mushinga mpuzamahanga w'uburenganzira bwa muntu mu 1947. Abagize Komisiyo ntibahise bemeranya ku ishyirwaho ry'umushinga w'itegeko ry'uburenganzira, kandi, yaba, cyangwa uburyo, igomba gukurikizwa. Komisiyo yatangiye gushyiraho UDHR n'amasezerano aherekeza, ariko UDHR yahise ishyirwa imbere. Umwarimu w’amategeko muri Kanada, John Humprey n’umunyamategeko w’Ubufaransa, René Cassin, ni bo bagize uruhare runini mu bushakashatsi bwakozwe ku rwego mpuzamahanga ndetse n’imiterere y’inyandiko, aho ingingo z’iryo tangazo zasobanuraga ihame rusange ry’ibanze. Inyandiko yateguwe na Cassin kugirango ishyiremo amahame shingiro yicyubahiro, umudendezo, uburinganire n'ubuvandimwe mu ngingo ebyiri za mbere, zikurikirwa n'uburenganzira buri muntu ku giti cye; uburenganzira bwa buri muntu ku giti cye no ku matsinda; uburenganzira bw'umwuka, rusange na politiki; n'ubukungu, imibereho myiza n'umuco. Ingingo eshatu zanyuma zivuga, nk'uko Cassin abivuga, uburenganzira mu rwego rw’imipaka, inshingano ndetse n’imibereho myiza na politiki bigomba kugerwaho. Humphrey na Cassin bifuzaga ko uburenganzira muri UDHR bwubahirizwa mu buryo bwemewe n'amategeko binyuze mu buryo bumwe, nk'uko bigaragara mu ngingo ya gatatu y'ibanze: [23]

Mu gihe ari ngombwa, niba umuntu adahatirwa kwitabaza, nk'uburyo bwa nyuma, kwigomeka ku butegetsi bw'igitugu no gukandamizwa, uburenganzira bwa muntu bugomba kurengerwa no kugendera ku mategeko.

 - Intangiriro y'Itangazo Mpuzamahanga ry'Uburenganzira bwa Muntu, 1948 
Bamwe muri UDHR bakoze ubushakashatsi kandi bandikwa na komite y’impuguke mpuzamahanga ku burenganzira bwa muntu, barimo abahagarariye imigabane yose n’amadini yose akomeye, kandi bagirana inama n’abayobozi nka Mahatma Gandhi. [24] Kwinjizamo uburenganzira bw’imbonezamubano na politiki ndetse n’uburenganzira bw’ubukungu, imibereho myiza n’umuco [23] [25] byavuzwe mbere yo gutekereza ko uburenganzira bw’ibanze bw’ikiremwamuntu budatandukanijwe kandi ko uburenganzira butandukanye bwashyizwe ku rutonde ntaho buhuriye. Nubwo iri hame ritigeze ryarwanywa n’ibihugu bigize uyu muryango igihe byemejwe (iryo tangazo ryemejwe ku bwumvikane, hamwe n’umuryango w’abasoviyeti, Apartheid Afurika yepfo na Arabiya Sawudite), iryo hame ryaje guhura n’ibibazo bikomeye. [25]

 Ku kibazo cya "rusange", ayo matangazo ntiyakurikijwe ivangura rishingiye ku ngo cyangwa ivanguramoko. Henry J. Richardson III yagiye impaka: [27] 
Guverinoma zose zikomeye mu gihe cyo gutegura amasezerano y’umuryango w’abibumbye n’itangazo ry’isi yose zakoze ibishoboka byose kugira ngo amategeko yose y’imbere mu gihugu ndetse n’amahanga yose azwi, ko ayo mahame yari afite amahame mpuzamahanga gusa kandi ko nta tegeko ryemewe n'amategeko kuri izo guverinoma zashyirwa mu bikorwa mu gihugu imbere. . Bose babonye mu mutuzo ko kugira ngo rubanda nyamwinshi ivangura rishingiye ku mategeko hashingiwe ku buryo bwemewe n'amategeko ko basaba ko ubwo burenganzira bwagutse bwashyirwaho byateza igitutu cyaba politiki.

Intambara y'ubutita itangiye nyuma gato yuko UDHR itwite yagejejwe ku macakubiri ku bijyanye n'uburenganzira bw'ubukungu n'imibereho myiza y'abaturage ndetse n'uburenganzira bwa muntu na politiki muri iryo tangazo. Ibihugu by’aba capitaliste byakunze kwibanda cyane ku burenganzira bw’abaturage n’ubwa politiki (nk’ubwisanzure bwo kwishyira hamwe no gutanga ibitekerezo), kandi ntibashakaga gushyiramo uburenganzira bw’ubukungu n’imibereho (nk’uburenganzira bwo gukora n’uburenganzira bwo kwinjira mu bumwe). Ibihugu by’abasosiyaliste byahaye agaciro kanini uburenganzira bw’ubukungu n’imibereho myiza y’abaturage kandi bivuguruza cyane ko byashyirwa mu bikorwa.

Kubera amacakubiri yerekeye uburenganzira bwo gushyiramo, kandi kubera ko ibihugu bimwe byanze kwemeza amasezerano ayo ari yo yose harimo no gusobanura mu buryo bwihariye uburenganzira bw’ikiremwamuntu, ndetse n’umuryango w’Abasoviyeti ndetse n’ibihugu byinshi bikiri mu nzira y'amajyambere bivuguruza cyane ko uburenganzira bwose bwinjizwa muri so- yiswe Ubumwe Icyemezo, uburenganzira buteganijwe muri UDHR bwagabanyijwemo amasezerano abiri atandukanye, bituma ibihugu byemerera uburenganzira bumwe kandi bigasuzugura ibindi. Nubwo ibyo byatumye amasezerano ashyirwaho, yahakanye ihame ryasabwaga ko uburenganzira bwose bufitanye isano n’ibanze mu gusobanura UDHR. [28] [29]

Nubwo UDHR ari icyemezo kidahwitse, ubu gifatwa nkigice cyingenzi cyamategeko mpuzamahanga gakondo ashobora kwifashishwa mugihe gikwiye nubucamanza bwa leta nizindi nzego zubutabera.

 Uman Amasezerano y'Uburenganzira 
Mu 1966, Umuryango w’abibumbye, amasezerano mpuzamahanga y’uburenganzira bwa muntu mu bya politiki na politiki (ICCPR) n’amasezerano mpuzamahanga y’uburenganzira bw’ubukungu, imibereho myiza n’umuco (ICESCR) yemejwe n’umuryango w’abibumbye, hagati yabo bigatuma uburenganzira bukubiye muri UDHR bugomba kubahiriza ibihugu byose. a] Icyakora, ryatangiye gukurikizwa mu 1976 gusa, igihe ryemejwe n’ibihugu bihagije (nubwo byageze kuri ICCPR, amasezerano harimo n’uburenganzira bw’ubukungu cyangwa imibereho myiza y’Amerika, Amerika yemeje ICCPR gusa mu 1992). ICESCR yiyemeje amashyaka 155 yo guharanira uburenganzira bw’ubukungu, imibereho myiza n’umuco (ESCR) ku bantu ku giti cyabo.

Andi masezerano menshi (ibice byamategeko) yatanzwe kurwego mpuzamahanga. Mubisanzwe bazwi nkibikoresho byuburenganzira bwa muntu. Bimwe mubyingenzi ni:

Amasezerano yerekeye gukumira no guhana icyaha cya jenoside (yemejwe 1948, atangira gukurikizwa: 1951) [1]

 Amasezerano yerekeye guca burundu ivangura rishingiye ku moko (CERD) (ryemejwe 1966, ritangira gukurikizwa: 1969) [2] 
Amasezerano yerekeye guca burundu ivangura iryo ari ryo ryose rikorerwa abagore (CEDAW) (ritangira gukurikizwa: 1981) [3]

 Amasezerano y’umuryango w’abibumbye arwanya iyicarubozo (CAT) (yemejwe 1984, atangira gukurikizwa: 1984) [32] 
Amasezerano y’uburenganzira bw’umwana (CRC) (yemejwe 1989, atangira gukurikizwa: 1989) [4] Yabitswe 26 Mata 2019 kuri Wayback Machine

Amasezerano mpuzamahanga yerekeye kurengera uburenganzira bw’abakozi bose bimukira n’abagize imiryango yabo (ICRMW) (yemejwe 1990)

Sitati y'i Roma y'urukiko mpuzamahanga mpanabyaha (ICC) (gukurikizwa: 2002)

Ingamba zo kuzamura

Ingabo za gisirikare

Inshingano zo kurinda bivuga inyigisho z’ibihugu bigize Umuryango w’abibumbye zigira uruhare mu kurinda abaturage amarorerwa. Byagaragaye ko bifite ishingiro mu gukoresha ibikorwa bya gisirikare biherutse. Urugero rw’ubutabazi bukunze kunengwa ni uko ingabo za 2011 zagize uruhare mu ntambara ya mbere y’abaturage yo muri Libiya na Nato na Qatar aho bivugwa ko intego yo gukumira amarorerwa bivugwa ko yiyemeje inshingano nini yo gukuraho guverinoma yari igamije. [33] 34]

Ibikorwa byubukungu

 Reba kandi: Ibihano byubukungu 
Ibihano by’ubukungu bikunze gutangwa ku bantu cyangwa ibihugu bibangamira uburenganzira bwa muntu. Ibihano bikunze kunengwa kubera ko biranga ibihano rusange mu kubabaza abaturage b'igihugu mu bukungu hagamijwe kugabanya uko abaturage babona leta. [35] Bavuga kandi ko, ku buryo budasubirwaho, ibihano byo guhohotera guverinoma z’igitugu bishimangira umwanya wa guverinoma mu gihugu kuko guverinoma yaba igifite uburyo bwinshi bwo kubona inkunga kurusha abayinenga ndetse n’abatavuga rumwe n’ubutegetsi, bakarushaho gucika intege. [37]

Ibyago byo guhonyora uburenganzira bwa muntu byiyongera hamwe n’ubwiyongere bw’abaturage batishoboye. Abakobwa bo mu miryango ikennye mu bukungu budafite inganda bakunze gufatwa nkumutwaro wamafaranga kumuryango kandi gushyingirwa kwabakobwa bakiri bato akenshi biterwa no kwizera ko abakobwa bazagaburirwa kandi bakarindwa nimiryango ikize. [38] Gutemagura imyanya ndangagitsina y'abagore no kugaburira abakobwa ku gahato bivugwa ko biterwa ahanini no kongera amahirwe yo gushyingirwa bityo umutekano wabo ukaba wageze ku mahame ngenderwaho y'ubwiza. [39] Mu turere tumwe na tumwe, abakobwa bakeneye ubunararibonye bw’imihango yo gutangiza imibonano mpuzabitsina n’abagabo no gutsinda ibizamini by’amahugurwa y’imibonano mpuzabitsina ku bakobwa byateguwe kugira ngo barusheho gushimisha nk’icyizere cyo gushyingirwa. Mu ngamba zafasha mu rwego rw’ubukungu bw’amatsinda atishoboye hagamijwe kugabanya ihohoterwa ry’uburenganzira bwa muntu harimo uburezi bw’abakobwa ndetse n’amafaranga yinjiza make ndetse no kohererezanya amafaranga, nka Bolsa familia itera inkunga ababyeyi bakomeza abana mu ishuri aho kugira uruhare mu kwinjiza umuryango, byagenze neza yagabanije imirimo mibi ikoreshwa abana.

Ingamba zamakuru

Kwigisha uburenganzira bwa muntu no guharanira inyungu

Ihohoterwa ry'uburenganzira bwa muntu rikurikiranwa na komite z'umuryango w'abibumbye, inzego z'igihugu na guverinoma ndetse n'imiryango myinshi yigenga itegamiye kuri Leta, nka Amnesty International, Umuryango uharanira uburenganzira bwa muntu, Umuryango mpuzamahanga urwanya iyicarubozo, Inzu y'Ubwisanzure, Ubwisanzure mpuzamahanga bwo gutanga ibitekerezo ndetse no kurwanya ubucakara mpuzamahanga . Iyi miryango ikusanya ibimenyetso n’inyandiko z’ihohoterwa ry'uburenganzira bwa muntu kandi ikoresha igitutu cyo guteza imbere uburenganzira bwa muntu.

Kwigisha abantu igitekerezo cy’uburenganzira bwa muntu byavuzwe ko ari ingamba zo gukumira ihohoterwa ry'uburenganzira bwa muntu.

Ibikoresho byemewe n'amategeko

Ingero nyinshi z’amategeko mu rwego mpuzamahanga, uturere ndetse n’igihugu zasobanuwe hano hepfo zagenewe kubahiriza amategeko arengera uburenganzira bwa muntu.

Kurinda kurwego mpuzamahanga

Ingingo nyamukuru: Amasezerano mpuzamahanga y’uburenganzira bwa muntu

Umuryango w’abibumbye

Ingingo nkuru: Umuryango w’abibumbye

Inteko rusange y’umuryango w’abibumbye

Umuryango w’abibumbye (UN) nicyo kigo cyonyine cya leta gifite impande zombi zifite ububasha mpuzamahanga bwemewe na 

amategeko rusange y’uburenganzira bwa muntu. Inzego zose z’umuryango w’abibumbye zifite inshingano z’ubujyanama mu kanama gashinzwe umutekano ku isi ndetse n’akanama k’umuryango w’abibumbye gashinzwe uburenganzira bwa muntu, kandi hari komite nyinshi muri Loni zifite inshingano zo kubungabunga amasezerano atandukanye y’uburenganzira bwa muntu. Urwego rukuru rwa Loni mu bijyanye n'uburenganzira bwa muntu ni Ibiro bya Komiseri Mukuru ushinzwe Uburenganzira bwa Muntu. Umuryango w’abibumbye ufite inshingano mpuzamahanga kuri:

... kugera ku bufatanye n’amahanga mu gukemura ibibazo mpuzamahanga by’ubukungu, imibereho myiza, umuco, cyangwa ubumuntu, no guteza imbere no gushishikariza kubahiriza uburenganzira bwa muntu n’ubwisanzure bw’ibanze kuri bose nta gutandukanya amoko, igitsina, ururimi, cyangwa idini.

- Ingingo ya 1-3 y’amasezerano y’umuryango w’abibumbye

Akanama gashinzwe uburenganzira bwa muntu

Ingingo nkuru: Akanama k’umuryango w’abibumbye gashinzwe uburenganzira bwa muntu

Akanama k'umuryango w’abibumbye gashinzwe uburenganzira bwa muntu, kashinzwe mu 2005, gafite inshingano zo gukora iperereza ku ihohoterwa rivugwa ko riharanira uburenganzira bwa muntu. 47 mu bihugu 193 bigize Umuryango w’abibumbye bicaye muri njyanama, batorwa ku bwiganze busanzwe mu majwi y'ibanga y’Inteko rusange y’umuryango w’abibumbye. Abanyamuryango bamara imyaka itandatu kandi barashobora guhagarikwa kubanyamuryango kubera ihohoterwa rikabije ry'uburenganzira bwa muntu. Njyanama ifite icyicaro i Geneve, iterana gatatu mu mwaka; hamwe ninama zinyongera zo gusubiza ibibazo byihutirwa.

Impuguke zigenga (rapporteurs) zagumishijwe n’inama njyanama kugira ngo ikore iperereza ku ihohoterwa ry’uburenganzira bwa muntu no gutanga raporo ku nama njyanama.

Akanama gashinzwe uburenganzira bwa muntu gashobora gusaba ko akanama gashinzwe umutekano kohereza imanza mu rukiko mpuzamahanga mpanabyaha (ICC) kabone niyo ikibazo cyoherezwa hanze y’ububasha busanzwe bwa ICC.

 Inzego z’amasezerano y’umuryango w’abibumbye 
Ingingo nyamukuru: Amasezerano yumubiri

Usibye inzego za politiki zifite inshingano ziva mu gitabo cy’umuryango w’abibumbye, Loni yashyizeho inzego nyinshi zishingiye ku masezerano, zigizwe na komite z’impuguke zigenga zikurikirana iyubahirizwa ry’amahame y’uburenganzira bwa muntu n’amahame aturuka mu masezerano mpuzamahanga y’uburenganzira bwa muntu. Bashyigikiwe kandi bashyirwaho n’amasezerano bakurikirana, Usibye CESCR, yashyizweho ku cyemezo cy’Inama y’Ubukungu n’Imibereho Myiza y'Abaturage kugira ngo ikore imirimo yo kugenzura yari yahawe urwo rwego mbere y’amasezerano, ni tekiniki yigenga yigenga, yashyizweho namasezerano bakurikirana kandi bakabibazwa n’amashyaka y’ibihugu bigize ayo masezerano - aho kuba ishami ry’umuryango w’abibumbye, nubwo mu bikorwa bifitanye isano rya bugufi na gahunda y’umuryango w’abibumbye kandi bashyigikiwe na komiseri mukuru w’umuryango w’abibumbye Uburenganzira bwa Muntu (UNHCHR) n'ikigo cy'umuryango w'abibumbye gishinzwe uburenganzira bwa muntu. [46]

Komite ishinzwe uburenganzira bwa muntu iteza imbere uruhare n’ibipimo bya ICCPR. Abagize iyo komite bagaragaza ibitekerezo ku bihugu bigize uyu muryango kandi bagaca imanza ku birego ku giti cyabo barega ibihugu byemeje amasezerano atemewe ku masezerano. Imanza, zitwa "ibitekerezo", ntabwo zemewe n'amategeko. Umwe mu bagize komite iterana inshuro eshatu mu mwaka kugira ngo akore inama [47]

Komisiyo ishinzwe uburenganzira bw’ubukungu, imibereho myiza n’umuco ikurikirana ICESCR ikanatanga ibisobanuro rusange ku kwemeza imikorere y’ibihugu. Izaba ifite imbaraga zo kwakira ibirego ku bihugu byahisemo Protokole idahwitse imaze gukurikizwa. Ni ngombwa kumenya ko mu buryo butandukanye n’izindi nzego z’amasezerano, komite y’ubukungu ntabwo ari urwego rwigenga rushinzwe amashyaka y’amasezerano, ahubwo rushinzwe mu buryo butaziguye Inama y’ubukungu n’imibereho myiza y’abaturage ndetse n’Inteko rusange. Ibi bivuze ko Komite y’Ubukungu ihura n’ibibazo byihariye ifite mu buryo bwo gushyira mu bikorwa ugereranije n’izindi nzego z’amasezerano ugereranije n’izindi nzego z’amasezerano. [48] , ugereranije no kutagira inyandiko zemewe n’amategeko, kutumvikana kw’ibihugu byinshi mu gukemura uburenganzira bw’ubukungu, imibereho myiza n’umuco, ugereranije n’imiryango mike itegamiye kuri Leta yibanze ku karere n’ibibazo byo kubona amakuru afatika kandi yuzuye. [48] [citation ntabwo yabonetse] [ 49]

Komisiyo ishinzwe kurandura ivangura rishingiye ku moko ikurikirana CERD ikanasuzuma buri gihe imikorere y’ibihugu. Irashobora guca imanza ku birego birega ibihugu bigize uyu muryango ubyemerera, ariko ntibyemewe n'amategeko. Itanga umuburo wo kugerageza gukumira ibinyuranyije n’amasezerano.

Komite ishinzwe guca ivangura rikorerwa abagore ikurikirana CEDAW. Yakiriye raporo za leta ku mikorere yazo n'ibitekerezo kuri bo, kandi irashobora guca imanza ku birego birega ibihugu byahisemo amasezerano yo guhitamo 1999.

Komite ishinzwe kurwanya iyicarubozo ikurikirana CAT kandi ikakira raporo za leta ku mikorere yazo buri myaka ine n'ibitekerezo kuri bo. Komite yayo irashobora gusura no kugenzura ibihugu byahisemo Protokole idahwitse.

komite ishinzwe uburenganzira bw’umwana ikurikirana CRC ikanatanga ibisobanuro kuri raporo zatanzwe na leta buri myaka itanu. Ntabwo ifite ububasha bwo kwakira ibibazo.

Komite ishinzwe abakozi bimukira mu mahanga yashinzwe mu 2004 kandi ikurikirana ICRMW ikanatanga ibisobanuro kuri raporo zatanzwe na leta buri myaka itanu. Izaba ifite ububasha bwo kwakira ibirego by’ihohoterwa rimwe gusa ibihugu icumi bigize uyu muryango ubyemereye.

Komite ishinzwe uburenganzira bw’abafite ubumuga yashinzwe mu 2008 kugira ngo ikurikirane amasezerano y’uburenganzira bw’abafite ubumuga. Ifite ububasha bwo kwakira ibirego by’ibihugu byahisemo Amasezerano atemewe y’amasezerano y’uburenganzira bw’abafite ubumuga.

Komite ishinzwe kubura ku gahato ikurikirana ICPPED. Impande zose z’ibihugu zitegetswe gutanga raporo muri komite zerekana uburyo uburenganzira bushyirwa mu bikorwa. Komisiyo isuzuma buri raporo kandi igakemura ibibazo byayo n'ibyifuzo by’ishyaka rya Leta mu buryo bwo "kurangiza".

Buri rwego rw’amasezerano ruhabwa inkunga y’ubunyamabanga n’inama y’uburenganzira bwa muntu n’amasezerano y’ibiro bya Komiseri Mukuru w’Uburenganzira bwa Muntu (OHCHR) i Geneve usibye CEDAW, ishyigikiwe n’ishami rishinzwe guteza imbere abagore (DAW). CEDAW yahoze ikora amasomo yayo yose ku cyicaro cy’umuryango w’abibumbye i New York ariko ubu ikunze guhurira ku biro by’umuryango w’abibumbye i Geneve; izindi nzego zamasezerano ziteranira i Geneve. Komite ishinzwe uburenganzira bwa muntu ubusanzwe ikora inama yayo yo muri Werurwe mu mujyi wa New York.

Uburenganzira bwa muntu buteganijwe muri UDHR, Amasezerano y'i Jeneve hamwe n’amasezerano atandukanye y’umuryango w’abibumbye ashyirwa mu bikorwa. Mu bikorwa, uburenganzira bwinshi buragoye cyane kubahiriza amategeko kubera ko nta bwumvikane buke ku ikoreshwa ry’uburenganzira bumwe na bumwe, kutagira amategeko y’igihugu abigenga cyangwa inzego zahawe uburenganzira bwo gufata ibyemezo kugira ngo bishyirwe mu bikorwa.

 Inkiko mpuzamahanga 
Ikirangantego cyemewe cya ICC

Hariho imiryango myinshi yemewe ku rwego mpuzamahanga ifite inshingano cyangwa ububasha ku isi yose ku burenganzira bwa muntu:

Urukiko mpuzamahanga (ICJ) n’urwego rw’ibanze rw’umuryango w’abibumbye. Ifite ububasha ku isi yose. Iyobowe n'akanama gashinzwe umutekano. ICJ ikemura amakimbirane hagati y’ibihugu. ICJ ntabwo ifite ububasha ku bantu.

Urukiko mpuzamahanga mpanabyaha (ICC) n’urwego rushinzwe iperereza no guhana ibyaha by’intambara, n’ibyaha byibasiye inyokomuntu iyo bibaye mu bubasha bwarwo, rufite inshingano yo gushyikiriza ubutabera abakoze ibyaha nkibi byabaye nyuma y’ishyirwaho ryayo mu 2002. Umubare. y'abanyamuryango ba Loni ntibigeze binjira mu rukiko kandi ICC ntabwo ifite ububasha ku baturage babo, kandi abandi basinye ariko ntibaremeza Sitati y'i Roma yashyizeho urukiko.

ICC hamwe n’izindi nkiko mpuzamahanga (reba uburenganzira bw’ikiremwamuntu mu karere hepfo) zirahari kugira ngo zifate ingamba aho amategeko y’igihugu y’igihugu adashobora kuburanisha urubanza ubwabwo. Niba amategeko y'igihugu ashoboye kurengera uburenganzira bwa muntu no guhana abica amategeko y’uburenganzira bwa muntu, afite ububasha bw’ibanze mu kuzuzanya. Gusa iyo imiti yose yaho yarangiye amategeko mpuzamahanga atangira gukurikizwa.

Ubutegetsi bw'uburenganzira bwa muntu mu karere

Reba kandi: Urutonde rw’ingingo z’uburenganzira bwa muntu n’igihugu, ibigo by’igihugu bishinzwe uburenganzira bwa muntu, na komisiyo ishinzwe uburenganzira bwa muntu

Mu bihugu birenga 110 hashyizweho ibigo by’igihugu by’uburenganzira bwa muntu (NHRIs) mu rwego rwo kurengera, guteza imbere cyangwa kugenzura uburenganzira bwa muntu bifite ububasha mu gihugu runaka. Nubwo NHRIs zose zidakurikiza amahame y'i Paris, [54] umubare n'ingaruka z'ibi bigo biriyongera. Amahame y'i Paris yasobanuwe mu mahugurwa ya mbere mpuzamahanga y’inzego z’igihugu zishinzwe guteza imbere no kurengera uburenganzira bwa muntu i Paris ku ya 7-9 Ukwakira 1991, kandi yemejwe n’icyemezo cya komisiyo y’umuryango w’abibumbye ishinzwe uburenganzira bwa muntu 1992/54 cyo mu 1992 n’icyemezo rusange cy’Inteko rusange 48 / 134 ryo mu 1993. Amahame y'i Paris agaragaza inshingano nyinshi ku bigo by'igihugu. [56]

Afurika

Uburenganzira bwa muntu muri Afrika

Umuryango w’ubumwe bw’Afrika (AU) ni ubumwe bw’umugabane ugizwe n’ibihugu mirongo itanu na bitanu bya Afurika. AU yashinzwe mu 2001, intego ya AU ni ugufasha guharanira demokarasi ya Afurika, uburenganzira bwa muntu, ndetse n’ubukungu burambye, cyane cyane mu gukuraho amakimbirane hagati y’Afurika no gushyiraho isoko rusange. [58]

Komisiyo Nyafurika ishinzwe Uburenganzira bwa Muntu n’Abaturage (ACHPR) ni urwego rw’ubucamanza rw’umuryango w’ubumwe bw’Afurika rushinzwe guteza imbere no kurengera uburenganzira bwa muntu n’uburenganzira rusange (abantu) ku mugabane wa Afurika ndetse no gusobanura Amasezerano nyafurika yerekeye abantu na Uburenganzira bw'abaturage no gusuzuma ibirego ku giti cyabo byo kurenga ku Masezerano. Komisiyo ifite ibice bitatu by'inshingano:

Guteza imbere uburenganzira bwa muntu n’abaturage

 Kurinda abantun'uburenganzira bw'abaturage 

 Gusobanura Amasezerano Nyafurika ku burenganzira bwa muntu n’abaturage 
Kugira ngo izo ntego zigerweho, komisiyo ishinzwe "gukusanya inyandiko, gukora ubushakashatsi n’ubushakashatsi ku bibazo bya Afurika mu bijyanye n’abantu n’abaturage, uburenganzira, gutegura amahugurwa, ibiganiro nyunguranabitekerezo n’inama, gukwirakwiza amakuru, gushishikariza ibigo by’igihugu ndetse n’ibanze bireba abantu n'uburenganzira bw'abaturage kandi, nibiramuka bibaye, gutanga ibitekerezo cyangwa gutanga ibyifuzo kuri guverinoma "(Amasezerano, ingingo ya 45).

Hashyizweho urukiko nyafurika rw’uburenganzira bwa muntu n’abaturage (hashingiwe ku masezerano y’amasezerano yemejwe mu 1998 atangira gukurikizwa muri Mutarama 2004), komisiyo izaba ifite inshingano z’inyongera zo gutegura imanza zashyikirizwa ububasha bw’urukiko. . [60] Mu cyemezo cyo muri Nyakanga 2004, Inteko ya AU yemeje ko Urukiko ruzaza ku burenganzira bwa muntu n’abaturage ruzahuzwa n’urukiko nyafurika.

Urukiko rw’ubutabera rw’ubumwe bw’Afurika rugamije kuba "urwego rw’ubucamanza rukuru rw’Ubumwe" (Porotokole y’urukiko rw’ubutabera rw’ubumwe bw’Afurika, ingingo ya 2.2). [61] N'ubwo itarashyirwaho, igamije gufata inshingano za komisiyo nyafurika ishinzwe uburenganzira bwa muntu n’abaturage, ndetse no kuba urukiko rukuru rw’umuryango w’ubumwe bw’Afurika, isobanura amategeko n'amasezerano yose akenewe. Amasezerano ashyiraho Urukiko nyafurika ku burenganzira bwa muntu n’abaturage yatangiye gukurikizwa muri Mutarama 2004 [62] ariko kwishyira hamwe n’urukiko rw’ubutabera byatinze gushingwa. Amasezerano ashyiraho Urukiko rw’Ubutabera azatangira gukurikizwa igihe yemejwe n’ibihugu 15. [63]

Hariho ibihugu byinshi muri Afurika bishinjwa ihohoterwa ry'uburenganzira bwa muntu n'imiryango mpuzamahanga n'imiryango itegamiye kuri Leta.

Amerika

Umuryango w’ibihugu by’Amerika (OAS) ni umuryango mpuzamahanga, ufite icyicaro i Washington, D.C., Amerika. Abanyamuryango bayo nibihugu mirongo itatu na bitanu byigenga byo muri Amerika. Mu myaka ya za 90, Intambara y'ubutita irangiye, kugaruka muri demokarasi muri Amerika y'Epfo, no guharanira ko isi ihinduka, OAS yashyizeho ingufu nyinshi kugira ngo yongere kwiyubaka kugira ngo ihuze n'imiterere mishya. Ibyashyizwe imbere ubu birimo ibi bikurikira: [65]

Gushimangira demokarasi

Gukorera amahoro

Kurengera uburenganzira bwa muntu

Kurwanya ruswa

Uburenganzira bw'abasangwabutaka

Guteza imbere iterambere rirambye

Komisiyo mpuzamahanga y’uburenganzira bwa muntu (IACHR) ni urwego rwigenga rw’umuryango w’ibihugu by’Amerika, rufite icyicaro i Washington, muri Leta zunze ubumwe za Amerika hamwe n’urukiko mpuzamahanga rw’uburenganzira bwa muntu, ruherereye i San José, muri Kosta Rika, ni imwe mu nzego zigizwe na gahunda yo muri Amerika yo guteza imbere no kurengera uburenganzira bwa muntu. IACHR ni urwego ruhoraho ruterana mu nama zisanzwe kandi zidasanzwe inshuro nyinshi mu mwaka kugira ngo zisuzume ibirego by’ihohoterwa ry'uburenganzira bwa muntu mu gice cy’isi. Inshingano z’uburenganzira bwa muntu zikomoka ku nyandiko eshatu: [67]

Amasezerano y'Abanyamerika yerekeye Uburenganzira bwa Muntu

Itangazo ry'Abanyamerika ry'Uburenganzira n'inshingano z'umuntu

Amasezerano y’umuryango w’ibihugu by’Amerika

Urukiko rw’uburenganzira bwa muntu rw’Abanyamerika rwashinzwe mu 1979 hagamijwe kubahiriza no gusobanura ibivugwa mu Masezerano y'Abanyamerika yerekeye Uburenganzira bwa Muntu. Ibikorwa byayo bibiri byingenzi rero ni ugucira urubanza no gutanga inama. Mubya mbere, irumva kandi igenga imanza zihariye zihohoterwa ry'uburenganzira bwa muntu zavuzwe. Mugihe cyanyuma, gitanga ibitekerezo kubibazo byo gusobanura amategeko byagejejweho nizindi nzego za OAS cyangwa ibihugu bigize uyu muryango.

Aziya

Ingingo z'ingenzi: Uburenganzira bwa muntu muri Aziya, Uburenganzira bwa Muntu muri Aziya y'Uburasirazuba, Uburenganzira bwa Muntu muri Aziya yo Hagati, n'Uburenganzira bwa Muntu mu Burasirazuba bwo Hagati

Nta mashyirahamwe cyangwa amasezerano yo muri Aziya agamije guteza imbere cyangwa kurengera uburenganzira bwa muntu. Ibihugu biratandukanye cyane muburyo bwita ku burenganzira bwa muntu ndetse no mu bijyanye no kurengera uburenganzira bwa muntu. [69]

Ishyirahamwe ry’ibihugu byo mu majyepfo y’iburasirazuba bwa Aziya (ASEAN) [71] n’umuryango wa geo-politiki n’ubukungu by’ibihugu 10 biherereye mu majyepfo y’amajyepfo ya Aziya, washinzwe mu 1967 na Indoneziya, Maleziya, Filipine, Singapore na Tayilande. Ubu uyu muryango urimo kandi Brunei Darussalam, Vietnam, Laos, Miyanimari na Kamboje. Mu Kwakira 2009, hatangijwe komisiyo ihuriweho na guverinoma ya ASEAN ishinzwe uburenganzira bwa muntu, [73] hanyuma, itangazo ry’uburenganzira bwa muntu muri ASEAN ryemejwe ku bwumvikane n’abanyamuryango ba ASEAN ku ya 18 Ugushyingo 2012. [74]

Amasezerano y’abarabu y’uburenganzira bwa muntu (ACHR) yemejwe n’inama y’umuryango w’ibihugu by’abarabu ku ya 22 Gicurasi 2004. [75]

Uburayi

Urukiko rw'u Burayi Ruharanira Uburenganzira bwa Muntu i Strasbourg

Ingingo nyamukuru: Uburenganzira bwa muntu mu Burayi

Reba kandi: Uburenganzira bwa muntu muri Leta zunze ubumwe z'Abasoviyeti

Inama y’Uburayi yashinzwe mu 1949, n’umuryango ushaje cyane ukorera mu Burayi. Ni umuryango mpuzamahanga ufite ubuzimagatozi bwemewe n'amategeko mpuzamahanga kandi ufite status yindorerezi hamwe n’umuryango w’abibumbye. Icyicaro cy'Inama ya Uburayi buri i Strasbourg mu Bufaransa. Inama y’Uburayi ishinzwe amasezerano y’i Burayi y’uburenganzira bwa muntu n’urukiko rw’uburayi rw’uburenganzira bwa muntu. Izi nzego zihuza abagize akanama k’amategeko y’uburenganzira bwa muntu, nubwo akomeye, yoroheje kurusha ay’amasezerano y’umuryango w’abibumbye y’uburenganzira bwa muntu. Iyi nama kandi iteza imbere Amasezerano y’i Burayi agenga indimi z’akarere cyangwa umubare muto n’amasezerano y’imibereho y’Uburayi. Kuba umunyamuryango byugururiwe ibihugu byose by’Uburayi bishaka kwishyira hamwe kw’Uburayi, kwemera ihame ryo kugendera ku mategeko kandi birashoboka kandi byiteguye guharanira demokarasi, uburenganzira bw’ibanze n’ubwisanzure.

Inama y’Uburayi n’umuryango utari mu muryango w’ubumwe bw’ibihugu by’Uburayi, ariko biteganijwe ko uwanyuma azinjira mu Masezerano y’i Burayi kandi birashoboka ko Inama Njyanama ubwayo. Umuryango w'ubumwe bw’ibihugu by’Uburayi ufite inyandiko y’uburenganzira bwa muntu; Amasezerano y’uburenganzira bw’ibanze bw’ubumwe bw’ibihugu by’Uburayi.

Amasezerano y’uburayi y’uburenganzira bwa muntu asobanura kandi yemeza kuva mu 1950 uburenganzira bwa muntu n’ubwisanzure bw’ibanze mu Burayi. Ibihugu 47 bigize Umuryango w’Inama y’Uburayi byashyize umukono kuri aya masezerano bityo bikaba biri mu bubasha bw’urukiko rw’uburayi rw’uburenganzira bwa muntu i Strasbourg. Mu rwego rwo gukumira iyicarubozo no gufatwa nk’ikiremwamuntu cyangwa bitesha agaciro (ingingo ya 3 y’amasezerano), hashyizweho komite y’uburayi ishinzwe gukumira iyicarubozo.

Filozofiya y'uburenganzira bwa muntu

Uburenganzira

Uburenganzira bwa muntuLogo.svg

Itandukaniro

Gusaba uburenganzira n'ubwisanzure Uburenganzira bwa buri muntu n'itsinda Uburenganzira karemano n'uburenganzira bwemeweUburenganzira n'uburenganzira bwiza

Uburenganzira bwa muntu

Sivile na politikiUbukungu, imibereho n’umucoIbisekuru bitatu

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vte

Uburyo butandukanye bwo kwigisha bwatejwe imbere kugirango busobanure uburyo n'impamvu uburenganzira bwa muntu buba mubiteganijwe mu mibereho.

Imwe muri filozofiya ya kera y’iburengerazuba ku burenganzira bwa muntu ni uko ari umusaruro w’amategeko kamere, akomoka ku bitekerezo bitandukanye bya filozofiya cyangwa idini.

Izindi nyigisho zivuga ko uburenganzira bwa muntu bugaragaza imyitwarire mbonezamubano nigicuruzwa cyabantu cyatejwe imbere nubwihindurize bwibinyabuzima n’imibereho (bifitanye isano na Hume). Uburenganzira bwa muntu busobanurwa kandi nkuburyo bwa sociologie bwo gushyiraho amategeko (nko mubitekerezo bya sociologie y'amategeko n'umurimo wa Weber). Ubu buryo bukubiyemo igitekerezo kivuga ko abantu muri sosiyete bemera amategeko atangwa n’ubuyobozi bwemewe hagamijwe umutekano n’inyungu z’ubukungu (nko muri Rawls) - amasezerano y’imibereho.

Uburenganzira karemano

Ingingo z'ingenzi: Amategeko karemano n'uburenganzira bwa muntu

Amategeko ya kamere ashingiye ku burenganzira bwa muntu ashingiye ku mico "karemano" y’imyitwarire, idini cyangwa se ibinyabuzima bitagendeye ku mategeko cyangwa imigenzo y’igihe gito.

Sokarate n'abazungura be ba filozofiya, Platon na Aristote, bagaragaje ko hariho ubutabera karemano cyangwa uburenganzira karemano (dikaion physikon, δικαιον φυσικον, Ikilatini ius naturale). Muri bo, Aristote bakunze kuvuga ko ari we se w'amategeko kamere, [82] nubwo ibimenyetso bibigaragaza ahanini biterwa no gusobanura umurimo we na Thomas Aquinas. [83]

Iterambere ry'uwo muco w'ubutabera karemano muri rimwe mu mategeko asanzwe ryitirirwa Abasitoyiko.

Bamwe mu ba se b'Itorero rya mbere bashakaga kwinjiza igitekerezo cya gipagani cy'amategeko ya kamere mu bukristo. Inyigisho z'amategeko karemano zagaragaye cyane muri filozofiya ya Thomas Aquinas, Francisco Suárez, Richard Hooker, Thomas Hobbes, Hugo Grotius, Samuel von Pufendorf, na John Locke.

Mu kinyejana cya cumi na karindwi, Thomas Hobbes yashinze igitekerezo cy’amasezerano y’imyitwarire myiza y’amategeko ku byo abantu bose bashobora kumvikanaho: ibyo bashakaga (umunezero) byateranijweho impaka, ariko ubwumvikane buke bushobora gushingira ku byo batinyaga (urupfu rw’urugomo rwatewe n'undi. ). Amategeko karemano yari uburyo umuntu ushyira mu gaciro, ushaka kubaho no gutera imbere, yakora. Yavumbuwe harebwa uburenganzira bwa muntu bw’abantu, mu gihe mbere twavuga ko uburenganzira kamere bwavumbuwe harebwa amategeko kamere. Ku gitekerezo cya Hobbes, inzira imwe rukumbi amategeko kamere yashoboraga gutsinda ni uko abagabo bumvira amategeko ya nyagasani. Muri ibyo hashyizweho urufatiro rw'igitekerezo cy'amasezerano mbonezamubano hagati y'abayoborwa na guverineri.

Hugo Grotius yashingiye filozofiya ye y'amategeko mpuzamahanga ku mategeko kamere. Yanditse ko "n'ubushake bw'ikiremwa bushobora byose budashobora guhindura cyangwa gukuraho" amategeko kamere, "azakomeza kugira agaciro kayo kabone niyo twakagombye gutekereza ko bidashoboka, ko nta Mana ibaho cyangwa ko itabikora "kwita ku bibazo bya muntu. "

John Locke yashyize amategeko karemano muri byinshi mu bitekerezo bye na filozofiya, cyane cyane mu masezerano abiri ya guverinoma. Locke yahinduye ibyo Hobbes yanditse, avuga ko niba umutegetsi atubahirije amategeko kamere akananirwa kurengera "ubuzima, umudendezo, n'umutungo," abantu bashobora guhirika leta yariho kandi bagashyiraho bundi bushya.

Umuhanga mu bya filozofiya w’Ububiligi Frank van Dun ni umwe mu basobanura igitekerezo cy’isi [85] cy’amategeko kamere mu muco gakondo. Hariho kandi uburyo bushya kandi bw’isi bw’amategeko agenga amategeko asobanura uburenganzira bwa muntu nk’ibikomoka ku myumvire y’icyubahiro rusange cy’abantu.

Ijambo "uburenganzira bwa muntu" ryasimbuye ijambo "uburenganzira bwa muntu" mu kwamamara, kubera ko uburenganzira butagaragara kandi bukunze kugaragara ko busaba amategeko kamere kugira ngo babeho.

Ibindi bitekerezo byuburenganzira bwa muntu

Umuhanga mu bya filozofiya John Finnis avuga ko uburenganzira bwa muntu bufite ishingiro bitewe n'agaciro kabo bagize mu gushyiraho uburyo bukenewe kugira ngo imibereho myiza y'abantu ibe. [88] [89] Inyungu zishimishije zigaragaza inshingano zo kubahiriza uburenganzira bwabandi bantu kubwinyungu zabo bwite:

Amategeko y’uburenganzira bwa muntu, akoreshwa ku benegihugu bwite akorera inyungu z’ibihugu, urugero, kugabanya ingaruka ziterwa n’imyigaragambyo n’imyigaragambyo ndetse no gukomeza urwego rwo kutishimira leta.

- Niraj Nathwani, Kongera gutekereza ku mategeko y'impunzi [90]

Igitekerezo cyibinyabuzima cyerekana inyungu zigereranya yimyororokere yimyitwarire yabantu ishingiye kumpuhwe no kwikunda muburyo bwo gutoranya kamere. [91] [92] [93]

Ibitekerezo mu burenganzira bwa muntu

Reba kandi: Amategeko y’uburenganzira bwa muntu

Gutandukana no gutondekanya uburenganzira

Ibyiciro bikunze kugaragara mu burenganzira bwa muntu ni ukubigabanya mu burenganzira bwa muntu na politiki, n'ubukungu, imibereho myiza n'umuco.

Uburenganzira mbonezamubano na politiki bukubiye mu ngingo ya 3 kugeza ku ya 21 y’itangazo mpuzamahanga ry’uburenganzira bwa muntu no muri ICCPR. Uburenganzira mu bukungu, imibereho myiza n’umuco bukubiye mu ngingo ya 22 kugeza ku ya 28 y’itangazo mpuzamahanga ry’uburenganzira bwa muntu no muri ICESCR. UDHR yarimo uburenganzira bw’ubukungu, imibereho myiza n’umuco n’uburenganzira bwa muntu n’ubwa politiki kuko bwari bushingiye ku ihame ry’uko uburenganzira butandukanye bushobora kubaho gusa hamwe:

Igitekerezo cy’abantu bafite umudendezo bafite umudendezo wa gisivili na politiki n’ubwisanzure bwo gutinya no kwifuza gishobora kugerwaho ari uko hashyizweho uburyo buri wese ashobora kubona uburenganzira bwe bw’imbonezamubano na politiki, ndetse n’uburenganzira bwe mu mibereho, ubukungu n’umuco.

- Amasezerano mpuzamahanga y’uburenganzira bwa muntu mu bya politiki no mu bya politiki n’amasezerano mpuzamahanga y’uburenganzira bw’imibereho n’umuco, 1966

Ibi bifatwa nkukuri kuko nta burenganzira mbonezamubano na politiki abaturage badashobora kwemeza uburenganzira bwabo mubukungu, imibereho myiza n’umuco. Mu buryo nk'ubwo, nta mibereho na sosiyete ikora, abaturage ntibashobora kwemeza cyangwa gukoresha uburenganzira bw’imbonezamubano cyangwa politiki (bizwi ko ari inda yuzuye).

Nubwo byemewe nabasinye muri UDHR, benshi muribo ntabwo mubikorwa biha uburemere buke ubwoko butandukanye bwuburenganzira. Imico y’iburengerazuba yakunze gushyira imbere uburenganzira bw’imbonezamubano na politiki, rimwe na rimwe bikabangamira uburenganzira bw’ubukungu n’imibereho nk’uburenganzira bwo gukora, amashuri, ubuzima n’imiturire. Kurugero, muri Reta zunzubumwe zamerika ntihaboneka uburyo bwo kwivuza ku buntu aho bukoreshwa. Ntabwo bivuze ko imico yuburengerazuba yirengagije burundu ubwo burenganzira (ibihugu byimibereho bibaho muburayi bwiburengerazuba nibimenyetso byibi). Mu buryo nk'ubwo, ibihugu byahoze bigize Umuryango w’Abasoviyeti ndetse n’ibihugu byo muri Aziya byakunze gushyira imbere uburenganzira bw’ubukungu, imibereho myiza n’umuco, ariko akenshi ntibyashoboye gutanga uburenganzira bw’abaturage na politiki.

Ikindi cyiciro, cyatanzwe na Karel Vasak, ni uko hari ibisekuruza bitatu byuburenganzira bwa muntu: ibisekuruza bya mbere uburenganzira bwa muntu na politiki (uburenganzira bwo kubaho no kugira uruhare muri politiki), uburenganzira bwo mu gisekuru cya kabiri uburenganzira bw’ubukungu, imibereho myiza n’umuco (uburenganzira bwo kubaho) nubwa gatatu -uburenganzira bw'ubufatanye (uburenganzira ku mahoro, uburenganzira ku bidukikije). Muri iki gisekuru, igisekuru cya gatatu nicyo cyaganiriweho cyane kandi kikaba kitemewe n'amategeko na politiki. Iri tondekanya ntirinyuranye no kutagabana uburenganzira, kuko rivuga mu buryo butaziguye ko uburenganzira bumwe bushobora kubaho nta bundi. Gushyira imbere uburenganzira kubwimpamvu zifatika ariko birakenewe cyane. Impuguke mu bijyanye n'uburenganzira bwa muntu Philip Alston avuga:

Niba ikintu cyose gishoboka cy’uburenganzira bwa muntu kibonwa ko ari ngombwa cyangwa gikenewe, nta kintu na kimwe kizafatwa nkaho ari ngombwa koko.

- Philip Alston

We, n'abandi, barasaba ubwitonzi gushyira imbere uburenganzira:

... guhamagarira gushyira imbere ntabwo bivuze ko ihohoterwa ry'uburenganzira rigaragara rishobora kwirengagizwa.

- filip Alston

Ibyihutirwa, aho bibaye ngombwa, bigomba gukurikiza amahame yibanze (nko kugerageza gushyira mu gaciro kugerwaho) n'amahame (nko kutavangura, uburinganire no kubigiramo uruhare. [96]

- Olivia Ball, Paul Yamaze

Bimwe mu burenganzira bwa muntu bivugwa ko ari "uburenganzira butavogerwa". Ijambo uburenganzira butavogerwa (cyangwa uburenganzira budasubirwaho) ryerekeza ku "ihuriro ry'uburenganzira bwa muntu shingiro, ridatangwa n'imbaraga z'abantu, kandi ntirishobora gutangwa".

Gukurikiza ihame ryo kutagabanywa n’umuryango mpuzamahanga byongeye gushimangirwa mu 1995:

Uburenganzira bwa muntu bwose ni rusange, ntibigabanywa kandi biruzuzanya kandi bifitanye isano. Umuryango mpuzamahanga ugomba gufata uburenganzira bwa muntu ku isi mu buryo buboneye kandi bungana, ku buryo bumwe, kandi bushimangira kimwe.

- Itangazo rya Vienne na Gahunda y'ibikorwa, Inama mpuzamahanga ku burenganzira bwa muntu, 1995

Aya magambo yongeye gushimangirwa mu nama yabereye i New York mu 2005 (paragarafu ya 121).

Universalism vs relativism yumuco

Ingingo z'ingenzi: Iterambere ry'umuco, Imyitwarire myiza, Kwishyira ukizana kwa buri muntu, hamwe n'imyitwarire rusange

Ikarita: Biteganijwe ko ubwinshi bw'igitsina gore (FGC) muri Afurika. Amakuru ashingiye kubigereranyo bitazwi.

Itangazo Mpuzamahanga ry’Uburenganzira bwa Muntu rishyiraho, mu bisobanuro, uburenganzira bukoreshwa ku bantu bose kimwe, aho akarere kose, leta, ubwoko cyangwa umuco barimo.

Abashyigikiye ivangura rishingiye ku muco bavuga ko uburenganzira bwa muntu atari rusange, kandi ko rwose bivuguruza imico imwe n'imwe kandi bikabangamira ubuzima bwabo.

Uburenganzira bukunze guhatanwa nimpaka zishingiye kuburenganzira ni uburenganzira bwumugore. Kurugero, gutema igitsina gore bibaho mumico itandukanye muri Afrika, Aziya na Amerika yepfo. Ntabwo byemewe n'idini iryo ari ryo ryose, ariko bimaze kuba umuco mu mico myinshi. Bifatwa nko guhonyora uburenganzira bw’umugore n’umukobwa na benshi mu mahanga, kandi birabujijwe mu bihugu bimwe na bimwe.

Universalism bamwe basobanuye ko imperialism yumuco, ubukungu cyangwa politiki. By'umwihariko, igitekerezo cy’uburenganzira bwa muntu gikunze kuvugwa ko gishingiye ku mitekerereze ya politiki ishingiye ku bwisanzure bwa politiki, nubwo byemewe mu Burayi, Ubuyapani cyangwa Amerika ya Ruguru, ntabwo byanze bikunze bifatwa nkibisanzwe ahandi.

Urugero, mu 1981, uhagarariye Irani mu Muryango w’abibumbye, Said Rajaie-Khorassani, yavuze uko igihugu cye gihagaze ku bijyanye na UDHR avuga ko UDHR yari "gusobanukirwa iby'isi ku muco gakondo w'Abayahudi n'Abakristo", bidashoboka. bishyirwa mu bikorwa n’abayisilamu batarenze ku mategeko ya kisilamu. [97] Uwahoze ari Minisitiri w’intebe wa Singapuru, Lee Kuan Yew, na Maleziya, Mahathir bin Mohamad bombi bavuze ko mu myaka ya za 90 bavuga ko indangagaciro za Aziya zitandukanye cyane n’indangagaciro z’iburengerazuba kandi ko harimo ubudahemuka ndetse n’ubwisanzure bw’umuntu ku giti cye hagamijwe iterambere ry’imibereho n’iterambere. , bityo rero ubutegetsi bwigitugu bukwiye muri Aziya kuruta demokarasi. Iki gitekerezo kirwanya uwahoze ari depite wa Mahathir:

Kuvuga ko umudendezo ari Uburengerazuba cyangwa Abanyaziya ni ukubabaza imigenzo yacu kimwe na ba sogokuruza, batanze ubuzima bwabo mu kurwanya igitugu n'akarengane.

- Anwar Ibrahim, mu ijambo rye nyamukuru yagejeje ku ihuriro ry’abanyamakuru bo muri Aziya umutwe w’itangazamakuru n’umuryango muri Aziya, ku ya 2 Ukuboza 1994

Umuyobozi utavuga rumwe n’ubutegetsi bwa Singapore, Chee Soon Juan, na we avuga ko ari ivanguramoko kwemeza ko Abanyaziya badashaka uburenganzira bwa muntu. [98]

Akenshi hajuririrwa ko abantu batekereza cyane ku burenganzira bwa muntu, nka John Locke na John Stuart Mill, bose babaye Abanyaburengerazuba kandi rwose ko bamwe bagize uruhare mu kuyobora Ingoma ubwabo. [100] [101]

Impaka zifatika zikunze kwirengagiza ko uburenganzira bwa muntu bugezweho ari shyashya mu mico yose, guhera mu gihe kitarenze UDHR mu 1948. Ntibabaze kandi ko UDHR yateguwe n'abantu bava mu mico n'imigenzo itandukanye, harimo Abagatolika b'Abanyamerika b'Abanyamerika, umuhanga mu bya filozofiya w'Abashinwa, Umunyasiyoniste w’Abafaransa akaba n'uhagarariye Umuryango w’Abarabu, hamwe n’abandi, maze yifashisha inama z’abatekereza nka Mahatma Gandhi.

Michael Ignatieff yavuze ko ivangura rishingiye ku muco ari impaka zikoreshwa gusa n’abakoresha ubutegetsi mu mico ihohotera uburenganzira bwa muntu, kandi ko abafite uburenganzira bwa muntu babangamiwe ari nta mbaraga bafite. Ibi birerekana ko ingorane zo gucira imanza isi yose hamwe na relativism ziri mu bavuga ko bahagarariye umuco runaka.

Nubwo impaka ziri hagati y’isi yose n’ubusabane butarangiye, ni ikiganiro cy’amasomo kubera ko amategeko mpuzamahanga y’uburenganzira bwa muntu yubahiriza ihame ry’uko uburenganzira bwa muntu bukoreshwa ku isi hose. Inama y’isi yo mu 2005 yongeye gushimangira ko amahanga yubahiriza iri hame:

Imiterere rusange yuburenganzira bwa muntu nubwisanzure ntagushidikanya.

- 2005 Inama y’isi, paragarafu ya 120

Ububasha rusange vs ubusugire bwa leta

Reba kandi: Ububasha rusange ishyirahamwe n'ubusugire bwa Leta

Ububasha ku isi hose ni ihame ritavugwaho rumwe mu mategeko mpuzamahanga aho ibihugu bisaba ububasha bw’inshinjabyaha ku bantu bakekwaho ibyaha byakorewe hanze y’imbibi z’ubushinjacyaha, batitaye ku bwenegihugu, igihugu batuyemo, cyangwa indi sano ifitanye n’igihugu gikurikirana. Leta ishyigikiye ikirego cyayo hashingiwe ko icyaha cyakozwe gifatwa nk'icyaha kuri bose, igihugu icyo ari cyo cyose cyemerewe guhana. Igitekerezo cyububasha rusange rero gifitanye isano rya bugufi nigitekerezo kivuga ko amahame mpuzamahanga ari erga omnes, cyangwa abereyemo umuryango wisi yose, kimwe nigitekerezo cya jus cogens. Mu 1993, Ububiligi bwatoye itegeko ry’ububasha rusange kugira ngo inkiko zaryo zibone ububasha ku byaha byibasiye inyokomuntu mu bindi bihugu, naho mu 1998 Augusto Pinochet yafatiwe i Londres nyuma y'ibirego n'umucamanza wo muri Esipanye Baltasar Garzón akurikiza ihame ry'ububasha rusange. Iri hame rishyigikiwe na Amnesty International n’indi miryango iharanira uburenganzira bwa muntu kuko bemeza ko ibyaha bimwe na bimwe bibangamira amahanga muri rusange kandi abaturage bakaba bafite inshingano z’imyitwarire, ariko abandi, barimo Henry Kissinger, bavuga ko ubusugire bw’igihugu ari cyo cyambere. , kubera ko ihohoterwa ry'uburenganzira ryakorewe mu bindi bihugu ari inyungu z’ibihugu byo hanze kandi kubera ko ibihugu bishobora gukoresha ihame kubera impamvu za politiki.

Abakozi ba Leta n'abatari ab'igihugu

Amasosiyete, imiryango itegamiye kuri Leta, amashyaka ya politiki, imitwe idasanzwe, n'abantu ku giti cyabo bazwi nk'abaterankunga. Abadaharanira inyungu bashobora kandi guhonyora uburenganzira bwa muntu, ariko ntibagengwa n’amategeko y’uburenganzira bwa muntu uretse amategeko mpuzamahanga arengera ikiremwamuntu, akoreshwa ku bantu ku giti cyabo.

Ibigo byinshi by’igihugu bigira uruhare runini ku isi, kandi bifite uruhare runini mu ihohoterwa ry'uburenganzira bwa muntu. Nubwo ibidukikije byemewe n’imyitwarire bikikije ibikorwa bya guverinoma byateye imbere neza, ko ibigo bikikije ibihugu byinshi bitavugwaho rumwe kandi ntibisobanuwe neza. Ibigo byinshi byigihugu bikunze kubona inshingano zabo zibanze nkabanyamigabane babo, ntabwo bireba abarebwa nibikorwa byabo. Ibigo nkibi bikunze kuba binini kuruta ubukungu bwibihugu bakoreramo, kandi birashobora gukoresha imbaraga zubukungu na politiki. Nta masezerano mpuzamahanga abaho agaragaza neza imyitwarire yamasosiyete yerekeye uburenganzira bwa muntu, kandi amategeko yigihugu aratandukanye cyane. Jean Ziegler, Raporo idasanzwe ya Komisiyo y’umuryango w’abibumbye ishinzwe uburenganzira bwa muntu ku burenganzira ku biribwa yavuzwe muri raporo mu 2003:

imbaraga zigenda ziyongera mu mashyirahamwe y’amahanga no kwagura ubutegetsi binyuze mu kwegurira abikorera ku giti cyabo, kubatesha agaciro no gusubiza inyuma igihugu na byo bivuze ko igihe kigeze kugira ngo dushyirehoho amahame y’amategeko yubahiriza amategeko agenga ibigo by’uburenganzira bwa muntu kandi akuraho ihohoterwa rishobora kuba ry’ububasha bwabo. .

- Jean Ziegler

Muri Kanama 2003, Komisiyo ishinzwe komisiyo ishinzwe uburenganzira bwa muntu ishinzwe guteza imbere no kurengera uburenganzira bwa muntu yasohoye umushinga ngenderwaho ku nshingano z’amasosiyete mpuzamahanga ndetse n’ibindi bigo by’ubucuruzi bijyanye n'uburenganzira bwa muntu. Ibyo byasuzumwe na komisiyo ishinzwe uburenganzira bwa muntu mu 2004, ariko ntibifite aho bihurira n’amasosiyete kandi ntibikurikiranwa. Byongeye kandi, intego y’umuryango w’abibumbye igamije iterambere rirambye igamije kugabanya ubusumbane mu 2030 binyuze mu guteza imbere amategeko aboneye.

Uburenganzira bwa muntu mu bihe byihutirwa

Ifungwa ridasanzwe ry'abafashwe mpiri mu kigobe cya Guantanamo

Reba kandi: Gutesha agaciro, umutekano w’igihugu, n’amategeko yo kurwanya iterabwoba

Usibye uburenganzira bwa muntu budasuzuguritse (amasezerano mpuzamahanga ashyiraho uburenganzira bwo kubaho, uburenganzira bwo kutagira uburetwa, uburenganzira bwo kutagira iyicarubozo n’uburenganzira bwo kutishora mu bikorwa by’amategeko ahana nk’uko bidasuzuguritse [ 110]), Loni yemera ko uburenganzira bwa muntu bushobora kugarukira cyangwa no guhagarikwa ku ruhande mu bihe byihutirwa by’igihugu - nubwo:

ibyihutirwa bigomba kuba bifatika, bigira ingaruka kubaturage bose kandi iterabwoba rigomba kuba kubaho kwigihugu. Imenyekanisha ryihutirwa naryo rigomba kuba inzira yanyuma nigipimo cyigihe gito

- Umuryango w’abibumbye, umutungo [110]

Uburenganzira budashobora guteshwa agaciro kubwimpamvu z'umutekano wigihugu mubihe byose bizwi nkibisanzwe cyangwa jus cogens. Inshingano z’amategeko mpuzamahanga zubahirizwa kuri leta zose kandi ntizishobora.

 REFERRENCES [IHUZA] 
Sobanukirwa Uburenganzira bwa muntu n’uko bwubahirizwa - Kigali Today

https://www.ohchr.org/en/human-rights/universal-declaration/translations/kinyarwanda

https://web.archive.org/web/20230225134550/https://caraesnderahospital.prod.risa.rw/1/patients-information/patient-rights-and-responsibilities

https://mobile.igihe.com/amakuru/u-rwanda/article/ese-koko-mu-rwanda-nta-bwisanzure-bwo-gutanga-ibitekerezo-buhari

https://www.isangostar.rw/komisiyo-yuburenganzira-bwa-muntu-yavuze-ko-nta-mfungwa-ya-politike-iba-mu-rwanda