Uburenganzira bw'umugore

Uburenganzira bw'umugore ni uburenganzira busabwa ku bagore n’abakobwa ku isi. Bagize ishingiro ry’umuryango uharanira uburenganzira bw’umugore mu kinyejana cya 19 n’imigendekere y’abagore mu kinyejana cya 20 na 21. Mu bihugu bimwe, ubwo burenganzira bwashyizweho cyangwa bushyigikiwe n’amategeko, imigenzo yaho, n’imyitwarire, mu gihe mu bindi, birengagizwa kandi bigahagarikwa. Bitandukanye n’ibitekerezo byagutse by’uburenganzira bwa muntu binyuze mu kuvuga ko kubogama kw’amateka gakondo gakondo kubangamira ikoreshwa ry’uburenganzira bw’umugore n’abakobwa, bashyigikira abagabo n’abahungu.

Ibibazo bikunze guhuzwa n’ibitekerezo by’uburenganzira bw’umugore birimo uburenganzira bwo kuba inyangamugayo n’ubwigenge, kutagira ihohoterwa rishingiye ku gitsina, gutora, gukora imirimo ya Leta, kugirana amasezerano n’amategeko, kugira uburenganzira bungana mu mategeko y’umuryango, ku kazi, kuri umushahara ukwiye cyangwa umushahara ungana, kugira uburenganzira bw'imyororokere, gutunga umutungo, no kwiga.


 Amateka 

 Mezopotamiya 

Abagore bo muri Sumeri ya kera bashoboraga kugura, gutunga, kugurisha, no kuzungura umutungo. Bashoboraga kwishora mu bucuruzi, [3] kandi bagatanga ubuhamya mu rukiko nk'abatangabuhamya. Nubwo bimeze bityo ariko, abagabo babo bashoboraga gutandukana kubera amakosa yoroheje, [3] kandi umugabo watanye ashobora kongera gushaka undi mugore, mu gihe umugore we wa mbere atigeze amubyarira. [3] [4]: 182 Umusizi wa Akkadian Enheduanna, umupadiri wa Inanna akaba n'umukobwa wa Sargon, ni we musizi uzwi cyane izina ryanditswe. [5] Amategeko ya kera ya Babiloni yemerera umugabo gutandukana n’umugore we uko byagenda kose, [4]: 140 ariko kubikora byamusabye gusubiza ibintu bye byose ndetse rimwe na rimwe akamuha ihazabu. [4]: 140 Amategeko menshi yabuzaga umugore saba umugabo we ubutane kandi ashyira mu bikorwa ibihano bimwe ku mugore usaba ubutane nko ku mugore wafatiwe mu busambanyi. , abasaba kwishyura amande amwe.

 Misiri 

Igishusho cya farawo wumugore Hatshepsut cyerekanwe mungoro yubuhanzi ya Metropolitan

Muri Egiputa ya kera, abategarugori bari bafite uburenganzira bungana n’amategeko nk’umugabo, nubwo uburenganzira bwabo bushingiye ku mibereho. Umutungo wubutaka wamanutse kumurongo wumugore kuva nyina kugeza kumukobwa, kandi abagore bari bafite uburenganzira bwo gucunga umutungo wabo. Abagore bo muri Egiputa ya kera barashobora kugura, kugurisha, kuba abafatanyabikorwa mu masezerano yemewe n'amategeko, kuba ababishaka mu bushake n'abatangabuhamya ku nyandiko zemewe n'amategeko, kurega mu rukiko, no kurera abana.

 Ubuhinde 

Abagore mugihe cyambere cya Vediki [7] bafite umwanya ungana nabagabo mubice byose byubuzima. Ibikorwa byakozwe n’ikibonezamvugo cya kera cy’Abahinde nka Patanjali na Katyayana byerekana ko abagore bize mu gihe cya Vediki ya mbere. [9] Imirongo ya Rigvedic yerekana ko abagore bashakanye bakuze kandi birashoboka ko bafite umudendezo wo kwihitiramo abagabo babo mubikorwa byitwa swayamvar cyangwa kubana neza byitwa ubukwe bwa Gandharva.

 Ubugereki 

Ifoto ya vase itukura yerekana abagore babiri bamesa imyenda

Ifoto ya vase itukura yerekana umugore ugurisha ibiryo

Abategarugori bubahwa bo muri Atene bari biteganijwe ko bazishora mubikorwa byo murugo nko koza imyenda (ibumoso); mubyukuri, benshi bakoze (iburyo).

Nubwo abagore benshi badafite uburenganzira bwa politiki n'uburinganire mu bihugu byo mu mujyi wa Bugereki bwa kera, bari bafite umudendezo runaka wo kugenda kugeza mu bihe bya kera. Inyandiko zibaho kandi ku bagore bo muri Delphi ya kera, Gortyn, Thessaly, Megara, na Sparta batunze ubutaka, uburyo buzwi cyane bw'umutungo bwite muri kiriya gihe. Icyakora, nyuma y’igihe cya kera, abashingamategeko batangiye gushyiraho amategeko yubahiriza ivangura rishingiye ku gitsina, bituma uburenganzira bw’umugore bugabanuka.

Abagore bo muri Atenayi ya kera ntibari bafite ubuzimagatozi kandi bafatwaga nk'abagize oikos iyobowe na kyrios y'abagabo. Kugeza igihe cyo gushyingirwa, abagore barerwaga na se cyangwa undi muvandimwe w'umugabo. Umugabo amaze gushyingirwa, yabaye kyrios yumugore. Kubera ko abategarugori babujijwe gukurikirana imanza, abami babikora mu izina ryabo. Abagore bo muri Atene bashoboraga kubona uburenganzira ku mutungo binyuze mu mpano, inkwano, no kuzungura, nubwo kyrios ye yari ifite uburenganzira bwo guta umutungo w’umugore. Abagore bo muri Atenayi bashoboraga kugirana amasezerano gusa afite agaciro kari munsi yagaciro ka "medimnos ya sayiri" (urugero rw'ingano), bigatuma abagore bakora ubucuruzi buciriritse. Abagore ntibakuwe muri demokarasi ya kera ya Atenayi, haba mu bikorwa no mu bikorwa. Abacakara bashoboraga kuba Abanyatene nyuma yo kubohorwa, ariko nta mugore wigeze abona ubwenegihugu muri Atenayi ya kera.

Muri Atenayi ya kera abagore nabo babujijwe kuba abasizi,intiti, abanyapolitiki, cyangwa abahanzi. Mu gihe cy'Abagiriki muri Atenayi, umuhanga mu bya filozofiya Aristote yatekereje ko abagore bazana imvururu n'ikibi, bityo bikaba byiza ko abagore batandukana n'abandi baturage. Uku gutandukana kwaba gusaba gutura mucyumba cyitwa gynaikeion, mugihe ureba imirimo murugo kandi ukaba udafite aho uhuriye nisi yumugabo. Ibi byari no kwemeza ko abagore bafite abana bemewe gusa nabagabo babo. Abagore bo muri Atene bize amashuri make, usibye gutozwa urugo kubumenyi bwibanze nko kuzunguruka, kuboha, guteka, ndetse nubumenyi bwamafaranga.

Nubwo abagore b’Abanyasiparita batandukanijwe mu buryo bwa gisirikare n’ubuzima bwa politiki, bari bafite umwanya utari muto w’ababyeyi b’abarwanyi ba Spartan. Nkuko abagabo bakoraga ibikorwa bya gisirikare, abagore bafataga inshingano zo kuyobora imitungo. Nyuma y'intambara yamaze igihe kinini mu kinyejana cya 4 mbere ya Yesu, abagore bo muri Spartan batunze hafi 35% na 40% by'ubutaka bwose n'umutungo wa Spartan. [18] Mu gihe cy'Abagiriki, bamwe mu Banyasiparita bakize cyane bari abagore. Abagore bo muri Spartan bagenzuraga imitungo yabo bwite, ndetse n'umutungo wa bene wabo b'igitsina gabo bari kure y'ingabo. Abakobwa kimwe n'abahungu bize amashuri. [18] Nubwo ariko ubwisanzure bwo kugenda bw’abagore b’Abanyasiparita, uruhare rwabo muri politiki rwabaye kimwe n’abagore bo muri Atene.

Platon yemeye ko guha uburenganzira bw'abaturage no mu bya politiki ku bagore byahindura cyane imiterere y'urugo na Leta. Aristote wari warigishijwe na Platon, yahakanye ko abagore ari imbata cyangwa ko bagengwa n'umutungo, avuga ko "kamere yatandukanije umugore n'umugaragu", ariko we abona ko abagore "bagurwa". Yavuze ko ibikorwa by’ubukungu by’umugore ari ibyo kurinda umutungo w’urugo wakozwe n’abagabo. Ku bwa Aristote, umurimo w'abagore nta gaciro wongeyeho kuko "ubuhanga bwo gucunga urugo ntaho buhuriye n'ubuhanga bwo kubona ubutunzi, kuko umwe akoresha ibikoresho undi atanga". [23]

Ibinyuranye n'ibitekerezo bya Platon, abahanga mu bya filozofiya b'Abasitoyiko bavuze ko uburinganire bw'umugabo n'umugore bungana, ubusumbane bushingiye ku gitsina babona ko binyuranyije n'amategeko y'ibidukikije. Mu kubikora, bakurikiranye Abasinike, bavuga ko abagabo n'abagore bagomba kwambara imyenda imwe kandi bakiga amashuri amwe. Babonaga kandi gushyingiranwa ari ubusabane bwimyitwarire hagati yuburinganire aho gukenera ibinyabuzima cyangwa imibereho kandi bagashyira mubikorwa ibyo bitekerezo mubuzima bwabo kimwe ninyigisho zabo. Abasitoyiko bemeje ibitekerezo by'Abasinike kandi babongerera ku nyigisho zabo bwite za kamere muntu, bityo bashyira uburinganire bwabo ku mibonano mpuzabitsina ishingiye kuri filozofiya ikomeye.

 Roma 

Abagore bakorana numugabo mu iduka ryirangi (fullonica), kurukuta rwa Pompeii

Amategeko y'Abaroma, kimwe n'amategeko ya Atene, yashyizweho n'abagabo kugira ngo ashyigikire abantu. Abagore ntibari bafite ijwi rusange kandi nta ruhare rusange bagize, byateye imbere nyuma yikinyejana cya 1 kugeza mu kinyejana cya 6 MIC. Abakenyezi b'abidegemvya bo muri Roma ya kera bari abanyagihugu bafise uburenganzira bwo gukingirwa no gukingirwa bitari abanyagihugu canke abashumba. Umuryango w'Abaroma ariko, wari abakurambere, kandi abagore ntibashoboraga gutora, gukora imirimo ya Leta, cyangwa kujya mu gisirikare. Abagore bo mu cyiciro cyo hejuru bagize uruhare muri politiki binyuze mu gushyingirwa no kubyara. Muri Repubulika y'Abaroma, ba nyina b'abavandimwe ba Gracchus na Julius Sezari bagaragaye nk'abagore b'intangarugero bateje imbere umwuga w'abahungu babo. Mu gihe cy’Ubwami, abagore bo mu muryango w’umwami w'abami bashoboraga kubona imbaraga za politiki kandi bakagaragazwa buri gihe mu buhanzi no mu biceri.

Intego nyamukuru y’umuryango w’Abaroma yari pater familias cyangwa umutware wumugabo wakoreshaga ububasha ku bana be bose, abakozi be n’umugore we. Abakobwa bari bafite uburenganzira bungana n’abahungu niba se yarapfuye atabishaka. Kimwe n'abagore bo muri Atene, abagore b'Abaroma bari bafite umurinzi cyangwa nk'uko bitwaga "umurezi" wacungaga akanagenzura ibikorwa bye byose. Iyi myigishirize yari ifite ibikorwa bike by’abagore ariko mu kinyejana cya mbere kugeza mu kinyejana cya gatandatu MIC, umutoza yararuhutse cyane kandi abagore bemerewe kugira uruhare mu bikorwa rusange nko gutunga cyangwa gucunga umutungo ndetse no gukora nk'abashinzwe amakomine mu mikino ya gladiator n'ibindi bikorwa by'imyidagaduro [ 25] Kubyara byatewe inkunga na leta. Kugeza mu wa 27–14 MIC, ius tritium liberorum ("uburenganzira bwemewe n'amategeko bw'abana batatu") yahaye icyubahiro n'ikigereranyo uburenganzira bw'ikigereranyo ku mugore wabyaye abana batatu kandi amukura mu burinzi bw'abagabo. [30]

Mu bihe bya mbere bya Repubulika y’Abaroma, umugeni yavuye ku butegetsi bwa se yinjira mu "kuboko" (manus) y’umugabo we. Nyuma yaje kugengwa na potestas yumugabo we, nubwo bitarenze abana babo. Ubu buryo bwa kera bwubukwe bwa manus bwarahebwe cyane mugihe cya Julius Sezari, mugihe umugore yagumye munsi y'ubutegetsi bwa se n'amategeko nubwo yimukiye mu rugo rw'umugabo we. Iyi gahunda yari imwe mu mpamvu z’ubwigenge abagore b’Abaroma bishimiye.

Nubwo abagore bagombaga gusubiza ba se mu bijyanye n'amategeko, ntibigeze bamukurikirana mu buzima bwabo bwa buri munsi, [33] kandi abagabo babo nta bubasha bari bafite kuri bo. Igihe se w'umugore yapfaga, yarekuwe mu buryo bwemewe n'amategeko (sui iuris). Umugore wubatse yagumanye gutunga ibintu byose yazanye mu bashakanye. Abakobwa bari bafite uburenganzira bungana n’abahungu niba se yarapfuye atabishaka. Mu mategeko ya kera y'Abaroma, umugabo nta burenganzira yari afite bwo guhohotera umugore we ku mubiri cyangwa kumuhatira gukora imibonano mpuzabitsina. Gukubita umugore byari impamvu zihagije zo gutandukana cyangwa ikindi cyemezo kirega umugabo.

Kubera ubuzimagatozi bwabo nk'abenegihugu n'urwego bashobora kurekurwa, abagore bo muri Roma ya kera bashoboraga gutunga umutungo, bagirana amasezerano, kandi bakishora mu bucuruzi. Bamwe babonye kandi bajugunya umutungo utari muto, kandi byanditswe mu nyandiko nk'abagiraneza mu gutera inkunga ibikorwa rusange. Abagore b'Abaroma bashoboraga kwitaba urukiko bakajya impaka, nubwo byari bimenyerewe ko bahagararirwa n'umugabo. Basuzugurwaga icyarimwe nk'ubujiji bukabije kandi badafite imitekerereze idahwitse yo gukurikiza amategeko, kandi bakora cyane kandi bafite uruhare runini mu bijyanye n'amategeko - bivamo itegeko ryabuzaga abagore gukora imanza mu izina ryabo bwite aho kuba abandi '. Ariko na nyuma y’iri tegeko ryashyizweho, hari ingero nyinshi z’abagore bafata ibyemezo mu bibazo by’amategeko, harimo no gutegeka ingamba z’amategeko ku babunganira abagabo.

Amategeko y'Abaroma yemeraga ko gufata ku ngufu ari icyaha uwahohotewe nta cyaha yari afite [43] n'icyaha cy'urupfu. Gusambanya ku gahato umugore byafatwaga nk'igitero cyagabwe ku muryango we no ku cyubahiro cya se, kandi abahohotewe ku ngufu bakozwe n'ikimwaro kubera ko bemeye izina ribi mu cyubahiro cya se. Nkuko amategeko abiteganya, gufata ku ngufu byakorerwa gusa umuturage uhagaze neza. Gufata ku ngufu imbata byashoboraga gukurikiranwa gusa nk’ibyangiritse ku mutungo wa nyirabyo.

Igishushanyo cya bronze cyumukobwa ukiri muto usoma (ikinyejana cya nyuma)

Umwami w'abami wa mbere w’Abaroma, Augustus, yavuze ko yazamutse ku butegetsi bwonyine kugira ngo agaruke ku mico gakondo, kandi agerageza kugenga imyitwarire y’abagore binyuze mu mategeko mbwirizamuco. Ubusambanyi, bwari bwarabaye ikibazo cy’umuryango wigenga muri Repubulika, bwahamwe n’icyaha, [46] kandi busobanurwa muri rusange ko ari igikorwa cy’imibonano mpuzabitsina kitemewe (stuprum) cyabaye hagati y’umuturage w’umugabo n’umugore washatse, cyangwa hagati y’umugore wubatse n’umugabo uwo ari we wese kuruta umugabo we. Kubwibyo, umugore wubatse yashoboraga kuryamana numugabo we gusa, ariko umugabo wubatse ntiyasambanye mugihe yaryamanye nindaya, imbata, cyangwa umuntu ufite akato (infamis). Indaya nyinshi muri Roma ya kera zari imbata, nubwo imbata zimwe zarindwaga uburaya ku gahato n’ingingo yo mu masezerano yabo yo kugurisha. Umugore wigenga wakoraga nkindaya cyangwa imyidagaduro yatakaje imibereho ye ahinduka infamis, "icyubahiro"; mu gutuma umubiri we uboneka ku mugaragaro, mu by'ukuri yari yaratanze uburenganzira bwe bwo kurindwa ihohoterwa rishingiye ku gitsina cyangwa ihohoterwa rishingiye ku gitsina.

Filozofiya ya stoic yagize uruhare mu iterambere ry'amategeko y'Abaroma. Abasitoyiko bo mu bihe bya Imperial nka Seneka na Musonius Rufus batezimbere ibitekerezo byimibanire gusa. Nubwo badashyigikiye uburinganire muri sosiyete cyangwa mu mategeko, bavuze ko kamere iha abagabo n’abagore ubushobozi bungana bwo kugira ingeso nziza ndetse n’inshingano zingana zo gukora neza, bityo rero abagabo n’abagore bakeneye uburere buke bwa filozofiya. [24] Iyi mitekerereze ya filozofiya mu ntore ziyobora zitekereza ko zagize uruhare mu kuzamura imibereho y’abagore ku ngoma. [50] Roma ntiyari ifite gahunda y’ishuri ryatewe inkunga na leta, kandi uburezi bwaboneka gusa kubabishoboye. Abakobwa b'abasenateri na knight basa nkaho bahoraga biga amashuri abanza (kumyaka 7 kugeza 12). Hatitawe ku gitsina, abantu bake barize barenze urwo rwego. Abakobwa bakomoka mu buryo buciriritse barashobora kwigishwa kugira ngo bafashe mu bucuruzi bwo mu muryango cyangwa kugira ubumenyi bwo gusoma no kwandika bwabafashaga gukora nk'abanditsi n'abanyamabanga. Umugore wamamaye cyane ku isi ya kera kubera imyigire ye ni Hypatia wo muri Alegizandiriya, wigishije abasore amasomo akomeye kandi agisha inama perefe w’Abaroma wa Misiri kuri politiki. Inganzo ye yatumye agirana amakimbirane na musenyeri wa Alegizandiriya, Cyril, ushobora kuba yaragize uruhare mu rupfu rwe rw’urugomo mu mwaka wa 415 azize agatsiko ka gikristo.

Abashakanye bafatana urunana mu ishyingiranwa, bagereranywa n'Abaroma nk'urwego rwubaka umuryango kandi nk'ubufatanye bwa bagenzi bakorera hamwe kubyara no kurera abana, gucunga ibintu bya buri munsi, kubaho ubuzima bw'intangarugero, no kwishimira urukundo [54]

 Ingoma ya Byzantine 

Kubera ko amategeko ya Byzantine yari ashingiye ahanini ku mategeko y'Abaroma, ubuzima gatozi bw'abagore ntiyahindutse cyane mubikorwa byo mu kinyejana cya 6. Ariko inzitizi gakondo z’abagore mu buzima rusange kimwe no kwanga abagore bigenga ziracyakomeza. Uruhare runini rw’umuco w’Abagereki rwagize uruhare mu myumvire ikaze ku ruhare rw’umugore mu rugo aho kuba rubanda. Hariho kandi kwiyongera kw'abagore batari indaya, imbata cyangwa abidagadura ngo bitwikirwe rwose. Kimwe n'amategeko ya mbere y'Abaroma, abagore ntibashoboraga kuba abatangabuhamya mu by'amategeko, kuyobora ubuyobozi cyangwa gukora amabanki ariko barashobora kuzungura imitungo n'ubutaka bwabo.

Nkuko bisanzwe, iryo torero ryakoreshwaga mu rwego rwo gukuraho ubumuga bwashyizweho n’itegeko rya kera ku buseribateri no kutabyara, ibikoresho byongerewe kwinjira mu buzima bwitwa ko ari idini, ndetse no guteganyirizwa umugore. Itorero kandi ryashyigikiraga imbaraga za politiki z'abari bafitanye ubucuti n'abayobozi b'amadini. Ishyirwaho ry'ababyeyi na ba nyirakuru nk'abarezi ryemejwe na Justinian.

Ibibujijwe ku ishyingirwa ry’abasenateri n’abandi bagabo bo mu rwego rwo hejuru hamwe n’abagore bo mu rwego rwo hasi byongerewe na Constantine, ariko hafi ya byose byavanyweho na Justinian. Umubano wa kabiri waciwe intege, cyane cyane mu kwemeza ko hashyirwaho itegeko rivuga ko uburenganzira bw’umupfakazi ku mutungo bugomba guhagarika kongera gushaka, kandi Itegeko Nshinga rya Leonine mu mpera z'ikinyejana cya 9 ryatumaga gushyingirwa kwa gatatu bihanwa. Itegeko-nshinga naryo ryatumye umugisha wa padiri uba ngombwa mu mihango yo gushyingirwa.

 Ubushinwa 

Guhambira ibirenge, umuco ukunze gukoreshwa ku bagore b'Abashinwa hagati y'ikinyejana cya 10 no mu ntangiriro z'ikinyejana cya 20. Ishusho yerekana X-ray yamaguru abiri aboshye.

Abagore bo mu Bushinwa mu mateka no mu bihe bya kera babonaga ko bari hasi kandi bafite ubuzima gatozi bushingiye ku mategeko ya Confuciya. Mu Bushinwa Imperial, "Abumvira Batatu" bazamuye abakobwa kumvira ba se, abagore bumvira abagabo babo, n'abapfakazi kumvira abahungu babo. Abagore ntibashoboraga kuragwa ubucuruzi cyangwa ubutunzi [57] kandi abagabo bagombaga kurera umuhungu kubwibyo bikorwa byamafaranga. Amategeko ya nyuma yubwami yerekanaga ubwoko burindwi butandukanye bwo gutandukana. Umugore ashobora kwirukanwa aramutse ananiwe kubyara umuhungu, agasambana, atumvira nyirabukwe, akavuga cyane, akiba, agahabwa ishyari, cyangwa akaba yararwaye indwara idakira cyangwa iteye ishozi cyangwa indwara. [57] Ariko hariho n'imbibi ku mugabo - nk'urugero, ntashobora gutandukana aramutse abonye aho icyunamo cya sebukwe, niba adafite umuryango wo gutaha, cyangwa niba umuryango w'umugabo wahoze ari umukene kandi kuva icyo gihe ukaba wari ufite ube umukire.

Umubare w'abagore mu Bushinwa nawo wari muke, ahanini bitewe n'umuco wo guhambira ibirenge. Ku byiciro byo hejuru, byari hafi 100%. Mu 1912, guverinoma y'Ubushinwa yategetse ko guhagarika ibirenge. Guhambira ibirenge birimo guhindura imiterere yamagufwa kuburyo ibirenge byari bifite uburebure bwa santimetero enye gusa. Ibirenge biboshye byateje ingorane zo kugenda, bityo bigabanya cyane ibikorwa byabagore.

Bitewe n'imigenzo mbonezamubano ivuga ko abagabo n'abagore batagomba kuba hafi yabo, abagore b'Abashinwa ntibashakaga kuvurwa n'abaganga b'abagabo bo mu Burengerazuba bw'Ubuvuzi. Ibi byatumye hakenerwa cyane abaganga b’abagore b’ubuvuzi bw’iburengerazuba mu Bushinwa. Ni yo mpamvu, umumisiyonari w’ubuvuzi w’umugore Dr. Mary H. Fulton (1854–1927) [58] yoherejwe n’inama y’ubutumwa bw’amahanga mu Itorero rya Peresibiteriyeni (USA) gushinga ishuri rikuru ry’ubuvuzi ry’abagore mu Bushinwa. Iri shuri rizwi ku izina rya Hackett Medical College ry’Abagore, [59] [60] iryo shuri ryashobojwe i Guangzhou mu Bushinwa, ku nkunga nini yatanzwe na Edward A.K. Hackett (1851–1916) wa Indiana, Amerika. Iri shuri ryari rigamije gukwirakwiza ubukristu n’ubuvuzi bwa kijyambere no kuzamura imibereho y’abagore b’abashinwa. [61]

Muri Repubulika y'Ubushinwa (1912–49) na guverinoma z'Ubushinwa mbere, abagore baguzwe mu buryo bwemewe n'amategeko bagurishwa mu bucakara bitwaje abakozi bo mu rugo. Aba bagore bari bazwi ku izina rya Mui Tsai. Ubuzima bwa Mui Tsai bwanditswe n’umunyamerika w’umugore witwa Agnes Smedley mu gitabo cye cyitwa Portraits y’abagore b’abashinwa muri Revolution.

Icyakora, mu 1949, Repubulika y’Ubushinwa yahiritswe n’inyeshyamba z’abakomunisiti ziyobowe na Mao Zedong, maze Repubulika y’Ubushinwa ishingwa muri uwo mwaka. Muri Gicurasi 1950, Repubulika y’Ubushinwa yashyizeho itegeko rishya ry’abashyingiranywe kugira ngo bakemure igurishwa ry’abagore mu bucakara. Uku gushyingirwa bitemewe na proxy kandi byatumye ishyingiranwa ryemewe mugihe abashakanye bombi babyemeye. Itegeko rishya ryo gushyingirwa ryazamuye imyaka yemewe yo gushyingirwa igera kuri 20 ku bagabo na 18 ku bagore. Iki cyari igice cyingenzi mu kuvugurura ubutaka mu cyaro kuko abagore batagishoboye kugurishwa na ba nyirinzu. Icivugo cyemewe cyari "Abagabo n'abagore barangana; umuntu wese akwiriye umunyu (cyangwa)".

 Amateka ya nyuma ya kera 

 Dahomey Amazone yari Fon ibitsina gore. 

Haba mbere ndetse no mu bihe bya Bibiliya, uruhare rw'umugore muri sosiyete rwaragabanijwe cyane. Nubwo bimeze bityo ariko, muri Bibiliya, abagore bagaragazwa ko bafite uburenganzira bwo kwihagararaho mu rukiko, [66]: 56-62 ubushobozi bwo gukora amasezerano, [66]: 63-67 n'uburenganzira bwo kugura, gutunga, kugurisha, na kuzungura umutungo. Kutubahiriza ubwo burenganzira bwo mu Isezerano rya Kera byakozwe n’umugabo ufite abagore benshi byahaye umugore impamvu zo gutandukana: [67] umuhe ibi bintu bitatu, agomba kugenda ku buntu, nta kwishyura amafaranga "(Kuva 21: 10-11).

 Qor'an 

Iki gice cyukuri ntikivugwaho rumwe. Ibiganiro bijyanye murashobora kubisanga kubiganiro: Uburenganzira bwumugore. Nyamuneka fasha kwemeza ko amagambo atavugwaho rumwe yaturutse neza. (Ukuboza 2018) (Wige uburyo nigihe cyo gukuraho ubu butumwa bwicyitegererezo)

Qor'ani, Abayisilamu bemeza ko yahishuriwe Muhamadi mu gihe cy'imyaka 23, yatanze ubuyobozi ku muryango wa kisilamu kandi ihindura imigenzo yari isanzweho muri sosiyete y'Abarabu. Qor'ani isobanura uburenganzira buke ku bagore mu bashakanye, gutana, no kuzungura. Mu guteganya ko umugore, atari umuryango we, yari guhabwa inkwano n’umugabo, yashoboraga gutanga nk’umutungo we bwite, Qor'ani yagize abagore mu buryo bwemewe n’amasezerano yo gushyingirwa.

Mu gihe mu mategeko gakondo, umurage wasangaga ugarukira gusa ku bakomoka ku bagabo, Qor'ani yarimo amategeko yerekeye umurage hamwe n’imigabane imwe n'imwe yagabanijwe ku bazungura babanje, babanje guhabwa abavandimwe b’abakobwa hafi, hanyuma bene wabo b'abagabo begereye. [71] Nk’uko Annemarie Schimmel "abigereranije n'umwanya wabanjirije Ubuyisilamu bw'abagore, amategeko ya kisilamu yasobanuye iterambere rinini; uyu mugore afite uburenganzira, nibura akurikije ibaruwa y'amategeko, gucunga umutungo yazanye mu muryango cyangwa afite yinjijwe n'umurimo we bwite. "[72]

Ku bagore b’abarabu, Islamu yarimo kubuza uruhinja rw’umugore no kumenya uburinganire bw’umugore. Muri rusange abagore babonye uburenganzira burenze ubw'abagore bo muri Arabiya yabanjirije Ubuyisilamu [74] [75] no mu Burayi bwo hagati. Abagore ntibahawe ubuzima gatozi mu yindi mico kugeza mu binyejana byakurikiye. Ku bwa Porofeseri William Montgomery Watt, iyo agaragaye mu bihe nk'ibi, Muhammad "ashobora kugaragara nk'umuntu watanze ubuhamya mu izina ry'uburenganzira bw'umugore." [78]

 Uburayi bw'Uburengerazuba 
Abagore bakora imirimo mugihe cyo hagati

Uburenganzira bw'umugore bwarinzwe n’Itorero rya Gikristo rya mbere ryo mu gihe cyo hagati: imwe mu ngingo za mbere zemewe n'amategeko zerekeye uburenganzira bw’umugore yatangajwe n’inama ya Adge mu 506, aho muri Canon XVI yavugaga ko niba umusore wubatse yifuza gushyirwaho, we yasabye uruhushya rw'umugore we. [79]

Itorero n'umuco byo mu Bwongereza mu gihe cyo hagati byafataga abagore nk'intege nke, badashyira mu gaciro, bashobora kwibasirwa n'ibishuko, kandi ko bakeneye guhora bagenzurwa. [80] Adamu na Eva aho Eva yaguye mubishuko bya Satani maze ayobora Adamu kurya pome. Iyi myizerere yari ishingiye kuri Mutagatifu Pawulo, ko ububabare bwo kubyara ari igihano kuri iki gikorwa cyatumye abantu birukanwa mu busitani bwa Edeni. [80] Ubuke bw'abagore bugaragara no mu nyandiko zo mu gihe cyo hagati; nk'urugero, umuhanga mu bya tewolojiya wa 1200 AD, Jacques de Vitry (wasangaga agirira impuhwe abagore kurusha abandi) yashimangiye ko abagore bumvira abagabo babo kandi akavuga ko abagore ari abanyerera, abanyantege nke, batiringirwa, abayobya, abashuka kandi binangiye. [80] Iri torero kandi ryateje imbere Bikira Mariya nk'intangarugero ku bagore kwigana ari abere mu mibonano mpuzabitsina, gushyingirwa n'umugabo amaherezo biba nyina. Iyo yari intego nyamukuru yerekanaga umuco ndetse n’amadini mu Burayi bwo Hagati. Gufatwa ku ngufu kandi byagaragaye mu Bwongereza bwo mu kinyejana cya 5 nk'icyaha cyakorewe se cyangwa umugabo ndetse no kurenga ku kubarinda no kurera abagore barera mu rugo. Imyirondoro y'abagore mu myaka yo hagati yanagaragajwe binyuze mu mibanire yabo n'abagabo bafitanye isano, nka "umukobwa we" cyangwa "n'umugore n'umugore". N'ubwo bimeze bityo ariko, Itorero ryakomeje gushimangira akamaro k'urukundo no kugirana inama mu bashakanye kandi ryabuzaga ubutane ubwo aribwo bwose kugira ngo umugore agire uwo amwitaho.

 Ibikorwa byabagore bumwami mugihe cyo hagati 
Muri rusange mu Burayi mu gihe cyagati, abagore barutaga abagabo mu buryo bwemewe n'amategeko. Mu Burayi bwo Hagati, abagore bahatiwe kutitaba inkiko kandi bagasigira abagabo babo ibibazo byose by’ubucuruzi. Muri ayamategeko, abagore babonwaga nk'umutungo w'abagabo ku buryo iterabwoba cyangwa igikomere kuri bo cyari inshingano y'abashinzwe kurera.

Mu mategeko ya Irilande, abagore babujijwe gukora nk'abatangabuhamya mu nkiko. Mu mategeko ya Welsh, ubuhamya bw’abagore bushobora kwemerwa ku bandi bagore ariko ntibureke abagabo, ariko amategeko ya Welsh, cyane cyane Amategeko ya Hywel Dda, yanagaragaje uburyo abagabo bagomba kwishyura abana barera abana batashyingiranywe, ibyo bikaba byahaye abagore uburenganzira bwo gusaba uburenganzira. kwishura. Mu Bufaransa, ubuhamya bw'abagore bwagombaga gushimangira n'izindi nkuru cyangwa ntibwakirwa. Nubwo byari byitezwe ko abagore batazitabira inkiko, ibi ariko ntabwo buri gihe byari ukuri. Rimwe na rimwe, tutitaye ku biteganijwe, abagore bitabiriye kandi bakitabira imanza n'inkiko. Ariko abagore ntibashoboraga gukora nk'abacamanza mu nkiko, kuba abavoka cyangwa abagize inteko y'abacamanza, cyangwa gushinja undi muntu icyaha gikomeye keretse niba ari ubwicanyi bw'umugabo we. Ahanini, ikintu cyiza umugore yakora mu nkiko zo hagati ni ukureba imiburanishirize yimanza.

Amategeko ya Suwede yarindaga abagore ububasha bw’abagabo babo baha ububasha bene wabo b'abagabo. Umutungo w’umugore nubutaka nabyo ntibishobora gutwarwa numugabo atabanje kubiherwa uruhushya numuryango we ariko numugore ntashobora. Ibi bivuze ko umugore adashobora kwimurira umugabo we umutungo we atabiherewe numuryango we cyangwa umuvandimwe. Mu mategeko ya Suwede, umugore na we yari kubona kimwe cya kabiri cya murumuna we mu murage. Nubwo ibyo bibazo by’amategeko, Suwede yari imbere cyane kandi isumba cyane mu gufata abagore kurusha ibihugu byinshi by’Uburayi.

Ubukwe bwo mu gihe cyo hagati mu ntore bwateguwe mu buryo bujyanye n'inyungu z'umuryango muri rusange. Mu buryo bw'igitekerezo, umugore yari akeneye kubyemera mbere yuko bashyingirwa kandi Itorero ryashishikarije ubwo bwumvikane kugaragazwa n'iki gihe kandi atari ejo hazaza. Ubukwe bushobora no kubaho ahantu hose kandi imyaka ntarengwa ku bakobwa yari 12, mu gihe yari 14 ku bahungu.

 Amajyaruguru y'Uburayi 
Igipimo cya Wergild cyagaragaje ko abagore bo muri iyo societe bahabwa agaciro cyane cyane kubworozi bwabo. Wergild y'umugore yikubye kabiri iy'umugabo ufite statut imwe mu mategeko ya Aleman na Bavariya. Hagati aho Wergild y’umugore yikubye inshuro eshatu iy'umugabo ufite statut imwe mu mategeko agenga amategeko ya Salic na Repuarian ku bagore bafite imyaka yo kubyara, igizwe kuva ku myaka 12 kugeza kuri 40. [85] Imwe mu mategeko y’Abadage yakomotse ku muco wa Lombard yemeje ko abagore bayoborwa na mundoald w’umugabo, ibyo bikaba byari bigize se, umugabo, umuhungu mukuru cyangwa amaherezo umwami nkuburyo bwa nyuma niba adafite bene wabo b'abagabo. [85] Umugore yari akeneye uruhushya rwa mundold rwo gucunga umutungo ariko arashobora gutunga amasambu ye nibicuruzwa. Uturere tumwe na tumwe dufite amategeko y’umurage wa Visigothique kugeza mu kinyejana cya 7 byari byiza ku bagore mu gihe andi mategeko yose atari yo. Mbere y’ubukirisitu bw’Uburayi, wasangaga umwanya muto w’abagore bemera gushyingirwa no gushyingirwa binyuze mu kugura (cyangwa Kaufehe) mu byukuri byari umuco w’abaturage, bitandukanye n’ubundi buryo bwo gushyingirwa binyuze mu gufatwa (cyangwa Raubehe). Icyakora ubukirisitu bwatinze kugera mu tundi turere twa Baltique na Scandinaviya gusa bugera kuri King Harald Bluetooth ya Danemark mu mwaka wa 950 nyuma ya Yesu. Ababa bakurikiza amategeko ya Noruveje na Islande bakoresheje ubukwe kugira ngo bagirane ubumwe cyangwa bagire amahoro, ubusanzwe abagore batabivuze cyangwa babyemereye. Icyakora uburenganzira bwo gutandukana bwari bwemewe ku bagore bahohotewe ku mubiri ariko gukingirwa ibibi ntabwo byahawe abo bitwaga "abagore babi" nk'abasabirizi, abakozi n'abacakara. Kuryamana nabo ku gahato cyangwa batabanje kubiherwa uruhushya nta nkurikizi cyangwa ibihano byemewe n'amategeko.

Mu gihe cya Viking, abagore bari bafite ubwisanzure mu bihugu byo mu majyaruguru ya Suwede, Danemarke na Noruveje, bigaragazwa na Grágás yo muri Islande ndetse n'amategeko ya Frostating yo muri Noruveje hamwe n'amategeko ya Gulating. Nyirasenge wa papa, mwishywa wa papa n'umwuzukuru wa papa, bitwaga odalkvinna, bose bari bafite uburenganzira bwo kuzungura umutungo ku muntu wapfuye. Iyo bene wabo b'igitsina gabo badahari, umugore utarashatse adafite umuhungu, yashoboraga kuragwa umutungo gusa, ariko n'umwanya wo kuba umutware wumuryango kwa se cyangwa umuvandimwe wapfuye. Umugore ufite statut nk'iyo bamwitaga ringkvinna, kandi yakoresheje uburenganzira bwose yahawe umutware w'umuryango, nk'uburenganzira bwo gusaba no guhanishwa ihazabu yo kwica umuntu wo mu muryango, keretse niba yarashatse, akaba ari we. uburenganzira bwahawe umugabo we.

Nyuma y’imyaka 20, umugore utarashatse, witwa maer na mey, ageze ku bwiganze bwemewe n’amategeko, afite uburenganzira bwo guhitamo aho atuye, kandi yafatwaga nk’umuntu ku giti cye imbere y’amategeko. Uretse ubwigenge bwe ni uburenganzira bwo guhitamo uwo bazabana, kubera ko ubusanzwe ishyingiranwa ryategurwaga n'umuryango. Abapfakazi bishimiye kimwe kwigenga status nk'abagore batubatse. Abagore bari bafite ubutware bw'amadini kandi bakoraga nk'abapadiri (gydja) n'amagambo (sejdkvinna); nk'abacuruzi n'abagore b'imiti. [88] Bashobora kandi kuba baragize uruhare mubiro bya gisirikare: inkuru zerekeye inkeragutabara ntizemezwa, ariko bimwe mubya kera byubucukuzi nkumurwanyi wa Birka wumugore wa Viking birashobora kwerekana ko byibuze abagore bamwe mubuyobozi bwa gisirikare bariho. Umugore wubatse ashobora gutandukana n'umugabo we akongera gushaka.

Byari byemewe kandi mu mibereho ko umugore wigenga yabana numugabo akabyarana atarongowe, kabone niyo uwo mugabo yaba yarashatse; umugore uri mu mwanya nk'uwo yitwaga frilla. Nta tandukanyirizo ryakozwe hagati y'abana bavukiye imbere cyangwa hanze y'abashakanye: bombi bari bafite uburenganzira bwo kuzungura umutungo nyuma y'ababyeyi babo, kandi nta bana "bemewe" cyangwa "batemewe". Ubwo bwisanzure bwagiye buhinduka buhoro buhoro nyuma yo gutangira ubukristo, kandi guhera mu kinyejana cya 13, ntibikivugwa. Mu gihe cy’abakirisitu bo hagati, amategeko ya Scandinaviya yo mu gihe cyo hagati yakurikizaga amategeko atandukanye bitewe n’amategeko y’intara yaho, bivuze ko imiterere y’abagore ishobora gutandukana bitewe n’intara yari atuyemo.

 Amateka ya none 

 Uburayi 

 Ikinyejana cya 16 na 17 Uburayi 

Mu kinyejana cya 16 n'icya 17 habaye ibigeragezo byinshi by'abapfumu, bituma abantu ibihumbi n'ibihumbi mu Burayi bicwa, muri bo 75-95% ni abagore (bitewe n'ahantu n'ahantu). Iyicwa ahanini ryabereye mu bihugu bivuga Ikidage, kandi mu kinyejana cya 15 ijambo "ubupfumu" ryafatwaga nk'ikintu cy'umugore bitandukanye n'imyaka yashize. Imfashanyigisho zizwi cyane nk'ubupfumu nka Malleus Maleficarum na Summis Desiderantes zerekanaga abarozi nk'abagambanyi ba diabolical basenga Satani kandi ahanini bari abagore. Umuco n'ubuhanzi muri kiriya gihe byagaragazaga abo bapfumu nk'abashukashuka kandi babi, bikarushaho gutera ubwoba amahame mbwirizamuco ahujwe n'amagambo yavuzwe na Kiliziya.

Inkomoko y’umugani w’umugore "umurozi" ukomoka ku biremwa by’imigani by’Abaroma bizwi ku izina rya Strix, batekerezaga ko bigaragara kandi bikazimira mu buryo butangaje nijoro. [91] Benshi kandi bizeraga ko ari abagore bahinduwe n'imbaraga zabo ndengakamere. Iyi migani y'Abaroma ubwayo ikekwa ko yakomotse ku Isabato y'Abayahudi yasobanuye abagore badasanzwe ndengakamere bashoboraga kugenda bagataha vuba nijoro. [91] Abanditsi ba Malleus Maleficarum bashimangiye cyane isano iri hagati y’ubupfumu n’abagore batangaza ko bishoboka cyane ko abagore baterwa n '"ikibi". Abanditsi n'abashakashatsi Heinrich Kramer na Jacob Sprengerh bashimangiye iyo myizerere bavuga ko abagore bafite ikizere cyinshi, igitekerezo, ubwenge, intege nke, imibiri idakomeye, ubudahangarwa ndetse na kamere ya kamere byari inenge zishobora guterwa n’imyitwarire mibi n’ubupfumu. Icyo gihe imyizerere nk'iyo irashobora kohereza abategarugori cyangwa abasabirizi mu bigeragezo kugira ngo batange imiti cyangwa imiti y'ibyatsi. Uru ruhererekane rw'imigani yateye imbere amaherezo ruganisha ku bigeragezo by'abapfumu bo mu kinyejana cya 16-17 byasanze ibihumbi by'abagore batwikwa ku giti.

Mu 1500, Uburayi bwigabanyijemo ubwoko bubiri bw'amategeko. Rimwe ryari amategeko gakondo, yiganjemo mu majyaruguru y’Ubufaransa, Ubwongereza na Scandinaviya, andi akaba itegeko ryanditswe n’Abaroma, ryiganje mu majyepfo y’Ubufaransa, Ubutaliyani, Espanye na Porutugali. [93]

Amategeko gakondo yatoneshaga abagabo kuruta abagore. Kurugero, umurage mu ntore zo mu Butaliyani, Ubwongereza, Scandinaviya n'Ubufaransa wahawe umurage mukuru w'abagabo. Mu turere twose, amategeko yahaye kandi abagabo imbaraga zikomeye ku buzima, ku mutungo no ku mibiri y’abagore babo. Ariko, hari ibyo byahinduye kubagore bitandukanye numuco gakondo; nk'urugero, barashobora kuzungura abavandimwe babo badahari, bagakora imyuga imwe n'imwe badafite abagabo babo, kandi abapfakazi bashoboraga kubona dower.

Mu turere tugengwa n’amategeko yanditse y’Abaroma, abagore bagenzurwaga n’abagabo mu bijyanye n’umutungo n’amategeko, ba se bagenzura abakobwa, abagabo bagenzura abagore na ba nyirarume cyangwa bene wabo b'igitsina gabo bagenzura abapfakazi.

Mu Burayi hose, ubuzimagatozi bw'abagore bushingiye ku mibereho yabo mu gihe gushyingirwa ubwabyo ari byo byagize uruhare runini mu kugabanya ubwigenge bw'abagore. Imigenzo, amategeko n'imikorere ntabwo byagabanije uburenganzira n'ubwisanzure bw'umugore gusa ahubwo byabujije abagore b'abaseribateri cyangwa abapfakazi gukora imirimo ya Leta bavuga ko umunsi umwe bashobora kurongora.

Dukurikije amategeko rusange y’icyongereza, yateye imbere kuva mu kinyejana cya 12 gukomeza, umutungo wose umugore yari afite mu gihe cyo gushyingirwa wamutunze umugabo. Amaherezo, inkiko zo mu Bwongereza zabujije umugabo kwimura umutungo atabanje kubiherwa uruhushya n’umugore we, ariko akomeza kugira uburenganzira bwo kuwucunga no kwakira amafaranga yatangaga. Abagore bubatse b'Abafaransa bababajwe n'uburenganzira bwabo bwakuweho mu 1965. Mu kinyejana cya 16, Ivugurura mu Burayi ryemereye abagore benshi kongera amajwi, barimo abanditsi b'Abongereza Jane Anger, Aemilia Lanyer, n'umuhanuzikazi Anna Trapnell. Abongereza n'Abanyamerika Quakers bemezaga ko abagabo n'abagore bangana. Abagore benshi ba Quaker bari ababwiriza. Nubwo umudendezo mwinshi ugereranije n’abagore b’Abongereza n'Abasajya, kugeza mu kinyejana cya 19 rwagati, abanditsi batekerezaga ko gahunda y'abakurambere ari gahunda karemano yahozeho. Iyi myumvire ntiyigeze ihangayikishwa cyane kugeza mu kinyejana cya 18 igihe abamisiyonari b'Abayezuwiti basangaga matrilineality mu baturage kavukire bo muri Amerika y'Amajyaruguru.

Umufilozofe John Locke yarwanyije ubusumbane bw'abashakanye no gufata nabi abagore muri iki gihe. Yari azwi cyane mu guharanira uburinganire bw'abashakanye mu gitsina mu kazi ke mu kinyejana cya 17. Nk’uko ubushakashatsi bwasohotse mu kinyamakuru cyo muri Amerika cyita ku mibereho n’ibibazo by’ubumuntu kibitangaza, uko abagore bameze mu gihe cya Locke byari amagambo: [98]

Abagore b'Abongereza bari bafite impamvu nke zo gutandukana kurusha abagabo kugeza 1923 [98]

Abagabo bagenzuraga imitungo myinshi y’abagore babo kugeza igihe itegeko ry’umutungo w’abagore bubatse 1870 hamwe n’itegeko ry’umutungo w’abagore 1882 [98]

 Abana bari umutungo w'umugabo [98] 
 Gufatwa ku ngufu ntibyashobokaga mu bashakanye [98] 

Abagore ntibari bafite ibintu by'ingenzi biranga ubuzimagatozi, kubera ko umugabo yafatwaga nk'uhagarariye umuryango (bityo bikuraho uburenganzira bwo gutora kw'abagore). Ibi bintu byemewe n'amategeko byo gushyingirwa byerekana ko igitekerezo cyo gushyingiranwa hagati y’abantu bangana cyasaga nkaho bidashoboka kuri Victorians. .

Abandi bafilozofe nabo bagize icyo bavuga ku burenganzira bw'umugore muri iki gihe. Kurugero, Thomas Paine yanditse mu Ibaruwa Rimwe na rimwe yerekeye Igitsina Cy’Abagore 1775 aho avuga (nka cote): [99]

"Nidukora ubushakashatsi ku myaka no mu bihugu, tuzasanga abagore, hafi ya bose badasanzwe ... basengwa kandi bakandamizwa ... ni ... bambuwe umudendezo wo kwihitiramo amategeko ... Nyamara, I, Mbabajwe no kuvuga, ni abagore benshi ku isi yose. Umugabo kuri bo, yabaye umugabo utumva cyangwa umukandamiza. "[99]

Umuryango wa kibyeyi urashobora kubona uburenganzira bwo guha uburenganzira bw'umugore inshingano z'umugabo, urugero nko mu mategeko rusange y’icyongereza abagabo bagombaga kubungabunga abagore babo. Iyi nshingano yavanyweho mu 2010. [100] [101]

 Ikinyejana cya 18 na 19 Uburayi 

Abagore batatu bicaye kumeza ntoya, umwe adoda, umwe anywa igikombe cyicyayi. Byose uko ari bitatu byashushanijwe kugirango bisa nkaho biteye ubwoba. Umugore wa gatatu asa nkaho afite imitwe ibiri, ariko birashoboka ko hari abagore bane. Imitwe y'abagore ntabwo isa nkaho yorohewe kumubiri. Amabara ni umutuku wijimye, umukara, umukara, na almond.

Debutante (1807) na Henry Fuseli; Umugore wahohotewe n’amasezerano mbonezamubano y’abagabo, aboshye ku rukuta, akozwe mu kudoda no kurindwa na ba guverineri. Ifoto iragaragaza ibitekerezo bya Mary Wollstonecraft mu Kwemeza Uburenganzira bw'Umugore, byanditswe mu 1792. [102]

Guhera mu mpera z'ikinyejana cya 18, no mu kinyejana cya 19, uburenganzira, nk'igitekerezo n'ibisabwa, bwongereye agaciro mu bya politiki, imibereho, na filozofiya mu Burayi. Hagaragaye imyigaragambyo isaba ubwisanzure mu idini, kuvanaho ubucakara, uburenganzira ku bagore, uburenganzira ku badafite imitungo, no gutora ku isi hose. Mu mpera z'ikinyejana cya 18 ikibazo cy’uburenganzira bw’umugore cyabaye ishingiro ry’impaka za politiki haba mu Bufaransa no mu Bwongereza. Muri icyo gihe, bamwe mu batekerezaga bakomeye mu kumurikirwa, barwanaga amahame ya demokarasi y’uburinganire kandi bakamagana imyumvire ivuga ko bake bafite amahirwe bagomba gutegeka umubare munini w’abaturage, bemeza ko aya mahame agomba gukurikizwa gusa ku gitsina cyabo no ku bwabo. ubwoko. Urugero, umuhanga mu bya filozofiya Jean-Jacques Rousseau, yatekereje ko ari gahunda ya kamere ku bagore kumvira abagabo. Yanditse ati: "Abagore bakora nabi binubira ubusumbane bw'amategeko yashyizweho n'abantu" kandi avuga ko "iyo agerageje kwambura uburenganzira bwacu, aba ari hasi yacu".

Mu 1754, Dorothea Erxleben abaye umudamu wa mbere w’umudage wakiriye M.D (Kaminuza ya Halle) [105]

Mary Wollstonecraft by John Opie (nko mu 1797)

Minna Canth (1844–1897), umwanditsi wo muri Finilande akaba n'umurwanashyaka uharanira imibereho myiza y'abaturage, yari umwe mu bagore b’abanyarwandakazi bakomeye kandi baharanira uburenganzira bw’umugore. [106] [107] [108] [109] [110]

Urupapuro rwa mbere rwitangazo ryuburenganzira bwumugore nubwenegihugu bwumugore

Mu 1791, umwanditsi w'amakinamico akaba n'umurwanashyaka wa politiki Olympe de Gouges yasohoye Itangazo ry'uburenganzira bw'umugore n'ubw'umugore, [111] ryerekanwe ku Itangazo Uburenganzira bwa Muntu n’Umuturage wo mu 1789. Iri tangazo rirasekeje mu gushyiraho kandi rigaragaza kunanirwa kwa Revolution y'Abafaransa, yari yarahaye uburinganire. Ivuga ko: "Iyi mpinduramatwara izatangira gukurikizwa ari uko abagore bose bamenye neza ubuzima bwabo bubi, n'uburenganzira batakaje muri sosiyete". Itangazo ry’uburenganzira bw’umugore n’umuturage w’umugore rikurikiza ingingo cumi nindwi z’itangazo ry’uburenganzira bwa muntu n’ubwenegihugu ku ngingo kandi Camille Naish yavuze ko "hafi ya parody ... y’inyandiko y'umwimerere" . Ingingo ya mbere y’itangazo ry’uburenganzira bwa muntu n’ubwenegihugu itangaza ko "Abagabo bavutse kandi bakomeza kuba abidegemvya kandi bangana mu burenganzira. Itandukaniro ry’imibereho rishobora gushingira gusa ku nyungu rusange." Ingingo ya mbere y’itangazo ry’uburenganzira bw’umugore n’umuturage w’umugore yarashubije iti: "Umugore yavutse afite umudendezo kandi akomeza kuba umwe n’umugabo mu burenganzira. Itandukaniro ry’imibereho rishobora gushingira gusa ku nyungu rusange". De Gouges yaguye ingingo ya gatandatu y’itangazo ry’uburenganzira bwa muntu n’ubwenegihugu, ryatangaje uburenganzira bw’abaturage kugira uruhare mu ishyirwaho ry’amategeko, kugeza:

Uburenganzira bw'umugore wo muri Ositaraliya bwamuritswe muri iyi karato ya 1887 ya Melbourne Punch: Umunyamurwango ukabije yanga ko umwana we yita ku Perezida w’Inteko.

Abanyagihugu bose harimwo n'abakenyezi bemererwa kimwe abanyacyubahiro bose, ibiro hamwe nakazi kabo, bakurikije ubushobozi bwabo, kandi nta rindi tandukaniro uretse imico yabo nubuhanga.

De Gouges ashimangira kandi ko mu mategeko y’Ubufaransa abagore bahanwe burundu, ariko bakamburwa uburenganzira bungana. Nyuma yaje koherezwa muri guillotine.

Mary Wollstonecraft, umwanditsi akaba n'umuhanga mu bya filozofiya wo mu Bwongereza, yasohoye igitabo cyitwa A Vindication of Rights of Women mu 1792, avuga ko uburere n'uburere bw'abagore ari byo byateje ibyifuzo bike. [113] Wollstonecraft yibasiye ihohoterwa rishingiye ku gitsina, isaba amahirwe angana yo kwiga, maze isaba "ubutabera!" n "" uburenganzira ku bantu "kuri bose. Wollstonecraft, hamwe n’igihe cye cyo mu Bwongereza Damaris Cudworth na Catharine Macaulay, batangiye gukoresha imvugo y’uburenganzira ku bijyanye n’abagore, bavuga ko abagore bagomba kugira amahirwe menshi kuko kimwe n’abagabo, bari abantu bafite imico myiza kandi bashyira mu gaciro. [116] Mary Robinson yanditse mu buryo nk'ubwo muri "Ibaruwa yandikiwe Abagore b'Abongereza, ku karengane ko kuganduka mu mutwe.", 1799.

Ikarito ya Punch kuva mu 1867 isebya John Stuart Mill kugerageza gusimbuza ijambo 'umugabo' n '' umuntu ', ni ukuvuga guha abagore uburenganzira bwo gutora. Inyandiko: Urusyo rwumvikana: Cyangwa, Franchise kubagore. "Senga usobanure inzira, ngaho, kuri aba - a - abantu." [117]

Mu nyandiko ye 1869 yise "Kuganduka kw'Abagore" umuhanga mu bya filozofiya w'umwongereza akaba n'umuhanga mu bya politiki mu bya politiki, John Stuart Mill, yasobanuye uko abagore bo mu Bwongereza bameze:

Turakomeza kubwirwa ko umuco nubukristo byagaruye umugore uburenganzira bwe buboneye. Hagati aho, umugore ni umugaragu nyawe wumugabo we; ntabwo ari munsi, nkuko inshingano zemewe zigenda, kuruta imbata bakunze kwita.

Hanyuma, umwe mu bagize inteko ishinga amategeko, Mill yavuze ko abagore bakwiriye uburenganzira bwo gutora, nubwo icyifuzo cye cyo gusimbuza ijambo "umugabo" n "" umuntu "mu mushinga w’itegeko rya kabiri ry’ivugurura ryo mu 1867 cyakiriwe neza mu nteko ishinga amategeko umutwe w'abadepite kandi batsinzwe na 76 kugeza ku majwi 196. Igitekerezo cye nticyashyigikiwe cyane n’iki gihe [117] ariko kuba yagerageje guhindura umushinga w’ivugurura byatumye abantu bashishikazwa cyane n’ikibazo cy’amatora y’abagore mu Bwongereza. Ku ikubitiro, imwe gusa mu bukangurambaga bw’uburenganzira bw’umugore, gutora byabaye intandaro y’imyigaragambyo y’abagore mu Bwongereza mu ntangiriro yikinyejana cya 20. [119] Muri icyo gihe, ubushobozi bwo gutora bwagarukiraga kuri ba nyir'umutungo ukize mu nkiko z'Ubwongereza. Iyi gahunda yakuyemo ku buryo butaziguye abagore kuko amategeko agenga umutungo n’amategeko y’ubukwe yahaye abagabo uburenganzira bwo gushyingirwa cyangwa kuzungura kugeza mu kinyejana cya 19. Nubwo gutora kw'abagabo kwagutse mu kinyejana, abagore babujijwe gutora mu gihugu ndetse no mu karere mu myaka ya za 1830 n'Itegeko rivugurura 1832 n'Itegeko rigenga amasosiyete 1835. [120] Millicent Fawcett na Emmeline Pankhurst bayoboye ubukangurambaga rusange ku matora y'abagore maze mu 1918 hatorwa umushinga w'itegeko ryemerera abagore barengeje imyaka 30 gutora.

Mu myaka ya 1860, politiki y’imibonano mpuzabitsina y’ubukungu bw’abagore bo mu cyiciro cyo hagati mu Bwongereza ndetse n’ibihugu bituranye n’ibihugu by’Uburayi bw’iburengerazuba byayobowe n’ibintu nk’ihindagurika ry’umuco w’abaguzi wo mu kinyejana cya 19, harimo no kuvuka kw’ibiro by’ishami, no mu bice bitandukanye. Muri Ngwino Kugura, Ngwino Kugura: Guhaha n'umuco wo Kurya mu Kwandika kw'Abagore ba Victorian, Isesengura ry'ubuvanganzo bwa Krista Lysack ryerekeye ubuvanganzo bwo mu kinyejana cya 19 rivuga ko umutungo we ugaragaza amahame rusange y'iki gihe, "uburinganire bw'umugore wa Victorian bwaranzwe no kwiyanga no kugenga ubushake bwo kurya. "[121]

Mugihe abagore, cyane cyane abo muri rubanda rugufi, rwabonye uburyo buciriritse bwo gukoresha amafaranga yo murugo buri munsi kandi rufite ubushobozi bwo kuva munzu, kwitabira ibirori mbonezamubano, no kugura ibintu byumuntu nu rugo mububiko butandukanye bw’amashami yateye imbere mu mpera z'ikinyejana cya 19 Uburayi, ikirere cy’ubukungu n’ubukungu cy’i Burayi cyari gikwirakwije ingengabitekerezo y’abagore. ntibari bagenzuye byimazeyo ibyifuzo byabo byo gukoresha (ukeka) umushahara wumugabo cyangwa se. Kubera iyo mpamvu, amatangazo menshi yamamaza ibicuruzwa 'byigitsina gore' byerekanaga iterambere ryiterambere ryimibereho, exoticism ziva muburasirazuba, kandi byongerera imbaraga inshingano zurugo abagore babonaga ko bafite inshingano nko gukora isuku, kurera abana, no guteka. [121]

 Uburusiya 
Mu mategeko n'imigenzo, Uburusiya bw'Abascovite bwari umuryango w'abakurambere wategekaga abagore ku bagabo, naho abato bakayobora bakuru babo. Petero Mukuru yoroheje umuco wa kabiri, ariko ntabwo yayobokaga abagore. Iteka ryo mu 1722 ryabuzaga mu buryo bweruye gushyingirwa ku gahato risaba abakwe n’abakwe kubyemera, mu gihe uruhushya rw’ababyeyi rwakomeje kuba icyifuzo. Ariko ku ngoma ya Petero, umugabo wenyine ni we washoboraga gukuraho umugore we amushyira mu kigo cy'ababikira.

Ku bijyanye n'amategeko, hari amahame abiri ku bagore. Abagore basambana bakatiwe imirimo y'agahato, mu gihe abagabo bishe abagore babo bakubiswe gusa. Nyuma y'urupfu rwa Petero Mukuru, amategeko n'imigenzo bijyanye n'ububasha bw'abagabo ku bagore babo byariyongereye. Mu 1782, amategeko mbonezamubano yashimangiye inshingano z'umugore zo kumvira abagabo babo. Kugeza mu 1832, Digest of laws yahinduye iyi nshingano "kumvira kutagira imipaka".

Mu kinyejana cya 18, itorero rya orotodogisi mu Burusiya ryarushijeho kubona ububasha bwo gushyingirwa kandi ribuza abapadiri gutanga ubutane, ndetse no ku bagore bahohotewe bikabije. Kugeza mu 1818, sena y'Uburusiya nayo yari yarabujije gutandukana kw'abashakanye.

Mu Ntambara ya Mbere y'Isi Yose, kwita ku bana byarushagaho kugora abagore, benshi muri bo bakaba batashoboraga kwibeshaho, kandi abagabo babo bakaba barapfuye cyangwa barwanaga mu ntambara. Abagore benshi bagombaga guha abana babo ingo zabana bazwiho guhohoterwa no kutitabwaho. Amazu y'abana yiswe "uruganda rw'abamarayika". Nyuma ya Revolution yo mu Kwakira, Bolsheviks yahagaritse uruganda rukora abamarayika ruzwi ku izina rya 'Nikolaev Institute' ruherereye hafi y'umuyoboro wa Moika. Bolsheviks yahise isimbuza ikigo cya Nikolaev n’inzu y’ababyeyi igezweho yitwa 'Ingoro y’ababyeyi n’abana'. Uru rugo rwababyeyi rwakoreshejwe na Bolsheviks nk'icyitegererezo cy'ibitaro byababyeyi. Umubare w’umuyobozi wayoboraga Ikigo cya kera yimuriwe ku ruhande, ariko akwirakwiza ibihuha bivuga ko Bolsheviks yakuyeho amashusho yera, kandi ko abaforomo basambanye n’abasare. Ibitaro by’ababyeyi byatwitswe mbere y’amasaha mbere yuko biteganijwe gufungura, kandi uwo mukecuru yakekwagaho kuba nyirabayazana.

Abagore b'Abarusiya bari bafite inzitizi zo gutunga umutungo kugeza mu kinyejana cya 18 rwagati. Uburenganzira bw'umugore bwariyongereye nyuma y’uko Leta Zunze Ubumwe z'Abasoviyeti zimaze kwiyongera ku butegetsi bwa Bolsheviks.

Ku butegetsi bwa Bolsheviks, Uburusiya bwabaye igihugu cya mbere mu mateka y’umuntu cyakuyemo inda ku buntu ku bagore bari mu bitaro bya Leta.

 Amerika y'Amajyaruguru 

 Kanada 
Igishusho mu mujyi wa Calgary wa Byamamare bitanu. Igishusho gisa nacyo kibaho kumusozi winteko, Ottawa.

Guharanira uburenganzira bw'umugore muri Kanada mu kinyejana cya 19 no mu ntangiriro z'ikinyejana cya 20 byibanze ku kongera uruhare rw'umugore mu mibereho rusange, hagamijwe intego zirimo gutora kw'abagore, kongera uburenganzira ku mutungo, kongera amashuri, no kwemeza ko abagore ari "abantu" nk'uko amategeko abiteganya. ] Icyamamare Batanu bari Abanyakanada batanu - Emily Murphy, Irene Marryat Parlby, Nellie Mooney McClung, Louise Crummy McKinney na Henrietta Muir Edwards - mu 1927, basabye Urukiko rw'Ikirenga rwa Kanada gusubiza ikibazo, "Ese ijambo 'Abantu'? mu gika cya 24 cy'itegeko ryo muri Amerika y'Amajyaruguru y'Ubwongereza, 1867, harimo n'abagore? " mu rubanza Edwards aburana na Kanada (Umushinjacyaha mukuru). [127] Urukiko rw'Ikirenga rwa Kanada rumaze kuvuga mu ncamake umwanzuro wafashwe ku mwanzuro w'uko abagore atari "abantu", urwo rubanza rwajuririwe kandi ruseswa mu 1929 na komite ishinzwe ubutabera mu Bwongereza y'Inama ishinzwe Imperial Privy, icyo gihe urukiko rwanyuma rwa Kanada mu Bwami bw'Ubwongereza na Commonwealth. [128]

Leta zunz'ubumwe

Andi makuru: Igihe cyuburenganzira bwumugore muri Amerika (usibye gutora)

Ihuriro ry’abagore b’abakirisitu (WCTU) ryashinzwe mu 1873 kandi riharanira uburenganzira bw’umugore, harimo no guharanira indaya no gutora abagore. [129] Ku buyobozi bwa Frances Willard, "WCTU yabaye umuryango munini w’abagore bo mu gihe cyayo none ubu niwo muryango w’abagore bakera cyane muri Amerika." [130]

 Aziya 

 Aziya y'Uburasirazuba 

 Ubuyapani 

Umubyeyi n'umwana, 1872

Urugero abagore bashobora kugira uruhare muri societe yUbuyapani rwagiye rutandukana mugihe cyamasomo. Mu kinyejana cya 8, Ubuyapani bwari bufite abami b'abagore, no muri 12 ikinyejana cya (Heian period) abagore mu Buyapani bari bafite umwanya wo hejuru ugereranije, nubwo bagitegekwa nabagabo. Kuva mu bihe bya nyuma ya Edo, urwego rw'abagore rwaragabanutse. Mu kinyejana cya 17, "Onna Daigaku", cyangwa "Kwiga ku Bagore", byanditswe n'umwanditsi witwa Kaibara Ekken w’Abanyakanaka, byagaragaje ibyateganijwe ku bagore b’Abayapani, bigabanya cyane urwego rwabo. [131] Mu gihe cya Meiji, inganda n’imijyi byagabanyije ububasha bwa ba se n’abagabo, ariko muri icyo gihe, amategeko mbonezamubano ya Meiji yo mu 1898 yima abagore uburenganzira bw’amategeko kandi abayoboka ku bushake bw’abatware b’urugo. [132]

Kuva mu kinyejana cya 20 rwagati urwego rw'abagore rwateye imbere cyane. Nubwo Ubuyapani bufatwa nk’igihugu gikumira cyane, mu byukuri byari kare kuruta ibihugu byinshi by’Uburayi mu guha abagore uburenganzira bw’amategeko mu kinyejana cya 20, kubera ko Itegeko Nshinga ry’Ubuyapani ryo mu 1947 ryatangaga urwego rw’amategeko rushimishije mu guteza imbere uburinganire bw’umugore mu Buyapani. Urugero, Ubuyapani bwashyizeho itora ry’abagore mu 1946, mbere y’ibihugu byinshi by’Uburayi nk’Ubusuwisi (1971 ku rwego rwa federasiyo; 1990 ku bibazo byaho muri kanton ya Appenzell Innerrhoden), Porutugali (1976 ku buryo bungana n’abagabo, bibujijwe kuva 1931), San Marino mu 1959, Monaco mu 1962, Andorra mu 1970, na Liechtenstein mu 1984. [133] [134]

 Aziya yo hagati 
Imico yo muri Aziya yo Hagati ahanini ikomeje kuba abakurambere, ariko, kuva aho Leta Zunze Ubumwe z'Abasoviyeti zaguye, imiryango y'isi yo muri ako karere yarushijeho gutera imbere mu nshingano z’abagore hanze y’imyubakire gakondo yo kugandukira abagabo rwose. Muri Mongoliya, abagore benshi kurusha abagabo barangiza amashuri kandi ni bo binjiza menshi. [136] Gahunda y’umuryango w’abibumbye ishinzwe iterambere ivuga ko "iterambere rikomeye" mu buringanire bw’umugabo muri Qazaqistan ariko ivangura riracyakomeza. Gushyingirwa no gushimutwa bikomeje kuba ikibazo gikomeye muri kano karere; umuco wo gushimuta abageni wiganje muri Kirigizisitani, [138] Qazaqistan, [139] Turukimenisitani, [140] na Karakalpakstan, akarere kigenga ka Uzubekisitani. [141]

 Oceania 

 Australiya 
Umukandida wa mbere w’umugore wa politiki muri Ositaraliya, gutora muri Ositaraliya yepfo Catherine Helen Spence (1825–1910)

Amateka y’uburenganzira bw’umugore muri Ositaraliya ni ayavuguruzanya: mu gihe Ositaraliya yayoboye isi mu burenganzira bwo gutora bw’abagore mu kinyejana cya 19, ntiyatinze cyane kumenya uburenganzira bw’umugore ku mwuga - kugeza mu 1966 ni bwo hakuweho akabari k’abashakanye. 142] Ku rundi ruhande, ivugurura ryemerera abagore gutora no guhagararira umwanya muri Ositaraliya y'Amajyepfo mu mpera z'ikinyejana cya 19 ryabaye umusingi w'uburenganzira bwa politiki bw'umugore mu bindi bice by'isi. Ni muri urwo rwego, Ositaraliya itandukanye n’indi mico, kubera ko gutora kw'abagore muri Ositaraliya byari imwe mu ntego za mbere z’umuryango w’abagore bahari (guhera muri Ositaraliya yepfo na Ositaraliya y’Uburengerazuba) bitandukanye n’indi mico, nk’imico y’uburayi bw’iburasirazuba, aho na yo igeze. cyo mu kinyejana cya 20 umutwe w’abagore wibanze ku burenganzira bw’umurimo, kubona imyuga n’uburezi, aho guharanira uburenganzira bwa politiki. Kugeza magingo aya, Ositaraliya ifite umubare muto w’abagore mu nshingano z’ubucuruzi ugereranije n’ibindi bihugu bifite ibigo bisa. [143]

 Ibyingenzi 

Uburenganzira ku kazi ku bagore burimo kutavangura abagore ku mirimo no guhembwa kimwe. Uburenganzira bw'umugore n'abagabo bwo guhembwa kimwe n'inyungu zingana ku kazi kangana na leta ya Hong Kong y'Ubwongereza kugeza mu ntangiriro ya za 70. Leslie Wah-Leung Chung (鍾華亮, 1917–2009), Perezida w’ishyirahamwe ry’abakozi ba Leta mu Bushinwa muri Hong Kong 香港 政府 華 員 會 [144] (1965–68), yagize uruhare mu ishyirwaho ry’imishahara ingana ku bagabo n’abagore, harimo uburenganzira ku bagore bubatse kuba abakozi bahoraho. Mbere yibi, imiterere yumurimo wumugore yahindutse kuva kumukozi uhoraho aba umukozi wigihe gito amaze gushyingirwa, bityo atakaza amafaranga ya pansiyo. Bamwe muri bo ndetse babuze akazi. Kubera ko abaforomo ahanini bari abagore, uku kuzamura uburenganzira bw’abagore bubatse byasobanuye cyane umwuga w’ubuforomo. [61] [145] [146] [147] [148] [149] Mu bihugu bimwe by’Uburayi, abagore bubatse ntibashoboraga gukora batabanje kubiherwa uruhushya n’abagabo babo kugeza mu myaka mike ishize, urugero nko mu Bufaransa kugeza mu 1965 [151] [152] no muri Espanye kugeza mu 1975. [153] Byongeye kandi, utubari twashyingiranywe, umuco watangiye kuva mu mpera z'ikinyejana cya 19 kugeza mu myaka ya za 70 mu bihugu byinshi, harimo Otirishiya, Ositaraliya, Irilande, Kanada, n'Ubusuwisi, wabuzaga abagore bubatse akazi mu myuga myinshi. [154] [155]

Ikibazo cy'ingenzi kigamije kwishingira uburinganire bw'umugabo n'umugore ku kazi ni ukubahiriza uburenganzira bw'ababyeyi n'uburenganzira bw'imyororokere bw'umugore. [156] Ikiruhuko cyo kubyara (n'ikiruhuko cyo kubyara mu bihugu bimwe) n'ikiruhuko cy'ababyeyi ni igihe gito cyo kubura kuva akazi gatangwa ako kanya mbere na nyuma yo kubyara hagamijwe gushyigikira umubyeyi gukira no gutanga igihe cyo kwita ku mwana. [157] Ibihugu bitandukanye bifite amategeko atandukanye yerekeye ikiruhuko cyo kubyara, ikiruhuko cyo kubyara na konji y'ababyeyi. Mu Muryango w’ubumwe bw’ibihugu by’Uburayi (EU) politiki iratandukanye cyane n’ibihugu, ariko abanyamuryango b’ubumwe bw’ibihugu by’Uburayi bagomba kubahiriza ibipimo ntarengwa by’amabwiriza y’abakozi batwite n’akazi - Amabwiriza yo Kuringaniza Ubuzima. [158]

 Uburenganzira bwo gutora 

 Amatora y'abagore 

Ushinzwe ingamba akaba n'umurwanashyaka Alice Paul yayoboye kandi ayobora igice kinini cya Suffrage muri Amerika muri 1910.

Icyicaro gikuru cy’ishyirahamwe ry’igihugu ryarwanyije uburenganzira bw’umugore, Amerika, mu ntangiriro z'ikinyejana cya 20

1919 ibyapa byamatora, abadage baharanira demokarasi. "Frauen! Gleiche Rechte, Gleiche Pflichten" ("Abagore! Uburenganzira bumwe, inshingano zimwe")

Mu kinyejana cya 19, abagore bamwe batangiye gusaba, gusaba, hanyuma bahagarika umutima kandi berekana uburenganzira bwo gutora - uburenganzira bwo kugira uruhare muri guverinoma yabo no gushyiraho amategeko. [159] Abandi bagore barwanyije amatora, nka Helen Kendrick Johnson, wavuze mu gatabo k’Umugore na Repubulika mu 1897 ko abagore bashobora kugera ku buringanire mu by'amategeko no mu bukungu badafite amajwi. [160] Ibitekerezo by’itora ry’abagore byateye imbere hamwe n’amatora yo ku isi yose kandi muri iki gihe gutora by’abagore bifatwa nk’uburenganzira (hashingiwe ku Masezerano yerekeye gukuraho ivangura iryo ari ryo ryose rikorerwa abagore). Mu kinyejana cya 19, uburenganzira bwo gutora bwagiye buhoro buhoro mu bihugu byinshi, kandi abagore batangira kwiyamamariza uburenganzira bwabo bwo gutora. Mu 1893 Nouvelle-Zélande ibaye igihugu cya mbere cyahaye abagore uburenganzira bwo gutora ku rwego rw'igihugu. Ositaraliya yahaye abagore uburenganzira bwo gutora mu 1902. [118]

Ibihugu bitari bike bya Nordic byahaye abagore uburenganzira bwo gutora mu ntangiriro z'ikinyejana cya 20 - Finlande (1906), Noruveje (1913), Danemarke na Islande (1915). Intambara ya Mbere y'Isi Yose irangiye ibindi bihugu byinshi byakurikiranye - Ubuholandi (1917), Otirishiya, Azerubayijani, [161] Kanada, Cekosolovakiya, Jeworujiya, Polonye na Suwede (1918), Ubudage na Luxembourg (1919), Turukiya (1934) , na Amerika (1920). [162] Abatinze mu Burayi ni Ubugereki mu 1952, Ubusuwisi (1971 ku rwego rwa federasiyo; 1959–1991 ku bibazo byaho ku rwego rwa canton), Porutugali (1976 ku buryo bungana n'abagabo, bibujijwe kuva 1931) ndetse na microstate ya San Marino muri 1959, Monaco mu 1962, Andorra mu 1970, na Liechtenstein mu 1984. [133] [134]

Muri Kanada, intara nyinshi zashyizeho itora ry’abagore hagati ya 1917 na 1919, abatinze bakirwa ni ikirwa cya Prince Edward mu 1922, Newfoundland mu 1925 na Quebec mu 1940. [163]

Muri Amerika y'Epfo ibihugu bimwe byahaye abagore uburenganzira bwo gutora mu gice cya mbere cy'ikinyejana cya 20 - Ecuador (1929), Burezili (1932), El Salvador (1939), Repubulika ya Dominikani (1942), Guatemala (1956) na Arijantine (1946) ). Mu Buhinde, ku butegetsi bwa gikoloni, gutora ku isi hose mu 1935. Ibindi bihugu byo muri Aziya byahaye abagore uburenganzira bwo gutora hagati mu kinyejana cya 20 - Ubuyapani (1945), Ubushinwa (1947) na Indoneziya (1955). Muri Afurika, muri rusange abagore babonye uburenganzira bwo gutora hamwe n'abagabo binyuze mu gutora isi yose - Liberiya (1947), Uganda (1958) na Nijeriya (1960). Mu bihugu byinshi byo mu burasirazuba bwo hagati gutora ku isi hose nyuma y’Intambara ya Kabiri y'Isi Yose, nubwo mu bindi bihugu nka Koweti, gutora ari bike cyane. Ku ya 16 Gicurasi 2005, Inteko ishinga amategeko ya Koweti yongereye amajwi ku bagore ku majwi 35-23.

 Uburenganzira ku mutungo 
Mu kinyejana cya 19, bamwe mu bagore, nka Ernestine Rose, Paulina Wright Davis, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Harriet Beecher Stowe, muri Amerika n'Ubwongereza batangiye kunenga amategeko ababuza uburenganzira ku mutungo wabo bamaze gushaka. Mu mategeko asanzwe yigisha abagabo bihishe bagenzuye imitungo itimukanwa yabagore babo. Guhera mu myaka ya za 1840, inteko ishinga amategeko za Leta zunze ubumwe z’Amerika [165] n’Inteko ishinga amategeko y’Ubwongereza [166] zatangiye gushyiraho amategeko arengera umutungo w’abagore ku bagabo babo ndetse no ku baguriza abagabo babo. Aya mategeko yari azwi nk'ibikorwa by'imitungo y'abagore bubatse. [167] Inkiko zo mu kinyejana cya 19 Amerika nazo zakomeje gusaba ibizamini byihariye ku bagore bubatse bagurishije imitungo yabo. Ikizamini cyiherereye cyari akamenyero aho umugore wubatse wifuzaga kugurisha umutungo we yagombaga gusuzumwa ukundi n’umucamanza cyangwa ubutabera bw’amahoro hanze y’umugabo we bakamubaza niba umugabo we amuhatira gushyira umukono ku nyandiko. [168] Uburenganzira ku mutungo ku bagore bwakomeje kubuzwa mu bihugu byinshi by’Uburayi kugeza ivugurura ry’amategeko ryo mu myaka ya za 1960-70. Urugero, mu Budage bw’Iburengerazuba, itegeko ryerekeye izungura ry’icyaro ryashyigikiraga abaragwa b’abagabo kugeza mu 1963. [169] Muri Reta zunzubumwe za Amerika, Umutware hamwe n’amategeko, yatangaga umugabo wenyine kugenzura imitungo y’abashakanye, byari bisanzwe kugeza mu myaka mike ishize. Urukiko rw'Ikirenga, i Kirchberg aburana na Feenstra (1981), rwemeje ko ayo mategeko atubahirijwe.

 Ubwisanzure bwo kugenda 
Umugore hamwe ibirenge biboshye, 1870

Banyarwandakazi ba Caubul (Kabul, Afuganisitani) berekana kuzamura purdah mu bice bya zenana - 1848 byanditswe na James Rattray, Icyegeranyo cy’ibiro by’iburasirazuba n’Ubuhinde, Isomero ry’Ubwongereza

Ubwisanzure bwo kugenda ni uburenganzira bwingenzi, bwemewe n’ibikoresho mpuzamahanga, harimo ingingo ya 15 (4) ya CEDAW. [170] Nubwo bimeze bityo ariko, mu turere twinshi tw'isi, abagore bafite uburenganzira buke cyane, mu mategeko cyangwa mu bikorwa. Urugero, mu bihugu bimwe na bimwe abagore ntibashobora kuva mu rugo badafite umurinzi w’umugabo, [171] cyangwa batabanje kubiherwa uruhushya n’umugabo - urugero amategeko bwite ya Yemeni avuga ko umugore agomba kumvira umugabo we kandi ntagomba kuva mu rugo atabanje kubiherwa uruhushya. [172] Ndetse no mu bihugu bidafite amategeko abuza amategeko, ingendo z’abagore zishobora gukumirwa mu bikorwa n’imibereho n’amadini nka purdah. Amategeko abuza abagore gutembera yabayeho kugeza vuba aha mu bihugu bimwe na bimwe by’iburengerazuba: kugeza mu 1983, muri Ositaraliya gusaba pasiporo y’umugore wubatse byagombaga kwemererwa n’umugabo we. [173]

Ibihugu byinshi byo mu burasirazuba bwo hagati na byo bikurikiza gahunda yo kurera abagabo mu bihe bya none, aho abagore basabwa gusaba uruhushya umuryango w’umugabo kubintu byinshi, harimo no kujya mu bindi bihugu. Muri Kanama 2019, Arabiya Sawudite yarangije amategeko yayo yo kurera abagabo, yemerera abagore kugenda bonyine.

Imigenzo itandukanye yagiye ikoreshwa mu mateka kugira ngo ibuze ubwisanzure bw’umugore bwo kugenda, nko guhambira ibirenge, umuco wo guhambira cyane ibirenge by’abakobwa b’abashinwa bakiri bato, byari bisanzwe hagati yikinyejana cya 10 na 20.

Ubwisanzure bw'abagore bwo kugenda bushobora kubuzwa n'amategeko, ariko birashobora kandi kubuzwa n'imyitwarire y'abagore ahantu rusange. Mu bice bitemewe ko abagore bava mu rugo, abagore bari hanze barashobora guhohoterwa nko gutukwa, ihohoterwa rishingiye ku gitsina n’ihohoterwa. Byinshi mu bibuza umudendezo w’abagore kwimuka byashyizweho nkingamba zo "kurinda" abagore. [175]

 Kumenyesha abagore uburenganzira bwabo bwemewe 
Kutagira ubumenyi mu by'amategeko mu bagore benshi, cyane cyane mu bihugu bikiri mu nzira y'amajyambere, ni inzitizi ikomeye mu kuzamura imibereho y'abagore. Inzego mpuzamahanga, nk'Umuryango w'Abibumbye, zavuze ko inshingano z’ibihugu zitagizwe gusa no gushyiraho amategeko abigenga, ahubwo no mu kumenyesha abagore ko ayo mategeko abaho, kugira ngo bashobore gushaka ubutabera no kumenya mu bikorwa uburenganzira. Kubwibyo, ibihugu bigomba kumenyekanisha amategeko, no kubisobanurira rubanda neza, kugirango birinde ubujiji, cyangwa imyumvire mibi ikomoka kumigani ikunzwe, kubyerekeye amategeko. Gahunda y’umuryango w’abibumbye ishinzwe iterambere ivuga ko, kugira ngo ubutabera bw’uburinganire bugerweho, "Abagore bagomba kumenya uburenganzira bwabo kandi bagashobora kubona amategeko", [176] n’itangazo ry’umuryango w’abibumbye ryo mu 1993 ryerekeye guca burundu ihohoterwa rikorerwa abagore mu bihugu by’ubuhanzi. 4 (d) [...] "Ibihugu bigomba kandi kumenyesha abagore uburenganzira bwabo mu gushaka kurenganurwa binyuze muri ubwo buryo". [177]

 Ivangura 

Imiryango iharanira uburenganzira bw'umugore yibanda ku kuvangura abagore. Ni muri urwo rwego, ibisobanuro by'ivangura ubwabyo ni ngombwa. Dukurikije ubucamanza bw'Urukiko rw'u Burayi Ruharanira Uburenganzira bw'Ikiremwamuntu, uburenganzira bwo kwishyira ukizana ntibukubiyemo gusa inshingano z’ibihugu byo gufata mu buryo bumwe abantu bahuye n’ibibazo bisa, ariko kandi n’inshingano yo gufata mu bundi buryo abantu bari mu bihe bitandukanye. . [178] Kuri iyi ngingo uburinganire, ntabwo "uburinganire" gusa ari ngombwa. Kubwibyo, leta zigomba rimwe na rimwe gutandukanya abagore n’abagabo - binyuze mu gutanga urugero rw’ikiruhuko cyo kubyara cyangwa ubundi buryo bwo kurengera amategeko bukikije gutwita no kubyara (hitabwa ku miterere y’ibinyabuzima y’imyororokere), cyangwa binyuze mu kwemeza amateka yihariye. Kurugero, ibikorwa byubugizi bwa nabi byakozwe nabagabo byibasiye abagore ntibibera mu cyuho, ahubwo biri mubice byimibereho: muri Opuz na Turukiya, ECHR yasobanuye ihohoterwa rikorerwa abagore nkuburyo bwo kuvangura abagore; [179] [180] iyi nayo ni umwanya w’amasezerano ya Istanbul aho ku ngingo ya 3 ivuga ko "ihohoterwa rikorerwa abagore" ryumvikana nko guhonyora uburenganzira bwa muntu ndetse n’ivangura rikorerwa abagore [...] ". [181]

Hariho ibitekerezo bitandukanye byerekana aho bikwiye gutandukanya abagore n’abagabo, kandi igitekerezo kimwe ni uko igikorwa cy’imibonano mpuzabitsina ari igikorwa aho itandukaniro rigomba kwemerwa, haba bitewe n’ingaruka z’umubiri ziyongera ku mugore, [182] kandi bitewe n'amateka yaranze abagore bakorerwa imibonano mpuzabitsina ku gahato mu gihe bari mu mibereho yabo (cyane cyane mu bashakanye no mu gihe cy'intambara). [183] Ibihugu bigomba kandi gutandukanya ibijyanye n’ubuvuzi byemeza ko ubuzima bw’umugore - cyane cyane ku bijyanye n’ubuzima bw’imyororokere nko gutwita no kubyara - butitaweho. Ishami ry'Umuryango w'Abibumbye ryita ku Buzima, "Ivangura mu modoka y'ubuzima igenamiterere rifata uburyo bwinshi kandi rikunze kugaragara mugihe umuntu cyangwa itsinda ryangiwe kubona serivisi zita kubuzima zishobora kuboneka kubandi. Irashobora kandi kubaho binyuze mu guhakana serivisi zikenerwa gusa n’amatsinda amwe, nk’abagore. " kugabanya impfu z'ababyeyi birashobora kuba uburyo bwo kuvangura.Mu bijyanye no gufata abagore n'abagabo kimwe ntabwo bikora kuko ibintu bimwe na bimwe biologiya nko mu mihango, gutwita, kubyara, kubyara, no konsa, ndetse n'ubuvuzi bumwe na bumwe, bigira ingaruka ku bagore gusa. Komisiyo ishinzwe guca ivangura rikorerwa abagore iteganya mu cyifuzo rusange cyayo No 35 ku ihohoterwa rishingiye ku gitsina rikorerwa abagore, rivugurura icyifuzo rusange No 19 kivuga ko ibihugu bigomba "Gusuzuma amategeko na politiki bitagira aho bibogamiye kugira ngo bidashyiraho cyangwa ngo bikomeze ubusumbane buriho; no gukuraho cyangwa kubahindura niba babikora ". (paragarafu ya 32). imiti yapimwe mubigeragezo byubuvuzi kubagabo gusa ikoreshwa no kubagore bakeka ko nta tandukaniro ryibinyabuzima.

 Uburenganzira ku buzima 

Ishami ry'Umuryango w'Abibumbye ryita ku Buzima risobanura ko "ubuzima bwiza bw’umubiri, bwo mu mutwe ndetse n’imibereho myiza aho kuba gusa nta ndwara cyangwa ubumuga". [189] Ubuzima bwumugore bivuga ubuzima bwumugore, butandukanye nubwa bagabo muburyo bwinshi budasanzwe.

Ubuzima bw’umugore burahungabana cyane mu bice bimwe na bimwe by’isi, kubera ibintu nk’ubusumbane, gufunga abagore mu rugo, kutita ku bakozi b’ubuvuzi, kutagira ubwigenge bw’umugore, no kubura amikoro y’abagore. [190] [184] ] Ivangura rikorerwa abagore ribaho no kwanga serivisi z'ubuvuzi zikenerwa n'abagore gusa. Ihohoterwa ry'uburenganzira bw'umugore ku buzima rishobora kuviramo urupfu rw'ababyeyi, bikavamo abantu barenga 300.000 buri mwaka, abenshi muri bo bakaba bari mu bihugu biri mu nzira y'amajyambere. Bimwe mubikorwa gakondo, nko gutema igitsina gore, nabyo bigira ingaruka kubuzima bwumugore. Kw'isi yose, abakobwa bakiri bato n'abakobwa b'ingimbi ni bo baturage banduye virusi itera SIDA.

Hariho kandi amateka y’ihohoterwa rikorerwa abagore, cyane cyane politiki yo mu kinyejana cya 19 yo gufunga abagore nabi mu buhungiro bw’abasazi, akenshi babisabwe n’abagabo na bene wabo b'abagabo. [194] Umunyamurwango uzwi cyane wo kurwanya iyo mikorere ni Elizabeth Packard, wakozwe nabi mu 1860 n’umugabo we, agatanga ikirego maze agatsinda nyuma, agaragaza ikibazo cy’imihigo idakwiye. [195] Undi muharanira inyungu ni umunyamakuru w’iperereza Nellie Bly, wihishe mu 1887, mu buhungiro bwo mu mujyi wa New York, kugira ngo agaragaze ibintu bibi abarwayi bo mu mutwe bari bafite.

 Uburenganzira bwo kwiga 

Uburenganzira bwo kwiga ni uburenganzira rusange ku burezi. [196] Amasezerano arwanya ivangura mu burezi abuza ivangura mu burezi, ivangura rikaba risobanurwa nk "itandukaniro iryo ari ryo ryose, guhezwa, kugarukira cyangwa guhitamo ibyo, bishingiye ku bwoko, ibara, igitsina, ururimi, idini, politiki cyangwa ibindi bitekerezo, inkomoko y'igihugu cyangwa imibereho, uko ubukungu bwifashe cyangwa kuvuka, bifite intego cyangwa ingaruka zo gukuraho cyangwa gutesha agaciro uburinganire bw’ubuvuzi mu burezi ". [197] Amasezerano mpuzamahanga y’uburenganzira bw’ubukungu, imibereho myiza n’umuco avuga ku ngingo ya 3 ko "Ibihugu bigize aya masezerano byiyemeje guharanira uburenganzira bungana bw’abagabo n’abagore bwo kubona uburenganzira bwose bw’ubukungu, imibereho myiza n’umuco bivugwa muri aya masezerano. ", hamwe n'ingingo ya 13 yemera" uburenganzira bwa buri wese ku burezi ". [198]

Kubona uburezi ku bagore bikomeje kuba bike mu bice bimwe na bimwe byisi. Hafi ya bibiri bya gatatu by'abantu bakuru batazi gusoma no kwandika ku isi ni abagore. [199]

Nubwo uburenganzira bw’umugore bwo kwiga amashuri bwemewe nk’ingenzi cyane, biramenyekana cyane ko amashuri y’amasomo agomba kongerwaho inyigisho ku burenganzira bwa muntu, kutavangura, imyitwarire n’uburinganire, kugira ngo iterambere ry’imibereho rishoboke. Ibi byagaragajwe na Zeid bin Ra'ad, Komiseri Mukuru w’Umuryango w’abibumbye ushinzwe uburenganzira bwa muntu muri iki gihe, yashimangiye akamaro ko kwigisha uburenganzira bwa muntu ku bana bose ati: "Ni ikihe cyiza ku bantu kuba Josef Mengele yari afite impamyabumenyi ihanitse mu buvuzi na antropologiya? , urebye ko yari ashoboye gukora ibyaha byibasiye inyoko muntu? Umunani mu bantu 15 bateguye itsembabwoko ryabereye i Wannsee mu 1942 bafite impamyabumenyi y'ikirenga ya PhD.Bamuritse mu ishuri, nyamara bari bafite ubumara bukabije ku isi. 

Radovan Karadžić yari umuganga w’indwara zo mu mutwe watojwe. Pol Pot yize ibikoresho bya elegitoroniki i Paris. Ese iki kibazo, mu gihe nta n'umwe muri bo wagaragaje akantu na gato ko kwitwara neza no gusobanukirwa? "

 Uburenganzira bw'imyororokere 

 Uburenganzira 
Uburenganzira bw'imyororokere ni uburenganzira n’ubwisanzure bijyanye n’imyororokere n’ubuzima bw’imyororokere. Uburenganzira bw'imyororokere bwemejwe na gahunda y’imyaka makumyabiri y’ibikorwa bya Cairo yemejwe mu 1994 mu nama mpuzamahanga y’abaturage n’iterambere (ICPD) yabereye i Cairo, ndetse n’itangazo rya Beijing hamwe n’urubuga rwa Beijing rwibikorwa mu 1995.

Mu myaka ya 1870, abategarugori bateje imbere igitekerezo cyo kuba umubyeyi ku bushake nka kunegura politiki y’ababyeyi batabishaka [202] kandi bagaragaza ko bifuza kubohorwa. [203] Abunganira umubyeyi ku bushake banze kuringaniza imbyaro, bavuga ko abagore bagomba gukora imibonano mpuzabitsina gusa hagamijwe kubyara [204] kandi bagaharanira kwifata buri gihe cyangwa burundu. [205]

Uburenganzira bw'imyororokere bugaragaza igitekerezo cyagutse, gishobora kuba gikubiyemo uburenganzira bumwe cyangwa bwose bukurikira: uburenganzira bwo gukuramo inda byemewe n'amategeko cyangwa umutekano, uburenganzira bwo kugenzura imikorere y’imyororokere y’umuntu, uburenganzira bwo kubona ubuvuzi bw’imyororokere bufite ireme, n'uburenganzira bwo kwiga no kwinjira muri gutegeka guhitamo imyororokere itarimo agahato, ivangura, n’urugomo. Uburenganzira bw'imyororokere bushobora nanone kumvikana harimo kwigisha ibijyanye no kuringaniza imbyaro n'indwara zandurira mu mibonano mpuzabitsina. [207] [208] [206] [209] Uburenganzira bw'imyororokere bukunze gusobanurwa harimo ubwisanzure bwo gutema igitsina gore (FGM), no gukuramo inda ku gahato no kuboneza urubyaro ku gahato. [207] [208] [206] [209] Amasezerano ya Istanbul yemera ubwo burenganzira bubiri mu ngingo ya 38 - Gutema igitsina gore n’ingingo ya 39 - Gukuramo inda ku gahato no kuboneza urubyaro ku gahato.

Uburenganzira bw'imyororokere bwumvikana nk'uburenganzira bw'abagabo n'abagore, ariko bukunze gutera imbere nk'uburenganzira bw'umugore. [208]

Mu myaka ya za 1960, abaharanira uburenganzira bw'imyororokere bateje imbere uburenganzira bw'umugore bwo kwigenga ku mubiri, iyo mibereho iganisha ku kubona uburenganzira bwo kuboneza urubyaro no gukuramo inda mu myaka mirongo iri imbere mu bihugu byinshi. [211]

Kuringaniza imbyaro

Igifuniko cyo gusubiramo imbyaro yo mu 1919, cyanditswe na Margaret Sanger. Kubijyanye na "Tuzahindura dute amategeko?" Sanger yaranditse ati "... abagore bajuririra ubusa kugira ngo bahabwe amabwiriza yerekeye uburyo bwo kuringaniza imbyaro. Abaganga bafite ubushake bwo gukuramo inda aho bivugwa ko ari ngombwa, ariko banga kuyobora ikoreshwa ry’imiti yatuma gukuramo inda bitari ngombwa ..." Sinshobora kora - amategeko ntabimwemerera. "" [212]

Mu ntangiriro z'ikinyejana cya 20, kuringaniza imbyaro byatejwe imbere nk'ibindi bisobanuro bigezweho bigarukira ku muryango no kubyara ku bushake. [213] Imvugo "kuringaniza imbyaro" yinjiye mu rurimi rw'icyongereza mu 1914 kandi ikundwa na Margaret Sanger, [213] [214] wakoraga cyane muri Amerika ariko akaba yaramenyekanye ku rwego mpuzamahanga mu myaka ya za 1930. Umukangurambaga wo kuboneza urubyaro mu Bwongereza Marie Stopes yemeye kuringaniza imbyaro mu Bwongereza mu myaka ya za 1920 abikora mu buryo bwa siyansi. Guhagarara byafashaga uburyo bwo kuringaniza imbyaro bugaragara mu bihugu byakoronijwe n'Ubwongereza. Urwego rwo kuboneza urubyaro rwashyigikiraga uburyo bwo kuringaniza imbyaro kugira ngo imibonano mpuzabitsina yifuzwe nta byifuzo byo gutwita. [205] Mu gushimangira kugenzura, umuryango wo kuringaniza imbyaro wavuze ko abagore bagomba kugenzura imyororokere yabo, igitekerezo gihuza cyane n’insanganyamatsiko y’umugore. Amagambo nka "kugenzura imibiri yacu" yanenze ubwiganze bw'abagabo anasaba ko abagore babohorwa, iryo jambo rikaba ridahari mu kuboneza urubyaro, kugenzura abaturage no kwimuka kwa eugene. [216] Mu myaka ya za 1960 na 1970 umuryango uharanira kuringaniza imbyaro washyigikiye ko amategeko akuramo inda ndetse n’ubukangurambaga bunini bwo kwigisha kuringaniza imbyaro na leta. Mu myaka ya za 1980, imiryango ishinzwe kuringaniza imbyaro no kugenzura abaturage bafatanyaga mu gusaba uburenganzira bwo kuringaniza imbyaro no gukuramo inda, hibandwa cyane ku "guhitamo".

Kuringaniza imbyaro byabaye insanganyamatsiko muri politiki yo muri Amerika. Ibibazo by'imyororokere bitangwa nk'urugero rw'ubushobozi bw'umugore bwo gukoresha uburenganzira bwabo. Kuba abantu bemera kuringaniza imbyaro byasabye gutandukanya igitsina no kubyara, bigatuma kuringaniza imbyaro bivugwaho rumwe cyane mu kinyejana cya 20. [217] Kuringaniza imbyaro muri Amerika byahindutse ikibuga cy’amakimbirane hagati y’indangagaciro n’ubudahangarwa, bitera kwibaza ku muryango, ubwisanzure bwite, kwivanga kwa leta, idini muri politiki, imyitwarire y’imibonano mpuzabitsina n’imibereho myiza. [218] Uburenganzira bw'imyororokere, ni ukuvuga uburenganzira bujyanye n'imibonano mpuzabitsina ubuzima bw'imyororokere n'ubuzima bw'imyororokere, [207] byaganiriweho bwa mbere nk'igice cy'uburenganzira bwa muntu mu nama mpuzamahanga y’umuryango w’abibumbye yo mu 1968 y’uburenganzira bwa muntu.

Gukuramo inda

Kugera kuri serivisi zo gukuramo inda biratandukanye cyane kwisi yose, aho uburenganzira bwuburenganzira bujyanye nibintu bya politiki kandi bikomeye mubihugu byinshi.

Uburenganzira bw'imyororokere bw'abagore bushobora kumvikana harimo n'uburenganzira bwo kubona byoroshye gukuramo inda kandi byemewe n'amategeko. Amategeko yo gukuramo inda aratandukanye no kubuzwa burundu (Repubulika ya Dominikani, El Salvador, Malta, Nikaragwa, Vatikani) [219] n'ibihugu nka Kanada, aho nta tegeko ribuza. Mu bihugu byinshi aho gukuramo inda byemewe n’amategeko, abagore barashobora kubona serivisi nke zo gukuramo inda. Mu bihugu bimwe, gukuramo inda biremewe gusa kurokora ubuzima bw’umugore utwite, cyangwa niba inda yaturutse ku gufata ku ngufu cyangwa kuryamana. Hariho kandi ibihugu aho amategeko yigenga, ariko mubikorwa biragoye cyane gukuramo inda, kubera ko abaganga benshi banga kujya mu gisirikare. [221] Kuba mu bihugu bimwe na bimwe aho gukuramo inda byemewe n'amategeko mu byukuri biragoye cyane kubona kimwe muri byo ntibivugwaho rumwe; Umuryango w'abibumbye mu cyemezo cyarwo cyo mu 2017 cyo kongera ingufu mu gukumira no guca burundu ihohoterwa iryo ari ryo ryose rikorerwa abagore n’abakobwa: ihohoterwa rikorerwa mu ngo ryasabye ibihugu kwemeza "gukuramo inda ku mutekano aho serivisi nk'izo zemewe n’amategeko y’igihugu". [223]

Komisiyo ishinzwe guca ivangura rikorerwa abagore ibona ko icyaha cyo gukuramo inda ari "ihohoterwa ry’ubuzima bw’imyororokere n’imyororokere y’abagore n’uburenganzira" n’uburyo bw’ihohoterwa rishingiye ku gitsina; igika cya 18 cy’icyifuzo rusange cyacyo No 35 ku ihohoterwa rishingiye ku gitsina rikorerwa abagore, rivugurura icyifuzo rusange No 19 kivuga ko: "Ihohoterwa ry’ubuzima bw’imyororokere n’imyororokere y’abagore n’uburenganzira, nko kuboneza urubyaro ku gahato, gukuramo inda ku gahato, gutwita ku gahato, icyaha cyo gukuramo inda , guhakana cyangwa gutinda gukuramo inda neza no kwita ku gukuramo inda, gukomeza ku gahato ku gahato, guhohotera no gufata nabi abagore n’abakobwa bashaka amakuru y’ubuzima bw’imyororokere n’imyororokere, ibicuruzwa na serivisi, ni uburyo bw’ihohoterwa rishingiye ku gitsina, bitewe n’ibihe, rishobora kuba ryinshi kwica urubozo, ubugome, ubumuntu cyangwa gutesha agaciro. " abagore, harimo [...] amategeko ahana gukuramo inda ". [185]

Nk’uko ikinyamakuru Human Rights Watch kibitangaza ngo "Gukuramo inda ni ikintu cy’amarangamutima kandi gishimisha ibitekerezo byimbitse. Icyakora, kubona uburyo bunoze bwo kubona serivisi zo gukuramo inda ku mutekano ni mbere na mbere uburenganzira bwa muntu. Aho gukuramo inda bifite umutekano kandi byemewe n'amategeko, nta muntu uhatirwa kubikora. imwe. Iyo gukuramo inda bitemewe kandi bidafite umutekano, abagore bahatirwa gutwara inda batifuzaga kugeza igihe cyangwa guhura n’ingaruka zikomeye z’ubuzima ndetse n’urupfu. Abagera kuri 13% bapfa bapfa babyara ku isi hose ni ukubera gukuramo inda ku buryo butemewe - bapfa hagati ya 68.000 na 78.000 buri mwaka. "[224 ] Nk’uko Human Rights Watch ibivuga, "kwanga uburenganzira bw'umugore utwite bwo gufata icyemezo cyigenga ku bijyanye no gukuramo inda bibangamira cyangwa bibangamira uburenganzira bwa muntu butandukanye." [225] gukuramo inda kuruta umugore w'umuzungu. [227]

Kiliziya Gatolika n'andi madini menshi ya gikirisitu, cyane cyane ababonaga ko ari uburenganzira bwa gikristo, kandi Abayahudi benshi ba orotodogisi babona ko gukuramo inda atari uburenganzira, ahubwo ko ari bibi kandi ko ari icyaha cyica. [228]

Uburusiya nicyo gihugu cya mbere cyemeje gukuramo inda no gutanga ubuvuzi ku buntu mu bitaro bya Leta. Nyuma ya Revolution yo mu Kwakira, ibaba ry'abagore b'ishyaka rya Bolshevik (Zhenotdel) ryemeje Bolsheviks kwemeza gukuramo inda (nk '' ingamba z'agateganyo '). Bolsheviks yemeye gukuramo inda mu Gushyingo 1920. Bwari ubwa mbere mu mateka y'isi abagore batsindira uburenganzira bwo gukuramo inda ku buntu mu bitaro bya Leta.

 Guhohoterwa mugihe cyo kubyara 
Ingingo nyamukuru: Ihohoterwa mugihe cyo kubyara

Ihohoterwa rikorerwa abagore mu gihe cyo kubyara ni ikibazo giherutse kugaragara ku isi no guhonyora uburenganzira bw’umugore. [229] Ihohoterwa mugihe cyo kubyara ni ukwirengagiza, guhohoterwa kumubiri no kutubaha mugihe cyo kubyara. Ubu buvuzi bufatwa nko guhonyora uburenganzira bw'umugore. Ifite kandi ingaruka zo kubuza abagore gushaka ubuvuzi mbere yo kubyara no gukoresha izindi serivisi zita ku buzima.

 Gushyingirwa kw'abana 

Umubare w'abana bavuka ku bagore 1.000 bafite imyaka 15–19, kwisi yose

Gushyingirwa kw'abana ni umuco ukwirakwira ku isi hose, kandi akenshi bifitanye isano n'ubukene n'ubusumbane bushingiye ku gitsina. Gushyingirwa kw'abana bibangamira ubuzima bw'imyororokere y'abakobwa bakiri bato, bigatuma ibyago byongera ibibazo byo gutwita cyangwa kubyara. Ingorane nk'izo nizo zitera impfu nyinshi mu bakobwa bo mu bihugu biri mu nzira y'amajyambere. [231] [232] [233]

 Gutwita ku gahato 

Gutwita ku gahato ni akamenyero ko guhatira umugore cyangwa umukobwa gusama, akenshi mu rwego rwo gushyingirwa ku gahato, harimo no gushimuta abageni, binyuze ku ngufu (harimo gufata ku ngufu abashakanye, gufata ku ngufu no gufata ku ngufu jenoside) cyangwa muri gahunda ya korora imbata (reba ubworozi bw'abacakara muri Amerika). Nuburyo bwo guhatira imyororokere, byari bisanzwe mumateka, kandi biracyagaragara mubice byisi. Mu kinyejana cya 20, leta yashyingiranywe ku gahato hagamijwe kongera umubare w'abaturage byakorwaga na guverinoma zimwe na zimwe z’igitugu, cyane cyane mu gihe cy’ubutegetsi bwa Khmer Rouge muri Kamboje, bwahatiraga abantu gushyingirwa babategeka kubyara, kugira ngo bongere abaturage no gukomeza impinduramatwara. [234] Gutwita ku gahato bifitanye isano cyane nigiciro cyumugeni. [235]

 Umudendezo wo guhohoterwa 

Ihohoterwa rikorerwa abagore, hamwe, ibikorwa byubugizi bwa nabi byibasiye cyane cyane abagore. Itangazo ry’umuryango w’abibumbye ryerekeye guca burundu ihohoterwa rikorerwa abagore rigira riti: "ihohoterwa rikorerwa abagore ni ikimenyetso cy’imibanire y’uburinganire bw’amateka hagati y’abagabo n’abagore" kandi ngo "ihohoterwa rikorerwa abagore ni bumwe mu buryo bukomeye bw’imibereho abagore bahatirwa mu mwanya wabo. ugereranije n'abagabo. " bw'uburenganzira bwa muntu n'ubwoko bw'ivangura rikorerwa abagore kandi bisobanura ibikorwa byose by'ihohoterwa rishingiye ku gitsina bivamo, cyangwa bikaba byaviramo ingaruka mbi ku mubiri, ku gitsina, mu mutwe cyangwa mu bukungu cyangwa ku mibabaro ku bagore, harimo n'iterabwoba ry'ibyo bikorwa, agahato cyangwa kwamburwa umudendezo uko bishakiye, byaba mu ruhame cyangwa mu buzima bwite ". [236] Ihohoterwa rikorerwa abagore rishobora gukorwa n’abantu ku giti cyabo, n'amatsinda, cyangwa na Leta. Irashobora kugaragara mwiherero cyangwa kumugaragaro. Ihohoterwa rikorerwa abagore rishobora kuba ihohoterwa rishingiye ku gitsina, ihohoterwa rishingiye ku gitsina, ihohoterwa ryo mu mutwe, cyangwa ihohoterwa rishingiye ku mibereho. Bumwe mu ihohoterwa rikorerwa abagore rifite umuco gakondo: ubwicanyi bwubahwa, ihohoterwa ry’ubukwe, gutema igitsina gore. Ihohoterwa rikorerwa abagore rifatwa n’umuryango w’ubuzima ku isi "ikibazo gikomeye cy’ubuzima rusange no guhonyora uburenganzira bwa muntu." [237]

 Amategeko yumuryango 

Mu mategeko agenga abagabo yiganjemo abagabo, abagore bari bafite uburenganzira buke, niba buhari, bagengwa n’umugabo cyangwa bene wabo b'abagabo. Ibitekerezo byemewe n'amategeko byabayeho mu binyejana byinshi, nko guhisha, imbaraga z'abashakanye, amategeko y'umutware na shebuja, byatumaga abagore bagenzurwa cyane n'abagabo babo. Ibibujijwe mu mategeko yo gushyingirwa byageze no mubuzima rusange, nk'utubari. Imyitozo nkubukwe, igiciro cyumugeni cyangwa serivisi yumugeni byari, kandi n'ubu biracyariho mubice bimwe byisi, byari bisanzwe. Ibihugu bimwe bikomeje gusaba kugeza na nubu kurera abagabo kubagore, badafite abagore badashobora gukoresha uburenganzira bwabaturage. Ibindi bikorwa bibi birimo gushyingirwa nabakobwa bato, akenshi kubagabo bakuze cyane.

Muri gahunda nyinshi zemewe n'amategeko, umugabo yari afite imbaraga zuzuye kumuryango; nk'urugero, muri Espagne ya Franco, nubwo uruhare rw'umugore rwasobanuwe nk'uruhare rwo mu rugo rwagombaga kwirinda cyane cyane rubanda kugira ngo rwite ku bana, uburenganzira bwemewe n'amategeko ku bana bwari ubwa se; kugeza mu 1970 umugabo yashoboraga guha umwana w'umuryango kurera atabanje kubiherwa uruhushya n'umugore we. [238] Kugeza mu 1975, abagore bo muri Espagne bakeneye uruhushya rw'umugabo wabo (byitwa gushyingirwa kwa permiso) mu bikorwa byinshi, birimo akazi, kugenda kure y'urugo, ndetse no gutunga umutungo. Ubusuwisi ni kimwe mu bihugu by’Uburayi byanyuma byashyizeho uburinganire bw’umugabo mu bashakanye: uburenganzira bw’umugore bubatse bwabujijwe cyane kugeza mu 1988, igihe ivugurura ry’amategeko ritanga uburinganire bw’umugabo mu bashakanye, rikuraho ububasha bw’amategeko bw’umugabo, ryatangiye gukurikizwa (iri vugurura ryari ryaremejwe mu 1985 n’abatora muri referendum, batoye gato bashyigikira 54.7% by’abatoye bemeza). [240] [241] [242] [243]

Ikindi gice gishishikaje abategarugori ni amategeko y’ubusambanyi, kubera itandukaniro rikabije ry’amategeko n’imibereho hagati y’uburyo ubusambanyi bw’umugore n’umugabo bwafatwaga mu mategeko mpanabyaha ndetse n’amategeko y’umuryango mu mico myinshi, abambere bakaba barahanwe bikomeye, kugeza kuri igihano cyurupfu, no gukandamizwa bikabije nko kwica icyubahiro, mugihe aba nyuma bakunze kwihanganira, ndetse bagashishikarizwa nkikimenyetso cyimibereho yabagabo. Mu Burayi, ibyo byari ukuri cyane cyane mu Burayi bw’Amajyepfo, kandi ubwicanyi bw’icyubahiro nabwo bwari bumenyerewe mu mateka muri kano karere, kandi "habaye ubwicanyi bw 'icyubahiro" mu kwibuka mu bihugu bya Mediterane nko mu Butaliyani n'Ubugereki. "[244] gakondo mumico yubufaransa kubagabo bo murwego rwo hejuru kugira ba nyirabuja, hamwe no kwihanganira ibyaha byifuzo (igifaransa: icyaha passionnel) yakorewe abagore badahemutse yerekana aya mahame, yanashyigikiwe n’amategeko ahana y’Ubufaransa yo mu 1810 (yateganyaga kugirira impuhwe abagabo bishe abagore babo bafashwe basambana, ariko ntibireba abagore bishe abagabo babo mu bihe nk'ibyo, kandi aribyo? bafashe ubusambanyi bw'abagore n'abagabo mu buryo butandukanye, [245] bwakomeje gukurikizwa kugeza 1975). Amahame nkaya yabayeho muri Espagne [246] (ibyaha byo kwifuza kugeza 1963, [247] nubusambanyi - bisobanurwa ukundi kubagore nabagabo - kugeza 1978).

Ingendo zigezweho

Abaminisitiri ba mbere b’abagore ba Finlande bazanywe mu Nteko ishinga amategeko ya Finilande nyuma gato y’ikinyejana cya 20. [249] Uhereye ibumoso ugana iburyo: Hedvig Gebhard (1867–1961), umudepite, na Miina Sillanpää (1866–1952), Minisitiri w’Imibereho Myiza y'Abaturage, [249] [250] mu 1910.

Video yo hanze

Eleanor Roosevelt na John F. Kennedy (Komisiyo ya Perezida ku miterere y'abagore) - NARA yahinze.jpg

amashusho ya videwo Ibyiringiro byabantu hamwe na Eleanor Roosevelt; Bimeze bite ku bagore?, 59:07, 1962.

Eleanor Roosevelt, umuyobozi wa komisiyo ya perezida ku bijyanye n’imiterere y’umugore, abaza Perezida John F. Kennedy, umunyamabanga w’umurimo Arthur Goldberg n'abandi, Open Vault yo muri WGBH. [251]

Umwanditsi w’umunyamerika n’umunyamerika Zainab Salbi, washinze Women for Women International

Mu myaka icumi yakurikiyeho uburenganzira bw'umugore bwongeye kuba ikibazo gikomeye mu isi ivuga icyongereza. Mu myaka ya za 1960 uwo mutwe witwaga "feminism" cyangwa "kwibohora kw'abagore." Abagorozi bifuzaga guhembwa kimwe n'abagabo, uburenganzira bungana mu mategeko, n'ubwisanzure bwo kuboneza urubyaro cyangwa kutabyara na gato. Imbaraga zabo zabonetse ibisubizo bivanze. [252]

Inama mpuzamahanga y’abagore (ICW) n’umuryango wa mbere w’abagore wakoze ku mipaka y’igihugu hagamijwe guharanira uburenganzira bwa muntu ku bagore. Muri Werurwe na Mata 1888, abayobozi b'abagore bateraniye i Washington, muri Leta Zunze Ubumwe za Amerika, hamwe n'abavuga 80 n'intumwa 49 bahagarariye imiryango 53 y'abagore baturutse mu bihugu 9: Kanada, Amerika, Irilande, Ubuhinde, Ubwongereza, Finlande, Danemark, Ubufaransa na Noruveje. Abagore bo mumashyirahamwe yabigize umwuga, ihuriro ryabakozi, amatsinda yubuhanzi hamwe na societe nziza. Inama z'igihugu zifatanije na ICW bityo zikumva ubwabo ku rwego mpuzamahanga. Mu 1904, ICW yahuriye i Berlin mu Budage. [253] ICW yakoranye n’umuryango w’ibihugu mu myaka ya za 1920 ndetse n’umuryango w’abibumbye nyuma y’Intambara ya Kabiri y'Isi Yose. Uyu munsi, ICW ifite Inama Ngishwanama n’umuryango w’abibumbye ishinzwe ubukungu n’imibereho myiza y’umuryango w’abibumbye, icyemezo cy’umuryango utegamiye kuri Leta gishobora kugera ku Muryango w’abibumbye. Kugeza ubu, igizwe n'ibihugu 70 kandi ifite icyicaro i Lasaunne, mu Busuwisi. Inama mpuzamahanga zikorwa buri myaka itatu.

Mu Bwongereza, igitekerezo rusange cy’abantu benshi bashyigikira uburinganire bw’amategeko cyariyongereye cyane, bitewe n’akazi gakomeye k’abagore mu nshingano z’abagabo gakondo mu ntambara zombi z’isi. Mu myaka ya za 1960, hashyizweho gahunda yo gushyiraho amategeko, hashingiwe kuri raporo ya komite yatoranijwe ya Depite Willie Hamilton, umushahara we ungana ku mushinga w'akazi ungana, [254] hashyirwaho akanama gashinzwe ivangura rishingiye ku gitsina, umushinga wa Lady Sear umushinga w'itegeko rirwanya ivangura rishingiye ku gitsina, guverinoma Green Impapuro zo mu 1973, kugeza mu 1975 igihe itegeko rya mbere ry’ivangura rishingiye ku gitsina ry’Abongereza, itegeko rihembwa kimwe, na komisiyo ishinzwe amahirwe angana. [255] [256] Abifashijwemo na guverinoma y'Ubwongereza, ibindi bihugu bya EEC ntibyatinze gukurikiza amasezerano yo kwemeza ko amategeko y'ivangura azavaho mu bihugu bigize Umuryango w'Uburayi.

Muri Amerika, Umuryango w’igihugu w’abagore (NONAHA) washinzwe mu 1966 hagamijwe kuzana uburinganire bw’abagore bose. NONAHA yari itsinda rimwe ryingenzi ryarwaniye kuvugurura uburenganzira bungana (ERA). Iri vugurura ryavuze ko "uburinganire bw’uburenganzira buteganywa n’amategeko butagomba guhakana cyangwa gukurwaho na Leta zunze ubumwe z’Amerika cyangwa igihugu icyo ari cyo cyose bitewe n’imibonano mpuzabitsina." Abaterankunga bemezaga ko bizafasha abagore gufatwa kimwe. Ariko abanenga batinyaga ko bishobora kwambura abagore uburenganzira bwo guterwa inkunga n’amafaranga n’abagabo babo. Iri vugurura ryapfuye mu 1982 kubera ko ibihugu bidahagije byari byemeje. ERAs zashyizwe muri Kongere yakurikiyeho, ariko zirananirwa kwemezwa.

Women for Women International (WfWI) n’umuryango udaharanira inyungu utanga ubufasha bufatika n’imyitwarire ku bagore barokotse intambara. WfWI ifasha abategarugori kongera kubaka ubuzima bwabo nyuma y’intambara nyuma y’intambara binyuze muri gahunda y’umwaka itangirana n’imfashanyo itaziguye n’ubujyanama bw’amarangamutima kandi ikubiyemo ubumenyi bw’ubuzima (urugero, gusoma, kubara) niba bibaye ngombwa, kwigisha ubumenyi bw’uburenganzira, uburezi bw’ubuzima, ubumenyi bw’akazi amahugurwa no guteza imbere ubucuruzi buciriritse. Uyu muryango washinzwe mu 1993 na Zainab Salbi, Umunyamerika wo muri Iraki na we ubwe warokotse Intambara ya Irani na Iraki ndetse n'umugabo wa Salbi wahoze ari Amjad Atallah. Kuva ku ya 20 Kamena 12, WfWI iyobowe na Afshan Khan, wahoze ari umuyobozi mukuru muri UNICEF wabaye umuyobozi mukuru wa mbere wa WfWI kuva uwashinze Zainab Salbi yeguye ku mirimo ye kugira ngo amara igihe kinini mu kwandika no gutanga ibiganiro. [259]

Inama y’igihugu y’abagore bo muri Kanada (Conseil national des femmes du Canada), ni umuryango uharanira inyungu z’Abanyakanada ufite icyicaro i Ottawa ugamije kuzamura imibereho y’abagore, imiryango, n’abaturage. Ihuriro ry’imiryango itegamiye kuri leta y’abagabo n’abagore n’inama z’ibanze n’intara z’abagore, ni Umunyakanada mu Nama Mpuzamahanga y’Abagore (ICW). Iyi nama yitaye ku nzego zirimo gutora kw'abagore, abinjira n'abasohoka, ubuvuzi, uburezi, itangazamakuru, ibidukikije, n'ibindi byinshi. [260] Ryashinzwe ku ya 27 Ukwakira 1857 i Toronto, muri Ontario, ni rimwe mu mashyirahamwe aharanira inyungu za kera mu gihugu.

Uharanira uburenganzira bw'umugore wo muri Arabiya Sawudite, Loujain al-Hathloul yatawe muri yombi muri Gicurasi 2018, hamwe n'abandi 10 baharanira uburenganzira bw'umugore muri Arabiya Sawudite.

Ishyirahamwe rirengera no kurengera uburenganzira bw’umugore muri Arabiya Sawudite ni umuryango utegamiye kuri leta wa Arabiya Sawudite washinzwe gutanga uburenganzira ku burenganzira bw’umugore. Yashinzwe na Wajeha al-Huwaider na Fawzia Al-Uyyouni, ikura mu rugendo rwo mu 2007 kugira ngo ibone abagore uburenganzira bwo gutwara. Iri shyirahamwe ntabwo ryemewe na guverinoma ya Arabiya Sawudite, kandi ryasabwe kudatera imyigaragambyo. [262] Mu kiganiro 2007, al-Huwaider yasobanuye intego: "Ishyirahamwe rizaba rigizwe na shampiyona nyinshi, buri shyirahamwe rikurikirana ikibazo cyangwa uburenganzira butandukanye ... guhagararira abagore mu nkiko za shariya; gushyiraho imyaka [ntarengwa] ku bashakanye b'abakobwa; kwemerera abagore kwita ku bibazo byabo bwite mu bigo bya Leta no kubemerera kwinjira mu nyubako za leta; kurinda abagore ihohoterwa rikorerwa mu ngo, nk'ihohoterwa rishingiye ku gitsina cyangwa mu magambo, cyangwa kumubuza kwiga, akazi, cyangwa gushyingirwa, cyangwa kumuhatira gutandukana ... "[263]

Muri Ukraine, FEMEN yashinzwe mu 2008. FEMEN ifite amatsinda yimpuhwe mubihugu byinshi byu Burayi binyuze ku mbuga nkoranyambaga.

Umuryango w’abibumbye n’inama z’isi

Mu 1946, Umuryango w’abibumbye washyizeho komisiyo ishinzwe imiterere y’abagore. [264] [265] Ubusanzwe nk'igice kijyanye n'imiterere y'abagore, ishami ry'uburenganzira bwa muntu, ishami rishinzwe imibereho myiza y'abaturage, ubu rikaba rigizwe n'inama y'ubukungu n'imibereho myiza y'abaturage (ECOSOC). Kuva mu 1975, Loni yagiye ikora inama zitandukanye ku isi ku bibazo by’umugore, guhera ku nama mpuzamahanga y’umwaka mpuzamahanga w’abagore mu mujyi wa Mexico. Izi nama zashyizeho ihuriro mpuzamahanga ry’uburenganzira bw’umugore, ariko kandi ryerekana amacakubiri hagati y’abagore b’imico itandukanye n’ingorane zo kugerageza gukurikiza amahame ku isi hose. [266] Hakozwe Inama enye ku Isi, iyambere mu mujyi wa Mexico (Umwaka mpuzamahanga w’abagore, 1975), iya kabiri i Copenhagen (1980) n'iya gatatu i Nairobi (1985).

Mu nama ya kane y’isi ku bagore i Beijing (1995), hashyizweho umukono ku ihuriro ry’ibikorwa. Harimo kwiyemeza kugera ku "buringanire no guha ubushobozi abagore". [267] [268] Imihigo imwe yongeye gushimangirwa n’ibihugu byose bigize Umuryango w’abibumbye mu nama y’ikinyagihumbi mu 2000 kandi byagaragaye mu ntego z'ikinyagihumbi zizagerwaho muri 2015.

Mu mwaka wa 2010, Umuryango w’abibumbye washinzwe binyuze mu guhuza Ishami rishinzwe guteza imbere abagore, Ikigo mpuzamahanga cy’ubushakashatsi n’amahugurwa kigamije guteza imbere abagore, ibiro by’umujyanama wihariye cyangwa ibibazo by’uburinganire biteza imbere abagore n’ikigega cy’umuryango w’abibumbye gishinzwe iterambere. Abagore ku cyemezo cy'Inteko rusange 63/311.

 Uburenganzira mpuzamahanga bw'umugore 
Ugereranije n’imiryango iharanira uburenganzira bw’umugore w’iburengerazuba, uburenganzira bw’umugore mpuzamahanga bwugarijwe n’ibibazo bitandukanye. Nubwo byitwa uburenganzira mpuzamahanga bwabagore, birashobora kandi kwitwa feminism yisi ya gatatu. Uburenganzira mpuzamahanga bw’umugore bukemura ibibazo nko gushyingirwa, uburetwa bw’imibonano mpuzabitsina, gushyingirwa ku gahato, no gutema igitsina gore. Nk’uko uyu muryango ukomeza ubivuga, EQUAL MEANS EQUAL, "Umuryango w’abibumbye uza mu mibare iteye ubwoba: Abahohotewe n’igitsina gore - umuhango wo gukuraho igituba cy’umukobwa ukiri muto kugira ngo ube umwizerwa - ni miliyoni 130. Abakobwa bagera kuri miliyoni 60 bahinduka 'abageni b’abana,' guhatirwa gushaka, rimwe na rimwe nyuma yo gushimutwa no gufatwa ku ngufu ". [269] Ikintu, cyashyizweho kugirango kirwanye ibintu nkibi ni Amasezerano yerekeye guca burundu ivangura iryo ari ryo ryose rikorerwa abagore. Yashyizweho kugira ngo ifashe kurwanya ivangura mu burezi, mu bashakanye, ihohoterwa rishingiye ku gitsina, na politiki. Nubwo ibi bitareba ibihugu bitari iburengerazuba gusa, leta 193 zarabyemeje. Bimwe mu bihugu byayirwanyije birimo Irani, Palau, Somaliya, Sudani y'Amajyaruguru n'Amajyepfo, Tonga, na Amerika.

 Banki y'Isi 
Raporo ya 2019 kuva Banki y'Isi yasanze abagore bafite uburenganzira busesuye ku bagabo mu bihugu bitandatu gusa: Ububiligi, Danemarke, Ubufaransa, Lativiya, Luxembourg na Suwede.

 Uburenganzira bwa muntu 

Itangazo mpuzamahanga ry’uburenganzira bwa muntu, ryemejwe mu 1948, ryerekana "uburenganzira bungana bw’abagabo n’abagore", kandi rikemura ibibazo by’uburinganire n’uburinganire. [271] Mu 1979, Inteko rusange y’umuryango w’abibumbye yemeje Amasezerano yerekeye guca burundu ivangura iryo ari ryo ryose rikorerwa abagore (CEDAW) kugira ngo ishyirwa mu bikorwa ry’itegeko ryerekeye guca ivangura rikorerwa abagore. Yavuze ko ari umushinga mpuzamahanga w’uburenganzira ku bagore, watangiye gukurikizwa ku ya 3 Nzeri 1981. Ibihugu bigize Umuryango w’abibumbye bitaremeje aya masezerano ni Irani, Palau, Somaliya, Sudani, Tonga, na Amerika. Niue n'Umujyi wa Vatikani, ibihugu bitari mu muryango, na byo ntibabyemeje. Intara iheruka kuba ishyaka muri ayo masezerano ni Sudani y'Amajyepfo, ku ya 30 Mata 2015. [273]

Amasezerano asobanura ivangura rikorerwa abagore mu magambo akurikira:

Itandukaniro iryo ari ryo ryose, guhezwa cyangwa kubuzwa bikorwa hashingiwe ku mibonano mpuzabitsina bifite ingaruka cyangwa intego yo kubangamira cyangwa gutesha agaciro kumenyekana, kwishimira cyangwa gukora imyitozo y’abagore, hatitawe ku mibereho yabo, hashingiwe ku buringanire bw’abagabo n’abagore, uburenganzira bwa muntu n'ubwisanzure bw'ibanze muri politiki, ubukungu, imibereho, umuco, ubwenegihugu cyangwa urundi rwego urwo arirwo rwose.

Ishiraho kandi gahunda y'ibikorwa byo gukuraho ivangura rishingiye ku gitsina aho ibihugu byemeza ayo masezerano bisabwa gushyiraho uburinganire hagati y’amategeko y’imbere mu gihugu, kuvanaho ingingo zose z’ivangura mu mategeko yabo, no gushyiraho ingingo nshya zo kwirinda ivangura rishingiye ku ivangura. abagore. Bagomba kandi gushyiraho inkiko n’ibigo bya Leta byemeza ko abagore barinda ivangura, kandi bagafata ingamba zo gukuraho ivangura iryo ari ryo ryose rikorerwa abagore ku giti cyabo, imiryango, n’inganda. [274]

Gushyingirwa, gutandukana, n'amategeko y'umuryango

Ingingo ya 16 y’Itangazo Mpuzamahanga ry’Uburenganzira bwa Muntu ikubiyemo uburenganzira bwo kwemerera abagabo n’abagore gushyingirwa no kubona umuryango. [271]

(1) Abagabo n'abagore bageze mu kigero cyuzuye, nta mbogamizi zishingiye ku bwoko, ubwenegihugu cyangwa idini, bafite uburenganzira bwo gushaka no gushinga umuryango. Bafite uburenganzira bungana nko gushyingirwa, mu gihe cyo gushyingirwa no guseswa. [275]

(2) Ubukwe bugomba kwinjizwa gusa kubuntu kandi byuzuye kubushake bwabashakanye.

(3) Umuryango ni urwego rusanzwe kandi rwibanze rwumuryango kandi rufite uburenganzira bwo kurindwa na societe na leta.

Ingingo ya 16 ya CEDAW iteganya ko, "1. Ibihugu bigize ibihugu bizafata ingamba zose zikwiye zo gukuraho ivangura rikorerwa abagore mu bibazo byose bijyanye n’ubukwe n’imibanire y’umuryango [...]". [276] Mu burenganzira burimo harimo uburenganzira bw'umugore bwo kwihitiramo kandi byumvikanyweho guhitamo uwo bashakanye; kugira uburenganzira bwa kibyeyi kubana be hatitawe ku mibereho ye; uburenganzira bw'umugore wubatse guhitamo umwuga cyangwa umwuga, no kugira uburenganzira ku mutungo mu bashakanye. Usibye ibyo, "Gusezerana no gushyingirwa k'umwana nta ngaruka byemewe n'amategeko". [276]

Gushyingirwa bifite abagore benshi ni umuco utavugwaho rumwe, wiganje mu bice bimwe na bimwe byisi. Ibyifuzo rusange byatanzwe na komite ishinzwe kurandura ivangura rikorerwa abagore, leta mu cyifuzo rusange No 21, Uburinganire mu bashakanye n’imibanire y’umuryango: "14. Irashobora kugira ingaruka zikomeye ku mutima no ku mutungo kuri we no ku bamutunga ku buryo gushyingirwa bigomba gucibwa intege kandi bikabuzwa. "[277]

Kubana kw'abashakanye kimwe n'ababyeyi barera abana birasanzwe mu bice bimwe na bimwe by'isi. Komite ishinzwe uburenganzira bwa muntu yagize iti: [278]

27. Mu guha agaciro kumenyekanisha umuryango mu rwego rwingingo ya 23, ni ngombwa kwemera igitekerezo cyubwoko butandukanye bwimiryango, harimo abashakanye batashyingiranywe hamwe nabana babo hamwe nababyeyi barera abana hamwe nabana babo kandi bakarebwa kimwe. abategarugori muriki gice (Igitekerezo rusange 19 igika cya 2 interuro yanyuma). Imiryango y'ababyeyi barera abana benshi igizwe numugore umwe urera umwana umwe cyangwa benshi, kandi amashyaka yibihugu agomba gusobanura ingamba zifatika zihari kugirango ashobore kurangiza imirimo yababyeyi ashingiye kuburinganire numugabo mumwanya umwe.

 Itangazo rya Vienne na Gahunda y'ibikorwa 

Itangazo na gahunda y'ibikorwa bya Vienne (VDPA) ni itangazo ry'uburenganzira bwa muntu ryemeranijweho mu nama mpuzamahanga ku burenganzira bwa muntu ku ya 25 Kamena 1993 i Vienne, ustria. Iri tangazo ryemera uburenganzira bw’umugore nk’uburenganzira bwa muntu. Igika cya 18 kigira kiti: [279]

Uburenganzira bwa muntu bw’umugore n’umukobwa-umwana ni igice ntagereranywa, kidasanzwe kandi ntigabanywa uburenganzira bwa muntu. Uruhare rwuzuye kandi rungana rw’abagore mu buzima bwa politiki, ubwenegihugu, ubukungu, imibereho n’umuco, ku rwego rw’igihugu, uturere ndetse n’amahanga, no kurandura ivangura iryo ari ryo ryose rishingiye ku gitsina ni intego z’umuryango mpuzamahanga.

Umwanzuro w’akanama gashinzwe umutekano ku isi 1325

Ingingo nyamukuru: Icyemezo cy’umuryango w’abibumbye gashinzwe umutekano

Ku ya 31 Ukwakira 2000, Inama y’umuryango w’abibumbye ishinzwe umutekano yemeje ku mwanzuro w’inama y’umuryango w’abibumbye ishinzwe umutekano 1325, inyandiko ya mbere yemewe n’amategeko yatanzwe n’akanama gashinzwe umutekano ku isi isaba ibihugu byose kubahiriza byimazeyo amategeko mpuzamahanga arengera ikiremwamuntu n’amategeko mpuzamahanga y’uburenganzira bwa muntu akoreshwa mu burenganzira. no kurengera abagore n’abakobwa mu gihe na nyuma y’intambara yitwaje intwaro.

 Amasezerano y'akarere 



 Ingingo z'ingenzi 

Amasezerano ya Belém do Pará, Protokole ya Maputo, n’amasezerano yo gukumira no kurwanya ihohoterwa rikorerwa abagore n’ihohoterwa rikorerwa mu ngo

Amasezerano mpuzamahanga y’Abanyamerika yerekeye gukumira, guhana, no guca burundu ihohoterwa rikorerwa abagore, uzwi ku izina rya Belém do Pará, yemejwe n’umuryango w’ibihugu by’Amerika ku ya 9 Kamena 1994. Kuva muri Werurwe 2020, 32 muri 34 cyangwa Ibihugu 35 bigize Umuryango w’umuryango w’ibihugu by’Amerika byashyize umukono ku masezerano, byemezwa cyangwa byinjira mu masezerano ya Belém do Pará; gusa Kanada, Cuba na Amerika ntibigeze. [281] [ingingo ya 1]

Amasezerano y’amasezerano nyafurika y’uburenganzira bwa muntu n’abaturage ku burenganzira bw’umugore muri Afurika, uzwi ku izina rya Maputo Protocol, yemejwe n’umuryango w’ubumwe bw’Afurika ku ya 11 Nyakanga 2003 mu nama yayo ya kabiri yabereye i Maputo, [282] Mozambike. Ku ya 25 Ugushyingo 2005, imaze kwemezwa n’ibihugu 15 bisabwa bigize Umuryango w’ubumwe bw’Afurika, ayo masezerano yatangiye gukurikizwa. Amasezerano yemeza ko uburenganzira bw’umugore burimo uburenganzira bwo kugira uruhare muri gahunda za politiki, uburinganire bw’imibereho n’ivya politiki n’abagabo, no kugenzura ubuzima bw’imyororokere, ndetse no guca burundu imyanya ndangagitsina y’abagore. [284]

Amasezerano yo gukumira no kurwanya ihohoterwa rikorerwa abagore n’ihohoterwa rikorerwa mu ngo, uzwi ku izina rya Istanbul, yemejwe n’inama y’Uburayi ku ya 11 Gicurasi 2011. Kuva muri Kamena 2020, ayo masezerano yashyizweho umukono n’umunyamuryango w’Inama y’Uburayi 45/47 bihugu n'Umuryango w’ubumwe bw’ibihugu by’Uburayi; 34 mu bashyizeho umukono na bo bemeje ayo masezerano. [285]

 Ihohoterwa rikorerwa abagore 
Itangazo ry’umuryango w’abibumbye

Itangazo ryerekeye guca burundu ihohoterwa rikorerwa abagore ryemejwe n’umuryango w’abibumbye mu 1993. Risobanura ko ihohoterwa rikorerwa abagore ari "igikorwa icyo ari cyo cyose cy’ihohoterwa rishingiye ku gitsina ritera, cyangwa rishobora kuviramo ingaruka mbi ku mubiri, ku gitsina cyangwa ku mitekerereze cyangwa kubabazwa ku bagore, harimo iterabwoba ry'ibyo bikorwa, ku gahato cyangwa kwamburwa umudendezo uko bishakiye, haba mu baturage cyangwa mu buzima bwite. "[286] Iki cyemezo cyagaragaje ko abagore bafite uburenganzira bwo kutagira ihohoterwa. Kubera iyo myanzuro, mu 1999, Inteko rusange yatangaje ko umunsi wo ku ya 25 Ugushyingo ari umunsi mpuzamahanga wo guca burundu ihohoterwa rikorerwa abagore.

Ingingo ya 2 y’itangazo ryerekeye guca burundu ihohoterwa rikorerwa abagore ryerekana uburyo butandukanye bw’ihohoterwa rikorerwa abagore:

Ingingo ya kabiri:

Ihohoterwa rikorerwa abagore rizasobanuka rikubiyemo, ariko ntirigarukira gusa kuri ibi bikurikira:

. urugomo rujyanye no gukoreshwa;

)

(c) Ihohoterwa rishingiye ku mubiri, rishingiye ku gitsina no mu mutwe ryakozwe cyangwa ryemejwe na Leta, aho ribaye hose.

 Amasezerano ya Istanbul 
Amasezerano y’Inama y’Uburayi yerekeye gukumira no kurwanya ihohoterwa rikorerwa abagore n’ihohoterwa rikorerwa mu ngo, rizwi kandi ku izina rya Istanbul, ni cyo gitabo cya mbere cyemewe n'amategeko mu Burayi mu bijyanye n’ihohoterwa rikorerwa mu ngo n’ihohoterwa rikorerwa abagore, [287] kandi ritangira gukurikizwa. 2014. [288] Ibihugu byemeza bigomba kwemeza ko ihohoterwa ryasobanuwe mu nyandiko yaryo ritemewe. Mu Ijambo ryayo ryibanze, Amasezerano avuga ko "gushyira mu bikorwa uburinganire bw’umugore n’abagabo ari ikintu cy’ingenzi mu gukumira ihohoterwa rikorerwa abagore. nyirabayazana asangiye cyangwa yasangiye inzu imwe n’uwahohotewe. ".

 Gufata ku ngufu n'ihohoterwa rishingiye ku gitsina 
Ingingo nyamukuru: Urwego mpuzamahanga rwihohoterwa rishingiye ku gitsina

Umusore ukomoka mu Bushinwa w’amoko wari muri imwe muri "bataillon ihumuriza" yingabo z’Ubuyapani, abazwa n’umusirikare w’ubumwe (reba abagore bahumuriza).

Gufatwa ku ngufu, rimwe na rimwe byitwa ihohoterwa rishingiye ku gitsina, ni igitero cy’umuntu urimo gukora imibonano mpuzabitsina cyangwa kwinjira mu wundi muntu atabanje kubiherwa uruhushya. Gufata ku ngufu muri rusange bifatwa nkicyaha gikomeye cyimibonano mpuzabitsina kimwe n’ihohoterwa ry’abaturage. Iyo bimwe mubikorwa byakwirakwijwe kandi kuri gahunda, gufata kungufu nubucakara bwibitsina byamenyekanye nkicyaha cyibasiye inyokomuntu kimwe nicyaha cyintambara. Gufata ku ngufu kandi ubu bizwi nkuburyo bwa jenoside iyo bikozwe hagamijwe gusenya, yose cyangwa igice, itsinda ryibasiwe.

Nka jenoside

 Itsembabwoko ryo mu Rwanda 
Mu 1998, Urukiko mpuzamahanga mpanabyaha rw’u Rwanda rwashyizweho n’umuryango w’abibumbye rwafashe ibyemezo by’ingenzi ko gufata ku ngufu ari icyaha cya jenoside hakurikijwe amategeko mpuzamahanga. Urubanza rwa Jean-Paul Akayesu, umuyobozi wa komini ya Taba mu Rwanda, rwemeje ko gufata ku ngufu ari kimwe mu bigize icyaha cya jenoside. Urubanza rwa Akayesu rurimo gusobanura no gusaba bwa mbere urukiko mpuzamahanga rw’amasezerano yo mu 1948 yo gukumira no guhana icyaha cya jenoside. Urugereko rwa Mbere rw'Iremezo rwemeje ko gufata ku ngufu bisobanura ko ari "igitero cy’umubiri cy’imibonano mpuzabitsina cyakozwe ku muntu ku gahato ku gahato", kandi ihohoterwa rishingiye ku gitsina rikaba ari ibikorwa bya jenoside mu gihe byakozwe hagamijwe kurimbura, muri rusange cyangwa igice, itsinda rigenewe. Yasanze ihohoterwa rishingiye ku gitsina ryagize uruhare rukomeye mu bikorwa byo gusenya ubwoko bw’abatutsi kandi ko gufata ku ngufu byari gahunda kandi ko byakorewe abagore b’abatutsi gusa, bikagaragaza intego yihariye isabwa kugira ngo ibyo bikorwa bibe jenoside. [290]

Umucamanza Navanethem Pillay mu ijambo rye nyuma y’urubanza yagize ati: "Kuva kera, gufata ku ngufu byafashwe nkimwe mu minyago y’intambara. Ubu bizafatwa nkicyaha cy’intambara. Turashaka kohereza ubutumwa bukomeye buvuga ko gufata ku ngufu bitakiriho. igikombe cy'intambara. "

Nkicyaha cyibasiye inyokomuntu

 Ibyaha byibasiye inyokomuntu 
Amasezerano y’i Roma asobanura ububasha bw’urukiko mpuzamahanga mpanabyaha, yemera ko gufata ku ngufu, uburetwa bw’imibonano mpuzabitsina, gukora uburaya, gutwita ku gahato, kuboneza urubyaro, "cyangwa ubundi buryo ubwo ari bwo bwose bw’ihohoterwa rishingiye ku gitsina rifite uburemere bugereranywa" nk’icyaha cyibasiye inyokomuntu niba ibikorwa ni bimwe mubikorwa byakwirakwijwe cyangwa kuri gahunda. [293] [294] Itangazo na gahunda y'ibikorwa bya Vienne kandi biramagana gufata ku ngufu buri gihe kimwe n'ubwicanyi, uburetwa bw'imibonano mpuzabitsina, ndetse no gutwita ku gahato, kuko ari "ukurenga ku mahame remezo y'uburenganzira bwa muntu mpuzamahanga n'amategeko agenga ikiremwamuntu." kandi bisaba igisubizo cyiza cyane. [295]

Gufata ku ngufu byamenyekanye bwa mbere nk'icyaha cyibasiye inyokomuntu igihe Urukiko mpuzamahanga mpanabyaha rwahoze ari Yugosilaviya rwatangaga impapuro zo kumuta muri yombi zishingiye ku Masezerano y'i Jeneve no kurenga ku mategeko cyangwa gasutamo y'intambara. By'umwihariko, byaragaragaye ko abagore b’abayisilamu bo muri Foca (mu majyepfo y’amajyepfo ya Bosiniya na Herzegovina) bakorewe ihohoterwa rishingiye ku gitsina kandi rishingiye ku gitsina ry’abasirikare, abapolisi, ndetse n’abagize imitwe yitwara gisirikare nyuma yo kwigarurira umujyi muri Mata. 1992. [296] Inyandiko y'ibirego yari ifite akamaro kanini mu mategeko kandi ni bwo bwa mbere hakozwe iperereza ku ihohoterwa rishingiye ku gitsina hagamijwe gukurikiranwa hashingiwe ku iyicarubozo no kuba imbata nk'icyaha cyibasiye inyokomuntu. [296] Inyandiko y'ibirego yemejwe n'icyemezo cyo mu 2001 n'Urukiko mpuzamahanga mpanabyaha rwahoze ari Yugosilaviya ko gufata ku ngufu no kuba imbata z'ibitsina ari ibyaha byibasiye inyokomuntu. Iki cyemezo cyamaganye ko abantu benshi bafatwa ku ngufu no kuba imbata z’abagore nk’intambara mu ntambara. Urukiko mpuzamahanga mpanabyaha rwahoze ari Yugosilaviya rwasanze abagabo batatu bo muri Seribiya bo muri Bosiniya bahamwe n'icyaha cyo gufata ku ngufu abagore n'abakobwa bo muri Bosniak (Abayisilamu bo muri Bosiniya) (bamwe bafite imyaka 12 na 15 y'amavuko), i Foca, mu burasirazuba bwa Bosiniya na Herzegovina. Byongeye kandi, babiri muri abo bagabo bahamwe n’icyaha cyibasiye inyokomuntu cy’ubucakara bw’igitsina bazira gufata abagore n’abakobwa mu bigo byinshi by’imfungwa. Nyuma yaho, benshi mu bagore barazimiye. Raporo y’ishami ry’umuryango w’abibumbye ryita ku burenganzira bwa muntu, yasohotse ku ya 28 Nyakanga 2020, abagore bakoze ingendo mu mahanga basubijwe muri Koreya ya Ruguru ku gahato kandi bakorerwa ihohoterwa, iyicarubozo, ihohoterwa rishingiye ku gitsina ndetse n’andi makosa. Koreya ya Ruguru ibuza abaturage gutembera mu mahanga. Abo bagore bafunzwe bazira kubikora bakubiswe buri gihe, bakorerwa iyicarubozo, bakorerwa ubwambure ku gahato ndetse no gusaka ku mubiri. Abagore bavuze kandi ko mu gihe batwite, abayobozi ba gereza bakuyemo inda abana benshi bakubita abagore cyangwa babakora imirimo ivunanye.

 Ibindi 
Gushyingirwa ku gahato n'ubucakara

Guhatira ku gahato abakobwa bake muri Pakisitani no gushyingirwa ku gahato

Amasezerano y'inyongera yo mu 1956 yerekeye gukuraho ubucakara, ubucuruzi bw'abacakara, n'inzego n'ibikorwa bisa n'ubucakara bisobanura "ibigo n'imikorere isa n'ubucakara" birimo: [299]

c) Ikigo cyangwa imyitozo iyo ari yo yose:

) cyangwa

(ii) Umugabo w'umugore, umuryango we, cyangwa umuryango we, afite uburenganzira bwo kumwimurira undi muntu agaciro yakiriwe cyangwa ukundi; cyangwa

(iii) Umugore ku rupfu rw'umugabo we agomba kuragwa undi muntu;

 Reba 
https://www.kigalitoday.com/amakuru/amakuru-mu-rwanda/article/kumenya-uburenganzira-bw-abashakanye-bifasha-kugabanya-amakimbirane

https://www.kigalitoday.com/amakuru/amakuru-mu-rwanda/article/kumenya-uburenganzira-bw-abashakanye-bifasha-kugabanya-amakimbirane

https://www.bbc.com/gahuza/topics/cvjp2jy8dxjt

https://mobile.igihe.com/amakuru/u-rwanda/article/uburinganire-ni-uburenganzira-si-impuhwe-perezida-kagame

https://urwenya.wordpress.com/2015/01/01/uruhare-rwumugore-mu-guharanira-uburenganzira-bwe/

https://web.archive.org/web/20230224103150/http://www.agasaro.com/spip.php?article4377

https://web.archive.org/web/20230224103142/https://www.judiciary.gov.rw/uploads/tx_publications/law_803d1665f18163c7851eadf4f7ed61201501683556.pdf

https://panorama.rw/kudasobanukirwa-uburenganzira-ku-buzima-bwimyororokere-biracyazamura-ihohoterwa-rishingiye-ku-gitsina-ubushakashatsi/

http://haguruka.org.rw/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Inyoborabiganiro-ku-gushishikariza-abakobwa-kumenya-uburenganzira-bwabo.pdf

https://historyopinion.com/rw/13598-wars-ancient-mesopotamia-part-8-bad-times-of-good-kings/

https://umuryango.rw/ubuzima-115/udushya/article/taliki-15-kamena-isomere-ibyaranze-uyu-munsi-mu-mateka-birimo-n-ishingwa-rya

https://bwiza.com/?Ibigwi-by-Umwami-w-Abami-Constantine-n-uko-yaje-kubatizwa-ntibivugweho-rumwe

<ref>https://umuragenamateka.rw<ref>