Bahasa-bahasa Jerman

Bahasa-bahasa Jermanik merupakan sekumpulan bahasa berkaitan yang sebagai cawangan keluarga bahasa Indo-Eropah. Nenek moyang umum untuk bahasa-bahasa dalam cawangan ini ialah Bahasa Proto-Jermanik, dituturkan pada kira-kira ahkir pertengahan milenia pertama Sebelum Masihi di Eropah utara Zaman Besi. Proto-Jermanik, dengan semua keturunannya, disifatkan dengan sebilangan ciri-ciri linguistik yang unik, yang terkenal ialah perubahan konsonan yang dikenali sebagai hukum Grimm. Pelbagai jenis bahasa Jermanik awal memasuki sejarah dengan suku-suku Jermanik yang tinggal di Eropah utara bersempadan dengan Empayar Rom sejak abad ke-2.

Bahasa-bahasa Jermanik yang terbesar ialah Bahasa Inggeris dan Bahasa Jerman, masing-masing dengan kira-kira 400 juta dan 100 juta orang penutur bahasa ibunda. Kumpulan ini juga terdiri daripada bahasa-bahasa utama yang lain, seperti Bahasa Belanda dengan 22 juta dan Bahasa Afrikaans dengan lebih daripada  16 juta orang penutur; dan Bahasa-bahasa Jermanik Utara termasuk Bahasa Norway, Bahasa Denmark, Bahasa Sweden, Bahasa Iceland, dan Bahasa Faroe dengan jumlah kira-kira 20 juta orang penutur. Etnologi SIL menyenaraikan 53 bahasa Jermanik yang berbeza.

Ciri- ciri
Bahasa Jerman mempunyai beberapa ciri-ciri yang unik seperi berikut ;  

1.	Kata kerja peringkat Indo-European (IE) dan sistem aspek kedalam kata kerja sekarang (present tense) dan kata kerja lampau (past tense) (juga dikenali sebagai kata kerja kala lampau ( preterite ) )
2.	Banyak pengkelasan kata kerja yang menggunakan imbuhan dental (/d/ or /t/) sebaliknya huruf vokal pinggiran digunakan (Indo-European ablaut) untuk menunjukkan kata kerja lampau ; perkataan ini dikenali sebagai kata kerja jermanik lemah the Germanic weak verbs; baki kata kerja yang lain dengan ablaut vokal adalam kata kerja Jemanik Kuat theGermanic strong verbs
3.	The use of so-called strong and weak adjectives: different sets of inflectional endings for adjectives depending on the definiteness of the noun phrase; (modern English adjectives do not inflect at all, except for the comparative and superlative; this was not the case in Old English, where adjectives were inflected differently depending on whether they were preceded by an article or demonstrative)
4.	The consonant shift known as Grimm's Law; (the consonants in High German have shifted farther yet by the High German consonant shift)
5.	A number of words with etymologies that are difficult to link to other Indo-European families, but variants of which appear in almost all Germanic languages, See Germanic substrate hypothesis
6.	The shifting of stress accent onto the root of the stem and later to the first syllable of the word, (though English has an irregular stress, native words always have a fixed stress regardless of what is added to them)
Germanic languages differ from each other to a greater degree than do some other language families such as the Romance or Slavic languages. Roughly speaking, Germanic languages differ in how conservative or how progressive each language is with respect to an overall trend toward analyticity. Some, such as German, Dutch, and Icelandic have preserved much of the complex inflectional morphology inherited from the Proto-Indo-European language. Others, such as English, Swedish, and Afrikaans have moved toward a largely analytic type.
Another characteristic of Germanic languages is the verb second or V2 word order, which is quite uncommon cross-linguistically. This feature is shared by all modern Germanic languages except modern English (which nevertheless appears to have had V2 earlier in its history), but has largely replaced the structure with an overall Subject Verb Object syntax.

 Penulisan 

Antara bukti-bukti terawal bahasa Jermanik adalah nama-nama yang direkod oleh Tacitus pada abad pertama( khususnya dari hasil karya beliau iaitu Germania), tetapi satu-satunya contoh tulisan bahasa Jermanik terawal tercatat pada abad kedua BC  dalam Negau helmet.
Kira-kira pada abad kedua AD, pentutur variasi bahasa Jermanik tertentu telah memperkembangkan Elder Futhark, sejenis susunan abjad yang dikenal sebagai abjad runic atau runic alphabet

Inskripsi runic awal yang sebahagian besarnya terbatas kepada nama peribadi adalah agak sukar untuk diintrepretasi. Bahasa Gothic atau The Gothic language yang ditulis menggunakan abjad Gothic diperkembangkan oleh Bishop Ulfilas untuk penterjemahan Kitab Injil Bible pada Abad ke empat. Selepas itu paderi-paderi yang beragama Kristian/Christian yang ada pengaruh variasi bahasa Jermanik dan juga boleh bertutur, mambaca dan menulis bahasa Latin mula menulis dalam bahasa Jermanik dengan menggunakan abjad Latin yang diubahsuai. Walaubagaimanapun, sepanjang zaman Viking Viking Age, abjad runic masih digunakan dengan meluas di negara-negara Skandinavia.

Selain daripada huruf-huruf Latin yang biasa, bahasa-bahasa Jermanik menggunakan abjad-abjad tambahan dan juga tanda-tanda tambahan untuk improvasi sebutan atau dialek tertentu seperti umlaut, huruf ß (Eszett), IJ, Ø, Æ, Å, Ä, Ö, Ð, , dan Þ dan , daripada abjad runic. 
Historic printed German is frequently set in blackletter typefaces (e.g. fraktur or schwabacher).

 Diakronik 
Nota umum: Jadual dibawah menunjukkan kemajuan sejarah paling penting untuk setiap bahasa secara berperingkat (menegak), dan pengelasan secara hampir (approximate groupings) dalam subkeluarga (medatar). Susunan mendatar dalam setiap kelas tidak mengimplikasikan keserupaan bahasa yang lebih besar atau yang lebih kecil.  

 Iron Age500 BC–AD 200 Proto-Germanic  East Germanic West Germanic North Germanic South Germanic Anglo-Frisian Migration periodAD 200–700Gothic, Lombardic1   Old Frankish Old Saxon Old Frisian Old English Proto-Norse  Vandalic, Burgundian, Old High German Early Middle Ages700–1100 Old Low Franconian Runic Old West Norse Runic Old East Norse Middle Ages1100–1350 Middle High German Middle Dutch Middle Low German Middle English Old Icelandic Old Norwegian Early Old Danish Early Old Swedish Early Old Gutnish Late Middle Ages21350–1500 Early New High German Middle English Early Scots Late Old Icelandic Old Faroese Old Norn Middle Norwegian Late Old Danish Late Old Swedish Late Old Gutnish Early Modern Age1500–1700 Crimean Gothic  Low Franconian varieties, including Dutch Middle Frisian Early Modern English Middle Scots Icelandic Faroese Norn Norwegian Danish Swedish Gutnish Modern Age1700 to present all extinct  High German varieties Low Saxon varieties Frisian varieties English varietiesScots varieties extinct3 extinct3

Note 1: There are conflicting opinions on the classification of Lombardic. Contrary to its isolated position in the table above, it also has been classified as close to either Upper German or Old Saxon. See the article on the Lombardic language for more information.

Note 2: Late Middle Ages refers to the post-Black Death period. Especially for the language situation in Norway this event was important.

Note 3: The speakers of Norn were assimilated to speak the Modern Scots varieties, and the Gutnish language today, is practically a dialect of Swedish.

 Contemporary 

Mentioned here are all the principal and some secondary contemporary varieties; individual articles linked to below, may contain larger family trees. For example, many Low Saxon varieties are discussed on Low Saxon besides just Northern Low Saxon and Plautdietsch.

 Proto-Germanic
 West Germanic languages
 High German languages
 standard German
 Central German
 East Central German
 Lausitzisch-Neumärkisch
 Obersächsisch
 Schlesisch
 Thüringisch
 Nordobersächsisch
 Hochpreußisch
 West Central German
 Osthessisch
 Nordhessisch
 Mittelhessisch
 Rheinfränkisch
 Moselfränkisch
 Ripuarisch
 Luxembourgish
 Pennsylvania German (spoken by the Amish and other groups in southeastern Pennsylvania)
 Upper German
 Alemannic German
 Swabian German, including Stuttgart
 Low Alemannic German, including the area of Lake Constance and Basel German
 Alsatian
 Mittelalemannisch
 High Alemannic German, including Zürich German and Bernese German
 Highest Alemannic German, including the Bernese Oberland dialects and Walliser German
 Austro-Bavarian German
 North Bavarian (including Nuremberg)
 Middle Bavarian (including Munich and Vienna)
 South Bavarian (including Innsbruck, Klagenfurt, and Bolzano, Italy)
 Hutterite German (aka "Tirolean")
 Yiddish (with a significant influx of vocabulary from Hebrew and other languages, and traditionally written in the Hebrew alphabet)
 Wymysorys (with a significant influence from Low Saxon, Dutch, Polish, and Scots)
 Low Franconian
 Standard Dutch
 Old Dutch
 Middle Dutch
 Modern Dutch
 Brabantic
 Zealandic
 West Flemish
 East Flemish
 Hollandic
 Limburgish
 Zuid-Gelders
 Afrikaans (with a significant influx of vocabulary from other languages)
 Low German
 West Low German
 Northern Low Saxon
 East Frisian Low Saxon
 Westphalian language
 Eastphalian language
 East Low German
 Plautdietsch (Mennonite Low Saxon)
 Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch
 Mittelpommersch
 Ostpommersch
 Niederpreußisch
 Brandenburgisch
 Anglo-Frisian
 Old Frisian
 Frisian
 Stadsfries language
 West Frisian language (spoken in the Netherlands)
 Clay Frisian (Klaaifrysk)
 Wood Frisian (Wâldfrysk)
 Noardhoeks
 South Frisian (Súdhoeks)
 Southwest Frisian (Súdwesthoeksk)
 Schiermonnikoogs
 Hindeloopers
 Aasters
 Westers
 East Frisian language (spoken in Germany)
 Saterland Frisian language
 Several extinct Frisian variants
 North Frisian language (spoken in Germany)
 Mainland Frisian
 Mooring
 Goesharde Frisian
 Wiedingharde Frisian
 Halligen Frisian
 Karrharde Frisian
 Island Frisian
 Söl'ring
 Fering
 Öömrang
 Heligolandic
 Anglic
 English language
 Old English
 Middle English (significant influx of words from Old French)
 Early Modern English
 Modern English
 British English (English English, including Northern English, Midlands English, Southern English dialects, and others, Welsh English, Scottish English) and Irish English
 North American English (American English and Canadian English)
 Australian English and New Zealand English
 South African English
 South Asian English (Indian English)
 South-East Asian English (Singapore English, Malaysian English)
 West Indian English (Caribbean English)
 Scots language
 Early ScotsPurely modern term; it contradicts contemporary usage, which designated Scottish English as Inglis (i.e. English), whereas Scottis (i.e., Scots) meant Gaelic. But such chronological terminology is widely used, for example, by Scottish Language Dictionaries Ltd. (Formally SNDA), Dr. Anne King  of The University of Edinburgh  and by The University of Glasgow . It also is used in The Oxford Companion to the English Language and The Cambridge History of English and American Literature (from Northern Middle English with a significant influx of words from Anglo-Norman and Norse)
 Middle Scots
 Modern Scots language (huge influx of Latinate vocabulary, mostly via Norman French, some Scanadinavian influence via Anglo-Norse)
 Northern Scots
 North Northern
 Mid Northern
 North East Scots 
 Doric aka South Northern
 Central Scots 
 North East
 South East Central
 West Central
 South West Central Scots
 South Scots "Border Tongue"
 Insular Scots
 Ulster Scots aka "Ullans" (Ulster/Lallans)
 Yola
 North Germanic
 Proto-Norse
 Old Norse
 West Scandinavian
 Norwegian (generally Western branch, but heavy influence from Eastern branch)
 Bokmål (official written standard)
 Høgnorsk (unofficial written standard)
 Landsmål (unofficial written standard)
 Nynorsk (official written standard)
 Riksmål (unofficial written standard)
 Vestlandsk
 Sørlandsk
 South-West Norwegian
 Bergen Norwegian/Bergensk
 North-West Norwegian
 Nord-Norsk
 Helgeland Norwegian
 Nordland Norwegian
 Troms Norwegian
 Finnmark Norwegian
 East Norwegian
 Vikvær Norwegian
 Middle East Norwegian
 Oppland Norwegian
 Østerdal Norwegian
 Midland Norwegian
 Gudbrandsdal Norwegian
 Valdres and Hallingdal
 Western Telemark Norwegian
 Eastern Telemark Norwegian
 Trøndelag Norwegian
 Outer Trøndelag Norwegian
 Inner Trøndelag Norwegian
 Namdal Norwegian
 South-eastern Trøndersk
 Jamtlandic (also considered Norrlandic)
 Härdalic (also considered Norrlandic)
 Icelandic
 Old Icelandic
 Modern Icelandic
 Gøtudanskt(Faroese Street Danish)
 Faroese
 Norn (extinct)
 Shetland Norn (extinct)
 Orkney Norn (extinct)
 East Scandinavian
 Danish
 Rigsdansk/Rigsmål
 Eastern Danish (Amager, Bornholm, Skåne, Halland, Blekinge)
 Bornholmsk
 Scanian
 Island Danish
 Jutlandic/Jutish
 North Jutlandic
 East Jutlandic
 West Jutlandic
 Sønderjysk (Danish Slesvig, German Schleswig)
 Swedish
 Dalecarlian
 Elfdalian (considered a Swedish Sveamål dialect, but has official orthography and is, because of a lower degree of mutual intelligibility with Swedish, considered a separate language by many linguists, see p. 6 in this reference)
 Old Swedish
 New Swedish
 Modern Swedish
 Svealand Swedish
 Norrlandic
 Götish
 East Swedish/Finland Swedish
 South Swedish
 Götalandic
 Old Gutnish
 Modern Gutnish

Alternate classification of contemporary North Germanic languages
 Insular Scandinavian
 Icelandic
 Faroese
 Continental Scandinavian
 Danish
 Norwegian
 Swedish

 Perbandingan kosa kata 
Bahasa Inggeris Bahasa Scots Bahasa Frisia Barat Bahasa Afrikaans Bahasa Belanda Bahasa Saxon Rendah Bahasa Jerman Bahasa Goth Bahasa Iceland Bahasa Faroe Bahasa Sweden Bahasa Denmark Bahasa Norway (Bokmål) Bahasa Norway (Nynorsk)Apple  Aiple  Apel  Appel  Appel  Appel  Apfel  Aplus  Epli  Epl(i) The cognate means 'potato'. The correct word is 'Súrepli'.  Äpple  Æble  Eple  Eple Board  Buird  Board  Bord  Bord  Boord  Brett / Bord Brett used in Southern, Bord also used in Northern Germany   Baúrd  Borð  Borð  Bord  Bord  Bord  Bord Beech Beech  Boeke/ Boekebeam  Beuk  Beuk  Böke  Buche  Bōka Attested meaning 'letter', but also means beech in other Germanic languages, cf. Russian buk 'beech', bukva 'letter', maybe from Gothic./ -bagms Bók  Bók  Bok  Bøg  Bøk  Bøk, BokBook  Beuk  Boek  Boek  Boek  Book  Buch  Bōka  Bók  Bók  Bok  Bog  Bok  Bok Breast  Breest Boarst  Bors  Borst  Bost  Brust  Brusts  Brjóst  Bróst  Bröst  Bryst  Bryst  Bryst Brown Broun  Brún  Bruin  Bruin  Bruun  Braun  Bruns  Brúnn  Brúnur  Brun  Brun  Brun  Brun Day  Day  Dei  Dag  Dag   Dag  Tag  Dags  Dagur  Dagur  Dag  Dag  Dag  Dag Dead Deid  Dea  Dood  Dood  Dood  Tot  Dauþs  Dauður  Deyður  Död  Død  Død  Daud Die (Starve)  Dee  Stjerre  Sterf  Sterven  Döen/ Starven  Sterben Diwan Deyja  Doyggja  Dö  Dø  Dø  Døy Enough  Eneuch  Genôch  Genoeg  Genoeg  Noog  Genug  Ganōhs  Nóg  Nóg/ Nógmikið  Nog  Nok  Nok  NokFinger  Finger  Finger  Vinger  Vinger  Finger  Finger  Figgrs  Fingur  Fingur  Finger  Finger  Finger  Finger Give  Gie  Jaan  Gee  Geven  Geven  Geben  Giban  Gefa  Geva  Giva / Ge  Give  Gi  Gje(va) Glass  Gless  Glês  Glas  Glas  Glas  Glas   Gler  Glas  Glas  Glas  Glass  Glas Gold  Gowd  Goud  Goud  Goud  Gold  Gold  Gulþ  Gull  Gull  Guld/ Gull  Guld  Gull  Gull Hand  Haund  Hân  Hand  Hand  Hand  Hand  Handus  Hönd  Hond  Hand  Hånd  Hånd  Hand Head  Heid  Holle  Hoof Now only used in compound words such as hoofpyn (headache) and metaphorically, such as hoofstad (capital city)./ KopFrom an old Latin borrowing, akin to "cup".  Hoofd/ KopFrom an old Latin borrowing, akin to "cup".  KoppFrom an old Latin borrowing, akin to "cup".  Haupt/ KopfFrom an old Latin borrowing, akin to "cup".  Háubiþ  Höfuð  Høvd/ Høvur  Huvud  Hoved  Hode  Hovud High  Heich  Heech  Hoog  Hoog  Hoog  Hoch  Háuh  Hár  Høg/ur  Hög  Høj  Høy/høg  Høg Home  Hame  Hiem  Heim Archaic: now only used in compound words such as 'heimwee' (homesickness)./ TuisFrom a compound phrase akin to "to house"  Heim /ThuisFrom a compound phrase akin to "to house"  Heim  Heim  Háimōþ  Heim  Heim  Hem  Hjem  Hjem/heim  Heim Hook  Heuk  Hoek  Haak  Haak  Haak  Haken  Krappa/ Krampa  Krókur  Krókur/ Ongul  Hake/ Krok  Hage/ Krog  Hake/ Krok  Hake/ KrokOngel is also used for fishing hook. House  Hoose  Hûs  Huis  Huis  Huus  Haus  Hūs  Hús  Hús  Hus  Hus  Hus  Hus Many  Mony  Mannich/Mennich  Menige  Menig  Mennig  Manch  Manags  Margir  Mangir/ Nógvir  Många  Mange  Mange  Mange Moon  Muin  Moanne  Maan  Maan  Maan  Mond  Mēna  Tungl/ Máni  Máni/ Tungl  Måne  Måne  Måne  Måne Night  Nicht  Nacht  Nag  Nacht  Natt/ Nacht  Nacht  Nótt  Nótt  Natt  Natt  Nat  Natt  NattNo  Nae  Nee  Nee  Nee(n)  Nee  Nein (Nö, Nee)  Nē  Nei  Nei  Nej  Nej  Nei  Nei Old  Auld  Âld  Oud  Oud, Gammel Old and decayed.  Oll  Alt  Sineigs  Gamall (but: eldri, elstur) Gamal (but: eldri, elstur) Gammal (but: äldre, äldst) Gammel (but: ældre, ældst)  Gammel (but: eldre, eldst)  Gam(m)al (but: eldre, eldst) One  Ane  Ien  Een  Een  Een  Eins  Áins  Einn  Ein  En  En  En  Ein Ounce  Unce  Ûns  Ons  Ons  Ons  Unze  Unkja  Únsa  Únsa  Uns  Unse  Unse  Unse Snow  Snaw  Snie  Sneeu  Sneeuw  Snee  Schnee  Snáiws  Snjór  Kavi/ Snjógvur  Snö  Sne  Snø  Snø Stone  Stane  Stien  Steen  Steen  Steen  Stein   Stáins  Steinn  Steinur  Sten  Sten  Stein  Stein That  That  Dat  Dit, Daardie  Dat, Die  Dat (Dit)  Das  Þata  Það  Tað  Det  Det  Det  Det Two/Twain  Twa  Twa  Twee  Twee  Twee  Zwei (Zwo)  Twái  Tveir/ Tvær/ Tvö  Tveir (/Tvá)  Två  To  To  To Dialectally tvo/ två/ tvei (m), tvæ (f), tvau (n).Who  Wha  Wa  Wie  Wie  Wokeen  Wer  Ƕas (Hwas)  Hver  Hvør  Vem  Hvem  Hvem  Kven Worm Wirm  Wjirm  Wurm  Wurm/ Worm  Worm  Wurm  Maþa  Maðkur, Ormur  Maðkur/ Ormur  Mask/ Orm The cognate means 'snake'.  Orm  Mark/ Makk/ Orm  Mark/ Makk/ Orm The cognate means 'snake'.Bahasa Inggeris Bahasa Scots Bahasa Frisia Barat Bahasa Afrikaans Bahasa Belanda Bahasa Saxon Rendah Bahasa Jerman Bahasa Goth Bahasa Iceland Bahasa Faroe Bahasa Sweden Bahasa Denmark Bahasa Norway (Bokmål) Bahasa Norway (Nynorsk)

 Lihat juga 
 Keluarga bahasa dan bahasa
 Jermanisasi dan Anglikisasi

 Catatan 

 Pautan luar 
 Germanic Lexicon Project
 Bibliographie der Schreibsprachen: Bibliography of medieval written forms of High and Low German and Dutch
 Ethnologue Report for Germanic