Capsicum (fructus)

"Capsicum": ;  seu "Chilli" (indecl.): "lada Chili" nomen Malaium:  est fructus plantarum florentium generis Capsici, in familia Solanacearum. Huic generi sunt quinque fere species, quarum cultivarietatibus homines pro cibo et medicamentis uti solent, videlicet Capsicum annuum, C. baccatum, C. chinense, C. frutescens, C. pubescens.

Illae C. annui varietates, quibus sapor non pungens sed dulcis sit, a productoribus comestoribusque nomine semper distinguuntur. Latine "capsicum dulce" appellantur.Michel Félix Dunal, Histoire naturelle, médicale et économique des Solanum (Lutetiae: Koenig, 1813) 

Aves fructibus capsicorum pabulantur, animalia rarissime quod apud ea capsaicinum dolorem stimulat.Dan Gleason, "The Story of Birds and Hot Pepper" Homines tantum se capsicis medent.

 De nominibus 
Capsicum e verbo Graecitatis Byzantinae κάψικον derivatur, quod invicem e vocabulo Latino capsa mutuatur. Ioannes Actuarius, medicus Graecus saeculi XIII, κάψικον pluries, semel κάψικον Ἰνδικόν (i.e. "capsicum Indicum") in praeceptis medicamentorum scripsit, sine explicatione. Ioannes Ruellius, versionis Latinae Actuarii confector, "capsicum" et "capsicum Indicum" sine pluribus scripsit.Ioannes Ruellius, interpr., Actuarius De medicamentorum compositione liber. Parisiis, 1539  Idem, auctor postea De natura stirpium, "cardamomum" hoc vocabulo Graeco intellegendum esse censuit,Ioannes Ruellius, De natura stirpium libri III (Basileae, 1537) p. 287 quem Carolus du Cange secutus est. col. 628 s.v. κάψικον Sed Casparus Bauhinus in Phytopinace, Actuario per editionem 1567 citato, idem vocabulum "capsicum/κάψικον" sicut synonymum "piperis Indici" intellegit, etymologiae falsae utens (non e vocabulo Latino capsa sed e Graeco κάπτω "haurio" deduci suasit); Casparus Bauhinus, Pinax Theatri botanici (Basileae: sumptibus Ludovici Regis) pp. 101-103 geographiamque et historiam deviam assumens: hoc enim genus, non in India sensu normali sed in Indis occidentalibus Americaque continente ortum, Actuarius scriptor saeculi XIII Europaeus cognoscere nequibat. Rubrica Bauhini "Capsicum seu Piper Indicum" nihilominus ab aliis botanistis accepta (praesertim a Gregorio de Regio qui de his fructibus mox utilissime disseruerit) omnes fere eruditi recentiores hoc nomen adhibent.

Ají, nomen origine Arawakense, Christophorus Columbus primus Europaeorum anno 1493 audivit: quod nomen ex Hispaniola in usum Hispanorum omnium Novi Mundi incolarum apprehensum est. Petrus Martyr ab Angleria (De orbe novo decades) hoc vocabulum ad Latinitatem suam anno 1530 accommodavit: "De pipere insulari continentique nunc parum ... dico piper quum non sit piper, quia piperis habeat vim et aroma ... vocant ipsi haxi ultima acuta".: vide imaginem"Ají" in  p. 46

Chilli fuit nomen apud Aztecos linguá Navatlacá usitatum. Ita iam rettulit conquisitator anonymus in Relatione anno circiter 1521 scripta."Chile" in  pp. 174-175

Piper (ut qui ad aroma Piperis nigri alluderet) est nomen in linguis Europaeis iam ab anno 1493 saepissime adhibitum quia capsicum locum piperis in arte coquinaria Americanorum habuisse censebatur (ita iam Columbus et Petrus Martyr supra citati) atque mox in gastronomia Europaea talem usum usurpare incipiebat. Piper Indicum plures saeculo XVI scripserunt, ea ratione quod "Indiae occidentales" et "orientales" ab initio apud Europaeos haud distinguebantur; alii inter quos Carolus Clusius, ambiguitate huius nominis suasi, Piper Americanum scribere maluerunt.

Pigmentum (i.e. tinctura, conditura) est origo Latinus nominis in variis linguis hodiernis adhibiti sicut synonymum piperis vel speciarii.

Quiya atque recentius cayenne, nomina tam pulveris culinarii quam cultivarietatis, e nuncupationibus in lingua Tupi capsicorum in Brasilia saeculo XVII cognitorum derivantur, sit quiyaqui, quiya-apua, quiya-cumati, quiya-carapo apud Bontium; quiya-apua, quiya-cumeri, quiya-uca; kyynha, varietates kyynhavi, kyynhai;Christoph Gottlieb von Murr, Reisen einiger Missionarien der Gesellschaft Jesu in Amerika. Norimbergae, 1785  quiya, quiynhá.Theodoro J. H. Langgaard, Novo formulario medico e pharmaceutico (1868)  Unde Anglice a principio kian, chian, chyan, kayan, cayan appellabatur, denuo ab anno 1783 cayenne pepper.<ref>"cayan-butter", "cayan-pepper" in 

Uchu est nomen in lingua Quechua adhibita."Uchu" in  p. 639 Hodie apud Peruanos varietates Peruvianas denotat, ají varietates Mexicanas et Caribicas.

 Capsicum in America et Europa 
Primus Europaeorum Christophorus Columbus de capsico fructu in ephemeride primae navigationis sub die 15 Ianuarii 1493 refert: "Abundat etiam ají, videlicet piper huius gentis e quorum magis quam piper valeant, sine quo nullus unquam cenat, quod saluberrimum est; quo quinquaginta caravellae quotannis in hac Hispaniola onerari possunt."Tambien hay mucho ají, ques su pimienta, della que vale mas que pimienta, y toda la gente no come sin ella, que la halla muy sana; puédense cargar 50 carabelas cada año en aquella Española:  p. 286 editionis 1858 Ipse semina huius fructus ad reges Hispanicos statim reddidit, sicut ex epistula anno insequenti in insula Isabella scripta constat: "illius axí quod nos piper nuncupamus, de quo e prima navigatione ad Exc. vestr. adduximus, hinc recipietis quantum mandabitis; cuius semina in hortis serta crescuntur."del axí, a qui deçimos pimienta, del que truxe el otro viaje a V. Al., aquí ay y abrá cuanto V. Al. mandare, que les siembran y naçen en huertas:  no. 2 Didacus Alvares Chanca etiam, particeps huius navigationis, in epistula anno 1494 scripta ait: "Tanquam speciem ad condimentum habent speciem agí appellatam, e qua tam pisces quam aves quantas capiant comeduntur; quae multis varietatibus prodit"Tienen por especia, por lo adobar, una especia que se llama Agí con la cual comen también el pescado, como aves cuando las pueden haber:  p. 370 editionis 1858 Conquisitator anonymus (sic nuncupatus) qui cum Cortesio Mexicopolim anno 1519 venit de "pipere" nundinis huius urbis venditato ait: f. 258v editionis 1606 "Habent varietatem piperis condimentarii, chil appellati, sine quo nullum cibum comedunt."Hanno una sorte di pepe da condire, che si chiama Chil, che niuna cosa mangiano senza esso: : vide imaginem

Seminibus a Columbo in Hispaniam remissis, cultus in hortis usque in Germaniam anno 1539 penetraverat, ubi Hieronymus Bock Spirae in urbe observans originem speciei nescivit: deutscher Pfeffer nuncupavit. E talibus observationibus Leonhartus Fuchsius anno 1542, nomina vernacularia indianischer et Calecutischer Pfeffer citans, speciebus a maioribus definitis "siliquastro" et "piperitide" frustra attribuere temptans, optimas imagines varietatum quattuor (inter quas fortasse Capsici chinensis) divulgavit.; imagines ab Alberto Mayer pictas, cf. H. Walter Lack, "Eine unbekannte Wiener Bilderhandschrift: Der Codex Amphibiorum" in Annalen des Naturhistorischen Museums in Wien vol. 104 B (2003) pp. 463-478 Quem sequens Guilielmus Turnerus anno 1548 capsica in hortis Angliae aliquibus coli relatus est (granis non albis sed flavis collectis) eisdemque nominibus usus est.Piperitis called also siliquastram after the judgemente of Fuchsius ... called in Englishe Indishe peper ... If thys herbe be not it that it is taken for, the yealow seedes whiche oughte to be whyte do onely hynder. The herbe groweth in certeyne gardines in Englande: William Turner, The Names of Herbes in Greke, Latin, Englishe, Duch and Frenche (Londinii: John Day, 1548) s.v. "Piperitis" (James Britten, ed., The Names of Herbes, by William Turner [Londinii: English Dialect Society, 1881] p. 63) Conradus Gesnerus anno 1561 e scientia horticultorum Germanorum "Aestiva est herba" recte ait "et nisi primo vere apud nos seratur, siliquas suas pulcherrime rubentes non perficit". Ergo Iohannes Gerardus, de Anglia anno 1597 loquens, has plantas e terris extraneis in Hispaniam Italiamque importatas "unde nos" ait "semina in nostros hortos Anglicos accepimus, cuius capsicum non iam ad illum splendidum colorem rubrum maturabat quem suá naturá possidet" causa adversitatis climaticae.These plants are brought from forren countries, as Ginnee, India and those parts, into Spaine and Italy; from whence wee have received seede for our English gardens, where they come to fruit bearing, but the cod doth not come to that bright red colour which naturally it is possessed with . . . by reason of these unkindely yeeres that are past: 

Interea Carolus Clusius, botanistarum saeculi XVI princeps, cultum capsicorum in Hispania et Portugallia rettulit tam ex itinere suo annis 1564 et 1565 suscepto, quam e descriptione Nicolai Monardes quam ipse e lingua Hispanica Latine verterit:
Nec praetermittendum est piper ex Indiis nostris missum, quandoquidem non modo in medicum usum receptum est, sed planta est excellentissima et totae Hispaniae notissima: nam nullus est hortus, in quo non seratur ob fructus pulchritudinem. Vidi aliquando in hac urbe ad arboris altitudinem excrescentem. Folio est viridi, ocymo latifolio simili, flore albo, ex quo pullulat fructus diversae formae, oblongus, rotundus, melope[po]nis forma aut ceraseorum, sed immaturius viridis est, maturus vero colore rubro gratissimo. Particulatim concisum et iusculo maceratum, meliorem saporem edulus conciliat, quam piper vulgare, ideoque eius usus est in omnibus, in quibus aromata ex Maluccis insulis et Calecutio delata commendantur, in eo solum differens, quod illa multis aureis emuntur, hoc sola satione adquiritur: nam in una planta colliguntur aromata in totius anni usum, minore dispendio et maiore commodo. Flatus discutit, utlie pectori et perfrictionibus, calefacitque et roborat partes internas. Caliditatis et siccitatis in quarto fere gradu particeps: p. 71. No quiero dexir de dezir de la pimienta que traen delas Indias, que non solo sirve a medicina, pero es especie excelentissima, la qual es conocida en toda España, porque no ay jardin ni huerta ni maceton que no la tenga sembrada por la hermosura del fructo que lleva. Es planta grande, tanto que yo he visto en esta ciudad alguna que ygualava con algunes arboles. Echa las hojas verdes a modo de albahaca de la ancha que llaman charanfoli. Echa unas flores blancas de que sale el fructo, que es en diversas formas: unos pimientos son largos, otros redondos, otros de hechura de melones, otros de ceresas, pero todos son al principio quando no estan maduros muy verdes, et maduros muy colorados, con un color muy gracioso. Usan dellos en todos los guisados y potages, porque haze mejor gusto que la pimienta comun: hecho tajadas y echadas en caldo, es salsa excelentissima, usan dellos en todo aquello que sirven las especies que traen de Maluco y de Calicud. Desieren en que las della India cuestan muchos ducados: estotra no cuesta mas que sembrarla, porque en una planta ay especias para todo el año, con menos daño y mas provecho nostro. Conforta mucho, ressuelve ventosidades, son buenos para el pecho, y para los frios de complexion, calienta y conforta, corroborando los miembros principales. Es caliente y seca casi en quarto grado: Nicolás Monardes, Dos libros. El uno trata de todas las cosas que traen de nuestras Indias Occidentales (Hispali, 1565) quaternion f 6
Litteris parvis addidit ipse Clusius: "Capsicum hoc seu piper Indicum (Americum potius) diligentissime colitur tota Castella cum ab hortulanis, tum a mulieribus in fenestris aedium suarum. Etenim eo utuntur per totum annum, cum virente tum sicco, pro condimento et pipere. Spectatur varia forma ... sed et haec omnia genera aliquando vidi colore flavescente, in Lusitania, monasterio quodam circa Olysiponem". p. 74

Clusius postea se "Ulyssipone Conimbricam" proficiscente hanc speciem "nonnullis Lusitaniae locis" vidisse meminit, "caule in cubitales ramos diviso, graciliores tamen quam in vulgari", fructu exiguo "tam acris et fervidi saporis, ut gullatum fauces incenderet". pp. 104-105 Quod ille piper Brasilianum appellabat, nos sub nomine Capsici baccati recognoscere possumus.

Idem Clusius primus omnium de cultu prope Hungariam hac annotatione relatus est: "Memini etiam videre anno Christi M.D.XXCV magná copiá cultum in suburbanis Brunnae celebris marchionatus Moraviae urbis hortis, e quo cultores non contemnendum quaestum faciebant; erat enim apud vulgus frequens eius usus". Hodie eadem fere regione tritura paprica nomine e varietatibus capsicorum admodum mitioribus producitur.

Garcias Lasus Inca primus omnium, in Hispania exsul saeculo XVII ineunte scribens, species tres Peruvianas cultas generis Capsici distinxit, videlicet rocot uchu (C. pubescens), chinchi uchu (C. chinense), tertiaque cuius nominis oblitus est, id est, kellu-uchu (C. baccatum var. pendulum). Los de mi tierra, ait, son tan amigos del uchu, que no comeron sin el, aunque non sea sino unas yervas crudas ("gens patriae meae capsicum tam amant ne ullus cibus sine illud comedatur etiamsi nihil nisi paucae herbae crudae").

Cultus capsicorum a scriptoribus saeculo XVIII describitur, generis "climatum calidissimorum Americae et Africae oriundi" cui tempus sationis in Europa ultima hebdomas mensis Februarii esse debet;It is a native of the warmest climates of America and Africa ... The last week of [February] will be the proper time for sowing them:  solam plantam esse (fabis exceptis) asseveratur "cui rustici Provinciae Francicae Occitaniaeque curas minutiores volenter dabunt: promptiores mense Februario, alii Martio serunt".C’est la seule plante, après les fèves, pour laquelle les paysans de Provence et de Languedoc ne plaignent pas les petits soins ... Les plus pressés sèment en février, les autres en mars:  Saeculo XIX ineunte botanistae separatim species tres, videlicet annuam, frutescentem, baccatam recognoverunt, saepe et quartam fructibus dulcibus.Michel Félix Dunal, Histoire naturelle, médicale et économique des Solanum. Lutetiae: Koenig, 1813  Speciem C. chinense Nicolaus Iosephus Jacquin anno 1776 ex horto botanico imperiali Vindobonensi descripsit.Nicolaus Iosephus Jacquin, Hortus botanicus Vindobonensis (Vindobonae: typis Leopoldi Joannis Kaliwoda aulae imperialis typographi, 1770-1776) vol. 3 p. 38, tab. 67

 Capsicum in Asia et Africa 
Hanchei in urbe Sinarum iam anno 1591 ad hortos ornandos cultum est.Foreign pepper (fanjiao 䔐㢺): it has dense growth. The flowers are white. The fruits look just like the worn-out tip of a writing brush. Their flavor is hot/spicy (la 彋). Their color is red. They are very pleasing to look at. They grow from seeds: : vide  p. 132

Capsicum "ubique" in Corea, secundum Yi Su-gwang, anno 1614 colebatur: "piper barbarorum meridianorum", i.e. Portugallensium, nuncupatum est; ab Iaponia in Coream introductum erat.: vide  p. 24

 Usus 
Fructus capsaicinum, substantiam facile in pingue dissolventem (lipophilicam) continet, quod dolorem ingentem et acerbum per receptorium capsaicini (TrpV1) inurit.. Antagonista TrpV1 dolores mitigare queant.

Tali sensu statim agnito, diaetetici Europaei iam medio saeculo XVI capsicum calidum ad gradum tertium vel et quartum ordinabant. Usque in medium saeculum XVIII, sicut antea, auctores hoc aroma hominibus sub climate tripico habitantibus, neque aliis, utile esse aiunt: ita Vincentius La Chapelle, scriptor de re coquinaria Francicus, habitudines "Indicas", scilicet Indiarum occidentalium, explicavit: C'est la manière Indienne. Au lieu de safran ce sont des racines de safran dont ils se servent, et à la place de poivre, c'est du piment ("mos est Indorum: loco croci curcumam, loco piperis capsicum adhibent").Vincent La Chapelle, Le cuisinier moderne (2a ed. 5 voll. Hagae Comitum, 1742)
vol. 5 p. 90

Eodem fere tempore horticultor quidam Anglus primus omnium utilitatem capsicorum aceto conditorum confessus est: The flower is inconsiderable, but the fruit is conspicuous in the highest degree ... it affords an excellent pickle ("Flos eius haud notabilis, fructus autem conspicuissimus condituram optimam praebet"). Distinctio saeculo XVIII exeunte inter provincias septentrionales mediasque Franciae relata est, capsicis hic ad comesum cottidianum et loco piperis, illic ad hortos ornandos cultis. Insuper provinciis meridianis capsica ad ientaculum loco cepae et allii consumebantur. Idem auctor condituram capsicorum sicut anguriorum refert atque (primus omnium) confectionem aceti e capsicis per iniectionem capsicorum in cupas acetarias "ut vim aceti maturescentis augetur".Dans la majeure partie de nos provinces du nord, on ne cultive cette plante que pour la décoration des potagers ... Il n’en est pas ainsi dans les provinces de l’intérieur, son fruit dans la maturité et quand il est sec tient complètement lieu de poivre dans les cuisines des grandes et petites fermes. Dans nos provinces du midi, leurs habitans préfèrent un poivron à l’oignon et à l’ail pour le repas du matin. Le poivron est ce fruit encore petit et vert, et qui n’a pas encore changé de couleur. Lorsque sa robe a pris la teinte du corail, il ne sert plus que pour la cuisine ... Le fruit tient lieu de poivre à une très-grande partie des habitans de ce royaume. Quelques personnes font confire dans le vinaigre les poivrons, de la même manière que les cornichons. Les marchands de vinaigre ont grand soin d’ajouter une certaine quantité de poivrons murs et secs dans leurs barriques de vinaigre, dont ils augmentent singulièrement la "force":  Illi autem, qui usus "Indorum" Caribicorum Hispanorumque et Lusitanorum descripserunt, alias confectiones varias enumeraverunt: capsica e saccharo condita; sorbitiones patinasque et elixa e capsicis accommodata; parationem butyri cayennae.Les Indiens les préfèrent au poivre ordinaire, et les mangent crus. On les confit aussi au sucre et l'on en porte sur mer pour servir dans les voyages de long cours ... On les cueille aussi en vert ... La plupart des autres espèces de piment sont en usage chez les Indiens, qui en mêlent dans leurs ragoûts [et] en font des espèces de bouillons ou de décoctions très-fortes ... Les Portugais établis dans ces contrées appellent ces potions stomachiques caldo di pimento ... C'est particulièrement avec le piment à petites baies que les Indiens préparent leur beurre de cayan: 

Fructus capsicorum inter pabula salubriora gallinis dari solet.A. A. El-Deek et al., "Hot pepper (Capsicum Annum) as an alternative to oxytetracycline in broiler diets and effects on productive traits, meat quality, immunological responses and plasma lipids" in Archiv fur Geflügelkunde vol. 76 (2012) pp. 73-80 In medicina veterinaria aut capsaicinum aut "capsici fructus acer" (i.e. fructus siccus capsici cayennensis) aut Capsicum frutescens praescribitur ad  avium, praesertim gallinarum curandum."Capsici fructus acer" (1999) apud European Agency for the Evaluation of Medicinal Products; M. M. A. Mtambo et al., "Evaluation of the efficacy of the crude extracts of Capsicum frutescens, Citrus limon and Opuntia vulgaris against Newcastle disease in domestic fowl in Tanzania" in Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol. 68 (1999) pp. 55–61; Cheryl Lans et al., "Ethnoveterinary Medicine: Potential Solutions for Large-Scale Problems?" in Veterinary Herbal Medicine (2007) Fructus capsicorum praescribuntur a populo Aguaruna Peruviae ad diarrhoeam canium venatorum, sicut et hominum, medendam.Kevin A. Jernigan, "Barking up the same tree: a comparison of ethnomedicine and canine ethnoveterinary medicine among the Aguaruna" in Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine vol. 5 (2009) no. 33

 Varietates 

 Pulveres 
Hae triturae de fructibus capsicorum a coquis saepe adhibentur:
 Paprica
 Pulvis cayennae
 Pulvis capsici
 Pulvis caril (aromatum variorum tritura)

 Notae 

 Bibliographia 
 Bibliographica
  Jean-Patrick Ferrari, Georges Aillaud, "Bibliographie du genre Capsicum" in Journal d'agriculture traditionnelle et de botanique appliquée vol. 18 (1971) pp. 385-480

 Fontes antiquiores
 1493 : 
 1493-1503 : 
 1494 : 
 post 1519 : 
 1530 : 
 c. 1530 : Toríbio de Motolinía, Memoriales (Joaquín García Icazbalceta, ed., Memoriales de Fray Toribio de Motolinia [Mexicopoli, 1903] pp. 74-78,  129, 134, 205, 291)
 1535 : 
 c. 1536 : Bartolomé de las Casas, Apologética historia sumaria cap. 10 (M. Serrano y Sanz, ed., Historiadores de Indias vol. 1 [Matriti: Bailly-Baillière, 1909] p. 27)
 1536 : Ioannes Ruellius, De natura stirpium libri III (Lutetiae) 
 1539 : 
 ante 1542 : Codex Mendoza (liber pictus, c. 1534/1542) f. 51v-52r etc.; cf. Frances Berdan, Patricia Anawalt, The Essential Codex Mendoza (Berkeleiae, 1997) pp. 132-133 etc.
 1542 : 
 1548 : 
 1550 : Hieronymus Cardanus, De subtilitate pp. 197-198
 1557 : Hans Staden, Warhaftige Historia und Beschreibung eyner Landtschafft der wilden, nacketen, grimmigen menschfresser Leuthen in der Newenwelt America gelegen lib. 2 cap. 11, cap. 38; p. 110, p. 132 versionis Latinae 1592
 1557 : Iulius Caesar Scaliger, Exotericarum exercitationum liber quintus decimus, de subtilitate, ad Hieronymum Cardanum 
 ante 1561 : Bartolomé de las Casas; Marqués de la Fuensanta del Valle, José Sanchez Rayon, edd., Historia de las Indias. 5 voll. Matriti, 1875-1876 Vol. 1 pp. 329, 391, 438, vol. 3 p. 292, 322, 445,vol. 5 pp. 304-305, 319, 400, 502-506 ("la pimienta montés de aquestas tierras, que llaman axí")
 1561 : 
 1565 : Nicolaus Monardes, Dos libros. El uno trata de todas las cosas que traen de nuestras Indias Occidentales quaternion f 6
 ante 1569 : 
 1572 : Girolamo Benzoni, La historia del Mondo Nuovo (Venetiis) ff. 63v, 74r, 103v ("il pepe del paese ... il suo pepe")
 1574 : 
 1575 : Lorenzo Pérez, Libro de Theriaca. Toleti: en casa de Juan de Ayala  ("pimiento de las Indias, siliquastro, capsico")
 ante 1581 : 
 ante 1584 : 
 1585 : 
 1590 : 
 1591 : 
 1591 : Juan de Cárdenas, Primera parte de los problemas y secretos maravillosos de las Indias (Mexicopoli) pp. 113-115 editionis 1913
 ante 1595 : 
 1596 : 
 1597 : 
 c. 1599 : Gaspar Afonso, "Relaçam da viagem e successos da nao S. Francisco no anno de 1596" in Bernardo Gomes de Brito, ed., História trágico-marítima (Olisipone, 1735-1736) vol. 2 p. 416 ("hagi, que he a sua pimenta vermelha")
 1601 : 
 1603 :  ("coxô: pimenta da India", translitteratione hodierna koshō) (Ioanni Rodrigues attributum)
 1609 : 
 1611 : 
 c. 1613 : Martinus de Murua, Historia general del Perú  ("axi")
 1614 : 
 c. 1622 : Ioannes Smith, The Historye of the Bermudaes or Summer Islands (ed. J. Henry Lefroy. Londinii: Hakluyt Society, 1889 p. 277)
 1625 : Ioannes de Laet, Nieuwe wereldt, ofte Beschrijvinghe van West-Indien. Lugduni Batavorum: Isaack Elzevier, 1625 ; eiusdem Novus orbis, seu Descriptionis Indiae Occidentalis libri XVIII (1633) pp. 7, 280, 610 ("Axi")
 1630 : Bartholomaeus Ambrosinus, Panacea ex herbis quae a sanctis denominantur concinnata ... accessit Capsicorum, cum suis iconibus, brevis historia. Bononiae: apud haeredes Victorii Benatii
 1635 : 
 ante 1636 : Francesco Carletti, Ragionamenti di Francesco Carletti Fiorentino sopra le cose da lui vedute ne'suoi viaggi (Florentiae: G. Manni, 1701) p. 110 (Herbert Weinstock, interpr., My Voyage Around the World, by Francesco Carletti [Novi Eboraci: Random House, 1964] p. 62)
 1636 : Antonio de Leon Pinelo, Question moral, si el chocolate quebranta el ayuno eclesiastico. Matriti: por la viuda de Juan Gonçalez 
 1642 : 
 1645 : Guillaume Coppier, Histoire et voyage des Indes occidentales, et de plusieurs autres regions maritimes et esloignées. Lugduni: Jean Huguetan 
 1648 : Thomas Gage, The English-American his Travail by Sea and Land, or A new survey of the West India's. Londinii: John Sweeting pp. 98-101, 108-111, 140-143
 ante 1653 : Bernabé Cobo, Historia del Nuevo Mundo (1890-1893) (vol. 1 pp. 371-374; libri manu scripti ff. 228r-229v
 1657 : Jean-Baptiste Du Tertre, Histoire generale des Antilles habitées par les François vol. 2 (Lutetiae: Thomas Jolly) 
 1658 : Charles de Rochefort, Histoire naturelle et morale des iles Antilles de l'Amerique (Roterodami: Arnould Leers) pp. 95, 102, 445, 479, 482, 500; 2a ed., 1665, pp. 111, 118, 500, 534, 556
 1658 : 
 1682 : Johan Nieuhof, Johan Nieuhofs Gedenkweerdige Brasiliaense zee- en lant- reize (Amstelodami: Jacob van Meurs) p. 203 ("Chili lada of Brasiliaense peper. De roode peper, gemeenelijk Brasiliaense peper by d'onzen, en chili lada by de Brasilianen genoemt ...")
 1691 : Madame d'Aulnoy, Relation du voyage d'Espagne. Hagae Comitum: chez Henri van Bulderen  ("pimento")
 1693 : 
 1699 : Lionel Wafer, A New Voyage and Description of the Isthmus of America. Londinii (George Parker Winship, ed., 1903 p. 107)
 1707-1725 : 
 1719 : Histoire naturelle du cacao, et du sucre. Lutetiae: Laurent d'Houry  ("a été transporté en France ou il croît comme en Amerique en gousses piramidales de deux à trois pouces de long; elles sont d'abord rouges, puis jaunes, rouges et noires successivement; on les confit au vinaigre comme les capres et les cornichons"). — 2a ed. Amstelodami, 1720 
 c. 1722 : Franciscus Ximénez de Quesada, Historia natural de la provincia de San Vicente de Chiapas y Guatemala (fide  p. 32)
 1723-1735 : Aerae Yongzheng Chorographia Shandong (山东通志): 秦椒，色红有子与花椒味俱辛 ("Pipera qin colore rubra, granis plena, tam calida quam zanthoxyli fructus")
 1741 : "Piper Hispanicum, Piper Indicum" in Arthur Conrad Ernsting, Nucleus totius medicinae. Nova ed.  
 1742 : Savary des Bruslons, Dictionnaire universel de commerce, d'histoire naturelle et des arts et métiers. Nova ed. Genavae  ("Poivre de Guinée")
 1747 :  vol. 5 pp. 247-252 et tab. 88; cf.  p. 462
 "Malaice Lada Tschili, ac tantummodo Tschili, unde multi crediderunt, hoc Piperis genus primum ex regno Chili fuisse translatum, quod cum vero non videtur convenire" (lib. 8, cap. 50).
 1752 : "Brasilien-Pfeffer" in Carl Günther Ludovici, Eröffnete Akademie der Kaufleute, oder vollständiges Kaufmanns-Lexicon vol. 1 (Lipsiae, 1752) 
 1753-1761 : Pehr Kalm, En resa til Norra America Textus (fide  p. 32)
 1756 : Patrick Browne, The Civil and Natural History of Jamaica. Londinii: White 
 1757 : 
 1783 : Martin Dobritzhofer, Geschichte der Abiponer, einer berittenen und kriegerischen Nation in Paraquay. Vienna: bei Joseph Edlen von Kurzbek, 1783 
 1789 : 
 1796 : Yuan Mei, Suiyuan shidan (Sean J. S. Chen, ed. et interpr., 喇虎醬 = Lahu Sauce)
 1807 : Grimod de la Reynière et al., Almanach des gourmands vol. 5 (1807) p. 183 ("piment ou poivre-long"); vol. 7 (1810) pp. 143-147, 185-186 ("piment enragé ou poivre de Guinée")
 1813 : John Gabriel Stedman, Narrative of a Five Years' Expedition against the Revolted Negroes of Surinam (Londinii: J. Johnson, 1813) vol. 2 pp. 74-76 et alibi (vol. 1; vol. 2)
 1820 : John Crawfurd, History of the Indian Archipelago. Edinburgi 
 1826 : Whitelaw Ainslie, Materia Indica. Londinii: Longman vol. 1 pp. 306-308
 1828 : 
 1832 : Edwin Lankester, Vegetable Substances Used for the Food of Man pp. 313-314
 1841 : Morris Mattson, The American Vegetable Practice, or a new and improved guide to health. Bostoniae: Daniel L. Hale  ("Capsicum, Cayenne") 
 1841 : Samuel Thomson, The Thomsonian Materia Medica, or botanic family physician. 13a ed. Albaniae Novi Eboraci  ("strong pepper sauce")
 1850 : J. W. Comfort, The Practice of Medicine on Thomsonian Principles. Nova ed. Philadelphiae  ("pepper sauce, capsicum tea, cayenne pepper")
 1852 : M. F. Dunal, "Solanaceae" in A. de Candolle, Prodromus systematis naturalis regni vegetabilis vol. 13 fasc. 1 (Lutetiae: Masson, 1852) p. 428
 1868 : "Pimenteira da terra" in Theodoro J. H. Langgaard, Novo formulario medico e pharmaceutico (1868) 
 1879 : Friedrich A. Flueckiger, Daniel Hanbury, Pharmacographia. 2a ed. Londinii, 1879  ("Fructus capsici")
 1883 : Alphonse de Candolle, Origine des plantes cultivées (Lutetiae: Baillière) pp. 229-230
 1885 : William Dymock, The Vegetable Materia Medica of Western India. Bombay 
 1889 : George Watt, A Dictionary Of The Economic Products Of India vol. 2 (Calcuttae) pp. 134-140
 1919 : E. L. Sturtevant; U. P. Hedrick, ed., Sturtevant's notes on edible plants (Report of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, 1919, pars 2. Albaniae, 1919) pp. 134-140

 Lexicographica
 "ají", "chile", "cumarí", "malagueta", "uchu" in 

 Eruditio recentior

 Heather Arndt Anderson, Chilli: a global history. Londinii: Reaktion Books, 2016. ISBN 978 1 78023 635 3

 D. J. Cotter, A Review of Studies on Chile. NMSU Cooperative Extension Service and Agricultural Experiment Station, 1980


 Janet Long-Solís, Capsicum y cultura: la historia del chilli. 2a ed. Mexicopoli: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1998


 Vito Teti, Storia del peperoncino: un protagonista delle culture mediterranee. Romae: Donzelli, 2007. — 2a ed. 2015

 De origine et domesticatione

 De origine et archaeologia
 Katherine L. Chiou, Christine A. Hastorf, Capsicum spp. at the Preceramic Sites of Huaca Prieta and Paredones, Chicama Valley, Peru. Berkeleiae: UCB Archaeobotany Laboratory, 2012; Textus


 Charles R. Clement, Michelly de Cristo-Araújo, Geo Coppens d’Eeckenbrugge, Alessandro Alves Pereira, Doriane Picanço-Rodrigues, "Origin and Domestication of Native Amazonian Crops" in Diversity vol. 2 (2010) pp. 72-106
 Linda Perry et al., "Starch Fossils and the Domestication and Dispersal of Chili Peppers (Capsicum spp. L.) in the Americas" in Science vol. 315 (2007) pp. 986-988
 Linda Perry, Kent V. Flannery, "Precolumbian use of chili peppers in the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico" in PNAS vol. 104 (2007) pp. 11905-11909 JSTOR
 Barbara Pickersgill, "The Archaeological Record of Chili Peppers (Capsicum Spp.) and the Sequence of Plant Domestication in Peru" in American Antiquity vol. 34 (1969) pp. 54-61 JSTOR

 De historia prae-Columbiana
 Cecil H. Brown et al., "The Paleobiolinguistics of Domesticated Chili Pepper (Capsicum spp.)" in Ethnobiology Letters vol. 4 (2013) pp. 1-11 JSTOR
 Sophie D. Coe, America's First Cuisines (Austinopoli: University of Texas Press, 1994) pp. 60-65
 Janet Long, "Orígenes, rutas y evolución del Capsicum" in Artes de México no. 126 (2017) pp. 8-17 JSTOR
 Janet Long Towell, "Los senderos prehispánicos del capsicum" in J. Long Towell, Amalia Attolini Lecón, edd., Caminos y mercados de México (Mexicopoli: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, 2009 ~) pp. 79-106
 Paul E. Minnis, Michael E. Whalen, "The first prehispanic chile (Capsicum) from the U.S. Southwest/Northwest Mexico and its changing use" in American Antiquity vol. 75 (2010) pp. 245-257 JSTOR
 Barbara Pickersgill, "Migration of chili peppers, Capsicum spp., in the Americas" in D. Stone, ed., Pre-Columbian plant migration (Papers of the Peabody Museum of Archeology and Ethnology vol. 76. Cantabrigiae Massachusettensium: Harvard University Press, 1984) pp. 105-123
 Terry G. Powis et al., "Prehispanic Use of Chili Peppers in Chiapas, Mexico" in PLOS One vol. 8 (2013) e79013

 De migrationibus post-Columbianis
 Jean Andrews, "Diffusion of Mesoamerican Food Complex to Southeastern Europe" in Geographical Review (1993) pp. 194–204
 Jean Andrews, "The Peripatetic Chilli Pepper: diffusion of the domesticated capsicums since Columbus" in Nelson Foster, Linda S. Cordell, edd., Chilies to Chocolate: Food the Americas Gave the World (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1992) pp. 81-94  Exemplar mutuabile
 Michael Krondl, "The chile diaspora: unravelling evidence from sixteenth century botanicals" in Mark McWilliams, ed., Herbs and Spices: Oxford Food Symposium 2020 (Londinii: Prospect Books, 2021)
 Stefan Halikowski Smith, "In the shadow of a pepper-centric historiography: Understanding the global diffusion of capsicums in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries" in Journal of Ethnopharmacology vol. 167 (2014) pp. 64-77
 Pasquale Tripodi et al., "Global range expansion history of pepper (Capsicum spp.) revealed by over 10,000 genebank accessions" in PNAS vol. 118 (34) e2104315118 (16 Augusti 2021)
 Clifford A. Wright, "The Medieval Spice Trade and the Diffusion of the Chile" in Gastronomica vol. 7 no. 2 (2007) pp. 35-43 JSTOR

 De historia recentiore

 Marie-Christine Daunay, Henri Laterrot, Jules Janick, "Iconography and History of Solanaceae: Antiquity to the XVIIth Century', in: Jules Janick, Horticultural Reviews, vol. 34 (2007), pp. 1-112 
 Marie-Christine Daunay, Henri Laterrot, Jules Janick, "Iconography of the Solanaceae from Antiquity to the XVIIth Century: a Rich Source of Information on Genetic Diversity and Uses" in Acta Hort. no. 745 (2007) pp. 59-88
 ; cf. "A tale of chiles, a servant, and a travelling medical scholar"
 W. H. Eshbaugh, "Peppers: history and exploitation of a serendipitous new crop discovery" in Jules Janick, J. E. Simon, edd., New crops (Novi Eboraci: Wiley, 1993) pp. 132–139
 Carlos A. García-González, Cristina Silvar, "Phytochemical Assessment of Native Ecuadorian Peppers (Capsicum spp.) and Correlation Analysis to Fruit Phenomics" in Plants vol. 9 viii no. 986 (4 Augusti 2020)
 Zoltán Halász, Hungarian Paprika Through the Ages. Budapestini, 1968
 Angela Jianu, Violeta Barbu, edd., Earthly Delights: Economies and cultures of food in Ottoman and Danubian Europe, c. 1500-1900 (Leiden: Brill, 2018) pp. 107-108, 162-163
 Rachel Laudan, Jeffrey M. Pilcher, "Chiles, Chocolate, and Race in New Spain: Glancing Backward to Spain or Looking Forward to Mexico?" in Eighteenth-Century Life vol. 23 ii (Maio 1999) pp. 59-70
 Divya Schäfer, "Exotic Tastes, Familiar Flavours. Transcultural Culinary Interactions in Early Modern India" in Rafael Klöber, Manju Ludwig, edd., HerStory: Historical Scholarship between South Asia and Europe. Festschrift in Honour of Gita Dharampal-Frick (Heidelbergae: CrossAsia eBooks, 2018. ISBN 978-3-946742-44-9) pp. 43-64
 Frederick J. Simoons, Food in China: A Cultural and Historical Inquiry (CRC Press, 1991) pp. 385-386 
 Víctor F. Vásquez, Teresa E. Rosales, Gabriel Dorado, "Evidences of chili pepper (Capsicum frutescens) seeds in Chimú contexts of the northern coast of Peru" in Archaeobios no. 17 (2022)
 E. Yacovleff, F. L. Herrera, "El mundo vegetal de los antiguos peruanos" in Revista del Museo Nacional vol. 3 (1934) pp. 243-322, vol. 4 (1935) pp. 31-102; vide praecipue vol. 3 pp. 277-279 

 De cultu et cultivarietatibus




 Mario Parisi, Daniela Alioto, Pasquale Tripodi, "Overview of Biotic Stresses in Pepper (Capsicum spp.): Sources of Genetic Resistance, Molecular Breeding and Genomics" in International Journal of Molecular Sciences vol. 21 vii no. 2587 (8 Aprilis 2020)
 Catherine Parry et al., "Reproductive compatibility in Capsicum is not necessarily reflected in genetic or phenotypic similarity between species complexes" in PLoS One (24 Martii 2021)
 A. Terpó, "Kritische Revision der wildwachsenden Arten und der kultivierten Sorten der Gattung Capsicum L." in Feddes repertorium vol. 72 (1966) pp. 155-191

 De singulis regionibus
 Reinaldo Imbrozio Barbosa et al., "Pimentas do gênero Capsicum cultivadas em Roraima, Amazônia brasileira. I. Espécies domesticadas" in Acta Amazônica vol. 32 (2002) pp. 177-232 
 Reinaldo I. Barbosa, Moisés Mourão Júnior, Francisco Joaci de F. Luz, "Morphometric patterns and preferential uses of Capsicum peppers in the State of Roraima, Brazilian Amazonia" in Horticultura Brasileira vol. 28 (2010) pp. 477-482; alibi
 A. T. Erwin, "The peppers of America" in Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station: Bulletin no. 293 (1932) pp. 121–152

 Carlos A. García-González, Cristina Silvar, "Phytochemical Assessment of Native Ecuadorian Peppers (Capsicum spp.) and Correlation Analysis to Fruit Phenomics" in Plants vol. 9 (2020) no. 986
 M. Jager, A. Jimenez, K. Amaya, Las cadenas de valor de los ajies nativos de Bolivia: Compilacion de los estudios realizados dentro del marco del proyecto "Rescate y promocion de ajies nativos en su centro de origen" para Bolivia]. Bioversity International, 2013 
 D. Libreros et al., [https://web.archive.org/web/20240315165316/https://cgspace.cgiar.org/items/a8b72407-edc9-406b-8869-f9ac3abd02ec Catálogo de ajíes nativos (Capsicum spp.) bolivianos promisorios. Bioversity International, 2014
 Anelise Macedo, "Pimentas Capsicum: uma história de sucesso na cadeia produtiva de hortaliças" in Hortaliças em revista vol. 4 no. 18 (2015)
 Sven W. Meckelmann et al., "Compositional Characterization of Native Peruvian Chili Peppers (Capsicum spp.)" in Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry vol. 61 no. 10 (2013) pp. 2530–2537
 Herundino Ribeiro do Nascimento Filho, Reinaldo Imbrozio Barbosa, Francisco Joaci de Freitas Luz, "Pimentas do gênero Capsicum cultivadas em Roraima, Amazônia brasileira. II. Hábitos e formas de uso" in Acta Amazônica vol. 37 (2007) pp. 561-568

 Daniela Sclavo, "Flavour, culture and food security: The spicy entanglements of chile pepper conservation in 21st century Mexico" in Plants People Planet (2023) pp. 1–10
 Paul G. Smith, Benigno Villalon, Philip L. Villa, "Horticultural Classification of Peppers Grown in the United States" in HortScience vol. 22 (1987) pp. 11-13
 Maarten van Zonneveld et al., "Screening Genetic Resources of Capsicum Peppers in Their Primary Center of Diversity in Bolivia and Peru" in PLoS One vol. 10 ix (2015) no. e0134663

 De re medica et diaetetica
 Kiran D. K. Ahuja et al., "Effects of chili consumption on postprandial glucose, insulin, and energy metabolism" in American Journal of Clinical Nutrition vol. 84 (2006) pp. 63-69
 Gaber El-Saber Batiha et al., "Biological Properties, Bioactive Constituents, and Pharmacokinetics of Some Capsicum spp. and Capsaicinoids" in International Journal of Molecular Sciences vol. 21 xv no. 5179 (22 Iulii 2020)
 Mauro Bortolotti, "Red pepper: an aid for gut functional diseases with pain?" in Annals of Gastroenterology vol. 26 (2013) p. 276
 Mustafa Chopan, Benjamin Littenberg, "The Association of Hot Red Chili Pepper Consumption and Mortality: A Large Population-Based Cohort Study" in PLoS One vol. 12 i no. e0169876 (9 Ianuarii 2017)
 Narda Gavilán Guillen, Richard Tito, Norma Gamarra Mendoza, "Capsaicinoids and pungency in Capsicum chinense and Capsicum baccatum fruits" in Pesq. Agropec. Trop., Goiânia vol. 48 (2018) pp. 237-244
 Tomi L. Olatunji, Anthony J. Afolayan, "The suitability of chili pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) for alleviating human micronutrient dietary deficiencies: A review" in Food Science and Nutrition vol. 6 (2018) pp. 2239–2251; alibi
 Morrine A. Omolo et al., "Antimicrobial Properties of Chili Peppers" in Journal of Infectious Diseases & Therapy vol. 2 (2014)

 Paul Rozin, Deborah Schiller, "The nature and acquisition of a preference for chili pepper by humans" in Motivation and Emotion vol. 4 (1980) pp. 77–101
 Paul Rozin, Lauri Ebert, Jonathan Schull, "Some Like It Hot: a temporal analysis of hedonic responses to chili pepper" in Appetite vol. 3 (1982) pp. 13-22
 Paul Rozin, K. Kennel, "Acquired preferences for piquant foods by chimpanzees" in Appetite vol. 4 (1983) pp. 69-77
 Paul Rozin, "Getting to like the burn of chili pepper: Biological, psychological and cultural perspectives" in B. G. Green, J. R. Mason, M. R. Kare, edd., Chemical senses, Volume 2: Irritation (Novi Eboraci: Marcel Dekker, 1990) pp. 231-269 pars 1 pars 2
 Valdir Florencio da Veiga et al., Chemistry and Nutritional Effects of Capsicum (Food Chemistry, Function and Analysis, 37). Royal Society of Chemistry, 2023

 De pungentia
 David C. Haak et al., "Why are not all chilies hot? A trade-off limits pungency" in Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences vol. 279 (2011/2012)
 Seungill Kim et al., "Genome sequence of the hot pepper provides insights into the evolution of pungency in Capsicum species" in Nature Genetics vol. 46 (2014) pp. 270–278
 Joshua Tewksbury et al., "Where did the Chili Get its Spice? Biogeography of Capsaicinoid Production in Ancestral Wild Chili Species" in Journal of Chemical Ecology vol. 32 (2006) pp. 547-564
 Joshua J. Tewksbury et al., "Evolutionary ecology of pungency in wild chilies" in  vol. 105 (2008) pp. 11808-11811

 De gastronomia
 Araceli Aguilar-Meléndez et al., "Chile (Capsicum spp.) as Food-Medicine Continuum in Multiethnic Mexico" in Foods vol. 10 (2021) no. 2502
 James D. Campbell, Mr Chilehead: adventures in the taste of pain. Toronti, 2003
 Kurt Michael Friese, Kraig Kraft, Gary Paul Nabhan, Chasing Chiles: Hot Spots Along the Pepper Trail. White River Junction, 2011
 "The Chiles of Oaxaca" in Diana Kennedy, Oaxaca al gusto: an infinite gastronomy (Austinopoli: University of Texas Press, 2010) pp. xix-xxii
 Jay M. Lillywhite, Jennifer E. Simonsen, Mark E. Uchanski, "Spicy Pepper Consumption and Preferences in the United States" in HortTechnology vol. 23 (2013) pp. 868–876
 Amal Naj, Peppers: A Story of Hot Pursuits. Novi Eboraci, 1992
 Sota Yamamoto, Eiji Nawata, "Use of Capsicum frutescens L. by the Indigenous Peoples of Taiwan and the Batanes Islands" in Economic Botany vol. 63 (2009) pp. 43-59 JSTOR

 Praecepta culinaria
 1898 : Encarnación Pinedo, El cocinero español. Franciscopoli (Dan Strehl, Victor Valle, edd., Encarnación’s kitchen : Mexican recipes from nineteenth-century California [Berkeleiae: University of California Press, 2003] pp. 120-128)

 Capsicum e carne
 Restula
 Sambal

 Nexus externi 

 De chili (historia, botanica etc.)
 "Capsicum and Chillies: Commercial Cultivation" apud DPI&F Queensland, Australia
 "Capsicum pepper factsheet" apud Purdue Guide to Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
 "Capsicums: Innovative Uses of an Ancient Crop: History, Botany, Breeding, and Pungency"
 "Descriptors for Capsicum (Capsicum spp.)" apud Bioversity International
 "Chile" apud Gernot Katzer's Spice Pages
 Dave Bliss, Adoption and Use of the Tomato and Pepper in England through the Industrial Revolution (dissertatio universitatis Leicestriensis)
 Salvador Montes Hernández et al., Proyecto: Recopilación y análisis de la información existente de las especies delgénero Capsicumque crecen y se cultivan en México. Primer informe (2010?)

 Pinacotheca 

Categoria:Aromata
!
Categoria:Condimenta