Thematic vowel

N'ime ọmụmụ Indo-European, ụdaume isiokwu ma ọ bụ ụdaume isiokwu bụ ụdaume *e[1] ma ọ bụ * o sitere na ablaut etinye tupu agwụchaa okwu Proto-Indo-European (PIE). Aha, adjectives, na ngwaa dị n'asụsụ Indo-European nwere ụdaume a bụ isiokwu, ndị na-enweghị ya bụ athematic. A na-eji ya eme ihe n'ozuzu ya, ụdaume isiokwu bụ ụdaume ọ bụla a chọtara na njedebe nke otu okwu.

Na mpụga Indo-European, a na-ejikwa okwu ahụ bụ "ụdaume thematic" na ụtọ asụsụ Kartvelian (lee ngwa ngwa Georgian maka ozi ndị ọzọ gbasara ụdaume isiokwu).

 Proto-Indo-European 
Ngwaa PIE na aha (aha na adjectives) nwere akụkụ atọ:



Udaume isiokwu, ọ bụrụ na ọ dị, na-apụta na njedebe nke suffix (nke nwere ike ịgụnye ụdaume ma ọ bụ consonants ndị ọzọ) na tupu ọ gwụchaa:

 *gʷʰér-mo-s 'heat'> Greek ochie θέρμος (thermos) 
 *bʰér-e-ti '(he) bear' > Sanskrit bhárati, Gothic baíriþ

Ụdị athematic, n'ụzọ dị iche, nwere suffix na-ejedebe na consonant, ma ọ bụ enweghị suffix ma ọlị (ma ọ bụ na-arụ ụka na ọ bụ suffix efu):[2]

 *ph2-tér- 'nna' > Nna Bekee
 *h1és-mi ' (M) bụ' > Bekee bụam

N'ihi ọtụtụ ihe kpatara ya, a na-eche na ụdị athematic ga-akawanye nká, na ụdaume isiokwu bụ ihe ọhụrụ nke PIE n'oge: Athematic paradigms (ụkpụrụ inflection) bụ ihe "na-adịghị agbanwe agbanwe", na-egosipụta ablaut na mkpanaka mkpanaka, ebe a na-ahụ ihe ngosi isiokwu dị ka ihe dị mfe ma ọ bụ nhazi nke ụtọ asụsụ na ọnụ ọgụgụ. N'asụsụ Anatolian, bụ ndị mbụ kewapụrụ na PIE, ngwaa isiokwu dị ụkọ ma ọ bụ anọghị ya.[3] Ọzọkwa, n'oge mbubreyo PIE na n'asụsụ ndị agadi nwanyị, e ji isiokwu dochie anya ọtụtụ ụdị agụghị akwụkwọ, dị ka ọ dị na Greek prehistoric *thes- 'chi' versus *thes-o-> Greek Classical θεός (theós).[4]

Ụdaume isiokwu dị na teknụzụ bụ nke suffix ma ọ bụghị njedebe, ebe ọ bụ na suffix ọ bụla bụ ihe ebumpụta ụwa ma ọ bụ isiokwu ma ọ bụ athematic. A na-ejikwa ya mee ihe n'ọnọdụ ụfọdụ iji nweta mgbọrọgwụ sitere na mgbọrọgwụ ozugbo, na-eme dị ka suffix n'onwe ya (dị ka ihe atụ nke abụọ dị n'elu). Otú ọ dị, mgbe ị na-atụle njedebe nke dị iche iche maka ntụgharị okwu na athematic, a na-agụnyekarị ya na njedebe; lee ngalaba na fusion n'okpuru.

 Ngwaa 
N'ime ngwaa, ụdaume isiokwu bụ *e okwu-n'ikpeazụ ma ọ bụ mgbe njedebe na-esote malitere na coronal obstruent (*t, *d, *dʰ ma ọ bụ *s) na *o ọzọ. Nke a bụ ihe ngosipụta na-arụ ọrụ ugbu a nke *bʰer-'bu':[5]
OnyeOtuAbụọỌtụtụNke Mbụ*bʰér-o-h₂*bʰér-o-wos*bʰér-o-mosNke abụọ*bʰér-e-si*bʰér-e-tes*bʰér-e-teNke atọ*bʰér-e-ti*bʰér-e-tes*bʰér-o-nti
Maka ntụnyere, ebe a bụ ọmụmaatụ ngwaa athematic, *igirigi- 'isere'. Otutu a na-etolite ruo ọkwa efu na mgbọrọgwụ wee gbanwee ụda olu na njedebe:[6]
OnyeOtuAbụọỌtụtụNke Mbụ*déwk-mi*duk-wós*duk-mósNke abụọ*déwk-si*duk-tés*duk-téNke atọ*déwk-ti*duk-tés*duk-énti
(Onye mbụ na-ejedebe otu onye bụ mgbe ụfọdụ * -m (i * -m (i na mgbe ụfọdụ * -h₂, dabere na ike, olu na isiokwu.)

 Mmalite 
A na-eji ngwaa PIE mara njedebe abụọ dị iche iche: nke a na-ahụ na isiokwu dị ugbu a na nke zuru oke, na nke ọzọ dị na aorist na athematic ugbu a. Ọgwụgwụ etiti dị ka ngwakọta nke abụọ a. Njikọ isiokwu ahụ zuru ebe niile n'okwu Donald Ringe "Western Indo-European" (Western IE), ya bụ IE ewezuga Tocharian na karịsịa Anatolian. Nsogbu kasịnụ na mmalite nke PIE thematic inflection bụ na njedebe isiokwu ahụ nwere ọtụtụ ihe jikọrọ ya na PIE zuru oke (nke na-emekarị, ọ bụ ezie na ọ bụghị na-arụ ọrụ na nke lex, kwekọrọ na ḫi-conjugation na Hitti na asụsụ ndị ọzọ Anatolian), nakwa na n'ezie etymological cognates nke emegharịghachi nke onyinye isiokwu dị ole na ole n'ime verbs-conjugation. N'ezie, ọtụtụ n'ime ngwaa ndị dị na ḫi-conjugation na Anatolian nwere n'ezie cognates lexical nke na-apụta dị ka ngwaa athematic na Western IE.[7] Ụdị ngwaa niile dị na ḫi-conjugation na Hittit nwere ike igosi na ha nwere, ma ọ bụ na mbụ nwere ụkpụrụ ablaut na *o na otu na akara efu na otutu, nke bụ kpọmkwem ụkpụrụ nke Western PIE zuru oke.[8]

Ihe ngosi isiokwu dị na Western PIE enwekwaghị ọnụ ọgụgụ ablaut, nke na-egosi mmalite ha dị nso nso a. Ihe a niile emela ka ụfọdụ ndị ọkà mmụta asụsụ chepụta na njedebe dị ugbu a zuru oke na nke isiokwu na-alaghachi na otu ụdị PIE mbụ. Dị ka Matasović si kwuo, Early PIE stative (ịghọ nke zuru oke) bụ maka ụdị mbụ nke suffix suffix *-o-, ebe e-grade form bụ nke abụọ. Ngwaa ndị na-emepụta ihe ngosi isiokwu a na-emeghị eme bụ nnukwu ihe na-agbanwe agbanwe / na-agbanwe agbanwe, ọ nweghịkwa ihe ọ bụla na-ekwu na njedebe ikpeazụ nke PIE ebe ọ bụ na mbụ PIE statives niile nọgidere na-abụ onyinye na-enweghị atụ, ma ọ bụ na ha ghọrọ Western PIE zuru oke. O nwekwara ike ịbụ na ụfọdụ ngwaa etiti PIE ghọkwara isiokwu n'oge Western PIE, ebe ọ bụ na ha enweghị akwụkwọ ozi etiti na Anatolian.[9]

 Aha 
N'okwu aha, ụdaume isiokwu na-abụkarị * o,[10] na-aghọ naanị *e mgbe enweghị ngwụcha ma ọ bụ mgbe *h₂ sochiri ya na ntinye aha/ebubo ọtụtụ. Nke a bụ ọmụmaatụ paradigm maka *h₂ŕ̥tḱos 'bear', aha isiokwu animate, nke neuter *h₂érh₃trom 'plough' gbakwunyere maka onye nnochite anya/onye ebubo:[10]
Ihe omumaOtuAbụọỌtụtụAha.*h₂ŕ̥tḱ-o-s*h₂ŕ̥tḱ-o-h₁*h₂ŕ̥tḱ-o-esOlu.*h₂ŕ̥tḱ-e-∅*h₂ŕ̥tḱ-o-h₁*h₂ŕ̥tḱ-o-es[Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji]*h₂ŕ̥tḱ-o-m*h₂ŕ̥tḱ-o-h₁*h₂ŕ̥tḱ-o-nsAha./acc. Ọ bụghị ihe na-eme.*h₂érh₃-tro-m*h₂érh₃-tro-ih₁*h₂érh₃-tre-h₂Gen.*h₂ŕ̥tḱ-o-s?*h₂ŕ̥tḱ-ō-m[Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji]*h₂ŕ̥tḱ-o-(h₂)at*h₂ŕ̥tḱ-o-(i)bʰ-Oge.*h₂ŕ̥tḱ-o-ei*h₂ŕ̥tḱ-o-(i)bʰ-Ihe ndị e ji akụ ihe*h₂ŕ̥tḱ-o-h₁*h₂ŕ̥tḱ-o-(i)bʰ-Onye na-eme ihe ike*h₂ŕ̥tḱ-o-i*h₂ŕ̥tḱ-o-isu
Ọzọ, aha athematic na-egosi mgbanwe na ụda olu, ọkachasị n'etiti ikpe "ike" (nominative na vocative na ọnụọgụ niile, na ebubo otu/abụọ) na ikpe "adịghị ike" (ndị ọzọ niile). Ngwugwu ole na ole dịkwa iche na usoro isiokwu; ọmụmaatụ, nominative/ebubo neuter nwere *-∅ kama *-m.[10] Hụ klaasị Athematic accent/ablaut nke aha PIE maka ọmụmaatụ.

 Mmalite 
Enwere otutu echiche gbasara ịrị elu nke o-stems na ngbanwe aha PIE. Abụọ kachasị ewu ewu:

 o-stems o na-egosipụta usoro ergative nke dị na prehistory nke PIE, na
 o-stems sitere na nnọchiaha.

 Echiche ergative 
Pedersen bụ onye mbụ chọpụtara na isiokwu nke ngwaa transitive dị ka à ga-asị na ọ nwere ụdị nke genitive (ihe sigmatic) ma ọ bụrụ na ọ na-arụ ọrụ, yana dịka a ga-asị na ọ nwere ụdị ihe eji eme ihe ma ọ bụrụ na ọ naghị arụ ọrụ. Ọzọkwa, isiokwu na ihe nke ngwaa intransitive yiri ka ọ nwere ụdị nke absolutive (ya bụ okwu asigmatic).[11] Nke a kpatara asymmetry n'etiti valencies nke ngwaa transitive na intransitive, nke achịkọtara na tebụl n'okpuru:[12]
OkwuỌrụUsoro nhọpụtaUsoro ergativetransitiveisiokwuahaergativeiheebuboihe na-enweghị isina-adịghị agafe agafeisiokwuahaihe na-enweghị isi
Beekes na Kortlandt kwalitere echiche a, bụ ndị chere na e hiwere syntax nke ochie nke asụsụ Indo-European ka emechara nakwa na usoro okwu nke asụsụ PIE dabere na syntax n'ozi. Otu ngwụcha ahụ nke nominative na accusative neuter na-ekekọrịta, na mbụ na-akọwapụta aha ndị na-adịghị arụ ọrụ, sitere na nke mbụ, ebe a na-eji onye nnọchianya na isiokwu nọ n'ọrụ. Anụ aṅụ na-ekwu na sigmatic genitive-ablative mepụtara site n'ike. Mgbe ngbanwe nke usoro ihe nlegharị anya n'ime usoro nhọpụta, ụdị a rụgharịrị dị ka * CC-R-ós ghọrọ onye nhọpụta, okwu ọhụrụ nke isiokwu. Mgbe e mesịrị, ihe ga-aghọ ụdaume isiokwu *-agbasakwa n'ọnọdụ ndị ọzọ, na-eme ka o-stem inflection.[13]

Gamkrelidze na Ivanov[14] na Schmalstieg[15] chepụtara echiche ndị yiri nke ahụ bụ ndị na-eche n'oge gara aga na-ezighi ezi nke syntax PIE.

Ozizi metụtara ya nke na-enwetakwa conjugation thematic thematic conjugation from a oblique case form nke Ranko Matasović tụpụtara ya, bụ onye, ​​​​agbanyeghị, chọpụtara ụdị isi mmalite dị ka genitive. Matasović rụrụ ụka na thematic o-stem nouns bụ n'ihi na nominalisation nke adjectives, nke n'aka nke bilitere site reinterpretation dị ka nominative ụdị nke mbụ (ttributively eji) genitives nke athematic (ọtụtụ n'ime deverbal) mgbọrọgwụ-nouns. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, e wepụrụ stem * (h) yug-o (cf. Latin 'iugum) site na * (H) yug-os , bụ nke mbụ bụ genitive nke mgbọrọgwụ aha * (H)yewg-s (cf. Latin coniūx) .Ya mere, okwu dị ka *ukwsōn yug-os 'ox of yokted' ka eweghachiri '. Ozizi a, dị ka nke gara aga, ga-akọwa ihe kpatara na e nwere ọtụtụ ihe akaebe na-akwado syncretism mbụ nke nominative na genitive singular na o-stem.[16]

 Echiche nke nnọchiaha 
Dị ka Jean Haudry o-stems si kwuo okwu sitere na nnochiaha nwere ọrụ ikpebi nke etinyere na ntọala aha, na-arụ ọrụ nke isiokwu postposition.[17] Enwere ọtụtụ myirịta ụdịdị maka mmepe dị otú a:

 na Balto-Slavic, ebe a na-emepụta nkọwapụta doro anya site n'ịkpọchi nnọchiaha PIE * yo-/* yeh₂.
 Asụsụ Balkan na Scandinavian ọgbara ọhụrụ, bụ ndị mepụtara mkpebi postposition site na iji ihe ngosi
 mimation na ngosi n'asụsụ Semitic.

 Ọganihu sitere na usoro isiokwu na nke athematic 
E bufere ụdị isiokwu na athematic n'asụsụ ụmụ nwanyị nke Proto-Indo-European. N'asụsụ oge ochie, dị ka Sanskrit na Greek ochie, a na-echekwa ihe dị iche n'etiti aha athematic na thematic noun na ngwaa. N'asụsụ ndị ọzọ, a na-ewerekarị ngwaa agụghị akwụkwọ dị ka ihe na-adịghị agbanwe agbanwe.

N'ihi mgbanwe asụsụ dị otú ahụ, nkesa nke isiokwu isiokwu na athematic okwu dị iche iche n'asụsụ Indo-European. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, Latịn nwere naanị ngwaa agụghị akwụkwọ ole na ole, ebe Sanskrit na-echekwa ọnụ ọgụgụ buru ibu nke ndị a. Grik yiri ma Sanskrit na Latin n'ụzọ dị iche iche.

 Njikọ 
Ọbụlagodi n'asụsụ oge ochie, ụdaume isiokwu na-abụkarị ihe a na-apụghị ịmata na njedebe ikpe ahụ, n'ihi na ha abụọ ejikọtala ọnụ:

 Sax-o-is Latin ochie > sax-īs Latin ochie, ọtụtụ dative nke sax-u-m ( sax-o-m Latin ochie) 'nkume'
 Homeric θε-ᾱ́-ων (the-ā́-ōn) > Attic θε-ῶν (the-ôn), genitive plural of θε-ᾱ́ (the-ā́) 'chi

Na Latin, ngwaa athematic furu efu, ma e wezụga ole na ole, bụ ndị e weere dị ka ihe na-adịghị mma ma ọ bụ nakweere n'ime otu n'ime isiokwu anọ:[18]

 s-um, es, es-t, s-umus, es-tis, s-unt[19] (oge mgbe) 'bụ'
 (ferō,) fer-s, fer-t, (ferimus,) fer-tis, fer-unt (na-adịghị mma) 'na-ebu'
 (dō,) dā-s, da-t, da-mus, da-tis, da-nt (mmekọrịta mbụ) 'nye'

 Isiokwu a 
Ọ bụ ezie na a nke Greek na Latịn mbụ declension abụghị na mbụ ụdaume isiokwu, a na-ewere ya dị ka otu na asụsụ Grik na Latin. N'asụsụ abụọ ahụ, mkpọaha nke mbụ declension na-ewe ụfọdụ njedebe nke isiokwu nke abụọ declension. Aha a-stem bụ aha mkpokọta jikọtara ya na -eh₂, ngwụcha nke neuter plural.

 *bhardh-éh2-[[ (enweghị njedebe) > Proto-Italian *farβā > Latin barba 'Afụ ọnụ'

 Mkpụrụedemede ndị na-eme egwuregwu 
Mgbe ụfọdụ ụdaume dị nso na njedebe nke aha ma ọ bụ ngwaa, ebe mmadụ ga-atụ anya ụdaume isiokwu, abụghị ụdaume isiokwu n'ezie. Ma ọ bụ a na-etinye ụdaume ndị a n'azụ e ma ọ bụ o, ma ọ bụ ha nọ n'onwe ha.

Na Latin na Grik, e nwere aha athematic nke na-akwụsị na i ma ọ bụ u (ya na allophone y ma ọ bụ w tupu ụdaume). Ndị a na-agụnye Latin nāvis 'ụgbọ' na Greek tesis 'ebe'; Latin senātus 'Council of Elder' ma ọ bụ 'senate' na Greek basileus 'eze'. N'ihi na ụdaume ndị a abụghị e ma ọ bụ o, ha abụghị isiokwu, ma aha ndị a na-ewerekwa otu njedebe dị ka consonant-stem nouns.

 Latin nāvi-s, senātu-s · rēg-s 'eze'
 Greek thesi-s, Basileu-s · Arab-s (Araps) 'Arab'

N'asụsụ Latin, enwere njikọ anọ dabere na ụdaume tupu njedebe (nke gụnyere ụdaume isiokwu): a, e, ọ dịghị, i. Ọ bụ ezie na ngwaa niile sitere na njikọ ndị a bụ isiokwu, ụdaume anọ a abụghị ụdaume isiokwu nke declensions dị iche iche: ụdaume isiokwu bụ e / o nke jikọtara ya na njedebe na ụdaume njikọ e/ma ọ bụ gbanwee ya na i / u.

N'asụsụ Grik, a na-anọchi anya ụfọdụ njikọ Latin site na ngwaa ejiri nkwekọrịta, nke ụdaume a na-ejikọta na njedebe (nke gụnyere ụdaume isiokwu). Nke a na-ebute ụdaume dị iche iche na njedebe site na ngwaa ndị na-abụghị nkwekọrịta.

 tīmaeis > tīmāis 'ị na-asọpụrụ'

 Asụsụ dị iche iche 

 Latịn 
Na Latin, aha nke mbụ, nke abụọ, nke anọ, na nke ise declension ka a na-ewere dị ka isiokwu; nbibi nke mbụ nwere isiokwu ụdaume a, nke abụọ o, nke anọ u, na nke ise e. A na-eji ahịhịa athematic agwọ m ya na mkpọda nke atọ, ebe ha bịara yitere ibe ha. Ngwaa Latịn nọ n'okpuru nhazi ọkwa yiri nke ahụ: njikọ nke mbụ nwere ụdaume nwere a, nke abụọ nwere e, na nke anọ nwere i. Enweghị ngwaa Latịn nwere o ma ọ bụ u,[20] na ole na ole na-agụghị akwụkwọ, mana a na-ewere ha dị ka ngwaa na-adịghị mma.

Dịka ọmụmaatụ, tụlee njedebe aha nke Latin "nke mbụ" nke okwu rosa 'rose':
Aha.pink[Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji]rosamGen.roseeOge.rosee[Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji]rosā
Udaume a pụtara ìhè na njedebe ikpe ndị a, ya mere a bịara mara aha ndị dị ka rosa dị ka "a-stem" nouns, ya na ịbụ "ụdaume isiokwu," e mesịrị nyochaa okwu dị otú ahụ dị ka inwe azuokokoosisi nwere mgbọrọgwụ gbakwunyere suffix. N'ezie, ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị kwenyere ugbu a na suffix na PIE bụ * -eh₂, nke nwere laryngeal nke na-aghọkarị asụsụ n'asụsụ ụmụ nwanyị.

Asụsụ Sanskrit na-etinye vikaraṇapratyaya (mgbakwunye mgbanwe) n'etiti mgbọrọgwụ okwu na njedebe oge. Mgbọrọgwụ okwu bụ ndị nwere -a na vikaraṇapratyaya, ma ọ bụ, mgbọrọgwụ sitere na klas nke mbụ, nke anọ, nke isii na nke iri.

N'etiti ndị a na-a aha, ndị nwere prātipadika (ogwe) na-agwụ na -a ga-abụ ndị a na ya site na nkọwa a.

 Grik oge ochie 

 Ngwaa 
Ọdịiche dị n'etiti thematic na athematic ị ga pụtara nke ọma na ngwaa Grik; ha na-adaba na klaasị abụọ ejiri njedebe dị iche iche mara. A na-akpọkwa ngwaa okwu okwu -ω (-ō) ngwaa na Grik; ngwaa athematic bụ -μι (-mi) ngwaa, mgbe onye mbụ na-ejedebe ihe dị ugbu a nke onye ọ bụla n'ime ha na-eji. Njikọ ahụ dum yiri ka ọ dị nnọọ iche n'etiti ngwaa abụọ ahụ, mana ndịiche bụ n'ezie ihe sitere na ụdaume isiokwu na-emeghachi omume (fusing) na njedebe ngwaa, ewezuga onye mbụ nke nwere njedebe dị iche iche maka ngwa ngwa athematic na athematic na PIE.[5] Na Greek oge gboo, njedebe na-arụsi ọrụ ike ugbu a maka ngwaa athematic bụ:

 -μι, -ς, σι, -μεν, -τε, -ασι (ν) 
 (-mi, -s, -si, -men, -te, -asi (n) ) 

ebe ngwaa isiokwu na-ewere njedebe:

 -ω, -εις, -ει, -ομεν, -ετε, -ουσι (ν) 
 (-ō, -eis, -ei, -omen, -ete, -ousi (n) ) 

Na Grik, ngwaa athematic, ewezuga ndị na-agwụ na -νῡμι -nūmi, bụ klaasị mechiri emechi nke ụdị eketara site na PIE.

 Aha 
Grik na-echekwa aha isiokwu na nke mbụ (ma ọ bụ alpha) declension na nke abụọ (ma ọ bụrụ omicron), na aha athematic na declension nke atọ.

Nkwụsị nke aha athematic  (poús) 'ụkwụ':
Ụdị AtticỤdị e wughachiri tupu  (ds > s) Aha. (poús) * (*pód-s) Gen. (podós)  (pod-ós) Oge. (podí)  (pod-í) [Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji] (Podi)  (pód-a) < *πόδ-mʹ (*pód-mʹ) Olu. (poús) * (*pód-s) 
Nkwụsị nke aha isiokwu ahụ bụ (Anthropos) 'mmadụ':
Aha.ShaanọnGen.ἀν combinπ-ουOge.ἀν Italy (anthrīp-ōi) [Ihe e dere n'ala ala peeji]Shia-n'ọnwaOlu.Shaansiπ-ε (Anthrōp-e-e) 

 Asụsụ ndị ọzọ 
Ọtụtụ asụsụ ndị Indo-European ndị ọzọ nwere ụdị nke a, ma ọ bụ nwee ha n'oge gara aga. Ọdịiche ndị nwere akara n'etiti ngwaa okwu na athematic pụtara na Lithuanian, na Slavonic Church ochie. N'asụsụ German na Insular Celtic, ụdaume isiokwu na-esikarị ike ịghọta n'ihi mfu nke ụdaume ikpeazụ. Otú ọ dị, a ka na-enwe mmetụta ọnụnọ ha, n'ụzọ na-akọwa ụzọ dị iche iche e si ebelata aha ma ọ bụ njikọ ngwaa, ya mere ndị ọkà mmụta sayensị ka na-ekwu mgbe ụfọdụ maka ụdaume na ụda olu n'asụsụ ndị a.

Ọ bụ ezie na English ochie ka na-atụnyere “ụdaume stems” (thematic) na “consonant stems” (athematic), ọdịiche a abụkwaghị nke bara uru na English Modern English, dị ka n’asụsụ ndị ọzọ bụ ndị e ji ntụnyere dị mfe morphology ha.

 Okwu mmalite 
N'okwu a bụ ụdaume isiokwu, isiokwu na-ezo aka na isi okwu. Dịka ọmụmaatụ, na ngwaa Grik oge ochie τέμνω (témnō) 'ịkpụ', tem- bụ mgbọrọgwụ, na temn- bụ isi ma ọ bụ isiokwu maka ihe dị ugbu a.[21] N'ihi ya, ụdaume isiokwu pụtara n'ezoghị ọnụ "ụdaume stem".

 Ihe edeturu 

 Ihe odide 


   (U.S.)




 Matthias Fritz, Michael Meier-Brügger: Indogermanische Sprachwissenschaft. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 2021 (10., völlig neu bearbeitete Auflage), ISBN 978-3-11-059832-2



Otú:Pages with unreviewed translations