Masyarakat dan kebudayaan Dinasti Han

Dinasti Han (206 SM – 220 M) adalah dinasti kekaisaran kedua di Tiongkok. Pada masa ini, Tiongkok berhasil mencapai kemajuan ekonomi, teknologi, budaya, dan sosial. Masyarakatnya diperintah oleh kaisar yang berbagi kekuasaan dengan para pejabat/ahli dan bangsawan-bangsawan semi-feudal. Hukum, adat, sastra, dan pendidikan Dinasti Han dipandu oleh sistem filsafat dan etika Kong Hu Cu, walaupun pengaruh legalisme dan Taoisme masih dapat dirasakan. Anggota golongan elit terpelajar yang berangan-angan menjadi pejabat harus mendapatkan pendidikan Kong Hu Cu terlebih dahulu.

Walaupun status sosial bangsawan, pejabat, petani, dan pengrajin dianggap lebih tinggi daripada para pedagang yang terdaftar oleh pemerintah, niagawan-niagawan sukses dapat menumpuk kekayaan yang membuat mereka dapat menyaingi martabat para bangsawan dan pejabat tertinggi. Sementara itu, budak dianggap sebagai golongan yang paling rendah, tetapi jumlah mereka hanya sedikit.

Rumah tangga di Dinasti Han biasanya terdiri dari keluarga inti dengan empat hingga lima anggota keluarga, tidak seperti pada masa dinasti-dinasti berikutnya ketika rumah tangga dihuni oleh beberapa generasi sekaligus dan anggota keluarga besar. Keluarga di Han bersifat patrilineal. Perjodohan merupakan hal yang lumrah, dan istri yang baru menikah akan bergabung dengan klan suaminya. Masyarakat Han lebih menghargai anak lelaki daripada perempuan karena dianggap penting untuk meneruskan praktik pemujaan leluhur.

 Bacaan lanjut 

 Adshead, S.A.M. (2004). T'ang China: The Rise of the East in World History. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.  (hardback).
 Akira, Hirakawa. (1998). A History of Indian Buddhism: From Sakyamani to Early Mahayana. Translated by Paul Groner. New Delhi: Jainendra Prakash Jain At Shri Jainendra Press. .
 Barbieri-Low, Anthony J. (2007). Artisans in Early Imperial China. Seattle & London: University of Washington Press. .
 Beck, Mansvelt. (1986). "The Fall of Han," in The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 317-376. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .
 Beningson, Susan L. (2005). "Tomb wall tile stamped with designs of an archer, trees, horses, and beasts," in Recarving China's Past: Art, Archaeology, and Architecture of the 'Wu Family Shrines, 258–260. Edited by Naomi Noble Richard. New Haven and London: Yale University Press and Princeton University Art Museum. .
 Bielenstein, Hans. (1980). The Bureaucracy of Han Times. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .
 Bower, Virginia (2005). "Standing man and woman," in Recarving China's Past: Art, Archaeology, and Architecture of the 'Wu Family Shrines, 242–245. Edited by Naomi Noble Richard. New Haven and London: Yale University Press and Princeton University Art Museum. .
 Bower, Virginia (2005). "Sleeve dancer," in Recarving China's Past: Art, Archaeology, and Architecture of the 'Wu Family Shrines, 248–251. Edited by Naomi Noble Richard. New Haven and London: Yale University Press and Princeton University Art Museum. .
 Chang, Chun-shu. (2007). The Rise of the Chinese Empire: Volume II; Frontier, Immigration, & Empire in Han China, 130 B.C. – A.D. 157. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. .
 Ch'en, Ch'i-Yün. (1986). "Confucian, Legalist, and Taoist Thought in Later Han," in Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 766–806. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .
 Ch'ü, T'ung-tsu. (1972). Han Dynasty China: Volume 1: Han Social Structure. Edited by Jack L. Dull. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press. .
 Csikszentmihalyi, Mark. (2006). Readings in Han Chinese Thought. Indianapolis and Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. .
 Cutter, Robert Joe. (1989). The Brush and the Spur: Chinese Culture and the Cockfight. Hong Kong: The Chinese University of Hong Kong. .
 de Crespigny, Rafe de. (2007). A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23-220 AD). Leiden: Koninklijke Brill. .
 Demiéville, Paul. (1986). "Philosophy and religion from Han to Sui," in Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 808–872. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .
 Ebrey, Patricia. "Estate and Family Management in the Later Han as Seen in the Monthly Instructions for the Four Classes of People," Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, Vol. 17, No. 2 (May, 1974): pp. 173–205.
 Ebrey, Patricia. (1986). "The Economic and Social History of Later Han," in Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 608-648. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .
 Ebrey, Patricia (1999). The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .
 Hansen, Valerie. (2000). The Open Empire: A History of China to 1600. New York & London: W.W. Norton & Company. .
 Hardy, Grant. (1999). Worlds of Bronze and Bamboo: Sima Qian's Conquest of History. New York: Columbia University Press. .
 Hardy, Grant and Anne Behnke Kinney. (2005). The Establishment of the Han Empire and Imperial China. Westport: Greenwood Press of Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc. .
 Hendrischke, Barbara (2000). "Early Daoist Movements" in Daoism Handbook, ed. Livia Kohn, 134-164. Leiden: Brill. .
 Hinsch, Bret. (2002). Women in Imperial China. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. .
 Hsu, Cho-Yun. "The Changing Relationship between Local Society and the Central Political Power in Former Han: 206 B.C.–8 A.D.," Comparative Studies in Society and History, Vol. 7, No. 4 (Jul., 1965): pp. 358–370.
 Huang, Ray. (1988). China: A Macro History. Armonk & London: M.E. Sharpe Inc., an East Gate Book. .
 Hucker, Charles O. (1975). China's Imperial Past: An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture. Stanford: Stanford University Press. .
 Hulsewé, A.F.P. (1986). "Ch'in and Han law," in The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 520-544. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .
 Kern, Martin. "Western Han Aesthetics and the Genesis of the 'Fu'," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, Vol. 63, No. 2 (Dec., 2003): pp. 383–437.
 Kramers, Robert P. (1986). "The Development of the Confucian Schools," in Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 747–756. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .
 Lewis, Mark Edward. (1999). Writing and Authority in Early China. Albany: State University of New York Press.
 Lewis, Mark Edward. (2007). The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. .
 Liu, Cary Y. (2005). "The Concept of 'Brilliant Artifacts' in the Han Dynasty Burial Objects and Funerary Architecture: Embodying the Harmony of the Sun and the Moon," in Recarving China's Past: Art, Archaeology, and Architecture of the 'Wu Family Shrines''', 204–221. Edited by Naomi Noble Richard. New Haven and London: Yale University Press and Princeton University Art Museum. .
 Liu, Wu-chi. (1990). An Introduction to Chinese Literature. Westport: Greenwood Press of Greenwood Publishing Group. .
 Loewe, Michael. (1968). Everyday Life in Early Imperial China during the Han Period 202 BC–AD 220. London: B.T. Batsford Ltd.; New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. .
 Loewe, Michael. (1986). "The Former Han Dynasty," in The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 103–222. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .
 Loewe, Michael. (1994). Divination, Mythology and Monarchy in Han China. Cambridge, New York, and Melbourne: Cambridge University Press. .
 Loewe, Michael. "Review: Worlds of Bronze and Bamboo: Sima Qian's Conquest of History," T’oung Pao, Vol. 87.1–3 (2001): pp. 221–30.
 Loewe, Michael. (2005). "Funerary Practice in Han Times," in Recarving China's Past: Art, Archaeology, and Architecture of the 'Wu Family Shrines, 23–74. Edited by Naomi Noble Richard. New Haven and London: Yale University Press and Princeton University Art Museum. .
 Mair, Victor H. (2001). The Columbia History of Chinese Literature. New York: Columbia University Press. .
 Needham, Joseph. (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology; Part 2, Mechanical Engineering. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. .
 Neinhauser, William H., Charles Hartman, Y.W. Ma, and Stephen H. West. (1986). The Indiana Companion to Traditional Chinese Literature: Volume 1. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. .
 Nishijima, Sadao. (1986). "The Economic and Social History of Former Han," in Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220, 545-607. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .
 Norman, Jerry. (1988). Chinese. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. .
 Ruitenbeek, Klaas. (2005). "Triangular hollow tomb tile with dragon design," in Recarving China's Past: Art, Archaeology, and Architecture of the 'Wu Family Shrines, 252–254. Edited by Naomi Noble Richard. New Haven and London: Yale University Press and Princeton University Art Museum. .
 Schaberg, David. "Review: Worlds of Bronze and Bamboo: Sima Qian's Conquest of History," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, Vol. 61, No. 1 (Jun., 2001): pp. 249–259.
 Steinhardt, Nancy N. (2005). "Tower model," in Recarving China's Past: Art, Archaeology, and Architecture of the 'Wu Family Shrines, 283–285. Edited by Naomi Noble Richard. New Haven and London: Yale University Press and Princeton University Art Museum. .
 Sun, Xiaochun and Jacob Kistemaker. (1997). The Chinese Sky During the Han: Constellating Stars and Society. Leiden, New York, Köln: Koninklijke Brill. .
 Wagner, Donald B. (2001). The State and the Iron Industry in Han China. Copenhagen: Nordic Institute of Asian Studies Publishing. .
 Wang, Yu-ch'uan. "An Outline of The Central Government of The Former Han Dynasty," Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, Vol. 12, No. 1/2 (Jun., 1949): pp. 134–187.
 Wang, Zhongshu. (1982). Han Civilization. Translated by K.C. Chang and Collaborators. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. .
 Wilkinson, Endymion. (1998). Chinese History: A Manual. Cambridge and London: Harvard University Asia Center of the Harvard University Press. .
 Xue, Shiqi. (2003). "Chinese lexicography past and present" in Lexicography: Critical Concepts, 158–173. Edited by R.R.K. Hartmann. London and New York: Routledge. .
 Yong, Heming and Jing Peng. (2008). Chinese Lexicography: A History from 1046 BC to AD 1911. Oxford: Oxford University Press. .
 Zhang, Guanuda. (2002). "The Role of the Sogdians as Translators of Buddhist Texts," in Silk Road Studies VII: Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road'', 75–78. Edited by Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner. Turnhout: Brepols Publishers. .

Kategori:Dinasti Han