Harsunan Afirka

Littafin "The Languages of Africa" littafi ne na muƙaloli na masanin harsuna Joseph Greenberg na shekarar 1963, inda marubucin ya bayyana rarrabuwar harsunan Afirka ta hanyar kwayoyin halitta, wanda, tare da wasu canje-canje, ya ci gaba da zama wanda aka fi amfani da shi a yau. Sigar da aka faɗaɗa kuma aka sake duba ta sosai ta littafinsa na 1955 Studies in African Linguistic Rarraba, wanda shi kansa tarin muƙaloli takwas ne Greenberg ya buga a cikin Jaridar Southwestern Journal of Anthropology tsakanin 1949 da 1954. An fara buga shi a shekarar 1963 a matsayin Kashi na II na Mujallar Ƙasa da Ƙasa ta Nazarin Harsunan Amurka, Vol. 29, No. 1; duk da haka, bugu na biyu na 1966, wanda aka buga shi (ta Jami'ar Indiana, Bloomington: Mouton & Co., The Hague) a matsayin aiki mai zaman kansa, an fi ambatonsa. [ ana buƙatar ambato ]

Marubucin ya bayyana shi a matsayin bisa ga muhimman abubuwa guda uku na hanya:

 "Daidaitawar da ta fi dacewa idan aka kwatanta kamanceceniya da ta shafi sauti da ma'ana a cikin takamaiman siffofi." 
 " Kwatanta taro kamar kwatantawa tsakanin harsuna biyu." 
 "Shaidar harshe ce kawai ta dace wajen yanke hukunci game da rarrabuwa." 

 Sabbin abubuwa 
Iyalan Greenberg na Niger-Congo sun kasance masu nuna fifiko ga " Western Sudanic " na Westermann, amma ya canza rarrabuwar, ciki har da Fulani (a matsayin Yammacin Tekun Atlantika ) da kuma sabuwar Adamawa-Gabas, ban da Songhai, kuma ya rarraba Bantu a matsayin ƙaramin iyali na Benue-Congo (wanda a da ake kira "Semi-Bantu").

An yarda da Semitic, Berber, Masar da Cushitic gabaɗaya a matsayin membobin dangin "Hamito-Semitic", yayin da Chadic, Fulani, " Nilo-Hamitic " da Hottentot duk an gabatar da su a matsayin membobi cikin rashin jituwa. Ya yarda da Chadic (yayin da yake canza membobinsa), kuma ya ƙi sauran ukun, wanda ya tabbatar wa yawancin masana ilimin harsuna cewa an sanya su a matsayin "Hamitic" saboda dalilai na rubutu kawai. Wannan zanga-zangar ta kuma haifar da ƙin yarda (da shi da kuma ta hanyar ilimin harsuna gaba ɗaya) na kalmar Hamitic a matsayin ba ta da ma'ana mai ma'ana a cikin ilimin harsuna na tarihi; sakamakon haka, ya sake wa sabon dangin da aka sake rarrabawa suna " Afroasiatic ".

Bayan Schapera ya ƙi Meinhof, ya sanya Hottentot a matsayin ɗan ƙungiyar harsunan Tsakiyar Khoisan . Ya kuma ƙara Hadza (Hatsa) da Sandawe na arewa.

Matakin da ya fi kawo sauyi shi ne batun dangin Nilo-Saharan . Wannan har yanzu yana da ce-ce-ku-ce, domin har yanzu yunƙurin sake gina wannan iyali bai yi nasara ba, amma yana da alƙawari kuma ana amfani da shi sosai. Masana harsuna na baya sun lura da wata alaƙa tsakanin yawancin harsunan, amma ba su taɓa gabatar da iyali a hukumance ba. Waɗannan harsunan - rassan Gabashin Sudan, Tsakiyar Sudan, Kunama da Berta - Greenberg ya sanya su cikin wani rukuni na asali da ya kira Chari-Nile, wanda ya ƙara duk sauran harsunan Afirka marasa rarrabuwa waɗanda ba su da azuzuwan suna. Tun daga lokacin an yi watsi da bambancin da ke tsakanin Chari-Nile da rassan da ke kewaye. A wani mataki na ƙasa, ya sanya "Nilo-Hamitic" a cikin Nilotic, bayan shawarar Köhler, kuma ya sanya Gabashin Sudan a kan tushe mai ƙarfi.

A ƙarshe, ya bai wa dangin Nijar-Congo harsunan da ba a rarraba su ba na tsaunukan Nuba na Kudancin Kordofan, yana mai kiran su Congo-Kordofanian . An amince da dangantakar, ban da ƙungiyar " Tumtum ", kodayake ba a sake ganin harsunan Kordofanian a matsayin babban reshe ba, kuma ba a amfani da sunan 'Congo-Kordofanian' ba.

Iyalai huɗu na Greenberg sun zama mafi rinjayen fahimtar harsunan Afirka, kodayake rarrabuwar sa ba ta yi kyau ba. Kusan an yarda da Nijar-Congo da Afroasiatic a duk duniya, ba tare da wani tallafi mai mahimmanci ga Hamitic ko 'yancin kai na Bantu ba. Har yanzu ana ɗaukar Nilo-Saharan a matsayin na wucin gadi. Khoisan yanzu ƙwararru sun ƙi shi, sai dai a matsayin kalma mai sauƙi, kodayake ana iya adana shi a cikin littattafan da ba su da ƙwarewa sosai.

 Rarrabawa 
Littafin ya raba harsunan Afirka zuwa sassa huɗu waɗanda ba a yi zaton suna da alaƙa da juna ba, kamar haka:

 I. Kwango-Kordofanian 

 I.A Niger–Congo
 I.A.1 West Atlantic
 I.A.1.a Northern: Wolof, Serer-Sin, Fulani, Serer-Non, Konyagi, Basari, Biafada, Badyara (Pajade), Dyola, Mandyak, Balante, Banyun, Nalu, Cobiana, Cassanga, Bidyogo
 I.A.1.b Southern: Temne, Baga, Landoma, Kissi, Bulom, Limba, Gola
 I.A.2 Mande
 I.A.2.a Western
 I.A.2.a.1 Malinke, Bambara, Dyula, Mandinka, Numu, Ligbi, Huela, Vai, Kono, Koranko, Khasonke Bobo
 I.A.2.a.3 Mende, Loko, Gbandi, Loma, Kpelle (Guerze)
 I.A.2.a.4 Susu, Dyalonke
 I.A.2.a.5 Soninke, Bozo
 I.A.2.a.6 Duun, Dzuun, Jo, Seenku (Sembla), Kpan, Banka
 I.A.2.b Eastern
 I.A.2.b.1 Mano, Dan (Gio), Guro (Kweni), Mwa, Nwa, Beng, Gban, Tura (Wen), Yaure
 I.A.2.b.2 Samo, Bisa, Busa, Kyenga, Shanga
 I.A.3 Voltaic
 I.A.3.a Senoufo: Minianka, Tagba, Foro, Tagwana (Takponin), Dyimini, Nafana
 I.A.3.b. Lobi-Dogon: Lobi, Dyan, Puguli, Gan, Gouin, Turuka, Doghosie, Doghosie-Fing, Kyan, Tara, Bwamu, Wara, Natioro, Dogon, Kulango
 I.A.3.c Grusi: Awuna, Kasena, Nunuma, Lyele, Tamprusi, Kanjaga (Bulea) (moved to group d), Degha, Siti, Kurumba (Fulse), Sisala
 I.A.3.d Mossi, Dagomba, Kusasi, Nankanse, Talensi, Mamprusi, Wala, Dagari, Birifo, Namnam, Kanjaga (Bulea) (moved from group c)
 I.A.3.e Tem, Kabre, Delo, Chala
 I.A.3.f Bargu (Bariba)
 I.A.3.g Gurma, Tobote (Basari), Kasele (Chamba), Moba
 I.A.3.x Dogon
 I.A.4 Kwa
 I.A.4.a Kru: Bete, Bakwe, Grebo, Bassa, De, Kru (Krawi)
 I.A.4.b Avatime, Nyangbo, Tafi, Logba, Likpe, Ahlo, Akposo, Lefana, Bowili, Akpafu, Santrokofi, Adele, Kebu, Anyimere, Ewe, Aladian, Avikam, Gwa, Kyama, Akye, Ari, Abe, Adyukru, Akan (Twi, Anyi, Baule, Guang, Metyibo, Abure), Ga, Adangme
 I.A.4.c Yoruba, Igala
 I.A.4.d Nupe, Gbari, Igbira, Gade
 I.A.4.e Bini, Ishan, Kukuruku, Sobo
 I.A.4.f Idoma, Agatu, Iyala
 I.A.4.g Ibo
 I.A.4.h Ijo
 I.A.5 Benue–Congo
 I.A.5.A Plateau
 I.A.5.A.1
 I.A.5.A.1.a Kambari, Dukawa, Dakakari, Basa, Kamuku, Reshe
 I.A.5.A.1.b Piti, Janji, Kurama, Chawai, Anaguta, Buji, Amap, Gure, Kahugu, Ribina, Butawa, Kudawa
 I.A.5.A.2 Afusare, Irigwe, Katab, Kagoro, Kaje, Kachicheri, Morwa, Jaba, Kamantan, Kadara, Koro, Afo
 I.A.5.A.3 Birom, Ganawuri (Aten)
 I.A.5.A.4 Rukuba, Ninzam, Ayu, Mada, Kaninkwom
 I.A.5.A.5 Eggon, Nungu, Yeskwa
 I.A.5.A.6 Kaleri, Pyem, Pai
 I.A.5.A.7 Yergam, Basherawa
 I.A.5.B Jukunoid: Jukun, Kentu, Nyidu, Tigong, Eregba, Mbembe, Zumper (Kutev, Mbarike), Boritsu
 I.A.5.C Cross-River
 I.A.5.C.1 Boki, Gayi (Uge), Yakoro
 I.A.5.C.2 Ibibio, Efik, Ogoni (Kana), Andoni, Akoiyang, Ododop, Korop
 I.A.5.C.3 Akunakuna, Abine, Yako, Asiga, Ekuri, Ukelle, Okpoto-Mteze, Olulomo
 I.A.5.D Bantoid: Tiv, Bitare, Batu, Ndoro, Mambila, Bute, Bantu
 I.A.6 Adamawa–Eastern
 I.A.6.A Adamawa
 I.A.6.A.1 Tula, Dadiya, Waja, Cham, Kamu
 I.A.6.A.2 Chamba, Donga, Lekon, Wom, Mumbake
 I.A.6.A.3 Daka, Taram
 I.A.6.A.4 Vere, Namshi, Kolbila, Pape, Sari, Sewe, Woko, Kotopo, Kutin, Durru
 I.A.6.A.5 Mumuye, Kumba, Gengle, Teme, Waka, Yendang, Zinna
 I.A.6.A.6 Dama, Mono, Mbere, Mundang, Yasing, Mangbei, Mbum, Kpere, Lakka, Dek
 I.A.6.A.7 Yungur, Mboi, Libo, Roba
 I.A.6.A.8 Kam
 I.A.6.A.9 Jen, Munga
 I.A.6.A.10 Longuda
 I.A.6.A.11 Fali
 I.A.6.A.12 Nimbari
 I.A.6.A.13 Bua, Nielim, Koke
 I.A.6.A.14 Masa
 I.A.6.B Eastern
 I.A.6.B.1 Gbaya, Manja, Mbaka
 I.A.6.B.2 Banda
 I.A.6.B.3 Ngbandi, Sango, Yakoma
 I.A.6.B.4 Zande, Nzakara, Barambo, Pambia
 I.A.6.B.5 Bwaka, Monjombo, Gbanziri, Mundu, Mayogo, Bangba
 I.A.6.B.6 Ndogo, Bai, Bviri, Golo, Sere, Tagbo, Feroge, Indri, Mangaya, Togoyo
 I.A.6.B.7 Amadi (Madyo, Ma)
 I.A.6.B.8 Mondunga, Mba (Bamanga)
 I.B Kordofanian
 I.B.1 Koalib: Koalib, Kanderma, Heiban, Laro, Otoro, Kawama, Shwai, Tira, Moro, Fungor
 I.B.2 Tegali: Tegali, Rashad, Tagoi, Tumale
 I.B.3 Talodi: Talodi, Lafofa, Eliri, Masakin, Tacho, Lumun, El Amira
 I.B.4 Tumtum: Tumtum, Tuleshi, Keiga, Karondi, Krongo, Miri, Kadugli, Katcha
 I.B.5 Katla: Katla, Tima

 II. Nilo-Saharan 

 II.A Songhai
 II.B Saharan
 II.B.a Kanuri, Kanembu
 II.B.b Teda, Daza
 II.B.c Zaghawa, Berti
 II.C Maban: Maba, Runga, Mimi of Nachtigal, Mimi of Gaudefroy-Demombynes
 II.D. Fur
 II.E. Chari–Nile
 II.E.1 Eastern Sudanic
 II.E.1.1 Nubian
 II.E.1.1.a Nile Nubian (Mahas-Fadidja and Kenuzi-Dongola)
 II.E.1.1.b Kordofanian Nubian: Dair, Dilling, Gulfan, Garko, Kadero, Kundugr
 II.E.1.1.c Midob
 II.E.1.1.d Birked
 II.E.1.2 Murle (Beir), Longarim, Didinga, Suri, Mekan, Murzu, Surma (including Tirma and Zulmanu), Masongo
 II.E.1.3 Barea
 II.E.1.4 Ingassana (Tabi)
 II.E.1.5 Nyima, Afitti
 II.E.1.6 Temein, Teis-um-Danab
 II.E.1.7 Merarit, Tama, Sungor
 II.E.1.8 Dagu of Darfur, Baygo, Sila, Dagu of Dar Dagu (Wadai), Dagu of Western Kordofan, Njalgulgule, Shatt, Liguri
 II.E.1.9 Nilotic
 II.E.1.9.a Western
 II.E.1.9.a.1 Burun
 II.E.1.9.a.2 Shilluk, Anuak, Acholi, Lango, Alur, Luo, Jur, Bor
 II.E.1.9.a.3 Dinka, Nuer
 II.E.1.9.b Eastern
 II.E.1.9.b.1 Bari, Fajulu, Kakwa, Mondari
 II.E.1.9.b.2a Jie, Dodoth, Karamojong, Teso, Topotha, Turkana
 II.E.1.9.b.2b Masai
 II.E.1.9.b.3 Southern: Nandi, Suk, Tatoga
 II.E.1.10 Nyangiya, Teuso
 II.E.2 Central Sudanic
 II.E.2.1 Bongo, Baka, Morokodo, Beli, Gberi, Sara dialects (Madjinngay, Gulai, Mbai, Gamba, Kaba, Dendje, Laka), Vale, Nduka, Tana, Horo, Bagirmi, Kuka, Kenga, Disa, Bubalia
 II.E.2.2 Kreish
 II.E.2.3 Binga, Yulu, Kara [= Tar Gula]
 II.E.2.4 Moru, Avukaya, Logo, Keliko, Lugbara, Madi
 II.E.2.5 Mangbetu, Lombi, Popoi, Makere, Meje, Asua
 II.E.2.6 Mangbutu, Mamvu, Lese, Mvuba, Efe
 II.E.2.7 Lendu
 II.E.3 Berta
 II.E.4 Kunama
 II.F Koman/Coman: Komo, Ganza, Uduk, Gule, Gumuz, Mao

 III. Afirka ta Tsakiya 

 III.A Semitic
 III.B Egyptian
 III.C Berber
 III.D Cushitic
 III.D.1 Northern Cushitic: Beja (Bedauye)
 III.D.2 Central Cushitic: Bogo (Bilin), Kamir, Khamta, Awiya, Damot, Kemant, Kayla, Quara
 III.D.3 Eastern Cushitic: Saho-Afar, Somali, Galla, Konso, Geleba, Marille, (Reshiat, Arbore), Gardula, Gidole, Gowaze, Burji, Sidamo, Darasa, Kambata, Alaba, Hadya, Tambaro, Mogogodo (added 1966)
 III.D.4 Western Cushitic: Janjero, Wolamo, Zala, Gofa, Basketo, Baditu, Haruro, Zaysse, Chara, Gimira, Benesho, Nao, Kaba, Shako, She, Maji, Kafa, Garo, Mocha, Anfillo (Mao), Shinasha, Bako, Amar, Bana, Dime, Gayi, Kerre, Tsamai, Doko, Dollo
 III.D.5 Southern Cushitic: Burungi (Mbulungu), Goroa (Fiome), Alawa (Uwassi), Iraqw, Mbugu, Sanye [= Dahalo], Ngomvia (added 1966)
 III.E Chad
 III.E.1
 III.E.1.a Hausa, Gwandara
 III.E.1.b Ngizim, Mober [= Kanuri, not Chadic], Auyokawa, Shirawa, Bede
 III.E.1.c
 III.E.1.c.i Warjawa, Afawa, Diryawa, Miyawa, Sirawa
 III.E.1.c.ii Gezawa, Sayawa, Barawa of Dass
 III.E.1.d
 III.E.1.d.i Bolewa, Karekare, Ngamo, Gerawa, Gerumawa, Kirifawa, Dera (Kanakuru), Tangale, Pia, Pero, Chongee, Maha (added 1966)
 III.E.1.d.ii Angas, Ankwe, Bwol, Chip, Dimuk, Goram, Jorto, Kwolla, Miriam, Montol, Sura, Tal, Gerka
 III.E.1.d.iii Ron
 III.E.2 Kotoko group: Logone, Ngala [= Mpade?], Buduma, Kuri, Gulfei, Affade, Shoe, Kuseri
 III.E.3 Bata–Margi group
 III.E.3.a Bachama, Demsa, Gudo, Malabu, Njei (Kobochi, Nzangi, Zany), Zumu (Jimo), Holma, Kapsiki, Baza, Hiji, Gude (Cheke), Fali of Mubi, Fali of Kiria, Fali of Jilbu, Margi, Chibak, Kilba, Sukur, Vizik, Vemgo, Woga, Tur, Bura, Pabir, Podokwo
 III.E.3.b Gabin, Hona, Tera, Jera, Hinna (Hina)
 III.E.4
 III.E.4.a Hina, Daba, Musgoi, Gauar
 III.E.4.b Gisiga, Balda, Muturua, Mofu, Matakam
 III.E.5 Gidder
 III.E.6 Mandara, Gamergu
 III.E.7 Musgu
 III.E.8 Bana, Banana (Masa), Lame, Kulung
 III.E.9
 III.E.9.a Somrai, Tumak, Ndam, Miltu, Sarwa, Gulei [= Tumak?]
 III.E.9.b Gabere, Chiri, Dormo, Nangire
 III.E.9.c Sokoro (Bedanga), Barein
 III.E.9.d Modgel
 III.E.9.e Tuburi
 III.E.9.f Mubi, Karbo, (added 1966: Jegu, Jonkor, Wadai-Birgid)

 IV Khoisan 

 IV.A Khoisan Afirka ta Kudu
 IV.A.1 Khoisan Arewacin Afirka ta Kudu
 IV.A.2 Khoisan Afirka ta Kudu ta Tsakiya
 IV.A.3 Khoisan Kudancin Afirka ta Kudu
 IV.B Sandawe
 IV.C Hatsa

 Littattafan tarihi 

 Greenberg, Joseph H. (1963) Harsunan Afirka . Mujallar ƙasa da ƙasa ta ilimin harsunan Amurka, 29, 1, kashi na 2.
 Greenberg, Joseph H. (1966) Harsunan Afirka (bugu na 2 tare da ƙari da gyare-gyare). Bloomington: Jami'ar Indiana.

 Nassoshi 

Category: Afrika