Yusuf ibn 'Awkal

Abū Ya'qūb Abu'l-Faraj Yūsuf b. Ya'qūb b. 'Awkal ɗan kasuwa ne na Yahudawa na Masar a ƙarshen ƙarni na 10 da farkon ƙarni na 11. Ya kasance "basarake mai kuɗi" mai matuƙar arziki wanda ya kasance fitaccen mutum a cikin al'ummar 'yan kasuwa ta Masar da kuma al'ummar Yahudawan Bahar Rum.

Rayuwarsa da ayyukansa an tabbatar da su ta hanyar jerin takardu daga Cairo Geniza . Wannan ya ƙunshi duka wasiƙu da rahotannin da aka aika masa; babu wani abu da shi ko sakatarorinsa suka rubuta da ya tsira. Akwai jimillar takardu 61 da aka aika masa ko ga iyalansa waɗanda suka kai tsararraki huɗu daga shekarun 980 har zuwa 1078. Wasiƙun da aka aika wa Ibn 'Awkal da iyalansa tare sun zama tsoffin wasiƙun kasuwanci a Cairo Geniza, kuma ɗaya daga cikin mafi tsufa a duniya. Wasiƙun Ibn 'Awkal muhimmin tushe ne ga rayuwar kasuwanci a Bahar Rum a wannan lokacin, lokacin da juyin juya halin kasuwanci ke gudana a duniyar Musulunci amma kafin ƙasashen birni na Italiya su mamaye Bahar Rum a ƙarshen ƙarni na 11. [1] :16, 22, 78

A fannin zamantakewa, Yusufu ya yi aiki a matsayin mai shiga tsakani tsakanin Yahudawan Maghreb da kuma makarantun ilimi na Yeshivot na Iraki da Falasdinu.  

 Suna 
Cikakken sunansa a Larabci shine "Abū Ya'qūb Abu'l-Faraj Yūsuf b. Ya'qūb b. 'Awkal". Siffar sunansa ta Ibrananci ita ce Yōsēf ben Ya'aqōv ben 'Awkal . Yana da 'yan kunya guda biyu, wanda wani lokacin haka yake faruwa ga mutane masu matsayi. Yawancin wasiƙu suna amfani da 'yan kunya Abu'l-Faraj, amma a lokuta uku ana kiransa da Abū Ya'qūb, wanda shine " kunya ta yau da kullun ga wani mai suna Yusuf".  

 Iyali 
An haifi Yusuf a cikin dangin Ibn 'Awkal, waɗanda da alama asalinsu asalin Farisa ne - wata wasiƙa ta farko da aka aika wa mahaifin Yusuf ta fito ne daga Iran kuma a cikin gaurayen Larabci da Yahudanci-Farisa - kafin ya koma yankin da yanzu ake kira Tunisiya a tsakiyar ƙarni na 10 kuma daga ƙarshe ya koma Fustat wani lokaci bayan nasarar Fatimiyawa a Masar a shekara ta 969. Mahaifinsa ana kiransa Abū Bishr Ya'qūb; a lokacinsa iyalin sun kafa Fustat. [1] :17

Ba a san ainihin shekarar da aka haifi Yusuf da kuma lokacin da ya mutu ba. Wasikunsa na baya-bayan nan an rubuta su ne a watan Mayu na shekarar 1038, kuma an aika wasiƙar da ta gabata daga 1008 zuwa gare shi da 'ya'yansa maza biyu waɗanda za su kasance "'ya'yan manya waɗanda suka kasance abokan hulɗa a cikin kamfanin iyali" shekaru 30 da suka gabata; don haka dole ne ya rayu har zuwa tsufa. A shekara ta 1038 dole ne ya kasance aƙalla a cikin shekarunsa na 70.  

Yusufu yana da 'ya'ya maza huɗu: Abu'l-Fadl Hilāl (Hillel), Abu'l-Tayyib Benjamin, Abū Sahl Manasseh, da Abū Sa'īd Khalaf. Da alama yana da suruki mai suna Abū Naṣr, wanda Goitein ya yi kama da Abū Naṣr Ḥesed b. Yashar al-Tustarī, wani sanannen ɗan gidan Yahudawa.  

 Zama da ofisoshi da ayyukan yau da kullum 
Yusuf yana da gida a Fustat da Alkahira. Babban ofishinsa yana iya kasancewa a gidan iyalansa, kamar yadda aka saba gani. Babban ofishinsa mai ɗakin tarba ( majlis ) a tsakiyar birnin Fustat, wataƙila ba shi da nisa da tashar jiragen ruwa idan aka yi la'akari da yanayin harkokin kasuwancinsa. Yawancin wasiƙun da aka aika masa ana aika su ne zuwa wannan wurin. Yusuf yana da aƙalla wasu ofisoshi biyu, ciki har da ɗaya a Dār al-Jawhar, babban cibiyar cinikin duwatsu masu daraja ta Alkahira ta zamanin da. Tunda yana da hannu wajen sayar da duwatsu masu daraja ga "abokan ciniki na sarauta", ayyukansa a Alkahira suna da mahimmanci don sanya shi kusa da fadar sarki. Wataƙila Yusuf ya yi kwanaki da yawa a mako a Fustat tunda ba Alkahira ba ce, har yanzu ita ce babbar cibiyar kasuwanci a cikin Khalifancin Fatimid; yawancin jiragen ruwa suna shigowa tashar jiragen ruwa ta Fustat al-Ṣinā'a.  

Da zarar ya zama shugaban kasuwancin iyali, Yusuf da kansa ba a taɓa rubuta shi a rubuce ba yana tafiya a wajen Cairo-Fustat; da alama kusan koyaushe yana nan a wurin.  Darajarsa da ikonsa sun yi yawa har kusan bai taɓa buƙatar barin gidansa da ke Fustat ba.  Duk wasiƙun da aka aika masa ko ambatonsa suna ɗauka cewa yana nan. A lokacin girbin flax, maimakon haka wakilansa ne suka je ƙauye don siyan flax, sarrafawa, da kuma tattara flax. A gefe guda kuma, 'ya'yan Yusufu sun yi tafiya.  

Yusuf ya gaji mukamin wakilin makarantun Babila daga mahaifinsa, amma duk da muƙaminsa babu wata alama da ke nuna cewa ya shiga cikin kowace irin tallafin karatu, kuma "ƙorafe-ƙorafe da dama daga Masar da Yamma sun nuna cewa ya yi sakaci ko sakaci" a cikin waɗannan ayyukan. Ba kamar sauran mutanen zamaninsa ba, Yusuf bai yi kama da ya kasance mai fada ba ko kuma ya riƙe wani mukami a kotun Fatimid ba.  

 Dangantaka 
Ɗaya daga cikin abokan Yusuf mafi kusanci shi ne Abū Imran Mūsā ibn al-Majjānī, wanda ya yi aiki a matsayin babban wakilinsa a Qayrawan . An ambaci Musa a cikin fiye da kashi ɗaya bisa biyar na duk wasiƙun da aka aika wa Yusuf, kodayake an gano wasiƙa ɗaya kawai daga Musa zuwa ga Yusuf. Musa da farko ɗan makaranta ne ga Yusuf; daga baya sun yi aiki a matsayin abokan kasuwanci; a ƙarshe, wani lokaci a cikin shekarun 1030, sun kawo ƙarshen wannan shirin. Ko bayan haka, Musa ya ci gaba da kiran Yusuf malaminsa ( mu'allim ) a cikin wasiƙar da ya aika wa wani abokinsa.  

An bayyana hamayya tsakanin Musa da dangin Taherti masu ƙarfi tun daga shekarar 1011; a shekarar 1015 Yusuf da kansa ya yanke duk wata alaƙa da su kuma akwai faɗa a tsakaninsu.  

 Ayyukan kasuwanci 
Yusuf babban mutum ne mai "fifikon shigo da kaya da fitar da su" wanda, maimakon siye da sayar da kayayyaki kai tsaye, yake kula da jigilar kayayyaki ga abokan hulɗa waɗanda suka yi ainihin siyarwar.  A bayyane yake cewa harkokin kasuwancinsa sun takaita ne kawai a yammacin Bahar Rum; babu wata shaida da ke nuna cewa yana da hannu a harkokin kasuwanci a gabashin Masar.  

Kasuwancin dangin Ibn 'Awkal yana da kamanceceniya da ƙungiyar 'yan'uwa waɗanda daga baya suka shahara a Jamhuriyar Venice - ƙungiyoyin biyu an gudanar da su ne gaba ɗaya a matsayin harkokin iyali, amma wani lokacin suna haɗin gwiwa da wasu don ayyukan haɗin gwiwa na ɗan gajeren lokaci.  

Kamar sauran 'yan kasuwa da yawa a wannan lokacin, Yusufu yana sarrafa kayayyaki iri-iri. Misali, wasiƙar wani ɗan kasuwa na Geniza daga Fustat na ƙarni na 11, Nahray b. Nissīm, ta nuna cewa 'yan kasuwa biyu galibi suna yin kayayyaki iri ɗaya. Bambancin shine adadi. Ibn 'Awkal ya yi ciniki da kayayyaki fiye da Nahray ko wasu 'yan kasuwa masu matsakaicin matsayi.  

 Ma'aikata da abokan hulɗa 
Wakilan Yusuf galibi ba ma'aikata ba ne a zahiri, amma wasu 'yan kasuwa ne waɗanda ba sa aiki don kwamishinonin kuɗi amma saboda suna fatan samun irin wannan sabis ɗin a madadinsu.  Kamar yadda Goldberg ya faɗa, "abokan aikinsa suna farin cikin yin aiki a matsayin wakilansa don samun damar shiga hanyoyin haɗin gwiwarsa". Duk da haka, yana da ɗalibai da ma'aikata da yawa waɗanda suka yi masa aiki. A bayyane yake cewa Yusuf wani lokacin yana ɗaukar abokan aikinsa na kasuwanci kamar su ne waɗanda ke ƙarƙashinsa, "don nuna fushinsu".  

Waɗannan abokan hulɗa sun ba da ayyuka iri-iri ga Yusuf, kuma a lokaci guda sukan nemi irin waɗannan ayyuka kyauta.  Waɗannan ayyukan sun haɗa da karɓar kaya da aika su, amfani da kuɗi daga tallace-tallace don siyan ƙarin kaya, canja wurin kuɗi tsakanin ɓangarorin biyu, da kuma "wani lokacin, ware kuɗi don sayayya ko biyan kuɗi daban-daban".  Wata hidima kuma ita ce samar wa Yusuf bayanai daban-daban game da harkokin kasuwanci.  An haɗa jerin ƙididdiga daban-daban - farashin kasuwa na yanzu, ƙimar musayar kuɗi, buƙatar kayayyaki daban-daban, da jadawalin tashi da isowa na jiragen ruwa - a cikin wasu haruffa, "kamar shafukan kuɗi na jaridar zamani".  

 Sakatare da sadarwa 
Kasuwancin Yusuf "tabbas" yana amfani da sakatare ko marubuta don kula da sadarwa, tunda yawancin wasiƙun da aka aika zuwa gare shi an rubuta su ne ga marubuta (sau da yawa wasiƙar za ta kasance cikin rubutun hannu mai kyau ta hanyar marubuci mai ƙwarewa, sannan ɗan kasuwa ya ƙara rubutun hannu a cikin rubutun hannu mai rauni).  

Wasikun da aka aika wa Yusuf duk sun ambaci ranar aikawa (rana da wata, amma ba yawanci shekara ba) bisa ga kalandar Yahudawa, amma da zarar kamfanin Yusuf ya karɓi wasiƙun, an yi musu alama da rubutun Larabci da ranar karɓa bisa ga kalandar Musulmi (tunda wannan shine kalandar kuɗi). Tunda an san Yusuf yana da wakilan Musulmi da Yahudawa a birane daban-daban (kuma da alama ya yi magana da wakilan Musulmi a rubutun Larabci), wataƙila yana da sakatarorin Musulmi.  

 Kayayyaki da aka fitar daga Masar 

 Flax 
Flax (a Larabci: kattān ) shine babban kayan da Yusufu ke mu'amala da shi. A gaskiya ma, cinikin flax ya yi fice sosai har haruffa wani lokacin suna cire kalmar da kanta, maimakon haka suna cewa kawai "bale", "load", ko "kaya". An ambaci nau'ikan flax guda takwas daban-daban a cikin wasiƙunsa, ciki har da Ashmūnī, Būṣīrī, Mālāl, Mīsārī, Qimāṭ, da "flax indigo" (watau flax da aka rina da rini na indigo bayan an sarrafa shi amma kafin a saka shi cikin lilin). Ana ɗaukar flax na Masar a matsayin mafi inganci da ake samu a duniyar Bahar Rum ta zamanin da. An fi noma shi a Masar ta Upper da Middle. 'Yan kasuwa da ke da hannu a sayar da shi galibi suna zuwa siyan flax ɗin danye sannan su kula da sarrafa shi (tsari ne mai matuƙar wahala) da marufi don jigilar kaya. Yusuf da kansa bai bayyana ya shiga cikin waɗannan ayyukan da kansa ba; maimakon haka, yana da wakilai da mataimaka waɗanda ke zuwa cibiyoyin karkara su yi waɗannan ayyukan a madadinsa.  

Daga Masar ta Sama da Tsakiya, ana jigilar ƙwai na flax ta hanyar kogin Nilu zuwa Alexandria, wani lokacin kuma a ajiye su a Fustat. Daga Alexandria, ana jigilar flax zuwa ƙasashen waje zuwa Ifriqiya da Sicily, inda akwai manyan masana'antun yadi. Tunda jiragen ruwan 'yan kasuwa da ke tafiya yamma galibi suna tafiya a cikin ayarin motoci waɗanda ke tashi a lokacin bazara ko kaka, ana ajiye flax ɗin a cikin rumbunan ajiya (wanda ake kira makhāzin a Larabci, wanda shine inda kalmar "mujallar" ta Ingilishi ta fito) har sai an shirya ayarin motoci. Babban haɗarin jigilar flax shine lalacewar ruwa. Wannan na iya faruwa daga jika a cikin ruwa (an jiƙa flax ɗin yayin sarrafawa a cikin wani tsari da aka sani da retting ) ko, mafi muni, daga ruwan teku.  

Wani takardar Geniza da ta rage ta nuna cewa, a cikin shekara guda, Yusuf ya fitar da kimanin tan 54 na flax zuwa tashar jiragen ruwa ta Mahdia. Dangane da matsakaicin farashin flax a lokacin, Norman Stillman ya kiyasta cewa kudin shigar Yusuf ya kai kimanin dinari 4,860, ko kuma dala 486,000 na Amurka (kamar yadda yake a shekarar 1973) kawai daga wannan kaya guda daya da aka jigilar zuwa tashar jiragen ruwa guda daya.  

Takardun Geniza da suka rage waɗanda suka shafi cinikin flax na Yusuf suna haifar da wasu tambayoyi. Na farko, ana jigilar flax ɗin zuwa Mahdia ko Palermo (a da can ana ajiye shi a Tripoli), kuma ba a taɓa jigilar flax ɗin zuwa wasu biranen da ke da masana'antun masaku masu mahimmanci ba - har ma da Susa, inda Yusuf yake da dangi kuma wacce ita ce birni mafi mahimmanci wajen samar da masaku a duk Arewa maso Yammacin Afirka. Yana yiwuwa wurare kamar Mahdia ko Qayrawan sun kasance manyan "ma'ajiyar" inda 'yan kasuwa na Tunisiya na gida ke zuwa don siyan kayan masarufi. Na biyu, duk takardun sun fito ne daga shekarun 1020 da 1030. Ba a san ko wannan ya faru ne kawai ba ko kuma yana nuna ƙaruwar buƙata (sabili da haka, ciniki) na flax a yammacin Musulmi a wannan lokacin.  

 Indigo 
An rubuta hannun Yusuf a cinikin rini na indigo (a Larabci: nīl ) tsawon kimanin shekaru 50. An ambaci nau'ikan indigo guda uku daban-daban a cikin wasiƙar Yusuf: 'Amtānī, Kirmānī, da Sandānī. 'Amtani indigo wataƙila ya fito ne daga 'Amta' a Falasɗinu. Farashinsa ya kama daga dinari 20 zuwa 30 a kowace qintar a lokacin aikin Yusuf. Kirmani indigo, wanda ya fito daga Kerman a kudu maso gabashin Iran, ya fi tsada, tare da farashi har zuwa dinari 75 a kowace qintar. Sandani indigo wataƙila ya fito ne daga wani wuri a Indiya (mai ilimin ƙasa Yaqut al-Hamawi ya rubuta cewa Sandan babban birnin lardi ne a wani wuri a Indiya). An ambaci shi sau ɗaya kawai a cikin wasiƙar Yusuf kuma ba a bayar da farashi ba, amma wasu takardu daga kusan lokaci guda sun lissafa farashinsa a dinari 33 a kowace qintar. Stillman, Norman A. (1973). "The Eleventh-Century Merchant House of Ibn 'Awkal (A Geniza Study)". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 16 (1): 15–88. Retrieved 5 March 2023. 

 Itacen Sappan 
Sappanwood ( Biancaea sappan ; ana kiransa baqqam a Larabci kuma a tarihi an san shi da brazilwood a Turanci), wanda ake amfani da shi don samar da rini mai haske, yana ɗaya daga cikin kayayyakin kasuwanci da aka fi ambata a cikin dukkan tarihin Geniza. Ya fito ne daga Indiya da Kudu maso Gabashin Asiya, musamman Sumatra . Yusuf ya fitar da adadi mai yawa na itacen sappan zuwa Yammacin Musulmi, kuma don babban riba: wasiƙa daga Samḥūn b. Dāwūd ta rubuta cewa ya sayar da itacen sappan a madadin Yusuf don samun riba 300%. Stillman, Norman A. (1973). "The Eleventh-Century Merchant House of Ibn 'Awkal (A Geniza Study)". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 16 (1): 15–88. Retrieved 5 March 2023. 

 Lacquer 
Lacquer (da Larabci: lakk ) yana ɗaya daga cikin mahimman kayan da ake fitarwa daga Masar zuwa yamma a wannan lokacin. Asalinsa an shigo da shi ne daga Indiya, ana amfani da shi azaman varnish ( shellac ), tushen rini ja (wanda ake kira tafki a Turanci), kuma don amfani da magani. Ba a san ambaton Yusuf kai tsaye game da mu'amala da lacquer ba, amma ya sami ƙiyasin farashinsa kuma, a cewar Norman Stillman, babu "shakka" cewa yana da hannu wajen fitar da shi daga Masar zuwa Maghreb.  

 Barkono 
Barkono (da Larabci: fulful ) shine babban kayan ƙanshi da ake fitarwa zuwa yamma daga Masar a wannan lokacin. Kamar lacquer, an fara shigo da shi ne daga Indiya. Yankin gabar tekun Malabar, musamman tashar jiragen ruwa ta Kollam, yana da alaƙa da barkono. Yusuf ya shiga harkar cinikin barkono sosai, amma ainihin adadin da farashin ba su da tabbas kuma "yana da wahalar haɗa shi".  

 Kayayyakin alfarma 
Kayayyakin alfarma ( a'lāq ) kamar ƙarfe masu daraja, duwatsu masu daraja, da yadi masu tsada, kayayyaki ne masu tsada amma masu riba. Haka kuma akwai ƙarancin abokan ciniki da ke siyan su. Ga yawancin 'yan kasuwa, cinikin waɗannan kayan alatu ya yi tsada sosai, kuma abokan ciniki sun yi tsauri sosai, don haka ba za su zama kyakkyawan jari ba. A cikin wani babi na littafi game da harkokin kuɗi na mutum, Abu'l-Fadl al-Dimashqi ya ba da shawara kada a yi hakan. Stillman, Norman A. (1973). "The Eleventh-Century Merchant House of Ibn 'Awkal (A Geniza Study)". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 16 (1): 15–88. Retrieved 5 March 2023. 

Amma Yusuf ibn 'Awkal ba shi ne mafi yawan 'yan kasuwa ba. Yarima ne mai arziki na ɗan kasuwa, kuma yana da ikon ƙwarewa a irin waɗannan abubuwan jin daɗi. Daga cikin waɗannan kayayyaki, mafi yawan ambaton su a cikin wasiƙunsa shine lu'ulu'u . Wasiƙa ɗaya daga Samḥūn b. Dāwūd ta ambaci sayar da lu'ulu'u masu riba musamman da ya yi a madadin Ibn 'Awkal, wanda ya sami riba da kashi 125%. Ba a sami cikakkun bayanai game da cinikin lu'ulu'u na Ibn 'Awkal ba, amma wasiƙa ɗaya daga wakilinsa Yūsuf b. Ya'qūb Iṭrābulsī ta nuna matsayin wasu daga cikin abokan cinikinsu: Iṭrābulsī ya ambaci nuna duwatsu masu daraja daban-daban ga sarauniyar al-Mu'izz ibn Badis, sarkin Zirid na Ifriqiyya ; uwar sarauniya ta ƙare da siyan jaka ɗaya kawai ta duwatsu masu daraja. Wata wasiƙa daga Iṭrābulsī ta nuna cewa jami'an gwamnati sun buɗe don duba wani kaya da ya haɗa da lu'ulu'u da kuma wani yadi mai tsada mai suna Abū Qalamūn, wanda a cewar Nasir-i Khosrow an yi shi ne kawai a Tinnis kuma ana zargin ya canza launi a lokutan daban-daban na yini. Wani abu kuma, wanda Ibn 'Awkal ya fitar zuwa Maghreb a babban sikelin, shine azurfa. A farkon shekarunsa na kula da harkokin iyali, Yusuf ya gudanar da manyan mu'amaloli da suka shafi azurfa da iyalan Taherti, kafin Yusuf ya daina yin kasuwanci da su a 1015. Stillman, Norman A. (1973). "The Eleventh-Century Merchant House of Ibn 'Awkal (A Geniza Study)". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 16 (1): 15–88. Retrieved 5 March 2023. 

 Sukari 
Masar ta Tsakiya ta kasance babbar mai samar da sukari da fitar da shi (a cikin Larabci: sukkar ), kuma sukarin Masar ya shahara a duk faɗin duniyar Musulmi da kuma Turai. Ibn 'Awkal ya fi shiga harkar cinikin sukari, tunda wakilai uku daban-daban sun aiko masa da ƙiyasin farashin sukari a kasuwar Tunisiya, amma babu wani bayani game da ainihin jigilar kaya da ya tsira, don haka ba a san irin rawar da ya taka ba. Stillman, Norman A. (1973). "The Eleventh-Century Merchant House of Ibn 'Awkal (A Geniza Study)". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 16 (1): 15–88. Retrieved 5 March 2023. 

 Ruwan ammonia 
Sal ammonia ( nushādir ) yana da amfani iri-iri a fannin sinadarai na zamanin da, fasahar ƙarfe, da kuma magani. An shigo da shi galibi daga China da Tsakiyar Asiya, kuma yayin da aka ruwaito cewa an haƙo wasu daga Sicily, duk ambaton da aka yi a cikin tarihin Geniza yana nufin nau'in Asiya ta Tsakiya. Ya bayyana sau da yawa a cikin wasiƙar Ibn 'Awkal, wanda ya haɗa da farashin da jigilar kaya. Stillman, Norman A. (1973). "The Eleventh-Century Merchant House of Ibn 'Awkal (A Geniza Study)". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 16 (1): 15–88. Retrieved 5 March 2023. 

 Ƙamshi da magunguna 
An ambaci manyan kayan ƙanshi guda uku a cikin wasiƙar Ibn 'Awkal a matsayin kayan fitarwa: camphor, musk, da itacen ƙanshi . Babu ambaton jigilar kaya na camphor ko musk, amma ambato da yawa na kasuwa sun nuna cewa wataƙila Ibn 'Awkal yana da hannu wajen fitar da su zuwa yamma. Akwai magana guda ɗaya game da itacen ƙanshi: wasiƙa daga Maymūn b. Ephraim, wanda ya sanar da Ibn 'Awkal cewa ya yi ƙoƙarin sayar da itacen a Alexandria amma, bai yi hakan ba, ya aika da shi don fitarwa zuwa Maghreb. Stillman, Norman A. (1973). "The Eleventh-Century Merchant House of Ibn 'Awkal (A Geniza Study)". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 16 (1): 15–88. Retrieved 5 March 2023. 

Wani abu, costus, an yi amfani da shi a matsayin mai ƙamshi da kuma magani. Sauran sinadaran magani da aka ambata a cikin wasiƙar Ibn 'Awkal sun haɗa da myrobalan mai launin rawaya, 'ya'yan itace daga Indiya da ake amfani da su a duniyar Larabawa a matsayin mai narkewar abinci da kuma a masana'antar tanning da rini; sukk, wani abu da ba a san ko shi wanene ba da aka yi da ruwan dabino, gall goro, da "maganin Indiya" ( 'aqāqīr hindiyya ); tragacanth gum, wanda ake amfani da shi daban-daban, ciki har da maganin laxative, maganin hana kumburi, maganin hana kumburi ; da kuma zamba, wanda aka yi amfani da shi azaman maganin tsarkakewa da vermifuge . Stillman, Norman A. (1973). "The Eleventh-Century Merchant House of Ibn 'Awkal (A Geniza Study)". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 16 (1): 15–88. Retrieved 5 March 2023. 

 Duba kuma 

 Alkahira Geniza

 Nassoshi 

Rukuni:Shafuka masu fassarorin da ba'a duba ba