Harshen Trumai

Trumai yare ne mai haɗari wanda aka ware daga Brazil. Yawancin Trumai suna da ƙwarewa a cikin harsuna masu faɗi, kuma yara ba sa koyon shi sosai.[1] Ya bambanta sosai da sauran harsunan Kudancin Amurka, kamar rarrabe ma'anar da ba a saba gani ba.

Trumai yare ne da 'yan asalin ƙasar da ke cikin ajiyar Xingu a gefen Kogin Upper Xingu a tsakiyar Brazil ke magana. Murphy da Quain [1] sun ba da rahoton cewa akwai mutane 25 kawai da suka rage a cikin al'ummar Trumai. Abin farin ciki, wannan ya karu zuwa 94 tun daga shekarar 1997, wanda mutane 51 ke magana da harshen Trumai.[2] A cikin International Encyclopedia of Linguistics, Grimes ya lura cewa akwai masu magana 78 tun daga shekara ta 2003.[3] Saboda shahararren magana da Portuguese tsakanin jama'ar yankin, Trumai an dauke shi harshe mai haɗari saboda yara ba sa koyon magana da shi a matsayin yare na farko.[3][4][5]

 Tarihi 
Mutanen Trumai sun fara shiga yankin Upper Xingu wani lokaci a farkon karni na 19 bayan Mutanen Xavante sun kore su daga kudu maso gabashin Brazil. Saduwa ta farko da Trumai ke da ita da fari ya kasance a 1884 lokacin da Karl von den Steinen ya binciki yankin Upper Xingu. Ya lura da bambance-bambance tsakanin al'adun Trumai da sauran al'adun Xingu saboda sake komawa Trumai. A cikin shekaru hamsin ko haka da suka biyo bayan ziyarar farko ta Von den Steinem ga Trumai, akwai ƙananan takardu game da al'umma saboda masu bincike da suka ziyarci yankin Xingu sun fi son ziyartar da nazarin wasu al'adun 'yan asalin ƙasar a maimakon haka.

A lokacin da Trumai ya zo na farko a saman Xingu da kuma Von den Steinen na farko da suka hadu da su, al'ummomin da ke yankin suna ci gaba da kai musu hari, gami da Suyá da Ikpeng.Guirardello, Raquel. "History of their occupation in the Xingu". Provos Indigenas no Brasil. Instituto Socioambiental. Retrieved September 30, 2016. Bayan wani lokaci na hulɗa daga masu bincike, ciki har da Buell Quain a 1938,  Trumai sun sake komawa sabon yanki, a wannan lokacin saboda annobar mura da kyanda. Bayan murmurewa daga wannan, karuwar yawan jama'a ta biyo baya ta haifar da fitowar wasu ƙauyukan Trumai a yankin Upper Xingu, yayin da tsoffin yankunansu tun daga lokacin sun zama sun mamaye wasu al'ummomi.

 Rarraba 
Duk da cewa an kewaye shi da harsuna daban-daban waɗanda ke cikin manyan harsuna huɗu na asalin ƙasar Brazil (Ge" id="mwYQ" rel="mw:WikiLink" title="Tupi language">Tupi, Arawak, Caribbean, da Ge), Trumai yare ne mai zaman kansa. Akwai ka'idar da Joseph Greenberg ya ƙi cewa Trumai na cikin reshen "Equatorial" na Amerind,  a wannan yanayin har yanzu yana da nisa sosai daga wasu harsuna da iyalai da ke nan.

 Takardun 
Binciken farko da aka yi akan Trumai an haɗa shi a cikin nazarin al'adun yankin Xingu, wanda aka yi ta hanyar binciken da ke mai da hankali kan "al'adun kayan aiki". Quain shine mai bincike na farko da ya mayar da hankali kan al'adun Trumai musamman, duk da haka, wannan binciken ilimin ɗan adam ne, ba na harshe ba. A cikin gabatarwar rubutunta "A Reference Grammar of Trumaí",  Guirardello ya bayyana cewa Monod-Becquelin shine mutum na farko da ya gudanar da nazarin kwatanci akan harshen Trumai, inda ta mayar da hankali kan fannoni na harshe kamar ergativity  da rubutun phonological.  Binciken Greenberg ya biyo bayan aikin farko na Monod-Becquelin, wanda ya haɗa da shawarar da aka ambata a sama cewa Trumai, maimakon kasancewa harshe mai zaman kansa gaba ɗaya, na reshen "Equatorial" na Amerind ne.  

Guirardello's "A Reference Grammar of Trumai" shine bayanin farko na Trumai grammar,  wanda Guirardillo ya tsara tare da niyyar zama taimako ga takardun bincike na gaba akan harshe. Tun daga wannan lokacin, bincike kan harshen Trumai ya karu, wanda ya haifar da nazarin fannoni daban-daban na harshe. Monod-Becquelin ta ci gaba da bincikenta ta hanyar bincika amfani da kalmomi masu wucewa a cikin Trumai. Ayyukan Guirardello sun haɗa da karatu a cikin ergativity na Trumai, yana mai da hankali kan alamu na ergative-absolutive a cikin yanayin sa da kuma rikitarwa na haɗin sa saboda alamu masu zargi da ke akwai.

Trumai na ɗaya daga cikin harsuna 24 na asali da aka yi nazari a Kudancin Amurka a matsayin wani ɓangare na jerin ayyukan rubuce-rubuce da DoBeS (Documenting Endangered Languages) suka gudanar.  DoBeS na ɗaya daga cikin ƙungiyoyin rubuce-rubucen harshe da yawa da ke aiki a Brazil, kuma Gidauniyar Volkswagen ce ke tallafawa.

 Yankin da aka rarraba 
Ana magana da Trumai a ƙauyuka huɗu, uku daga cikinsu suna cikin Parque Indígena do Xingu . Akwai 'yan dubban masu magana da kyau a cikin kabilanci na kimanin mutane 100. : 1077 

 Três Lagoas (tare da iyalai daga tsohon ƙauyen Terra Preta), a cikin Parque Indígena do Xingu
 Boa Esperança, a cikin Gidan shakatawa na Indiya na Xingu
 Steinen, a cikin Parque Indígena do Xingu
 Wani Wani (wani kauye da aka kafa kwanan nan), a cikin Terra Indígena Capoto-Jarina

 Tattaunawar harshe 
Jolkesky (2016) ya lura cewa akwai kamanceceniya da iyalan Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru, Tupi, da Mochika saboda hulɗa.

Kamance-kamance da yarukan Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru da yarukan Tupi-Guarani sun nuna cewa Trumai ya samo asali ne a cikin Kogin Paraguay. Trumai sun isa cikin tafkin Upper Xingu ta hanyar Kogin Culuene a cikin karni na 19 (Villas Bôas & Villas Bôas 1970:27 ). : 426 

 Fasahar sauti 

 Sautin da aka yi amfani da shi 
BiyuwaDentalAlveolarPalatalVelarGishiriPlosiveFilayenpT T T TTTTTSanya dakʔ<small id="mw-g">Magana</small>d<small id="mwAQU">Manufar</small>SanyaSunubiyarkʼRashin lafiyaFilayent͡s<small id="mwASA">Manufar</small>t͡sʼFricativefsSashenxhHancimnRuwaRashin muryaSunayen<small id="mwAVM">Magana</small>lTapɾGlidewYa zama haka
Wannan lissafin ba shi da kyau ga harsunan Amazon a cikin sassansa na fitarwa, fricative na gefe , da bambancin alveolar-dental. Guirardello, wanda ya kware a kan Trumai, ya gabatar da kayayyaki daban-daban na waɗannan phonemes: Guirardell (1999a)  ya lissafa /t̪ t̪ʼ tsʼ s/ a matsayin hakora, kuma /tʼ d n l ɬ ɾ/ a matsayin alveolar; yayin da Guirardillo (1999b) ya lissafa kawai /t/ da /tʼ/ a matsayin albōlar. Matasa masu magana ba sa yin bambanci.

 Sautin sautin 
A gabaTsakiyaKomawaBabbaiCi gaba da hakauTsakanineoƘananana

 Fonotactics 
Tsarin sautin yana da CVC, kuma damuwa koyaushe yana faɗuwa a kan sautin ƙarshe na kalma.

 Yanayin Yanayi 
Abubuwan da ke tattare da Trumai kamar yadda aka rufe a cikin harshen Guirardello sun haɗa da sassan magana: sunaye, aikatau, da mataimakan. A karkashin sunaye, tana binciken tasirin adjectives, da yawa a cikin harshe, da ƙidaya da sunayen taro, da sauransu. A karkashin kalmomi, tana mai da hankali kan haddasawa, ƙin yarda, tsananin, da imperativity a cikin ƙwayoyin magana. Kuma a karkashin mataimakan, tana tattauna matsayin jiki, yanayi da fasalin, da mataimakan shugabanci. Babi na 5 ya bincika ƙarin bincike game da kowane bangare na ɓangarorin magana dangane da "Simple Declarative Clauses".

Ana rarrabe sunayen a cikin Trumai ta hanyar mutum, jinsi, lambar, da kuma mai sauraro / warewa a cikin wakilin mutum na farko. Kamar a cikin Turanci, ana ganin jinsi ne kawai a cikin wakilin mutum na uku, yayin da aka rarraba lamba a matsayin mutum ɗaya, biyu, da jam'i (yayinda Ingilishi kawai yana da mutum ɗaya da jam'iyya). Har ila yau, nau'in Noun Phrase (daga nan gaba "NP") sun bayyana a cikin (absolutive, ergative, ko dative), waɗanda aka rarrabe su ta hanyar sakawa. Wadannan sune teburin sunayen sirri na Trumai tare da misalai da aka haɗa don shari'ar cikakke: 
+Abinda ya fi dacewaMai banbanciBiyuYawancin mutane1cirewaciki har da23mascmata

+ErgativeMai banbanciBiyuYawancin mutane1cirewa Ko ciki har da2 Ko 3mascmata

+BayaniMai banbanciBiyuYawancin mutane1cirewaciki har da23mascmata

An  sunayen mutum na farko / na musamman a cik , ciki hada da ka, mutum na biyu tare da , da na uku tare da ciki. Lamba biyu ana nuna shi ta hanyar -a, da jam'i ta -wan. Maza da mata suna rarrabewa a cikin mutum na uku. Ana nuna mallakar da za a iya ba da ita ta hanyar -kte ko -kate a kan mai shi ( 'kofin Kumaru'), da kuma mallakar da ba za a iya raba ta hanyar juxtaposition ( 'kan yarinya',  'kai na'). Ana amfani da Suffixes don yin alama ta ergative (-ts don 1sg, in ba haka ba -ek/-ak), dative, locative, allative, comitative, da kayan aiki.

Ɗaya daga cikin abubuwan ban sha'awa a cikin yanayin Trumai shine amfani da barbashi a cikin harshe. Guirardello ya fara tattauna su a matsayin hanyar gano yanayin a maimakon abubuwan da aka yi amfani da su a Turanci. Wadannan kalmomi sune  ciki, ana amfani da su don yanzu ko baya-bayan nan, da  ciki, don lokacin da ya gabata, amma ana amfani da shi ne kawai lokacin da ba a nuna lokacin ta hanyar mahallin ba. A cikin jumla, waɗannan barbashi sun bayyana kamar haka:

ka_in:

chï_in:

Gabaɗaya, an bayyana barbashi a cikin Trumai a matsayin mai canzawa kalma wanda ba Adverb ko taimako ba ne maimakon a sanya shi a cikin aji na kansa. Akwai nau'o'i huɗu na barbashi a cikin Trumai: Ƙarfi, Ƙin yarda, Causative, da Ƙarfi. Wadannan masu gyarawa sun fada ƙarƙashin lakabin 'ƙananan' saboda halaye waɗanda ke bambanta su daga mataimakan. Misali, yayin da mataimakan zasu iya canza kalmomi kawai, ƙwayoyin ƙima da ƙin yarda na iya canza adverbs da quantifiers.

A cikin harshe, ana bayyana mataimakan a matsayin masu canza kalma "wanda ke da alaƙa da yankin al'amari, yanayi, da kuma yanayin sarari (wannan yankin na ƙarshe an raba shi cikin matsayi na jiki na mahaɗin da ke yin taron da kuma jagorancin taron da ake yi). " Ga wasu misalai na kowane ɗayan waɗannan kayan taimako da aka yi amfani da su a cikin jumla:

Yanayi / Yanayi:

Yanayin Jiki:

Jagora:

Guirardello ya nuna mahimmancin bambance-bambance tsakanin mataimakan da aikatau a cikin Trumai: babu tsarin jayayya mai zaman kansa, babu abun ciki na ƙamus, wasu ƙwarewar raguwar sauti, kuma suna samar da aji mai rufewa. Matsayinsu na syntactic an ƙuntata shi don bin aikatau a cikin VP, wanda ke rarrabe su daga adverbs, wanda ke riƙe da matsayi mai sauƙi a cikin jumla. Baya ga bayyana a cikin VP bayan aikatau, dukiyar wasu mataimakan ita ce "suna iya ɗaukar 3Abs enclitic -n/-e".

 Rubuce-rubuce 

 Haɗin kai 
Trumai yare ne tare da Ergative-absolutive case assignment kuma yana da nau'ikan jayayya guda uku: absolutive, ergative, da dative. An bayyana tsarin harshe na ergative-absolutive a matsayin cewa "wanda aka fahimci batun a cikin wani gini mai wucewa ta hanyar da mai haƙuri ko abu a cikin wani tsari mai wucewa, kuma ta haka ne aka rarrabe shi daga batun ko wakili a cikin mai wucewa". "An bayyana ta hanyar alama, alama, da tsari na kalma".

Ana amfani da ƙididdigar ƙididdiga don aikatau kamar 'ci', 'duba', da 'magana da'. Akwai kalmomi biyu don 'kashe', ɗaya, , wanda  ɗaukar dative, kuma ɗaya, , wanda ke ɗauke da ergative. [bayyanawa da ake buƙata][Shin matsayin shari'a don S ya juya?] Tsarin tsari shine ainihin ergative-absolutive-verb-dative (SV, SVB, AOV, AOVB). Tattaunawar ergative da dative, waɗanda aka yi alama da , na iya faruwa a wancan gefen aikatau, amma don yin wannan, ana buƙatar a yi alama da ke. [bayyanawa da ake buƙata]  

A cikin jimloli masu suna (ciki  da sunayen suna), ana nuna alamar ilimin harshe ta hanyar enclitic. Misali, ergative NP zai ƙare a cikin  ko . Alamar shari'a ta amfani da enclitics kuma yana faruwa ga Dative, Locative, da Genitive cases. Game da sunayen mutum, sunayen mutum na farko suna ba da damar . Hakanan ana canza wakilin mutum na farko daga ha a cikin Absolutive zuwa  don Ergative da Dative.

An interesting phenomenon in Trumai syntax is the NP morpheme  because of its lack of a clear function. It always appears phrase-final, as  when only the noun itself is included in the phrase, but as  when pluralizers or other lexical items are also included. However, despite this rule, there are still occasions where  appears in an NP with a lexical item.  When it is present in Ergative and Dative sentences, the enclitics for each case are still added to the end of the NP:

Rage nau'i:

Babu wani abu na ƙamus:

Ergative / Dative:

Ga kalmomin aikatau a cikin Trumai, alamar shari'a tana ba da nau'ikan aikatau guda huɗu: Intransitive, Transitive, Extended Intransitive. Guirardello ya lakafta muhawara kamar S, A, O, da DAT don alamar shari'a maimakon kalmomi kamar wakili da mai haƙuri.

Guirardello ya lura da nau'ikan sashe guda uku a cikin jumla ta Trumai. Kalmomin da ba su wucewa ba sun haɗa alamar // zuwa kalmar S ko haɗa mutum na uku -n/-e zuwa ƙarshen kalmar aikatau. Kalmomin wucewa suna da A alama ta - (V) k da O alama ta -ø. Hakazalika da sassan Intransitive, ana ƙara mutum na uku a cikin VP lokacin da A ba ya nan. A cikin sassan Ditransitive, wannan alamar tana faruwa ga A da O wanda muke gani a cikin sassan Transitive. Tattaunawar DAT tana da alama ta ko dai - (V) tl, -ki, ko - (V" s "dangane da halaye na shugaban NP". Babu alamar da aka haɗa da VP lokacin da DAT ba ta cikin jumla. Wadannan sassan sune tabbacin gardamar Ergative-Absolutive na Trumai, kamar yadda muke ganin S da O suna fuskantar alama iri ɗaya, yayin da ake bi da A daban. A cikin jumla, za su bayyana kamar haka:

Intransitive:

Mai sauyawa:

Tattaunawar cikakke wajibi ne sabili da haka yana faruwa a duk nau'ikan sashi. Alamar shari'arsa ita ce -ø ko ba ta da komai kuma sanya ta a cikin VP, a gaban aikatau (Guirardello ba a bayyane yake ko ya bayyana nan da nan a gaban aikatawa ko kuma idan za'a iya sanya wasu abubuwa na ƙamus tsakanin su).

Tattaunawar ergative tana da alama ta - (V) k kuma tana faruwa ne kawai a cikin sassan wucewa, inda shine babban gardamar aikatau sabili da haka ana buƙatar shi koyaushe. Matsayinta na syntactic yana gaba da VP. Duk da yake akwai wasu yanayi inda zai iya kasancewa daga jumla wanda yafi faruwa lokacin da akwai ci gaba da magana. Idan ya faru ba tare da wannan ba, to, jumlar tana da murya mai wucewa ko murya ta tsakiya.

Tattaunawar dative tana da alama ta - (V) tl, -ki, ko - (V). Kamar gardamar ergative, yana faruwa a gaban da waje na VP. Dole ne kawai a cikin sassan Extended, inda shine babban gardamar aikatau.

Tsarin Trumai yana amfani da kwayar , wanda ya bayyana bayan aikatau kuma zai iya canza shi. Ga kalmomin Intransitive da Extended Transitive, ana sanya alamar sanarwa a matsayin Absolutive, yayin da mai haifar da ya kasance alama a matsayin ergative. Duk da yake wannan ya sa ya yi kama da sashi mai sauƙi, bambancin shi ne cewa an yi alama da Absolutive enclitic a kan kwayar maimakon aikatau. Ga kalmomin Transitive, duka mai haifar da mai haifar da suna da alama ergative:


 Magana 

 Ƙididdiga 
A cikin Trumai, ƙididdigar sun bayyana kafin sunan da suke gyarawa. Ga lambobi, yayin da harshe ya haɗa da sunayen 1-10, galibi ana magana da lambobi 1-5 kawai:




Sauran kalmomi masu ƙididdiga (misali 'ƙananan', 'da yawa', da dai sauransu) suna canzawa dangane da ko sun bayyana kafin ƙidaya ko sunayen taro. Har ila yau, sun bambanta daga mai magana zuwa mai magana, kamar yadda yake ga "ƙananan" da "ɗan kaɗan", wasu masu magana na iya rarrabe su biyu bisa ga yadda suka bayyana kafin ƙidaya da kalmomin da ba a ƙidaya ba, yayin da wasu ba za su iya ba sai dai ga "babban adadi". Lokacin da aka rarrabe su, ƙididdigar da wasu masu magana suka yi amfani da su sune:
Kafin ƙidaya sunayeKafin sunayen taroMutane da yawa / da yawaƘananan / kaɗana' (da yawa-NEG) __hau____hau__ Birnin da aka yi amfani da shi
Duk da yake yawancin masu magana, waɗanda ba za su iya rarrabe tsakanin ƙididdiga da ƙididdigar ƙididdiga don ƙananan adadi ba, su ce:
Kafin ƙidaya sunayeKafin sunayen taroMutane da yawa / da yawaƘananan / kaɗan
Baya ga siffofin da ke sama, akwai wani nau'i na daban don bayyana ƙananan adadi:  'ƙananan', wanda ke nufin bayyana karamin ɓangare na wani abu. Ga wasu misalai ga kowane nau'in ƙididdigar da ke sama:

Mutane da yawa / da yawa:


Mutane da yawa / da yawa:



Ƙananan / kaɗan:



Ƙananan / kaɗan:



Mutane kalilan ne:



Kamar yadda aka gani a sama inda aka kafa 'ƙananan / kaɗan' a matsayin 'da yawa / da yawa' tare da musantawa, babu kalma don 'babu', don haka an kara musantawa a wurinsa:



Quantifiers (lambar da in ba haka ba) na iya bayyana a matsayin sashi na sashi ko naúrar da aka mayar da hankali, wanda suka bayyana a farkon jumla kuma ana bin su da maida hankali / ƙarancin lokaci.

Mutum yana taka muhimmiyar rawa a cikin abin da aka sanya NP a quantifier. Guirardello ya bayyana cewa a cikin jumla inda akwai sunayen mutum na farko da na uku / sunayen, a bayyane yake cewa an haɗa ma'auni ga mutum na uku. Wannan ba a bayyane yake ba lokacin da akwai NPs na mutum na uku guda biyu a cikin jumla. Don fahimtar wane NP mai ƙididdigar ke canzawa a cikin wannan yanayin, dole ne mutum ya dubi irin NPs a cikin sashi tare da mai ƙididdiga kuma idan ma ana canza shi ta hanyar mai yawa.

 Kalmomin kalmomi 
Loukotka (1968) ya lissafa abubuwa masu mahimmanci na Trumai.

 Manazarta 

 Haɗin waje 

 Trumai (Shirin da suka gabata) 

Rukuni:Shafuka masu fassarorin da ba'a duba ba