Falsafar Girka ta Da

Falsafar Girka ta dā ta taso a ƙarni na 6 BC. An yi amfani da Falsafa don fahimtar duniya ta amfani da hankali. Ya yi magana da batutuwa iri-iri da suka haɗa da ilmin taurari, ilmin halitta, lissafi, falsafar siyasa, xa'a, metaphysics, ontology, dabaru, ilmin halitta, rhetoric da aesthetics . Falsafar Hellenanci ta ci gaba a duk lokacin Hellenistic kuma daga baya ta samo asali zuwa falsafar Romawa . 

Falsafar Girka ta yi tasiri ga yawancin al'adun Yammacin Turai tun farkon ta, kuma ana iya samun ta a fannoni da yawa na ilimin jama'a. Alfred North Whitehead ya taɓa yin iƙirari cewa: "Mafi aminci ga al'adar falsafar Turai ita ce ta ƙunshi jerin bayanan ƙafa ga Plato". Alfred North Whitehead (1929), Process and Reality, Part II, Chap. I, Sect. I. Shahararrun layukan tasiri da ba a karye ba suna kaiwa daga tsoffin falsafar Girkanci da na Hellenanci zuwa falsafar Romawa, Falsafar Musulunci ta Farko, Ilimin Tsakiyar Tsakiya, Farfaɗowar Turai da Zamanin Hayewa . 

Falsafar Girka ta sami rinjaye har zuwa wani mataki ta tsoffin wallafe-wallafen hikima da tarihin tarihin Gabas ta Tsakiya ta dā, kodayake ana muhawara game da girman wannan tasirin. Masanin gargajiya Martin Litchfield West ya ce, "saduwa da ilimin sararin samaniya da tauhidin gabas ya taimaka wajen 'yantar da tunanin masana falsafar Girka na farko; tabbas ya ba su ra'ayoyi masu yawa. Amma sun koya wa kansu tunani. Falsafa kamar yadda muka fahimci halitta ce ta Girka".

Gabaɗaya, tsoffin Helenawa sun yarda da kakanninsu na Masar,  kuma a cikin karni na biyar KZ, masanin falsafa Isocrates ya bayyana cewa farkon masu tunani na Girka sun yi tafiya zuwa Masar don neman ilimi; daya daga cikinsu Pythagoras na Samos, wanda "ya fara kawo wa Helenawa duk falsafar". Herbjørnsrud, Dag (2018-12-17). "The Radical Philosophy of Egypt: Forget God and Family, Write!". Blog of the APA. Retrieved 2021-06-04.

A ƙarni na 21, binciken da masanan Masar suka yi ya nuna cewa kalmar falsafa kanta da alama ta samo asali ne daga ƙasar Masar: “kafa kalmar Hellenanci philosophos, mai son hikima, ita kanta aro ce daga kuma fassarar ra’ayin Masarawa mer-rekh ( mr-rḫ ) wanda a zahiri yana nufin ‘mason hikima,’ ko ilimi.” 

Hadisin falsafar da ya biyo baya ya rinjayi Socrates kamar yadda Plato ya gabatar da shi cewa al'ada ce a koma ga falsafar da aka haɓaka kafin Socrates a matsayin falsafar pre-Socratic. Lokaci bayan wannan, har zuwa da kuma bayan yaƙe-yaƙe na Alexander the Great, sune na "Girkanci na gargajiya" da "Falsafar Hellenistic", bi da bi.

 Falsafar Girka ta farko (ko falsafar pre-Socratic) 
Yarjejeniyar ƙaddamar da waɗannan masana falsafa waɗanda ke aiki kafin mutuwar Socrates a matsayin pre-Socratics sun sami kuɗi tare da littafin 1903 na Hermann Diels' Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, kodayake kalmar ba ta samo asali daga gare shi ba. Greg Whitlock, preface to The Pre-Platonic Philosophers, by Friedrich Nietzsche (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2001), xiv–xvi. Ana ɗaukar kalmar da amfani domin abin da ya zo da aka sani da "makarantar Athens" (wanda ya ƙunshi Socrates, Plato, da Aristotle ) ya nuna alamar haɓakar sabuwar hanyar falsafa; Rubutun Friedrich Nietzsche cewa wannan canjin ya fara ne da Plato 

Socrates (saboda haka sunan sa na " falsafar falsafar pre-Platonic") bai hana fifiko na "pre-Socratic" ba. Greg Whitlock, preface to The Pre-Platonic Philosophers, by Friedrich Nietzsche (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2001), xiii–xix.

Tun daga 2016, duk da haka, malanta na yanzu ya canza daga kiran falsafar kafin makarantar Athenia "pre-Socratic" zuwa kawai "Falsafa ta Girka ta Farko". André Laks da Glenn W. Yawancin su ne ke da alhakin yada wannan sauyi wajen bayyana zamanin da ke gaban Makarantar Athenia ta hanyar cikakkun bugu na Loeb na Falsafa ta Girka ta Farko . A cikin juzu'i na farko, sun bambanta tsarin tsarin su daga na Hermann Diels, suna farawa da zaɓi na "Falsafa ta Girka ta Farko" akan " falsafar pre-Socratic" musamman saboda Socrates na zamani ne kuma wani lokacin ma kafin masana falsafa a al'ada sun yi la'akari da "pre-Socratic falsafa". Socratic" (misali, Atomists).  Early Greek Philosophy, Volume 1: Introductory and Reference Material, Edited and Translated by André Laks and Glenn W. Most, Loeb Classical Library 524 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2016) 6–8.

Masana falsafa na Girka na farko (ko "pre-Socratics") sun damu da farko game da ilmin sararin samaniya, ontology, da lissafi. An bambanta su da "marasa falsafa" tun da sun ƙi bayanin tatsuniyoyi don neman magana mai ma'ana. 

 Makarantar Milesian 

Thales na Miletus, wanda Aristotle ya dauka a matsayin masanin falsafa na farko,  ya yi imanin cewa duk abubuwa sun fito ne daga abu ɗaya, ruwa.  Ba saboda ya ba da cosmogony ba ne John Burnet ya kira shi "mutumin kimiyya na farko", amma saboda ya ba le bayanin halitta game da sararin samaniya kuma ya goyi bayan shi da dalilai. Bisa ga al'ada, Thales ya sami damar yin hasashen Hasken rana kuma ya koya wa Masarawa yadda za a auna tsawo na pyramids.

Thales ya yi wahayi zuwa makarantar <i id="mwmQ">Fasahar</i> Milesian kuma Anaximander ya biyo baya, wanda ya yi jayayya cewa substratum ko arche ba zai iya zama ruwa ba ko wani abu na gargajiya amma a maimakon haka wani abu ne "marasa iyaka" ko "marasa tabbas" (a Helenanci, apeiron). Ya fara ne daga lura cewa duniya tana da alama ta kunshi <i id="mwgw"><i id="mwhw">Akwatin</i></i> (misali, zafi da sanyi), duk da haka wani abu na iya zama Akwatin (misali., abu mai zafi mai sanyi). Saboda haka, ba za su iya zama masu adawa da gaske ba amma dole ne duka biyu su kasance bayyanar wasu hadin kai na asali wanda ba shi da kyau. Wannan haɗin kai (substratum, arche) ba zai iya zama wani abu na gargajiya ba, tunda sun kasance wani matsananci ko wani. Misali, ruwa yana da rigar, akasin bushewa, yayin da wuta ta bushe, akasin rigar. Wannan yanayin farko ba shi da tsufa kuma ba zai iya lalacewa ba, kuma komai ya koma gare shi bisa ga wajibi. Anaximenes ya ci gaba da cewa arche iska ce, kodayake John Burnet ya yi jayayya cewa ta wannan, yana nufin cewa hazo ne mai haske, <i id="mwkw">aether</i>. Duk da amsoshin su daban-daban, Makarantar Milesian tana neman wani abu na halitta wanda ba zai canza ba duk da bayyana a cikin siffofi daban-daban ba, kuma ta haka ne yana wakiltar ɗayan ƙoƙarin kimiyya na farko don amsa tambayar da za ta haifar da ci gaban ka'idar atomatik ta zamani; "Milesians, "in ji Burnet, "sun nemi φύσις na dukkan abubuwa" 

 Xenophanes 

Xenophanes an haife shi a Ionia, inda makarantar Milesian ta kasance mafi ƙarfi kuma mai yiwuwa ta ɗauki wasu ka'idodin sararin samaniya na Milesians a sakamakon haka. Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 35. Abin da aka sani shi ne cewa ya yi jayayya cewa kowane daga cikin abubuwan mamaki yana da na halitta maimakon bayanin allahntaka a cikin hanyar da ta dace da ka'idodin Anaximander kuma cewa akwai allah ɗaya kawai, duniya gaba ɗaya, kuma ya yi ba'a game da anthropomorphism na addinin Girka. ta hanyar da'awar cewa shanu za su yi iƙirarin cewa gumakan suna kama da shanu, dawakai kamar dawakai, zakuna kuma kamar zakoki, kamar yadda Habashawa suka yi iƙirarin cewa gumakan suna da hanci da baki kuma Thraciyawa sun yi iƙirarin cewa su masu launin fari ne da jajayen gashi. Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 35; Diels-Kranz, Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker, Xenophanes frs. 15–16.

Xenophanes ya kasance mai tasiri sosai ga makarantun falsafa na gaba. An gan shi a matsayin wanda ya kafa layin falsafar da ya ƙare a cikin Pyrrhonism, Eusebius, Praeparatio Evangelica Chapter XVII mai yiwuwa yana da tasiri akan falsafar Eleatic, da kuma abin da ya faru ga Epicurus 'dukkanin karya tsakanin kimiyya da addini. Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 33, 36.

 Pythagoreanism 

Pythagoras ya rayu a kusan daidai lokacin da Xenophanes ya yi kuma, sabanin na karshen, makarantar da ya kafa ya nemi sulhunta imani da tunani na addini. Kadan aka sani game da rayuwarsa tare da wani abin dogaro, duk da haka, kuma babu rubuce-rubucen da ya tsira, don haka yana yiwuwa ya kasance kawai sufi wanda magajinsa suka gabatar da rationalism a cikin Pythagoreanism, cewa shi kawai mai rationalist wanda magajinsa ke da alhakin sufi a cikin. Pythagoreanism, ko kuma cewa shi ne ainihin marubucin koyarwar; babu wata hanyar da za a iya sanin tabbas. Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 37–38.

An ce Pythagoras ya kasance almajirin Anaximander kuma ya zurfafa abubuwan da suka shafi sararin samaniya na Ionia, gami da ra'ayin cewa sararin samaniya ya gina shi da sassa, mahimmancin mara iyaka, kuma iska ko iska ita ce tushen komai. Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 38–39. Pythagoreanism kuma ya haɗa da ra'ayoyi masu ban sha'awa, yana jaddada tsarkakewa, metempsychosis, sabili da haka girmamawa ga duk rayuwar dabba; An yi da yawa daga wasiƙun da ke tsakanin ilimin lissafi da sararin samaniya a cikin jituwa ta kiɗa. Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 40–49. Pythagoras ya yi imanin cewa a bayan bayyanar abubuwa, akwai ka'idar lissafi ta dindindin, kuma cewa nau'ikan sun dogara ne akan alaƙar ilimin lissafi. C.M. Bowra 1957 The Greek experience p. 166"

 Heraclitus 

Heraclitus dole ne ya rayu bayan Xenophanes da Pythagoras, yayin da ya hukunta su tare da Homer kamar yadda ya tabbatar da cewa ilmantarwa mai yawa ba zai iya koya wa mutum yin tunani ba; tunda Parmenides yana nufin shi a cikin lokacin da ya gabata, wannan zai sanya shi a kashi na 5 BC. Sabanin Makarantar Milesian, wanda ke da wani abu mai ɗorewa a matsayin arche, Heraclitus ya koyar da cewa panta rhei ("duk abin da ke gudana"), mafi kusa da wannan madawwamiyar gudana shine wuta. Dukkanin abubuwa sun faru ne bisa ga Logos,  wanda dole ne a dauke shi a matsayin "tsarin" ko "tsarin",  da kuma "Logos ya zama ruwan dare gama gari".  Ya kuma gabatar da hadin kan Akwatin haka, wanda aka bayyana ta hanyar dialectic, wanda ya tsara wannan gudana, kamar yadda akasin haka a zahiri bayyanar wani abu ne na al'ada ga nagarta da mugunta kanta.

Heraclitus da ake kira tsarin adawa ἔρις ( eris ), "tashin hankali", kuma yayi tsammanin cewa a fili yanayin barga na δίκη ( dikê ), ko "adalci", shine haɗin kai na waɗannan gaba ɗaya. DK B80

 Eleatic falsafa 

Parmenides na Elea ya jefa falsafarsa a kan waɗanda suka riƙe "shi ne kuma ba iri ɗaya ba ne, kuma dukan abubuwa suna tafiya a cikin wasu wurare," - mai yiwuwa yana nufin Heraclitus da waɗanda suka bi shi. Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 64. Ganin cewa koyaswar makarantar Milesian, a cikin ba da shawara cewa substratum zai iya bayyana a cikin nau'i-nau'i daban-daban, yana nuna cewa duk abin da ke wanzu na jiki ne, Parmenides ya yi jayayya cewa ka'idar farko ta zama ɗaya ce, ba za a iya raba ba, kuma ba ta canzawa. Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 66–67. Kasancewa, ya yi gardama, ta ma'anar yana nufin dawwama, yayin da kawai abin da ake iya tunani; wani abu da yake, haka ma, ba zai iya zama ko ƙasa da haka ba, don haka rashin ƙarfi na Milesiyawa ba zai yiwu ba game da Kasancewa; A ƙarshe, kamar yadda motsi ya buƙaci cewa wani abu ya wanzu baya ga abin da yake motsawa (wato sararin da yake motsawa), Daya ko Halitta ba zai iya motsawa ba, tun da wannan yana buƙatar cewa "sarari" duka ya wanzu kuma babu shi. Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 68. Duk da yake wannan koyaswar ta yi hannun riga da ƙwarewar tunani na yau da kullun, inda abubuwa ke canzawa da motsawa, makarantar Eleatic ta bi Parmenides wajen musun cewa abubuwan mamaki sun bayyana duniya kamar yadda ta kasance; a maimakon haka, kawai abin da ke tare da Kasancewa an yi tunani, ko kuma tambayar ko akwai wani abu ko babu shi ne na ko za a iya tunani. Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 67.

In support of this, Parmenides' pupil Zeno of Elea attempted to prove that the concept of motion was absurd and as such motion did not exist. He also attacked the subsequent development of pluralism, arguing that it was incompatible with Being. His arguments are known as Zeno's paradoxes.

 Jam'i da atomism 
Ƙarfin tunanin Parmenides ya kasance kamar yadda wasu masana falsafa na gaba suka watsar da tunanin Milesians, Xenophanes, Heraclitus, da Parmenides, inda abu ɗaya shine baka . A maimakon haka, sun ɗauki jam'i, irin su Empedocles da Anaxagoras . Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 69. Akwai, in ji su, abubuwa da yawa waɗanda ba za su iya ragewa juna ba kuma waɗannan an saita su ta hanyar ƙauna da husuma (kamar a cikin Empedocles) ko ta Hannu (kamar a Anaxagoras). Yarjejeniyar da Parmenides cewa babu wani samuwa ko wucewa, genesis ko rubewa, sun ce abubuwa sun bayyana suna wanzuwa kuma suna shuɗewa saboda abubuwan da aka haɗa su suna haɗuwa ko kuma suna raguwa yayin da kansu ba su canzawa. Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 70.

Leucippus kuma ya ba da shawarar juzu'i na ontological tare da sararin samaniya bisa manyan abubuwa guda biyu: vacuum da atoms. Wadannan, ta hanyar motsin da suke da shi, suna ketare ɓatacce kuma suna haifar da ainihin abin duniya. Ba a san ka'idodinsa ba a lokacin Plato, duk da haka, kuma a ƙarshe an haɗa su cikin aikin ɗalibinsa, Democritus . Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 94.

 Sophism 

Sophism ya taso ne daga juxtaposition na physis (nature) da nomos (doka). John Burnet ya bayyana asalinsa a cikin ci gaban kimiyya na ƙarnin da suka gabata wanda ya nuna cewa kasancewarsa ya bambanta sosai da abin da hankali ya fuskanta kuma, idan ana iya fahimtarsa gaba ɗaya, ba a iya fahimtar tsari; duniyar da mutane suka rayu a cikinta, a daya bangaren, ta kasance mai bin doka da oda, duk da cewa dan Adam ya yi. Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 105–10. A lokaci guda kuma, yanayi yana dawwama, yayin da abin da ke bisa doka ya bambanta daga wuri zuwa wani kuma ana iya canzawa.

Mutum na farko da ya kira kansu masu sophist, a cewar Plato, shine Protagoras, wanda ya gabatar a matsayin koyarwar cewa duk kyawawan dabi'u na al'ada ne. Shi ne Protagoras wanda ya yi iƙirarin cewa "mutum shine ma'auni na dukan abubuwa, na abubuwan da suke, cewa su ne, da kuma abubuwan da ba su, cewa ba su ba," wanda Plato ya fassara a matsayin m hangen nesa, inda wasu abubuwa. kamar hanya ɗaya ce ga mutum ɗaya (kuma haka a zahiri haka suke) da wata hanya ga wani (kuma haka a zahiri haka haka); Ƙarshen kasancewar mutum ba zai iya duba yanayi don neman shiriya game da yadda zai yi rayuwar mutum ba. Burnet, Greek Philosophy, 113–17.

Protagoras da sophists na gaba sun kasance suna koyar da maganganun magana a matsayin sana'arsu ta farko. Prodicus, Gorgias, Hippias, da Thrasymacus sun bayyana a cikin tattaunawa daban-daban, wasu lokuta suna koyarwa a fili cewa yayin da yanayi ba ya ba da jagoranci na ɗabi'a, jagorancin da dokokin ke bayarwa ba shi da amfani, ko kuma yanayin yana jin dadin waɗanda suka yi aiki da dokoki.

 Falsafar Girka ta gargajiya 

 Socrates 

Socrates, wanda aka yi imanin an haife shi a Athens a karni na 5 BC, yana nuna alamar ruwa a tsohuwar falsafar Girkanci. Athens cibiya ce ta koyo, tare da masana sophists da masana falsafa da ke yawo daga ko'ina cikin Girka don koyar da lafazin lafazin, ilmin taurari, ilmin sararin samaniya, da lissafi.

Yayin da falsafar ta kasance kafaffen bibiyar kafin Socrates, Cicero ya lasafta shi a matsayin "na farko wanda ya saukar da falsafar daga sama, ya sanya shi a cikin birane, ya gabatar da shi cikin iyalai, kuma ya wajabta shi don bincika rayuwa da ɗabi'a, da nagarta da mugunta. " Marcus Tullius Cicero, Tusculan Disputations, V 10–11 (or V IV). Ta wannan lissafin za a ɗauke shi a matsayin wanda ya kafa falsafar siyasa . Leo Strauss, Natural Right and History (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953), 120. Dalilan wannan juyowa ga batutuwan siyasa da ɗabi'a sun kasance abin nazari da yawa. Seth Benardete, The Argument of the Action (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 277–96. Laurence Lampert, How Philosophy Became Socratic (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010).

Kasancewar yawancin tattaunawa da suka shafi Socrates (kamar yadda Plato da Xenophon suka ambata) suna ƙarewa ba tare da cimma matsaya mai ƙarfi ba, ko a ɓata lokaci, Cf. Plato, Republic 336c & 337a, Theaetetus 150c, Apology of Socrates 23a; Xenophon, Memorabilia 4.4.9; Aristotle, Sophistical Refutations 183b7. ya tada muhawara kan ma'anar tsarin Socratic . W.K.C. Guthrie, The Greek Philosophers (London: Methuen, 1950), 73–75. An ce Socrates ya bi wannan salon bincike na tambaya-da-amsa akan batutuwa da dama, yawanci yana ƙoƙarin isa ga ma'anar ƙaƙƙarfan ƙaƙƙarfan ƙaƙƙarfan hali .

Yayin da tattaunawar Socrates da aka yi rikodin ba safai ya ba da tabbataccen amsa ga tambayar da ake gwadawa ba, yawancin maxims ko fassarorin da ya zama sananne. Socrates ya koyar da cewa babu wanda yake son abin da ba shi da kyau, don haka idan wani ya yi wani abu da yake da gaske ba shi da kyau, dole ne ya kasance cikin rashin son rai ko kuma cikin jahilci; saboda haka, dukkan kyawawan halaye ilimi ne. Terence Irwin, The Development of Ethics, vol. 1 (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2007), 14 Gerasimos Santas, "The Socratic Paradoxes", Philosophical Review 73 (1964): 147–64, 147. Ya kan yi magana a kan jahilcinsa (yana da'awar cewa bai san mene ne jaruntaka ba, misali). Plato ya gabatar da shi a matsayin ya bambanta kansa da na kowa da kowa ta hanyar gaskiyar cewa, yayin da ba su san wani abu mai daraja da kyau ba, ba su san cewa ba su sani ba, yayin da Socrates ya sani kuma ya yarda cewa bai san wani abu mai daraja da kyau ba. Apology of Socrates 21d.

Babban ɗan siyasa Pericles yana da alaƙa da wannan sabon koyo kuma abokin Anaxagoras, duk da haka, abokan hamayyarsa na siyasa sun buge shi ta hanyar cin gajiyar ra'ayin mazan jiya akan masana falsafa; ya zama laifi a binciki abubuwan da ke sama ko ƙasa, waɗanda aka ɗauke su marasa laifi. An ce Anaxagoras an tuhume shi kuma ya gudu zuwa gudun hijira lokacin da Socrates yana da shekaru kusan ashirin. Debra Nails, The People of Plato (Indianapolis: Hackett, 2002), 24. Akwai labarin cewa Protagoras, shi ma, an tilasta masa ya gudu kuma mutanen Athens sun kona littattafansa. Nails, People of Plato, 256. Socrates, duk da haka, shine kawai batun da aka rubuta kamar yadda aka tuhume shi a ƙarƙashin wannan doka, wanda aka yanke masa hukunci, kuma aka yanke masa hukuncin kisa a 399 BC (duba Trial of Socrates ). A cikin nau'in jawabin nasa na kariyar da Plato ya gabatar, ya yi ikirarin cewa hassada ce ta tayar da shi saboda kasancewarsa masanin falsafa ne zai yanke masa hukunci.

Ƙungiyoyin falsafa da yawa da suka biyo baya sun sami wahayi daga Socrates ko ƙanuwansa. Plato ya jefa Socrates a matsayin babban mai shiga tsakani a cikin tattaunawarsa, yana samo su daga tushen Platonism (kuma ta hanyar tsawo, Neoplatonism ). Dalibin Plato Aristotle ya soki kuma ya gina bisa koyarwar da ya jingina ga Socrates da Plato, wanda ya kafa tushen Aristotelianism . Antisthenes ya kafa makarantar da za a fi sani da Cynicism kuma ya zargi Plato da karkatar da koyarwar Socrates. Zeno na Citium kuma ya daidaita ka'idodin Cynicism don bayyana Stoicism . Epicurus yayi karatu tare da malaman Platonic da Pyrrhonist kafin ya yi watsi da duk masana falsafa na baya (ciki har da Democritus, wanda falsafar Epicurean ta dogara akan atomism). Ƙungiyoyin falsafa waɗanda za su mamaye rayuwar hankali na daular Roma ta haka an haife su a cikin wannan lokacin zafi bayan ayyukan Socrates, kuma ko dai kai tsaye ko a fakaice ya rinjayi shi. Haka nan duniyar musulmi da ke yaɗuwa a ƙarni na 7 zuwa na 10 Miladiyya sun mamaye su, daga nan ne suka koma yamma a matsayin tushen falsafar zamanin da da kuma Renaissance, kamar yadda aka tattauna a ƙasa.

 Plato 

Plato was an Athenian of the generation after Socrates. Ancient tradition ascribes thirty-six dialogues and thirteen letters to him, although of these only twenty-four of the dialogues are now universally recognized as authentic; most modern scholars believe that at least twenty-eight dialogues and two of the letters were in fact written by Plato, although all of the thirty-six dialogues have some defenders. A further nine dialogues are ascribed to Plato but were considered spurious even in antiquity.

Tattaunawar Plato sun ƙunshi Socrates, kodayake ba koyaushe ne jagoran tattaunawar ba. (Tattaunawa ɗaya, <i id="mwAVY">Dokokin</i>, maimakon haka ya ƙunshi "Baƙi na Athens".) Tare da Xenophon, Plato shine tushen tushen bayanai game da rayuwar Socrates da imani kuma ba koyaushe bane sauƙin rarrabe tsakanin su biyun. Duk da yake Socrates da aka gabatar a cikin tattaunawar sau da yawa ana ɗaukarsa a matsayin bakin Plato, sunan Socrates don baƙin ciki, rashin jin daɗinsa game da ra'ayoyinsa a cikin tattaunawa, da rashin lokaci na lokaci ko ƙananan rawar a cikin tattaunawar yana ɓoye koyaswar Plato. Leo Strauss, The City and Man (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964), 50–51. Yawancin abin da aka faɗi game da koyarwarsa an samo su ne daga abin da Aristotle ya ba da rahoto game da su.

Koyarwar siyasar da aka jingina wa Plato ta samo asali ne daga <i id="mwAV0">Jamhuriya</i>, <i id="mwAV8">Dokoki</i>, da kuma <i id="mwAWE">ɗan Jiha</i> . Na farko daga cikin wadannan ya kunshi ra'ayin cewa ba za a yi adalci a garuruwa ba sai an yi mulkin sarakunan falsafa ; wadanda ke da alhakin aiwatar da dokokin an tilasta musu su rike mata, 'ya'yansu, da dukiyoyinsu tare ; kuma ana karantar da mutum don neman maslaha ta hanyar karairayi masu daraja ; Jamhuriyar ta ce mai yiyuwa ne irin wannan birni ba zai yiwu ba, duk da haka, a ɗauka cewa masana falsafa za su ƙi yin mulki kuma mutane za su ƙi tilasta musu yin hakan. Leo Strauss, "Plato", in History of Political Philosophy, ed. Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey, 3rd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1987): 33–89.

Ganin cewa jamhuriya ta ginu ne a kan banbance tsakanin irin ilimin da masanin falsafa yake da shi da kuma wanda sarki ko dan siyasa yake da shi, Socrates ya nazarci halin falsafa ne kawai; a cikin ɗan ƙasa, a gefe guda, ɗan takara da ake kira Eleatic Stranger ya tattauna irin ilimin da ɗan siyasa ya mallaka, yayin da Socrates ya saurara a hankali. Leo Strauss, "Plato", in History of Political Philosophy, ed. Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey, 3rd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1987): 33–89. Ko da yake mulkin mai hikima zai fi dacewa ya yi mulki bisa doka, mai hikima ba zai iya taimakawa ba sai an yi wa marasa hikima shari’a, don haka a aikace, bin doka yana da muhimmanci.

Both the Republic and the Statesman reveal the limitations of politics, raising the question of what political order would be best given those constraints; that question is addressed in the Laws, a dialogue that does not take place in Athens and from which Socrates is absent. The character of the society described there is eminently conservative, a corrected or liberalized timocracy on the Spartan or Cretan model or that of pre-democratic Athens.

Tattaunawar Plato kuma suna da jigogi na metaphysical, wanda ya fi shahara a cikinsu shine ka'idar sa. Yana ɗaukar cewa nau'ikan abubuwan da ba na zahiri ba (amma mahimmanci ) siffofi (ko ra'ayoyi), kuma ba duniyar abin duniya na canji da aka sani da mu ta hankulanmu na zahiri ba, suna da mafi girma kuma mafi mahimmancin nau'in gaskiya. Ya yi jayayya da yawa a cikin Phaedo, Phaedrus, da Jamhuriyar don rashin mutuwa na rai, kuma ya gaskanta musamman a sake reincarnation . See Kamtekar, Rachana. “The Soul’s (After-) Life,” Ancient Philosophy 36 (2016): 1–18.

Plato sau da yawa yana amfani da kwatanci na dogon lokaci (yawanci misalai ) don bayyana ra'ayoyinsa; Mafi shahara shine watakila Alamar Kogon . Ya kwatanta yawancin mutane da mutanen da aka ɗaure a cikin kogo, waɗanda suke kallon inuwa kawai a bango kuma ba su da wani tunani na gaskiya.  Idan sun juya, za su ga abin da ke sanya inuwa (sannan su sami ƙarin girma ga gaskiyarsu). Idan wasu sun fita daga cikin kogon, za su ga duniyar waje ta haskaka da rana (wanda ke wakiltar babban nau'i na alheri da gaskiya). Idan waɗannan matafiya suka sake shiga cikin kogon, mutanen da ke cikin (waɗanda har yanzu sun san inuwar) ba za su kasance da kayan aiki don gaskata rahotannin wannan 'waje na duniya' ba.  Wannan labarin yana bayyana ka'idar siffofi tare da matakan gaskiya daban-daban, kuma yana ci gaba da ra'ayin cewa sarakunan falsafa sun fi hikima yayin da yawancin mutane jahilai ne.  Ɗaya daga cikin ɗalibin Plato, Aristotle, wanda zai zama ɗaya daga cikin masana falsafa mafi tasiri a kowane lokaci, ya jaddada ma'anar cewa fahimta ta dogara ne akan kallon farko.

 Aristotle 

Aristotle ya koma Athens daga ƙasarsa ta Stageira a cikin 367 BC kuma ya fara nazarin falsafa (watakila har ma da rhetoric, karkashin Isocrates ), a ƙarshe ya shiga makarantar Plato . Carnes Lord, Introduction to The Politics, by Aristotle (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984): 1–29. Ya bar Athens kimanin shekaru ashirin bayan ya yi karatun botany da ilmin dabbobi, ya zama malami na Alexander the Great, kuma daga ƙarshe ya koma Athens bayan shekaru goma ya kafa nasa makaranta: Lyceum . Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1972). Aƙalla ashirin da tara na littattafansa sun tsira, waɗanda aka sani da corpus Aristotelicum, kuma suna magana da batutuwa iri-iri da suka haɗa da dabaru, kimiyyar lissafi, optics, metaphysics, xa'a, rhetoric, siyasa, shayari, ilmin halitta, da ilimin dabbobi.

Ana yawan kwatanta Aristotle a matsayin rashin jituwa da malaminsa Plato (misali, a Makarantar Raphael na Athens ). Ya soki gwamnatocin da aka bayyana a cikin <i id="mwAbE">Jamhuriyar</i> Plato da <i id="mwAbM">Dokokin</i>, Aristotle, Politics, bk. 2, ch. 1–6. kuma yana nufin ka'idar siffofin a matsayin "kalmomi marasa amfani da ma'anar shayari". Aristotle, Metaphysics, 991a20–22. Gabaɗaya ana gabatar da shi azaman yana ba da nauyi ga abubuwan lura da abubuwan da suka shafi aiki.

Shaharar Aristotle ba ta yi girma ba a lokacin Hellenistic, lokacin da Stoic dabaru ke cikin fage, amma daga baya masu sharhi na gaba suka yada aikinsa, wanda a ƙarshe ya ba da gudummawa sosai ga falsafar Islama, Bayahude, da falsafar Kirista na tsakiya. Robin Smith, "Aristotle's Logic," Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2007). Tasirinsa ya kasance kamar yadda Avicenna ke kiransa kawai a matsayin "Jagora"; Maimonides, Alfarabi, Averroes, and Aquinas as "The Philosopher".

Aristotle ya yi adawa da salon ka'idar utopian, inda ya yanke shawarar dogara ga fahimtar da kuma halayen mutane a zahiri don tsara tunaninsa. Ya samo asali daga zato na ɗabi'a na cewa rayuwa tana da kima, masanin falsafa ya yi nuni da cewa ya kamata a ware ƙarancin albarkatun da ya kamata a ware cikin haƙƙi don rage talauci da mutuwa. Wannan 'Tsoron kaya' ya sa Aristotle ya goyi bayan sana'o'in 'na halitta' wanda aka kiyaye gamsuwar mutum a iyakar amfani.  Kasuwancin 'marasa dabi'a', sabanin iyakar da aka yi niyya, an rarraba shi azaman samun dukiya don samun ƙarin dukiya maimakon siyan kayayyaki.   Da yake ci gaba da ƙwaƙƙwaran gaskiya, Aristotle ba kawai ya mai da hankali ga yadda zai ba mutane ja-gora don yin zaɓin da ya dace ba amma yana son kowane mutum da ke da kayan aikin da zai yi wannan aikin na ɗabi’a. A cikin nasa maganar, "Ya kamata dukiya ta kasance ta wata ma'ana gama gari, amma, a matsayinka na yau da kullun, na sirri; domin idan kowa yana da wata maslaha ta daban, maza ba za su yi korafin juna ba, kuma za su kara samun ci gaba domin kowa zai yi. Kasance da halartar harkokin kasuwancinsa... Sannan kuma, akwai babban jin daɗin yin alheri ko hidima ga abokai ko baƙi ko sahabbai, waɗanda ba za a iya yin su ba ne kawai idan mutum yana da wani abu na sirri ya ɓace jihar." Aristotle, Politics, bk. 2, ch. 1–6.

 Cynicism 

An kafa Cynicism ta Antisthenes, wanda shi ne almajirin Socrates, da Diogenes, wanda ya kasance a zamaninsa.  Manufarsu ita ce su rayu bisa ga yanayi kuma sun saba wa al'ada.  An yi wahayi zuwa ga Antisthenes da girman kai na Socrates, kuma ya zargi Plato da girman kai da girman kai.  Diogenes, mabiyinsa, ya ɗauki ra'ayoyin zuwa iyakarsu, yana rayuwa cikin matsananciyar talauci da kuma shiga halin rashin zaman lafiya. Crates na Thebes shi ne, Diogenes ya yi wahayi zuwa ya ba da dukiyarsa kuma ya zauna a kan titunan Athens. 

 Cyrenaicism 

Aristippus na Cyrene ne ya kafa Cyrenaics, wanda ɗalibin Socrates ne. Cyrenaics sun kasance masu bin son zuciya kuma sun yarda cewa jin daɗi shine mafi kyawun rayuwa a rayuwa, musamman jin daɗin jiki, wanda suke tsammanin ya fi ƙarfin zuciya kuma ya fi sha'awar jin daɗi.  Jin dadi shine kawai alheri a rayuwa kuma zafi shine kawai mugunta. Socrates ya ɗauka cewa nagarta ita ce kawai ɗan adam mai kyau, amma ya kuma yarda da iyakacin matsayi don amfaninsa, yana barin jin daɗi ya zama manufa ta biyu na aikin ɗabi'a.  Aristippus da mabiyansa sun kama wannan, kuma suka ji daɗi kawai burin ƙarshe na rayuwa, suna musun cewa nagarta tana da wata ƙima.

 Megarians 

Makarantar Megarian ta bunƙasa a cikin karni na 4 BC. Euclides na Megara, daya daga cikin daliban Socrates ne ya kafa ta. Koyarwarta na ɗabi'a ta samo asali ne daga Socrates, yana gane guda ɗaya mai kyau, wanda a fili an haɗa shi da koyarwar Eleatic na Unity . Ayyukansu a kan ma'anar modal, ma'auni na ma'ana, da kuma ra'ayoyin ra'ayi sun taka muhimmiyar rawa wajen bunkasa tunani a zamanin da, kuma sun kasance tasiri a kan halittar Stoicism da Pyrrhonism na gaba.

 Falsafar Hellenistic 

A lokacin zamanin Hellenistic da na Romawa, makarantu daban-daban na tunani sun haɓaka a cikin duniyar Helenanci sannan duniyar Greco-Roman . Yaduwar Kiristanci a ko'ina cikin duniyar Romawa, sannan yada Musulunci ya biyo baya, ya kawo karshen falsafar Hellenanci da farkon falsafar zamanin da, wadda al'adun Ibrahim guda uku suka mamaye: Falsafar Yahudanci, falsafar Kiristanci, da falsafar Islama ta farko .

 Pyrrhonism 

Pyrrho na Elis, masanin falsafa na Democrat, ya yi Tafiya zuwa Indiya tare da sojojin Alexander the Great inda koyarwar Buddha ta rinjayi Pyrrho, musamman alamomi uku na wanzuwar. Bayan ya dawo Girka, Pyrrho ya fara sabuwar makarantar falsafar, Pyrrhonism, wanda ya koyar da cewa ra'ayoyin mutum ne game da batutuwan da ba a bayyana ba (watau, koyarwa) wanda ke hana mutum samun eudaimonia. Pyrrhonism ya sanya cimma ataxia (yanayin daidaito) a matsayin hanyar cimma eudaimonia. Don kawo hankali ga Ataraxia Pyrrhonism yana amfani da epoché (dakatar da hukunci) game da duk abubuwan da ba a bayyana ba. Pyrrhonists suna jayayya cewa dogmatists - wanda ya haɗa da duk falsafancin Pyrrhonism - sun sami Gaskiya game da batutuwan da ba a bayyana ba. Ga duk wani al'amari da ba a bayyane ba, Pyrrhonist yana yin muhawara don da kuma adawa da cewa ba za a iya kammala batun ba, don haka dakatar da imani kuma ta haka ne ya haifar da ataraxia.

 Epicureanism 

Epicurus yayi karatu a Athens tare da Nausiphanes, wanda ya kasance mabiyin Democritus kuma dalibin Pyrrho na Elis .  Ya yarda da ka'idar atomism na Democritus, tare da ingantawa da aka yi don mayar da martani ga sukar Aristotle da sauransu.  Dabi'unsa sun dogara ne akan "neman jin daɗi da nisantar zafi".  Wannan, duk da haka, ba hedonism mai sauƙi ba ne, kamar yadda ya lura cewa "Ba muna nufin jin daɗin maɓalli ko na sha'awa ba. . . muna nufin rashin ciwo a cikin jiki da damuwa a cikin tunani ". 

 Stoicism 

Wanda ya kafa Stoicism, Zeno na Citium, Crates na Thebes ne ya koyar da shi, kuma ya ɗauki ka'idodin Cynic na ci gaba da ci gaba da kai, amma ya yi amfani da manufar rashin tausayi (rashin sha'awa) ga yanayi na sirri maimakon ka'idojin zamantakewa, kuma ya canza rashin kunya na ƙarshe na ƙarshe don cikar ayyukan zamantakewa. [1] Logic da physics suma sun kasance wani ɓangare na farkon Stoicism, wanda magajin Zeno Cleanthes da Chrysippus suka haɓaka.  Metaphysics din su ya dogara ne akan jari-hujja, wanda aka tsara ta tambura, dalili (amma kuma ana kiransa Allah ko kaddara). Gudunmawarsu ta ma'ana har yanzu tana cikin lissafin ƙididdiga na zamani .  Dabi'un su ya dogara ne akan neman farin ciki, wanda suka yi imani cewa samfurin 'rayuwa daidai da yanayi' ne. Wannan yana nufin yarda da abubuwan da mutum ba zai iya canzawa ba. Saboda haka mutum zai iya zaɓar ko ya yi farin ciki ko a'a ta hanyar daidaita halinsa game da yanayinsu, saboda 'yanci daga tsoro da sha'awa shine farin ciki kansa.

 Platonism 

Platonism shine falsafar Plato, yana tabbatar da wanzuwar abubuwa masu banƙyama, waɗanda ke wanzu a cikin daula daban-daban daga duniyar zahiri da tunani.  Tsakiya ga Platonism shine ka'idar Forms, inda aka yi la'akari da Forms masu kyau ko cikakkun kayan tarihi na gaskiya, tare da duniyar zahiri ta zama tunani mara kyau.  Wannan falsafanci ya rinjayi tunanin Yammacin Turai, yana mai da hankali ga bambanci tsakanin canji, duniyar da ake iya fahimta da kuma maras canzawa, daular fahimta. Platonism yana adawa da nominalism, wanda ya musanta wanzuwar irin waɗannan ƙungiyoyin. 

 Rashin amincewa da ilimi 

A wajen shekara ta 266 BC, Arcesilaus ya zama shugaban Kwalejin Platonic, kuma ya ɗauki shakku a matsayin tushen tsarin Platonism, wanda ya sa Platonism ya zama kusan iri ɗaya da Pyrrhonism . Sextus Empiricus, "Outlines of Pyrrhonism" I.33.232 Bayan Arcesilaus, shakku na ilimi ya bambanta daga Pyrrhonism. Sextus Empiricus, "Outlines of Pyrrhonism" I.33.225–231 Wannan lokacin shakku na zamanin d Platonism, daga Arcesilaus zuwa Philo na Larissa, ya zama sananne a matsayin Sabuwar Kwalejin, kodayake wasu tsoffin marubutan sun ƙara ƙarin ɓangarori, irin su Kwalejin Tsakiya . Masu shakka na Ilimi ba su yi shakkar wanzuwar gaskiya ba; kawai sun yi shakkar cewa ’yan Adam suna da ikon samunsa.  Sun dogara da wannan matsayi akan Plato's Phaedo, sashe na 64-67,  wanda Socrates yayi magana game da yadda ilimi ba zai iya isa ga mutane ba.  Yayin da manufar Pyrrhonists ita ce samun ataraxia, bayan Arcesilaus masu shakkar Ilimi ba su riƙe ataraxia a matsayin babban makasudin ba. Masu shakka na Ilimi sun mayar da hankali kan sukar akidar wasu makarantun falsafa, musamman na akidar Stoics . Sun yarda da wasu ɓangarori na ka'idar ɗabi'a a cikin, mafi kyau amma jagora mai ma'ana, wanda mallakarsa, duk da haka, ya haifar da ainihin bambanci tsakanin mai hikima da wawa.  Kadan kamar yadda bambanci zai iya bayyana a tsakanin matsayi na masu shakkar Ilimin da Pyrrhonists, kwatanta rayuwarsu ya kai ga ƙarshe cewa daidaitawar falsafanci mai aiki shine halayyar masu shakkar Ilimi  yayin da manufofin Pyrrhonists sun fi dacewa da hankali. .

 Platonism na tsakiya 

Bayan ƙarshen lokacin shakku na Kwalejin tare da Antiochus na Ascalon, tunanin Platonic ya shiga lokacin Platonism na Tsakiya, wanda ya shawo kan ra'ayoyi daga makarantun Peripatetic da Stoic. Numenius na Apamea ne ya yi karin haɗin kai, wanda ya haɗa shi da Neopythagoreanism.

 Neoplatonism 

Har ila yau, abin ya shafa neopythagoreans, neoplatonists, na farko su Plotinus, sun yi iƙirarin cewa tunani yana wanzu kafin kwayoyin halitta, kuma duniya tana da dalili guda ɗaya wanda dole ne ya zama tunani guda.  Don haka, neoplatonism ya zama ainihin addini, kuma yana da tasiri sosai akan Gnosticism da tiyolojin Kirista . 

 Isar da falsafar Girkanci a cikin zamanin da 

A lokacin Tsakiyar Tsakiya, an manta da ra'ayoyin Girka a Yammacin Turai saboda raguwar karatu da rubutu a lokacin Migration Period. A cikin Daular Byzantine, duk da haka, an adana ra'ayoyin Helenawa kuma an yi nazari. Masana falsafar Islama kamar su Al-Kindi (Alkindus), Al-Farabi (Alpharabius), Ibn Sina (Avicenna) da Ibn Rushd (Averroes) suma sun sake fassara waɗannan ayyukan bayan da Khalifa suka ba da izinin tattara rubuce-rubucen Helenanci kuma suka hayar masu fassara don kara darajarsu. A lokacin Tsakiyar Tsakiya Falsafar Girka ta sake shiga Yamma ta hanyar fassarori biyu daga Larabci zuwa Latin da kuma rubutun Girka na asali daga Daular Byzantine .  Sake gabatar da waɗannan falsafanci, tare da sabbin sharhin Larabci, suna da babban tasiri ga Masana falsafa na zamani kamar Thomas Aquinas.

 Duba kuma 

 Tsohuwar falsafa
 Falsafar Byzantine
 Ma'anar falsafa
 Kalmomin Turanci na asalin Girkanci
 Kalmomin kimiyya na duniya
 Jerin tsoffin falsafar Girkanci
 Fassara harshe
 Fassara Girkanci zuwa Turanci

 Bayanan kula 


 Manazarta 


 Kamtekar, Rachana. "The Soul's (After-) Life", Ancient Philosophy 36 (2016): 1–18.
 Campbell, Douglas R. "Plato's Theory of Reincarnation: Eschatology and Natural Philosophy", Review of Metaphysics 75 (4): 643–665. 2022.
 Nikolaos Bakalis (2005). Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing  
 John Burnet, Early Greek Philosophy (archived from the original, 6 February 2015), 1930.


 William Keith Chambers Guthrie, A History of Greek Philosophy: Volume 1, The Earlier Presocratics and the Pythagoreans, 1962.
 Søren Kierkegaard, On the Concept of Irony with Continual Reference to Socrates, 1841.
 A.A. Long. Hellenistic Philosophy. University of California, 1992. (2nd Ed.)
 Martin Litchfield West, Early Greek Philosophy and the Orient, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1971.
 Martin Litchfield West, The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth, Oxford [England]; New York: Clarendon Press, 1997.

 Ƙarin karantawa 

 [Inda Aka Ɗauko Hoto da ke shafi na 9] 2012. Falsafar Bahar Rum ta Dā: Gabatarwa. New York: Bloomsbury.
 Curd, Patricia, da D.W. Graham, eds. 2008. Littafin Oxford Handbook of Presocratic Philosophy . New York: Oxford Univ Press.
 [Hasiya] Yin fasikanci: Eros, Da'a, da Gyaran Siyasa a Falsafar Girka da Kiristanci na Farko. Berkeley: Jami'ar California Press.
 Garani, Myrto da David Konstan eds. 2014. The Philosophizing Muse: Tasirin Falsafar Girka akan Waƙoƙin Roman . [Inda Aka Ɗauko Hoto da ke shafi na 3] Newcastle a kan Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing .
 Kamtekar, Rachana. "The Soul's (Bayan-) Life," Tsohon Falsafa 36 (2016): 1-18.
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 Gill, Mary Louise, da Pierre Pellegrin. 2009. Aboki ga Falsafar Girka ta Dā. Oxford: Blackwell.
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 [Hasiya] Anaximander da Asalin Cosmology na Girka. Indianapolis, IN: Hackett
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 An samo asali ne daga yaren New York. Nunin Gaskiya a Falsafar Girkanci ta gargajiya: Theoria a cikin Al'adun Al'adu. Cambridge, Burtaniya: Cambridge Univ Press.
 [Inda Aka Ɗauko Hoto da ke shafi na 9] 2002. Tarihin Miletus. Aldershot, Burtaniya: Ashgate.
 [Inda Aka Ɗauko Hoto da ke shafi na 9] 2010. A zuwa Z na Falsafar Girka ta Dā. Lanham, MD: Tsoro.
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 Wolfsdorf, David. 2013. Jin daɗi a Falsafar Girka ta Dā. Muhimman Jigogi a Falsafar Dā. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.

 Hanyoyin haɗi na waje 


 Ancient Greek Philosophy, entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
 Ancient Greek Philosophers, Worldhistorycharts.com
 The Impact of Greek Culture on Normative Judaism from the Hellenistic Period through the Middle Ages c. 330 BCE – 1250 CE
 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
 Ancient Greek Philosophy and important Greek philosophers, Hellenism.Net

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