David Brower

David Ross Brower (/ˈbraʊ.ər/ BROW-ər; 1 ga Yuli, 1912 - 5 ga Nuwamba, 2000) ya kasance fitaccen masanin muhalli kuma wanda ya kafa kungiyoyin muhalli da yawa, gami da Cibiyar John Muir don Nazarin Muhalli (1997), Abokai na Duniya (1969), Cibiyar Tsibirin Duniya (1982), Majalisar Kare Arewacin Cascades, da Taron Kasa. Daga 1952 zuwa 1969, ya yi aiki a matsayin Babban Darakta na farko na Sierra Club, kuma ya yi aiki akan kwamitin sau uku: daga 1941-1953; 1983-1988; da 1995-2000 a matsayin dan takarar da aka shigar da masu fafutuka da aka sani da John Muir Sierrans. Yayinda yake saurayi, ya kasance sanannen mai hawan dutse.

 Rayuwa ta farko 
An haifi Brower a Berkeley, California . Ya auri Anne Hus Brower (1913-2001) wanda ya sadu da shi lokacin da suke editoci a Jami'ar California Press a Berkeley .  Anne 'yar Francis L. Hus ce da Frances Hus (1876-1952), yayin da Frances 'yar John P. Irish ce.

 Nasarorin hawan dutse 
Da ya fara aikinsa a matsayin mai hawan dutse na duniya tare da sama da 70 na farko da ya samu, Brower ya zo ga ƙungiyar muhalli ta hanyar sha'awar hawan dutsen. A 1933, Brower ya shafe makonni bakwai a cikin High Sierra tare da George Rockwood . Bayan kira na kusa tare da dutse mai laushi yayin hawa a cikin Palisades, ya sadu da Norman Clyde a cikin jeji, wanda ya ba shi wasu darussan hawa masu mahimmanci. A wannan tafiya ya kuma sadu da Hervey Voge, wanda ya shawo kansa ya shiga kungiyar Sierra Club. A ranar 18 ga Mayu, 1934, tare da Voge, ya fara tafiya ta hawa na makonni goma ta hanyar High Sierra, don bincika hanyoyin hawa da kuma kula da rikodin hawan dutse ga kulob din. A baya, sun kafa wuraren adana abinci da yawa tare da hanyar da suka shirya, wanda ya fara a Onion Valley kuma ya ƙare a Tuolumne Meadows. A cikin duka, ma'aurata sun hau tsaunuka 63 a wannan tafiya, gami da hawa 32 na farko. A rana ta farko, sun hau Dutsen Tyndall, Dutsen Williamson, da Dutsen Barnard. Daga Yuni 23 zuwa 26, ma'aurata sun hau takwas na farko a cikin Devils Crags tare da Norman Clyde, kuma sun hau Dutsen Agassiz. Clyde ya kira hawan Devils Crag "ɗaya daga cikin manyan hawan dutse da aka taɓa yi a Amurka". A cikin kewayon Palisades, biyun sun hau Thunderbolt Peak, suka ratsa zuwa Arewacin Palisade ta hanyar Starlight Peak, kuma suka sauka U-Notch Couloir. A cikin Sawtooth Range, sun hau The Doodad, West Tooth, da Matterhorn Peak.
Pavlik, Robert C., Norman Clyde: Legendary Mountaineer of California's Sierra Nevada, pp. 54–57 (Heyday Books, Berkeley, 2008) 

Bayan yunkurin da ya gaza a 1935 don yin hawa na farko na nesa, Dutsen Waddington mai sanyi a British Columbia, tare da ƙungiyar Sierra Club, Brower ya kara hawa cikin hunturu ga ƙwarewarsa kuma ya yi hawa na farko da yawa na hunturu na tsaunuka a cikin Sierra Nevada . 

Daga 9 ga Oktoba zuwa 12, 1939, ƙungiyar hawan dutse ta Sierra Club ciki har da Brower, tare da Bestor Robinson, Raffi Bedayn, da John Dyer, sun kammala hawan farko na Shiprock, ragowar hawan dutsen mai fitattun wuta tare da kusan ganuwar tsaye a kan ajiyar Navajo a arewa maso yammacin New Mexico. Wannan hawan, wanda aka kiyasta YDS III, 5.7 A2, shine na farko a Amurka don amfani da ƙuƙwalwar faɗaɗa don kariya.

Brower ya fara hawa hanyoyi saba'in a Yosemite da sauran wurare a yammacin Amurka.

 Yaƙin Duniya na II 
A cikin 1942, Brower ya gyara kuma ya ba da gudummawa ga Manual of Ski Mountaineering, wanda Jami'ar California Press da Jami'ar Cambridge University Press suka buga don amfani da shi wajen horar da sojojin yaki na Allied a lokacin yakin duniya na biyu. Sojojin Amurka sun yi amfani da dabarun da aka bayyana a cikin wannan littafin a cikin yaƙe-yaƙe a Arewacin Apeninnes da Lake Garda Alps. An buga littafin a cikin bugu uku da aka sake sabuntawa daga baya. 

A lokacin yakin duniya na biyu, ya yi aiki a matsayin mataimakin a cikin 10th Mountain Division, yana horar da sojoji a cikin hawan dutse da tseren kankara a Vermont da jihar Washington kuma yana samun Bronze Star a cikin aiki a Italiya. Matsayin Brower a cikin 10th Mountain Division an nuna shi a cikin fim din Fire on the Mountain . Ya yi aiki a matsayin babban jami'i a cikin Sojojin Soja na shekaru da yawa bayan yakin ya ƙare.

 Ayyuka tare da Sierra Club 
Bayan yakin, Brower ya koma aikinsa a Jami'ar California Press, kuma ya fara gyara Sierra Club Bulletin a 1946. Ya gudanar da Babban Ziyarar Sierra Club ta shekara-shekara daga 1947 zuwa 1954.  An kira Brower babban darakta na farko na Sierra Club a 1952, kuma ya shiga yakin da aka yi da Dam din Echo Park a cikin Tarihin Dinosaur na Utah. Da yake amfani da asalinsa a cikin bugawa, Brower ya gaggauta Wannan shi ne Dinosaur- wanda Wallace Stegner ya shirya tare da hotunan Martin Litton da Philip Hyde - a cikin buƙaci tare da mai bugawa Alfred Knopf. Masu kiyayewa sun sami nasarar yin kira ga Majalisa don share madatsar ruwa ta Echo Park daga aikin ajiyar Kogin Colorado a shekarar 1955, kuma Sierra Club ta sami yawancin yabo.

 Littattafan teburin kofi 
Brower ya fara jerin Littattafan Sierra Club Books' Exhibit Format tare da Wannan shine Duniya ta Amurka a cikin 1960, sannan ya biyo bayan nasarar da ta samu a cikin Wildness Is the Preservation of the World, tare da hotunan launi na Eliot Porter a cikin 1962. Wadannan littattafan teburin kofi sun sayar da kyau kuma sun gabatar da Sierra Club ga sabbin mambobin da ke da sha'awar kiyaye jeji. Brower ya buga sabbin lakabi biyu a shekara a cikin jerin, amma sun fara rasa kudi ga kungiyar bayan 1964, kodayake mutane da yawa suna da'awar cewa su ne ainihin dalilin ci gaban kulob din da kuma hauhawar matsayi na kasa. Gudanar da kudi ya fara zama ƙashin jayayya tsakanin Brower da kwamitin daraktocin kulob din.

 Membobin suna ƙaruwa, kudaden shiga suna raguwa 
A karkashin jagorancin Brower daga 1952 zuwa 1969, membobin kulob din sun karu sau goma, daga mambobi 7,000 zuwa 70,000, sun zama babbar kungiyar membobin muhalli ta kasar. Gina a kan taron Wilderness na shekara biyu wanda kulob din ya ƙaddamar a 1949 tare da The Wilderness Society, Brower ya taimaka wa kulob din lashe sashi na Dokar Wilderness a 1964. Brower da Sierra Club sun kuma jagoranci babban gwagwarmaya don dakatar da Ofishin Reclamation daga gina madatsun ruwa guda biyu da za su mamaye sassan Grand Canyon. A shekara ta 1964, Brower ya shirya balaguron kogi wanda Martin Litton ya jagoranta tare da Philip Hyde da marubucin Francois Leydet . Tafiyar ta haifar da littafin Time and The River Flowing wanda ya haifar da adawa da jama'a ga madatsar ruwa. A watan Yunin 1966, kulob din ya sanya tallace-tallace na cikakken shafi a cikin New York Times da Washington Post yana tambaya: "Shin ya kamata mu mamaye Sistine Chapel don masu yawon bude ido su iya kusantar rufin?" Kamfen ɗin ya kawo sabbin mambobi da yawa. Ofishin Haraji na Cikin Gida ya ba da sanarwar cewa yana dakatar da matsayin kungiyar ba da agaji ta 501 (c) (3)  ta kulob din. Kwamitin ya kafa Gidauniyar Sierra Club a matsayin madadin gudummawar da za a iya rage haraji, amma kudaden shiga ga kulob din sun ragu, duk da nasarorin da aka samu wajen toshe madatsar ruwan Grand Canyon da karuwar mambobi.

 Rikici da murabus 
Yayinda rashi na shekara-shekara ya karu, tashin hankali ya karu tsakanin Brower da kwamitin daraktocin Sierra Club. Wani rikici ya karu a kan matsayin kulob din a kan tashar wutar lantarki ta Diablo Canyon da aka shirya don ginawa ta Pacific Gas da Electric (PG&E) kusa da San Luis Obispo, California. Kungiyar ta taka muhimmiyar rawa wajen toshe shirin PG&E na tashar makamashin nukiliya a Bodega Bay a farkon shekarun 1960, amma wannan kamfen ɗin ya ta'allaka ne akan haɗarin girgizar ƙasa daga San Andreas Fault da ke kusa, ba saboda adawa da makamashin nukiriya kanta ba. Kwamitin daraktocin kulob din ya kada kuri'a don tallafawa shafin Diablo Canyon don tashar wutar lantarki don musayar PG & E ta motsa shafinta na farko daga Nipomo Dunes mai kula da muhalli. A shekara ta 1967, kuri'ar raba gardama ta amince da manufofin hukumar. Brower ya yi imanin cewa wutar lantarki ta nukiliya kuskure ne mai haɗari a kowane wuri, kuma ya nuna adawarsa ga Diablo Canyon, a fili, yana ƙin manufofin hukuma na kulob din.

Zaben kwamitin Sierra Club a ƙarshen shekarun 1960 ya samar da ƙungiyoyin da aka bayyana sosai da ke adawa da Brower. A shekara ta 1968, magoya bayan Brower sun sami rinjaye, amma a shekara ta 1969, 'yan takarar masu adawa da Brower sun lashe dukkan mukamai biyar. An tuhumi Brower da rashin kula da kudi da rashin biyayya daga tsoffin abokansa biyu, mai daukar hoto Ansel Adams da shugaban kwamitin Richard Leonard. An yarda da murabus din Brower ta hanyar kuri'un kwamitin goma zuwa biyar.

 Ya sake shiga kuma ya yi murabus daga kwamitin 
Eventually reconciled with the Sierra Club, Brower was elected to the board of directors for a term from 1983 to 1988, and again from 1995 to 2000.  Brower was deeply concerned about issues of overpopulation and immigration – one of many issues that led to his resignation in protest from the board of directors in 2000. "Overpopulation is perhaps the biggest problem facing us," he said, "and immigration is part of that problem. It has to be addressed." His favorite example of how immigration should be addressed was the work of his cousin Boone Hallberg, a botanist who immigrated to Oaxaca to build a more sustainable agricultural economy in the area that so many of the workers on his family's California farm had been forced to leave.[<span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2019)">citation needed</span>]

 Ya kafa Abokai na Duniya 
FOE ta kafa hedkwatarta a San Francisco, kuma ta bude ofishin a Washington, DC Brower nan da nan ya fitar da sabbin kungiyoyi biyu daga ma'aikatan FOE Washington: League of Conservation Voters a 1970, wanda Marion Edey ya kafa,  da Cibiyar Manufofin Muhalli a 1971. Tattaunawar kasa da kasa ta Brower ta haifar da kafa FOE International a cikin 1971, wata ƙungiya mai zaman kanta ta ƙungiyoyin 'yan uwa a cikin ƙasashe arba'in da huɗu. Brower kuma ya fara shirin wallafe-wallafen a FOE, wanda ya sami nasara ta farko tare da The Environmental Handbook a yayin Ranar Duniya, amma sai ya fara rasa kuɗi.

 Yunkurin kamfen na muhalli 
Although Brower's background was in the wilderness preservation wing of the conservation movement, he quickly led FOE to take on many of the issues raised by the new environmentalists.  FOE campaigned against the Alaska pipeline, the supersonic transport airplane (SST), nuclear power, and the use of the defoliant Agent Orange in the Vietnam War.  After Ronald Reagan was elected President in 1980, FOE led the opposition to Interior secretary James G. Watt's efforts to sell and lease public lands in the West and develop land adjacent to the National Parks.

 Ya yi murabus daga jirgin 
Brower ya yi ritaya a matsayin babban darektan FOE a ranar cika shekaru goma a 1979, amma ya ci gaba a matsayin shugaban kwamitin daraktocinsa. Karin bashin FOE da tashin hankali tsakanin Washington lobbying da aikin kasa ya haifar da rikici tsakanin Brower da mafi yawan kwamitin da suka tuna da rikici da kwamitin Sierra Club. Da yake fuskantar raguwar ma'aikata a shekarar 1984, Brower ya yi kira ga kwamitin kai tsaye ga membobin don gudummawar gaggawa. An cire shi daga kwamitin saboda rashin biyayya, amma an sake dawo da shi lokacin da ya yi barazanar karar. A shekara ta 1985 kwamitin ya kada kuri'a don rufe ofishin San Francisco kuma ya koma Washington, DC. Wani raba gardama na membobin ya goyi bayan mafi rinjaye na kwamitin, kuma Brower ya yi murabus a 1986 don yin aiki ta hanyar Cibiyar Tsibirin Duniya.

 Shekaru na baya tare da Cibiyar Tsibirin Duniya 
An gina wani abin tunawa, Spaceship Earth, don girmama shi a Jami'ar Jihar Kennesaw . An yi amfani da abin tunawa don tunatarwa ga tsararraki masu zuwa game da yanayin duniya mai daraja.

 Dubi kuma 

 Bayanan da aka ambata 

 Bayanan littattafai 

 Brower, David, For Earth's Sake: Rayuwa da Lokaci na David Brower (Salt Lake City: Gibbs-Smith, 1990). ISBN 0-87905-013-6 
 Brower, David tare da Steve Chapple, Bari Dutsen suyi Magana, Bari Koguna su Gudana (New York: HarperCollins, 1995). ISBN 0-06-251430-X 
 Brower, David, & Sierra Club, eds. , Wilderness: Tarihin Rayuwa na Amurka (New York Vail-Ballou Press, 1961).
 Cohen, Michael P., Tarihin Sierra Club, 1892-1970 (San Francisco: Littattafan Sierra Club, 1988). ISBN 0-87156-732-6 
 Fox, Stephen, John Muir da Kyautarsa: Ƙungiyar Karewa ta Amurka (Boston: Little, Brown, 1981). ISBN 0-316-29110-2 
 McPhee, John, Ganawa da Archdruid (New York: Farrar, Straus da Giroux, 1971). ISBN 0-374-14822-8 
 Turner, Tom, David Brower: Yin Yunkurin Muhalli (Berkeley: Jami'ar California Press, 2015).

 Wyss, Robert. Mutumin da ya gina kungiyar Sierra: Rayuwar David Brower (New York: Columbia University Press, 2016). ISBN 978-0231164467 

 Don Duniya: Rayuwa da Lokaci na David Brower . John de Graaf ne ya samar da shi a shekarar 1989 tare da hadin gwiwar KCTS-Seattle. An rarraba shi ta hanyar Bullfrog Films, Oley, PA 19547. Minti 58.
 Monumental: David Brower's Fight for Wild America . Kelly Duane ne ya shirya shi don fina-finai na Loteria, 2004. DVD, minti 78.

 Haɗin waje 

 David Brower Legacy a shafin yanar gizon Cibiyar Tsibirin Duniya.
 Wilderness Connect: "David Brower" 
 "Brower, David Ross (1912 - 2000) American Environmentalist and Conservationist" by Lawrence Biskowski, Encyclopedia.com.
 David Brower: Yana magana game da "Me zai Kashe Duniya" a Kelly Hall, Kwalejin Antioch, Yellow Springs, Ohio (Sashe na A), 1970-04-19, WYSO, Tarihin watsa shirye-shiryen jama'a na Amurka (GBH da Laburaren Majalisa), Boston, MA da Washington, DC.
 Jagoran kan layi zuwa takardun David Ross Brower, Laburaren Bancroft, Jami'ar California a Berkeley.
 Mutuwa: David Brower na Christopher Reed, The Guardian, 7 Nuwamba 2000.

 Manazarta 
Rukuni:Mutuwan 2000
Rukuni:Haifaffun 1912
Rukuni:Shafuka masu fassarorin da ba'a duba ba