Adalci na muhalli da hakar kwal a Appalachia

Adalci na muhalli a ma'adinan kwal a cikin Appalachia shine nazarin shari'ar muhalli - ƙungiyar ƙwararrun wallafe-wallafen zamantakewa da ke nazarin ka'idodin yanayi da adalci;  dokokin muhalli, manufofi, da aiwatar da su da aiwatar da su;  ci gaba da dorewa;  da ilimin kimiyyar siyasa - dangane da hakar kwal a Appalachia.

Yankin Appalachia na Kudu maso gabashin Amurka shine babban mai samar da kwal a kasar. Bincike ya nuna cewa mazauna da ke zaune kusa da ma'adanai na cirewa (MTR) suna da Yawan mace-mace fiye da matsakaici, kuma suna iya rayuwa cikin talauci kuma su fuskanci yanayin muhalli mai cutarwa fiye da mutane a wasu sassan yankin.

a cikin ƙarshen 1990s, yawancin matan Appalachian, ciki har da Julia Bonds, sun fara yin magana game da MTR da tasirinsa a kan mutane da muhallin al'ummomin ma'adinai.  Bincike ya nuna cewa MTR yana haifar da "lalacewar muhalli" a cikin Appalachia.  Fashewar saman tsaunuka ya gurɓata rafuka da gurɓataccen ruwa tare da datti mai guba daga sarrafa kwal da ake kira tafkunan slurry.  Masana kimiyya sun lura da karuwar matsalolin numfashi da na zuciya a tsakanin mazauna yankin, ciki har da kansar huhu.  Yawan mace-mace da lahani na haihuwa sun fi girma a yankunan da ke kewaye da wuraren hakar ma'adinai..

Samar da hakar kwal a Appalachia ya ragu daga 1990 zuwa 2015, amma akwai wasu muhawara game da dalilin da ya sa. Abubuwan da aka ambata sun haɗa da karuwar buƙatun makamashi mai tsabta, Manufofin muhalli da ka'idojin da Hukumar Kare Muhalli (EPA) ta tsara, da kuma duniya. Adadin ayyukan hakar kwal a yankin ya kasance mai ɗorewa daga 2000 zuwa 2010, amma ya ragu da kashi 37% tsakanin 2011 da 2015. Ƙananan samarwa ne ke da alhakin yawancin wannan asarar aiki, amma ingantaccen fasahar hakar ma'adinai kamar cirewa daga saman dutse suma sun ba da gudummawa. Magana game da kwal a yankin ya haifar da muhawara a cikin ilimi game da ko yana haifar da wadata ko talauci. Babban muhawara ta shafi tasirin samar da kwal a kan tattalin arzikin gida da na kasa.

 Tarihi 

 Samar da kwal 
Appalachia na ɗaya daga cikin yankuna uku masu hakar kwal a cikin Amurka;  Sauran sun hada da yankin kwal na cikin gida, da yankin kwal na Yamma, wanda ya hada da Kogin Powder Basin.  Jihohi takwas sun kwanta a yankin kwal na Appalachian: Alabama, gabashin Kentucky, Maryland, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, da West Virginia.[1]  West Virginia ita ce jiha mafi girma da ke samar da kwal a cikin Appalachia, kuma jiha ta biyu mafi girma da ke samar da kwal a Amurka, wanda ya kai kusan kashi 11% na yawan kwal da al'ummar kasar ke nomawa a shekarar 2014 (jihar da ke samar da kwal mafi girma ita ce Wyoming, wacce ke cikin yankin yammacin kwal kuma tana da kashi 40% na samar da kwal na Amurka.Where the United States gets its coal, U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration (last updated April 21, 2017). Sauran jihohi biyu a yankin kwal na Appalachian, Kentucky da Pennsylvania, suna da kashi 8% da 6% na samar da kwal na Amurka, bi da bi.

Masana'antar kwal a Appalachia ta canza a tsawon lokaci. Dangane da bayanan Hukumar Kula da Makamashi ta Amurka, Appalachia ta Tsakiya - wanda ya kunshi kudancin West Virginia, gabashin Kentucky, yammacin Virginia, da gabashin Tennessee - ya kai kusan kashi 29% na samar da kwal a Amurka a Amurka a cikin 1990, amma kusan kashi 13% ne kawai a shekarar 2013.  Sabanin haka, samar da kwal a Arewacin Appalachian ya kasance mai ɗorewa, yana tafiya daga 16% a 1990 zuwa 12.5% a 2013. A sakamakon haka, "yanki biyu suna da kusan kashi ɗaya na samar da kwal na Amurka" tun daga shekarar 2014. 

A cikin yankin kwal na Appalachian, kashi 72% na kwal da aka samar ya fito ne daga Ma'adanai na karkashin kasa. Wannan yana da kashi mafi girma fiye da yankin kwal na Yamma, inda kashi 90% na duk kwal da aka samar ya fito ne daga ma'adanai.

 Tarihi 
A tarihi, "gina Garuruwan kwal ya fara ne a cikin shekarun 1880, ya kai kololuwa a cikin shekarun 1920, kuma kusan ya ƙare tare da zuwan Babban Mawuyacin hali" lokacin da wadatar wasu nau'ikan makamashi - wato, mai, gas, da hydroelectricity - ya rage bukatar kwal. garin kamfanin ya fi rinjaye a kudancin Appalachia; a cikin 1925, kusan kashi 80% na masu hakar kwal na West Virginia suna zaune a garuruwan kamfanin, yayin da matsakaicin kashi 64.4% na masu haker kwal a Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, da Tennessee ke zaune a garuruwukan kamfanoni.

 Tasirin hakar kwal a Appalachia 
Tun daga shekara ta 1995, Yankin Appalachia ya samar da kusan rabin kwal na Amurka. Kodayake Appalachia ta taka muhimmiyar rawa wajen ba da gudummawa ga samar da kwal na Amurka, al'ummomin da ke kewaye da irin waɗannan ayyukan hakar ma'adinai sun sha wahala sosai. Bincike da yawa sun nuna bambance-bambance tsakanin al'ummomin hakar ma'adinai da al'ummomi marasa hakar ma-adinai dangane da lafiyar jama'a, lalacewar muhalli, gurɓataccen yanayi, da ingancin rayuwa gaba ɗaya a Appalachia. Bambance-bambance na dabarun hakar kwal a cikin Appalachia sun haɗa da ƙira, yanki, babban bango, auger, da kuma cire hakar dutse (MTR). 

 Dokar Kula da Ma'adinai ta 1977 
Lalacewar da aka haifar ta hanyar cire ma'adinai na tsaunuka ya haifar da tasiri mai mahimmanci a kan muhalli da al'ummomi a Appalachia. Yankin da ke da wadataccen albarkatun ya kasance mai fama da tattalin arziki kuma yana fama da abubuwan da ke tattare da hakar kwal, gami da matsalolin kiwon lafiya da gurɓataccen kwal ya haifar. Ofishin Ma'adinai na Kasa (OSM) shine hukumar tarayya da ke da alhakin tsara ma'adinai a karkashin Dokar Kula da Ma'adanai ta Tarayya (SMCRA). A cewar OSM, "[t]o yadda yawan mutanen da ke samun kudin shiga ke da yawa a cikin filayen kwal, tasirin hakar ma'adinai na tsaunuka ana jin su ba daidai ba daga waɗannan jama'ar adalci na muhalli".

Galibin mazauna yankin ba sa iya ganin irin barnar da hako ma'adinan saman suka yi.  Masanin ilimin kasa Sean P. Bemis ya binciki ikirarin da mazauna yankin suka yi cewa ba a iya ganin girman barnar da aka yi a cikin sauki.  A cikin hirar da aka yi da tawagar binciken, tsohon mai hakar ma'adinai Chuck Nelson ya bayyana cewa girman lalatar yana bayyane ne kawai daga jirgin sama.  Mazauna Coalfield Maria Gunnoe ta ba da irin wannan rahoto ga masu binciken, tana mai cewa "Ban taba gane cewa yana da muni ba. Na farko da na fara tashi tare da South Wings [kungiyoyin jiragen sama masu zaman kansu], kuma dama akwai abin da ya kore ni. Lokacin da na sauka daga jirgin a ranar, na yi kuka gaba daya a kan kwalta, har zuwa gida ..." Ofishin Asusun Gwamnati (GAO) ya tabbatar da haka.

Babu wani rikodin hukuma na jimlar adadin "ƙananan kadada" wanda ya haifar da hakar ma'adinai, amma binciken geospatial ya nuna cewa tsakanin kadada miliyan 1.05 da miliyan 1.28 na ƙasa da fiye da duwatsu 500 a West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, da Virginia an haƙa su.

 Cire saman dutse 

Ɗaya daga cikin nau'ikan hakar ma'adinai shine cirewa (MTR). Wannan dabarar na iya cire kusan 800 zuwa 1000 feet daga tsaunuka, don isa ga kwal da ba za a iya samun ta wasu dabarun hakar ma'adinai ba. An yi amfani da wannan aikin a kan karamin sikelin a cikin shekarun 1970s, kuma an yi amfani da shi sosai a cikin shekarun 1990s saboda karuwar bukatar kwal mai ƙarancin sulfur mai ƙaranci bayan wucewar Dokar Gyaran Zubar da Ruwa ta 1990.

Tsarin MTR ya fara ne ta hanyar sare bishiyoyi a kan tsaunin da aka zaɓa, wanda aka fashe shi da fashewa. Bayan haka duk wani ƙasa da dutse ko "spoil" an fitar da su; bayan aikin hakar ma'adinai ya cika wannan za a maye gurbinsa. Da zarar an dame wannan dutse, kumburi zai faru; ganimar za ta fadada da kashi goma sha biyar zuwa kashi ashirin da biyar, saboda shigar iska da kuma komai. Ana zubar da ganimar da ta wuce gona da iri ko kuma "mafi girman kaya" a cikin koguna ko kwari da ke kusa, wani tsari da ake kira "cikin kwarin". Ma'adinai na tsaunuka da kwarin da ke cike da kwarin na iya haifar da canje-canje masu yawa, wanda zai iya haɗawa da: jujjuyawar wuraren zama, raguwar gandun daji, da asarar manyan yankuna na ƙasar gandun daji. Tun lokacin da aka samu karuwar amfani da MTR, an lalata tsaunuka 500 kuma an cika kilomita 2000 na hanyoyin ruwa.

Hakanan akwai yiwuwar sakamako mara kyau ga mutanen da ke zaune a cikin waɗannan al'ummomin hakar ma'adinai na Appalachia. Michael Hendryx, mai bincike a Jami'ar Jihar Indiana, ya bayyana a cikin wata hira da Yale cewa, "Yawan yawan mutuwar da ke faruwa a kowace shekara ya zo kusan mutane 1,200 da ke zaune a cikin waɗannan al'ummomin hakar ma'adinai idan aka kwatanta da sauran sassan Appalachia. "  Cututtukan da suka fi yawa a waɗannan yankunan MTR sun haɗa da: cututtukan zuciya, ciwon huhu, da COPD. Wadannan ba kawai cututtukan aiki ne na masu hakar kwal ba har ma da na jama'a gaba ɗaya. Hadarin lahani na haihuwa, musamman lahani na zuciya, yana ƙaruwa da kusan 181% a yankunan MTR. Masu bincike suna fara bincike kan ƙananan ƙwayoyin cuta a matsayin dalilin waɗannan cututtukan da ƙaruwar mutuwa.

Bincike da yawa sun gano cewa al'ummomin da ke cikin yankin Appalachian da ke kewaye da ayyukan hakar kwal suna fuskantar mummunan tasirin kiwon lafiya fiye da al'ummomi marasa hakar kwal. Irin wannan bambancin kiwon lafiya galibi ana danganta shi da gurɓataccen ruwa da ƙasa da ke da alaƙa da hakar kwal. MTR ya kara salinity, karafa, Magnesium, da sulfates a cikin ruwa na Appalachian, yana barazana ga lafiyar ɗan adam. Kashi sittin da uku na gadajen rafi kusa da filayen kwal a cikin tsaunukan Appalachia an gano su a matsayin "marasa lafiya" saboda gurɓataccen sinadarai da ƙarfe.

A Yammacin Virginia, yankuna 14 suna fuskantar ruwa wanda ya wuce ka'idodin ruwan sha mai aminci sau bakwai fiye da yankunan da ba masu hakar ma'adinai ba. Sharar konewa da toka mai tashi daga MTR ya ba da rancen ƙura mai guba suna gurɓata iska da ke kewaye da su kuma sun ba da gudummawa ga karuwar matakan ciwon daji, cututtukan zuciya, cututattun hanta, da cututtuken koda. Kudin kiwon lafiya na jama'a na gurɓataccen yanayi a cikin Appalachia sun kai sama da dala biliyan 75 a kowace shekara.

A cikin kwatankwacin nazarin ingancin da ke da alaƙa da kiwon lafiya na mazauna a cikin yankuna tare da kuma ba tare da hakar kwal ba Appalachia "ya ba da rahoton kwanakin lafiya kaɗan ga lafiyar jiki da ta hankali". Wannan binciken ya nuna alaƙa mai ƙarfi tsakanin yankunan hakar kwal mai nauyi da haɗarin baƙin ciki da matsanancin damuwa. Yankunan da ke cikin Appalachia tare da hakar ma'adinai suna nuna mafi girman tasirin kiwon lafiya da rage Lafiyar kai idan aka kwatanta da matsakaicin ƙasa. Bugu da kari, binciken daga Cibiyar Tsaro da Lafiya ta Kasa sun kammala babban "dangantaka tsakanin ayyukan hakar kwal da yaduwar cutar huhu". A ƙarshe, ta hanyar nazarin Yawan mace-mace, yawan talauci na gundumar, da hakar kwal a cikin yankuna na Appalachia, an gano cewa yankunan hakar kwal na Appalachian sun sami yawan mace-mutuwa mafi girma sannan yankuna ba tare da hakar ma'adinai ba.

Masana'antar hakar kwal tana da tasirin kiwon lafiya na dindindin ba kawai ga ma'aikatan masana'antar ba har ma da mutanen da ke zaune kusa da ma'adanai. Mutanen da ke fuskantar ƙwayoyin da aka saki daga hakar kwal suna fuskantar cututtukan cututtukani kamar rheumatoid arthritis, pneumoconiosis, da cututtukatattun zuciya:

 Rheumatoid arthritis (RA): wannan cuta duka biyu ce ta autoimmune da ciwon kumburi.  Cutar ta sa tsarin garkuwar jikin dan Adam ya kai hari ga lafiyayyun kwayoyin halitta a cikin jiki domin ya yi imanin cewa barazana ce.  Wannan shine abin da ke haifar da kumburi, wanda yawanci ana samuwa a cikin haɗin gwiwa.  Tsawon rheumatoid amosanin gabbai yana wanzuwa a cikin haɗin gwiwa mafi girma damar lalacewar nama na haɗin gwiwa ya zama.  (CDC, 2022).  Ɗaya daga cikin abubuwan da masu hakar ma'adinan kwal ke fuskanta da ke haifar da wannan cuta shine silica.  Nazarin da Schmajuk et al.  An gano cewa tsakanin binciken da suka yi a cikin 2017 da binciken da suka yi a shekarar 2019, kashi 56% na mahalartansu an gano su da kowane nau'i na cututtukan fata.  Kashi 20% na mahalarta sun kamu da cututtukan rheumatoid A cikin sashin tattaunawarsu an bayyana cewa "aikin hakar kwal da bayyanar silica na sana'a duk suna da alaƙa da sau uku na RA".
 Pneumoconiosis: Wannan cuta tana da nau'ikan nau'ikan daban-daban guda uku waɗanda sune asbestosis, silicosis da pneumoconiosis na ma'aikatan kwal (wanda aka fi sani da huhu baƙar fata). Ƙungiyar huhu ta Amurka (ALA) ta lura cewa cutar huhu ta baki ta samo asali ne daga numfashi na ƙurar kwal na dogon lokaci, da zarar ƙwayoyin kwal suna cikin huhu jikinka zai yi ƙoƙarin cire su daga huhu. Rashin kumburi na lokaci yana faruwa kuma da zarar ya yi tsanani, zai iya samar da kwayar cutar a huhu. Koyaya cutar huhu ba ita ce kawai nau'in pneumoconiosis da ma'aikatan kwal ke fuskantarwa ba. Har ila yau, sau da yawa suna fuskantar fuskantar fuskantar ƙurar silica saboda tsarin hakowa. Binciken da Blackley, et al. suka gudanar ya gano cewa babban ɓangare na pneumoconiosis da aka samu a Amurka yana cikin tsakiyar Appalachia. A cikin sashin tattaunawarsu sun bayyana, "Daya cikin 5 idan waɗannan masu hakar ma'adinai a tsakiyar Appalachia suna da CWP (pneumoconiosis na ma'aikatan kwal), muhimmiyar mai tsinkaya don bunkasa PMF (progressive massive fibrosis). Kimanin 1 cikin 20 masu hakar- hakar ma- hakar da ke ci gaba zuwa PMF, yanayin da ke da nakasa gaba ɗaya. "
 Cutar zuciya: Binciken cututtukan cututtuka ya gano cewa gurɓataccen iska na muhalli yana da alaƙa da karuwar haɗarin cututtuken zuciya, gami da cututtukatattun jijiyoyin zuciya, gazawar zuciya, bugun jini, da hauhawar cututtukayyar zuciya da yawan mace-mace.    Mutanen da aka fallasa ga gurɓataccen abu kamar su kwayoyin halitta masu kyau, gami da PM2.50 da nitrogen dioxide, sun fuskanci haɗarin haɓaka irin waɗannan yanayi. An haɗa bayyanar PM2.5 na dogon lokaci tare da Cututtukan zuciya, bugun jini, da karuwar mutuwa. Bugu da ƙari, a yankunan da hakar kwal ya zama ruwan dare, mazauna galibi suna fallasa ba kawai ga gurɓataccen iska ba, har ma da ruwa da aka gurɓata da abubuwa masu guba waɗanda suka samo asali daga hakar kwal da ayyukan sarrafawa. Bugu da ƙari, binciken da Finch da Conklin suka yi ya gano cewa bayyanar takamaiman gurɓataccen iska yana da alaƙa da canje-canje ga tsarin zuciya. Magunguna na iya haifar da hypertrophy na zuciya, ko kauri na tsokoki na zuciya, don haka kara yawan raguwa da ake buƙata a minti daya don samar da isasshen iskar oxygen da abubuwan gina jiki ga jiki. Wannan martani, duk da haka, na iya haifar da yawan zuciya kuma yana taimakawa ga ci gaban cututtukan zuciya. Musamman, bayyanar nitrogen dioxide, PM10, da ƙwayoyin PM2.5 an haɗa su da faɗaɗa duka ventricles na hagu da na dama, wanda ke haɓaka hawan jini.

 Tasirin muhalli 
Ma'adinai na coal sun canza yanayin ruwa da kuma yanayin Appalachia wanda ke haifar da lalacewar muhalli da kuma ba da gudummawa ga lalacewar yanayin da ba za a iya gyarawa ba. Ma'adinai na kwal a cikin Appalachian ya ba da gudummawa ga lalata sama da 500 tsaunuka. Bugu da kari, ya haifar da share sama da kadada miliyan 1 na gandun daji kuma ya ba da gudummawa ga lalacewa ko asarar dindindin sama da mil 12000 na rafi masu mahimmanci ga ruwa na Appalachia daga 1985- 2001. Cirewa a saman tsaunuka ya sa gandun daji na Appalachian na asali suka koma cikin wuraren ciyawa / wuraren daji. Pericak et al. a cikin binciken su sun lura cewa wannan aikin, "ya rage rikitarwa na yanki, ya saukar da matsakaicin gangara da kusan 10 °, kuma ya haifar da shimfidar wurare masu kama da tsaunuka. "

Ƙarin gishiri da gurɓataccen ƙarfe na kogunan Appalachian sun haifar da tasirin guba na kifi da nau'in tsuntsaye. Kodayake akwai matakai da aka dauka don kawar da sulfuric acid a cikin sharar da aka kirkira ta hanyar cirewa, wasu nau'ikan magudanar ma'adinai suna faruwa. Pericak et al. sun bayyana cewa, "Halin halayen yanayi na cibiyar yana haifar da magudanar ma'adinai na alkaline wanda ke nunawa ta hanyar hawan ion na sulfate (SO42-), calcium (Ca2+), magnesium (Mg2+), bicarbonate (HCO3-), da sauran abubuwa da suka hada da manyan gurɓataccen ruwa kamar selenium (Se) ". Cirewa daga saman dutse, ko MTR, wani nau'in hakar ma'adinai ne wanda ya taka muhimmiyar rawa wajen tasiri ga yanayin Appalachian. Lokacin da aka yi amfani da MTR, yana haifar da yawancin gurɓataccen abu daga tsari don a kwashe shi cikin kwarin da ke kewaye da shi wanda, sau da yawa, ya shiga cikin koguna da ke kusa. Wadannan sharar gida ana zubar da su a cikin "kwari cike" wanda ya rushe kuma ya haifar da ambaliyar ruwa mai tsanani a Appalachia.   Hukumar Kare Muhalli ta yi la'akari da cewa tsakanin 1985 da 2001, sama da kilomita 700 na rafi a cikin Appalachians an rufe su da waɗannan "kwari" saboda cire ma'adinai na kwal.

Al'adar kawar da tsaunin da kanta yana haifar da cutarwa ga muhalli, duk da haka akwai wasu abubuwan da suka ɓoye ɓoye a cikin tsarin.  Ɗaya daga cikin waɗannan shi ne jigilar gawayi zuwa masana'antar da za a tace shi. Ayyukan manyan motocin sufuri suna amfani da man fetur a matsayin tushen iskar gas wanda ke fitar da CO2 a cikin iska.  A lokaci guda kuma, jigilar kwal ɗin yana ƙara yada abubuwan da ke faruwa daga aikin hakar ma'adinai zuwa garuruwan da ke kusa.  Anejia et al.  ya gano cewa, "... Motocin kwal suna yawan bi ta cikin al'ummomi da ke cikin kwaruruka masu tudu, ko kuma ramuka, inda gidaje ke kusa da kunkuntar hanyoyi. Wasu al'ummomin kan fuskanci daruruwan balaguro na manyan motoci a rana. Motocin kwal suna fitar da kura kai tsaye daga tayoyinsu, jikinsu, da gadajensu. "

Appalachia a tarihi ya kasance daya daga cikin yankuna mafi talauci a kasar.  Akwai muhawara game da ko samar da kwal shine tushen wadata ko talauci a Appalachia. Binciken Geological na Amurka da Ofishin Ma'adinai na Amurka sun bayyana cewa akwai rikice-rikice na wadatar kwal a Appalachia. Kodayake Appalachia gida ce ga wasu manyan ma'adanai na kwal, matsakaicin kuɗin shiga na kowane mutum kusan kusan 68% ne kawai na kuɗin shiga na kowace ƙasa. Koyaya, aikin da Black da Sanders suka yi ya nuna cewa tsakanin 1970 da 1980 karuwar samar da kwal ya haɓaka albashin ƙwararrun ma'aikata a Appalachia kuma mai yiwuwa ya haifar da raguwar rashin daidaito.

Kodayake masana'antun hakar kwal galibi suna da alaƙa da karuwar ayyuka da ci gaban tattalin arziki, wannan ƙungiyar ba ta riƙe Appalachia ba, inda kashi biyu bisa uku na yankuna suna da matakan rashin aikin yi fiye da al'umma da kuma albashin mutum na kowane mutum wanda ya faɗi 20% ƙasa da al'ummar. Fiye da haka, a cikin kwatankwacin Hendryx da Zullig game da yankunan Appalachia, waɗanda ke da hakar kwal suna da bambancin tattalin arziki da talauci fiye da waɗanda ba su da masana'antu. Canjin zuwa ga hakar ma'adinai daga hakar ma-adinai na karkashin kasa ya haifar da raguwar kashi 50% a cikin ayyukan hakar ma na hakar ma daga 1985 zuwa 2005, kuma gasa daga iskar gas mai arha ya rage bukatar kwal, wanda ya haifar da wasu ma'adanai don rufewa ko rage hakar ma, wanda ya kara yawan rashin aikin yi.

A cikin shekarun 1990s hakar kwal da sauran kasuwancin hakar kwal sun ragu sosai a Appalachia. Wannan ya sa tattalin arzikin ya ragu sosai kuma mutane da yawa sun sami kansu ba tare da aiki ba kuma ya haifar da talauci. Bugu da ƙari, waɗanda suka yi aiki a masana'antar hakar ma'adinai sun gano cewa jikinsu sun lalace kuma suna ciwo koyaushe. Ayyukan da waɗannan mutane suka yi sun bar su neman taimako daga ciwo kuma mutane da yawa na Appalachia sun juya zuwa opioids. Daga 2014 zuwa 2015, aikin hakar ma'adinai na Appalachia ya ragu da kashi 15.9%.

tare da raguwar damar tattalin arziki ga jama'ar Appalachia ya zo ne da yanke kauna wanda ya bar mutane da yawa rashin bege ga makomarsu.  Wannan yana haifar da cututtuka na yanke kauna irin su barasa da yawan shan miyagun ƙwayoyi (duka takardun magani da ba bisa ka'ida ba), kashe kansa, da ciwon hanta na barasa.  (Marberry & Werner, 2020).  Bugu da ƙari kuma, an yi imani da cewa cututtuka na yanke ƙauna na iya haɗawa da solastalgia.  Solastalgia wata cuta ce, "ciwon zuciya, wanda aka siffanta shi da cutar tabin hankali da ke da alaƙa da duniya inda jin daɗin tunanin mutane… ke fuskantar barazanar yanke alaƙar 'lafiya' tsakanin su da gidansu / yankinsu."

Wani binciken NASA ya bayyana cewa alkawuran ci gaba mai fa'ida bayan hakar ma'adinai a yankin Appalachian har yanzu ba su cika ba. Wani binciken da aka yi a shekarar 2017 ya gano cewa unguwanni mafi kusa da wuraren da ke dauke da kwal "da ɗan yiwuwar samun mafi girman talauci da rashin aikin yi, har ma bayan sarrafa yankunan karkara, masu canji masu alaƙa da hakar ma'adinai, da dogaro da sararin samaniya".

 Takamaiman abubuwan da suka faru 

 Bala'in Buffalo Creek 

A shekara ta 1972, wani tafki mai laushi wanda kamfanin Pittson Coal Company ya gina ya rushe. A cikin abin da aka sani da Bala'in Buffalo Creek lita miliyan 130 na laka ya mamaye Buffalo Creek. Kwanan nan, wani sharar gida mallakar Massey ya fashe a Kentucky, ambaliyar ruwa da ke kusa da shi tare da tan 250 na kwal.

 Bala'in Babban reshe 
A ranar 5 ga Afrilu, 2010, an yi fashewa a ma'adinin Upper Big Branch a Raleigh County, West Virginia, mallakar Massey Energy. Fashewar ta kashe masu hakar ma'adinai 29 kuma an lasafta shi mafi munin hatsari a Amurka tun 1970. A cikin 2015 Farfesa Nicole Fabricant ya rubuta, "Saboda Massey Energy ya yanke kusurwoyi a kan ka'idojin tsaro - a wannan yanayin, ya kasa samar da isasshen iska don methane - kamfanin ya haifar da bala'in Upper Big Branch. Hukumar Kula da Lafiya da Lafiya ta gano cewa manyan keta doka sun ba da gudummawa ga fashewar ƙurar kwal. Ya ba da ambatoci 369 a cikin 2011, yana kimanta dala miliyan 10.8 a cikin azabtarwa. "

 zanga-zangar makarantar firamare ta Marsh Fork 
A lokacin da wannan makarantar ke aiki 'yan ƙasa sun fara samun babbar damuwa game da yadda ayyukan hakar kwal ke kusa da makarantar. Fabricant ya bayyana cewa, "Makarantar tana zaune kusa da silos na kwal kuma kawai mita 400 daga wani abin da ke riƙe da biliyoyin lita na kwal. "  Tare da wannan mazauna suna damuwa game da ingancin iska da yiwuwar kwayoyin su kasance a cikin iska kusa da makarantar. Bayan manyan zanga-zangar daga al'umma an tura yara zuwa wata makaranta don tsaron su.

 Bala'in Farmington Mine 
Fashewar ma'adinin Consol No. 9 kusa da Farmington, West Virginia ya faru ne a ranar 20 ga Nuwamba, 1968. Wannan bala'in ya kashe mutane 78 wadanda ba a taɓa warkewa daga ma'adinin ba. Abubuwan da suka ba da gudummawa ga wannan bala'in an bayyana su kamar haka, "Ba su so su bi Dokar Lafiya da Tsaro ta Tarayya ba... Kuma saboda rashin himma, wannan shine abin da ya faru a No. 9 wanda ya sa ya fashe. "  Bayan 'yan shekaru ma'adinin ya sake buɗewa kuma an tuhumi Larry Layne da gano abin da ya gabata. Yayinda yake a shafin Larry ya haɗu da wani mai lantarki wanda ya tambaye shi game da magoya bayan Mod's Run, dalilin da ya sa ba ya aiki kuma dalilin da ya Sa babu wanda ya san cewa ya sauka. Larry ya gano cewa ƙararrawa ga wannan fan ɗin iska ya nakasa. Lokacin da Larry ya tambayi dalilin da ya sa mai aikin lantarki ya amsa da, "Babban mai aikin lantarki sai ya ce fan ya ci gaba da sauka, kuma suna da matsala da shi. Kuma a duk lokacin da mai aikin ya sauka, ba sa son fitar da maza daga ma'adinin".

 Shari'a da ka'idoji 
Dokar Amfanin Black Lung ta 1972 ta ba da biyan kuɗi ga masu hakar kwal da suka nakasa daga cutar huhu ta Coalworker ko "cutar huhu ta baki" da waɗanda suka tsira.

Dokar Kula da Ma'adinai ta 1977 (SMCRA) ta kirkiro shirye-shirye guda biyu: daya don tsara ma'adanai masu aiki da na biyu don dawo da ƙasashen ma'adinai da aka watsar.

A ra'ayin masanin shari'a Jedediah Purdy, Dokar Tsabtace Ruwa da Dokar Tsabtar Ruwa sun inganta ingancin iska da ruwa ga yawancin Amurka, amma sun kirkiro "yanki na hadaya" a Amurka, gami da al'ummomin hakar kwal a Appalachia, waɗanda suka ɓoye tasirin muhalli na masana'antu da aikin gona daga mutane a cikin unguwanni yayin da suke ƙara haɗari ga mutanen da ke zaune kusa da wuraren gurɓata. : 182 

Wadannan dokoki, tare da Dokar Manufofin Muhalli ta Kasa sun zama tushen doka don tsara ma'adinai na kwal, gami da cire ma'adanai na tsaunuka. Dokokin da aka bayar bisa ga waɗannan dokoki suna mai da hankali kan bayarwa ko riƙe izini don sabbin ayyukan hakar ma'adinai; an kalubalanci ka'idojin da kansu. Tun daga 2012 [sabuntawa], waɗannan dokokin ba su yi la'akari da tasirin kai tsaye ga al'ummomin da ke kusa da ma'adinai ba ko bambance-bambancen tattalin arziki ko launin fata a cikin waɗannan al'ummomin, da ƙa'idodi da umarnin zartarwa da aka bayar waɗanda suka yi ƙoƙarin magance matsalolin shari'ar muhalli an soke su, kuma ƙalubalen shari'a dangane da yuwuwar tasirin ga al'ummomin gida gabaɗaya ya gaza, tunda ba a rubuta doka ko ƙa'idodi don magance waɗannan damuwa da alƙalai da ƙa'idodi ba a zahiri bisa ga abin da doka ta ce..

Dokar Kulawa mai araha doka ce ta kiwon lafiya ta gwamnatin tarayya; ta haɗa da tanadi da ke gyara shirin Black Lung Benefits .  Shirin Black Lung Benefits ya ba da cikakken bayani game da yadda masu hakar kwal ke da nauyin kiwon lafiya da gwamnatin tarayya ta biya. Shirye-shiryen ACA da ke gyara shirin Black Lung Benefits an fi sani da Bayanan Byrd wanda ya ɗauki sunansa daga marigayi West Virginia Congressman Robert Byrd. Ana samun gyare-gyaren Byrd a Sashe na 1556 na ACA .  Daga cikin kariya da yawa da Byrd Amendments ke ba da masu hakar kwal, yana rufe kudaden kiwon lafiya ga masu hakar ma'adinai waɗanda suka yi aiki aƙalla shekaru 15 a ƙarƙashin ƙasa (ko kwatankwacin hakar maɓuɓɓugar ƙasa) kuma waɗanda ke da nakasaccen numfashi gaba ɗaya. Bugu da ƙari, yana canza nauyin tabbatar da nakasa saboda "cutar huhu" daga waɗannan masu hakar kwal zuwa kamfanonin kwal. Cutar huhu ta ma'aikacin kwal ko "cutar huhu" na iya zama matsala ce ta kiwon lafiya da masu hakar kwal da suka yi ritaya ke fuskanta.

 Dokar Kula da Ma'adinai ta 1977 

Kokarin farko na tsara hakar ma'adinai a matakin jihar sun kasance ba su yi nasara ba saboda rashin kulawa. An kafa kungiyar Appalachian Group to Save the Land and the People a shekarar 1965 don dakatar da hakar ma'adinai. A shekara ta 1968, Majalisa ta gudanar da sauraro na farko game da hakar ma'adinai. Ken Hechler ya gabatar da dokar kawar da ma'adinai ta farko a Majalisa a shekarar 1971. Kodayake ba a zartar da wannan lissafin ba, tanadin da ke kafa tsari don dawo da ma'adanai da aka watsar da su da kuma ba da damar 'yan ƙasa su kai karar hukumomin da ke kula da su sun zama wasu sassan SMCRA.

SMCRA kuma ta kirkiro Ofishin Ma'adinai, wata hukuma a cikin Ma'aikatar Cikin Gida, don gabatar da ka'idoji, don tallafawa kokarin tsarawa da sake farfadowa na jihar, da kuma tabbatar da daidaito tsakanin shirye-shiryen tsarawa na jihar.

 Hanyoyin sarrafawa da sabuntawa ga sarkar samar da kwal 
Dangane da sharhin da Hukumar Kare Muhalli (EPA) ta gudanar, Majalisar Coal ta Amurka da aka adana 2020-08-08 a Injin Wayback (ACC) ta tabbatar da cewa sarkar samar da kwal na karkashin tsauraran matakan kananan hukumomi, jihohi, da tarayya.  Betsy Monseu, Shugaba na ACC, ya bayyana cewa, "Canje-canje ga ƙa'idodi, rashin daidaituwa a cikin ƙa'idodi, da rashin tabbas na ƙa'ida yana shafar harkokin kasuwanci manya da ƙanana. Akwai hakikanin sakamako ga mutane, rayuwarsu, da iyalansu."  Kodayake tasirin muhalli da haƙar ma'adinan kwal ke haifarwa yana ƙaruwa, EPA ta fara ganin fa'idar tokar kwal.  A cikin 2020, EPA ta ce, "Ana iya amfani da toka mai kyau don yin sabbin kayayyaki, kamar allon bango ko kankare. Saboda yawancin kaddarorin da za a iya amfani da su na tokar kwal, ɗimbin kasuwanci da yawa daga gine-gine zuwa aikin gona da masana'antu suna zaɓar tokar kwal a madadin sauran kayan.".Rukuni:CS1 errors: missing periodical

ACC tana roƙon EPA da ta yi la'akari da amfani da ragowar konewar kwal (CCR), wanda ACC ta lakafta shi a matsayin mai fa'ida ga muhalli. Kodayake EPA ta yi bincike kuma ta yi mulki a CCR a matsayin madadin da ya dace, ba a dauki wani mataki ba. Domin CCR ya zama sananne a matsayin mafita mai dacewa, EPA dole ne ta kimanta ragowar konewar kwal tare da ka'idoji huɗu: (1) CCR dole ne ya samar da fa'idar aiki; (2) CCR dole no maye gurbin amfani da kayan budurwa, kiyaye albarkatun halitta waɗanda in ba za a samu ta hanyar ayyuka kamar cirewa ba; (3) Amfani da CCRs dole ne su cika ƙayyadaddun samfurin ƙasa masu dacewa, ko ka'idojin ƙira, lokacin da ake amfani da su, a kan waɗannan ƙayyadadden ruwa, kuma ba, don samar da su ba tare da takardun ƙasa ba, a kan irin waɗannan takardun ruwa masu amfani da su ba, CCR ba, don yin amfani da su a kan waɗannan abubuwan da su ba su ba, don amfani da su da su ba don samar da ruwa masu amfani ba, don su ba,

A shekara ta 1967, an zabi Louie Nunn a matsayin gwamnan Kentucky . Ya kasance memba na jam'iyyar Republican kuma an zabe shi a matsayin wani ɓangare na ƙoƙarin ƙasa don amsa dokar Johnson's Great Society. An yi wannan dokar ne don inganta haƙƙin jama'a da kuma taimaka wa ƙungiyoyin jama'a su sami hanyar tsaro yayin da suke zanga-zanga. A cikin aikin, "To Live Here, You Have to Fight: How Women Led Appalachian Movements for Social Justice" marubuciya Jessica Wilkerson ta bayyana, "...Nunn ya yi alkawarin amfani da ikonsa don kawo karshen masu sa kai na Appalachians a Kentucky..."  Dokar da Majalisa ta zartar da gwamnoni su yanke shawarar bukatun da suka sanya kungiyar Hukumar Ayyukan Al'umma, wanda shine muhimmiyar alama da za a samu don samun cancanta ga tallafin gwamnati.

 Ƙungiyoyin bayar da shawarwari 
Nazarin ka'idar adalci, kamar yadda aka yi amfani da shi ga adalci na muhalli, ya fi mayar da hankali kan "rashin rarraba". A wasu kalmomi, wannan yanki na binciken ya mayar da hankali kan gaskiyar cewa al'ummomin matalauta, al'ummomi na asali, da al'ummonin launi galibi suna da tasiri sosai ta hanyar abubuwan da ba su da kyau da ke da alaƙa da muhalli kuma suna karɓar kariya ta muhalli.

Masana sun gano adalci na muhalli a matsayin motsi wanda ya amince da tasirin lalacewar muhalli da gurɓataccen guba a kan matalauta da mutane masu launin fata. An kuma lura cewa tseren da aji na jam'iyyun suna tasiri ga damar samun nasara ga al'umma wajen aiwatar da sauye-sauye. Kungiyoyin adalci na muhalli ƙungiyoyi ne na al'umma waɗanda suka haɗu da muhalli tare da batutuwan kabilanci da daidaito na aji. Wadannan kungiyoyi sun shirya ne don adawa da barazanar da al'ummomin tsaunuka ke fuskanta daga haɗarin kiwon lafiya kamar ruwan acid.

 Ka ceci Dutsenmu na Cumberland 
Save Our Cumberland Mountains (SOCM, mai suna "sock 'em") an kafa shi ne lokacin da mazauna goma sha uku na gonakin kwal na Tennessee suka roki gwamnatin jihar su sa masu mallakar kwal su biya haraji mai kyau. SOCM daga baya ya girma ya zama daya daga cikin manyan kungiyoyin al'umma a yankin kuma ya ci gaba da jagorantar babban kamfen na majalisa a kan ma'aikata waɗanda suka maye gurbin ma'aikatan su na dindindin da ma'aikatan wucin gadi na dogon lokaci.

J.W. . Bradley was the president of SOCM for its first five years. He had worked in the deep mines and was outspoken about what he called the "evils of strip mining." He believed in using litigation to pursue reform. In 1974, SOCM established the East Tennessee Research Corporation as a public interest law firm. By 1976, SOCM was trying to ban strip mining and targeting individual strip mining operations.

Wani lauya wanda ya yi aiki tare da SOCM a cikin shekarun 1970s ya rubuta cewa mutane kalilan masu launin fata ne ke da hannu tare da SO CM a farkon shekarun. Ya nuna muhimmancin kungiyoyin yanki kamar Cibiyar Bincike da Ilimi ta Highlander wacce "neman hada al'ummomi daban-daban don raba iliminsu game da yanayin ciki na batutuwan adalci na muhalli".

 Adalci na Dutsen 
Mountain Justice ya fara ne a shekara ta 2005 a matsayin kamfen na lokacin rani don kawar da MTM. An fara kungiyar ne bayan hadarin hakar ma'adinai na 2004 a Virginia. An kashe wani dan shekara uku lokacin da wani dutse ya tashi daga wani shafin MTM sama da gidansa. Taron MJ na farko ya faru ne a Knoxville, Tennessee kuma ya haɗa da masu fafutuka daga Coal River Mountain Watch (CRMW), Sierra Club, Appalachian Voices, da Katuah Earth First (KEF!). Sanarwar aikinsu ta haɗa da sadaukarwa ga rashin tashin hankali.

 Masu Tsaro na Dutsen 
Larry Gibson da Bill DePaulo ne suka kafa masu kula da tsaunuka a cikin Yuli 2004. Larry ya sami wahayi don ƙirƙirar ƙungiyar da ta yi zanga-zangar adawa da cire dutsen bayan ya san cewa hakan ne saboda girgiza gidansa na ƙuruciya a tsakiyar 1990s.  Ko da yake wannan kungiya tana da tushenta a cikin tsaunuka, tana shiga cikin wasu ayyukan adalci da zamantakewa.  Irin waɗannan ayyukan sun haɗa da kawo ruwa mai tsabta zuwa O'Toole, WV.  da The Dandelion Project (da nufin samar da dorewar makamashi madadin a cikin ƙananan kudin shiga ko rashin amfani al'ummai. 

 Dubi kuma 

 Waƙoƙin Appalachia
 Batutuwan muhalli a Appalachia
 Ginin kwal na Hobet
 Tarihin hakar kwal a Amurka
 Dokar RECLAIM
 Matsayi na zamantakewa da tattalin arziki a cikin Appalachia
 Dokar Kare Gudun Ruwa
Rukuni:Shafuka masu fassarorin da ba'a duba ba