Yaƙe-yaƙen Byzantine da Moros

Yaƙe-yaƙe na Byzantine-Moor sun kasance jerin yaƙe-yaƙi da aka yi tsakanin Daular Byzantine da masarautun Berber daban-daban waɗanda aka kafa bayan rushewar Roman Arewacin Afirka. Yaƙin ya kuma nuna wasu 'yan tawaye kamar su' yan tawaye na Stotzas da' yan ta'addan Vandalic na Guntarith. Yaƙin ya ƙare tare da Berbers da ke ƙoƙarin fitar da Romawa daga Afirka da aka ci nasara a yaƙin Filin Cato, kuma Byzantines sun raunana sosai don karɓar sabbin masarautun da aka kafa kamar Altava da Masarautar Aurès.

 Tushe 
Tushen biyu na yaƙe-yaƙe na Byzantine a Arewacin Afirka na karni na 6 sune Corippus da Procopius . Dukansu suna da mahimman tushe na farko. Procopius ya bi sojojin Romawa a lokacin yakin basasa kuma yana hulɗa kai tsaye da Belisarius. Corippus mawaki ne na Roma wanda ya ga yaƙe-yaƙe. Dukansu suna ba da irin wannan jerin abubuwan da suka faru a Afirka. Koyaya, Corippus da alama ya rubuta rubutun yabo wanda ke so yabon ayyukan John Troglita da kuma uzuri ga manufofin Byzantine a Afirka. Ta haka ne ya rage kuskuren Byzantine kuma ya ba da cikakken alhakin yaƙin Moorish ga shugaban Berber Antalas, amma kuma ya fahimci a zahiri kuskuren Sulemanu na kashe ɗan'uwan Antalas, yanke Annona subside wanda shine haraji don zaman lafiya sabili da haka karya duk yarjejeniyar Foedus ciki har da yarjejeniyar da ba ta da tashin hankali ya ba Antalas da Berbers damar neman fansa da kuma saboda Sergius da sauran kabilun da suka zo daga Libya har ma da Iautunan Byzantine sun shiga cikin waɗannan dalilai.

 Tarihi 
Tun daga tsakiyar karni na 5, lardin Arewacin Afirka, Vandals ne suka mamaye shi. Duk da haka, zaman lafiya ya wanzu, tun lokacin da aƙalla Fall of the Western Roman Empire a cikin 476, tsakanin Eastern Roman Empire da Vandals. Koyaya, Sarkin sarakuna Justinian, yana da babban burin dawo da Daular Romawa a Yamma. Arewacin Afirka ita ce manufa ta farko kafin mamaye Italiya.

Tafiyar Janar Belisarius da sauri kuma ba tare da juriya mai yawa ba ta kayar da Vandals waɗanda ya raunana sosai ta hanyar yaƙe-yaƙe da 'yan asalin Berber.   A cikin 533, an kama babban birnin Carthage, kasa da shekara guda bayan farawar. Justinian ya so ya dawo da Afirka ta Roma zuwa jihar da ta kasance kafin nasarar Vandal, don haka an dawo da tsoffin larduna tare da bambancin cewa yanzu sun dogara da yankin Afirka maimakon na Italiya. An sake sanya iyakar a kan tsoffin limes. watau wadanda suka riga sun ci nasara da Justinian sun sanar da cewa yana so ya fitar da dukkan mutanen "barbarians", wato masarautun Berber da kabilun da suka kafa ta hanyar yaƙe-yaƙe tare da Vandals, ko kuma bayan rushewar mulkin Vandalic.

Mauri ko Moor shine sunan da aka ba wa Berbers waɗanda ke zaune a Arewacin Afirka daga Tekun Atlantika zuwa kewayon Syrtic a Tripolitania kuma waɗanda ke zaune cikin tsarin kabilanci. Daga mutuwar Sarki Genseric a cikin 477, kabilun Moorish sun kasance tushen tawaye ga Vandals. Abin da ya kasance "mai tawali'u" al'ummomin Moorish ya girma ya zama mafi girma da kuma mutane masu tsari. An tattauna ra'ayoyi da yawa don bayyana shi a yau. Wannan na iya kasancewa ne saboda fitowar manoma marasa cikakkiyar Romanized da ke tserewa daga ikon Vandal, ko kungiyoyin makiyaya daga Sahara. A cikin 530, shugaban Guenfan da dansa Antalas sun yi nasara a kan sojojin sarki Hilderic a Byzacena, a yakin Great Dorsale . Ƙabilun sun sami damar kai tsaye da kuma barazana ga cikin yankin.

Kowace sabuwar lardin Byzantine da aka kafa a Afirka ta kasance barazanar mutane daban-daban na Berber, amma manyan mulkoki da ƙungiyoyin siyasa sun haɗa da:

 Masarautar Aurès karkashin jagorancin sarki Iabdas (wanda aka fi sani da Iaudas), wanda ya sami 'yanci a cikin 484 bayan ya ci Vandals
 Masarautar Altava karkashin jagorancin sarki Masuna wanda aka fi sani da masarautar Mauro-Roman masarautar Berber ce mai zaman kanta a cikin 470s bayan mutuwar Gaiseric sannan ta fadada cikin sauri a yammacin Aljeriya ta dauki kusan dukkanin lardin Mauretania Caesariensis ban da birnin Ceaserea ta 533
 Masarautar Hodna karkashin jagorancin sarki Ortaias, wanda ke cikin da waje da Dutsen Hodna kuma yana mulkin manyan birane kamar Sitifis
 Masarautar Great Dorsale karkashin jagorancin shugaban Guarizila masarauta ce da kabilar Frexenses ta kafa
 Masarautar Laguatan da sarki Cabaon ya kafa, yana barazana ga Romawa na Tripolitania.Fentress, Elizabeth; Wilson, Andrew (2016). "The Sahara Diaspora and the southern frontiers of Byzantine North Africa". In Stevens, Susan T.; Conant, Jonathan P. (eds.). North Africa under Byzantium and Early Islam. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Byzantine Symposia And Colloquia. p. 62. ISBN 9780884024088.

A lokacin Yaƙin Vandalic, Moors sun kasance tsaka-tsaki sannan suka miƙa wuya ta hanyar bayyana kansu "bayin sarki" a gaban Belisarius. Wannan al'ada da aka yi a zamanin Vandal yana da alama ya koma watakila har ma da Babban Daular. Yana kama da Fédus watau kawance tsakanin Roma da mutanen da aka bayyana ta yarjejeniya. A musayar, Moors sun karbi kyaututtuka da alamar iko daga Byzantines. Koyaya, bari mu lura, a cewar  , cewa a lokacin wannan bikin, an yi wa bangarorin biyu alkawari, kuma cewa tsaka-tsaki na Moors waɗanda "ke jira, ba tare da ɗaukar bangarorin ɗaya ko ɗayan ba, sakamakon yaƙin", ya ɗauke su nesa da matsayin "bayin Sarkin sarakuna".

 Zaman lafiya na Afirka a ƙarƙashin Sulemanu da tashin hankali na farko na Moor (534-543) 
Janar Solomon, tsohon mataimakin Belisarius wanda yake da kuzari, ƙwarewa da ƙarfin zuciya, ya zama sabon gwamna. Ya fuskanci tashin hankali na Moorish da tawaye a cikin sojojin da Stotzas ke jagoranta. Yanayin da ke Afirka ya kasance mai matukar damuwa cewa Justinian ya ba shi ikon farar hula da na soja wanda aka raba a al'ada a karkashin tsarin gudanarwa na Romawa tun daga Diocletian. Ya zama magister militum da prefect praetorian.

Sulemanu bai iya aiwatar da dokokin korar Sarkin sarakuna ba. Ba da daɗewa ba bayan nadin sa, wasu kabilun Moorish, gami da na Iaudas da Cusina, sun yi tawaye kuma sun fara lalata yankin, babu shakka an yi wahayi zuwa gare su da gaskiyar tashiwar Belisarius. Kamar dai Romawa ba su da irin wannan hangen nesa game da al'adar biyayya da Moors suka kammala tare da Belisarius. Ga masanin tarihin Romawa Procopius, Moors ba su yi tawaye ba tare da wani dalili ba. Procopius yana da irin wannan nuna bambanci kamar sauran Romawa na zamaninsa. An dauki Moors a matsayin Barbarians kamar kowa da ba Girkanci ko Roman ba. Bai yi tunani game da ƙoƙarin fahimtar su ba; ba su da dalilin tayar da kayar baya, saboda sun ayyana kansu bayi. Ga Moors, wannan al'ada duk da haka yana wakiltar amincewa da haƙƙinsu na zama a cikin yankunan da suka mamaye, kuma, alkawarin abinci. Za a ambaci, daga Moors, a cikin tattaunawarsu da Roma, cewa ikon Roma ya wulakanta su duk da alkawurran da suka gabata tare da Belisarius.

A cikin 536, yakin basasa ya mamaye Moors. An biya fansho ga shugabannin Moorish wanda ya haifar da cewa ba a kore su da mutanensu daga yankunansu ba. Duk da yakin da aka yaƙi a Dutsen Bourgaon a cikin 535, sojojin Moor sun kasance ba su da kyau.

Sojojin Romawa da sojan doki masu nauyi ba su dace da yaƙin da aka yi da wata kabila mai zaman kanta da ke da kayan aiki da sojoji masu dauke da makamai ba. Sojojin Romawa suna sanye da baka, wanda ya haifar da tsoron gwagwarmaya kai tsaye. Sojojin Moor sun sami damar yin yakin basasa kuma sun sami damar komawa baya daga manyan makamai ba tare da shan wahala mai yawa ba. Moors sun yi yaƙi da yaƙi na kwanto. Maƙiya suna motsawa sosai kuma suna iya ɓoyewa da komawa gidansu a cikin duwatsu da hamada. Kwamandan da ya ci gaba da ƙwarewa ne kawai zai iya kawar da sojojin su har abada.

Sojojin Byzantine da ke da kayan aiki da kuma horar da su ba su da horo, ba su da yawa kuma ba su da aminci. Sojojinsa suna da sha'awar ganima kuma fararen hula suna gunaguni game da cin zarafin da sojoji suka yi. Janar Solomon ba a yarda da shi ba saboda an dauke shi da tsanani saboda haka ba shi da irin girmamawa kamar Belisarius a Afirka. A cikin 536, wani makirci na kashe shi a Carthage ya gaza. Sojojin sun yi tawaye kuma Solomon ya gudu zuwa Sicily. An aika wani janar na sojoji, Germanus, dan uwan Justinian, don maido da tsari. Sulemanu bai ci gaba da aikinsa ba har zuwa 539.

 Farkawar tashin hankali na biyu na Moor 
Tsakanin 539 da 541, gwamnan Solomon ya gina garu a kusa da yankunan da Moors ke riƙe. Kasar ta sami kwanciyar hankali da wadata ta gaske a cewar mawaki na Roma Corippus .  Koyaya, cin zarafin diflomasiyya ga Leptis Magna ya haifar da tawaye na Moor na biyu. Sergius, ɗan'uwan Sulemanu kuma gwamnan Tripolitania, ya karbi babban wakilai na shugabannin Moorish waɗanda suka koka game da kwace amfanin gonarsu da Romawa suka yi. Ɗaya daga cikin shugabannin ya riƙe gwamnan da kafadu don kada ya janye.

An kashe dukkan shugabannin Moorish wanda ya haifar da Laguatans da suka tashi suka mamaye yankin. Wataƙila lamarin ba wai kawai saboda rashin iyawa da girman kai na gwamnan ba ne, amma saboda matsin da manyan mutanen Romawa suka yi wa gwamnan. Sun so su nisanta Moors daga ƙasashensu da gidajensu. Koyaya, a lokaci guda a cikin 543, Sulemanu ya ɓata wa shugaban Antalas rai. Ya ga an yanke fansho kuma ya san cewa Solomon ya kashe ɗan'uwansa, saboda haifar da matsala. Maimakon zuwa kai tsaye kan hanyar da ke kusa da bakin tekun da ke hawa zuwa Byzacena da Carthage, Laguatan sun haɗu da Antalas a cikin duwatsun Byzacena kusa da hanyar Theveste-Carthage. An dauke shi hanya ce mai mahimmanci, saboda ya ba da damar sadarwa tsakanin ganuwar Romawa a cikin dorsals wanda ke kare biranen Romawa a filayen kusa da gabar teku.

 Hanyar da ake ciki 
Sulemanu ya tashi da sauri don saduwa da Moors masu tayar da kayar baya daga Theveste, a kan hanyar Theveste-Carthage. Da yake ɗaukar sojojinsa ta cikin gandun daji, ya sami kansa a Cillium yana fuskantar abokin gaba. Janar din na iya niyyar shiga cikin abokinsa Cutzinas wanda ke zaune a wannan yankin ko wasu abokan Moorish. A cewar Corippus, ya kasance tare da 'yan asalin ƙasar, amma ba a san ko Cutzinas, wanda ya sanar da taimakonsa, ya zo ya bi shi ba. A cewar Procopius, Sulemanu yana da taimakon Sergius da sauran mahimman rundunonin soja na Byzantine daga Afirka, amma ba a ambaci rundunar 'yan asalin ba.

A farkon, ma'auni na iko tsakanin Romawa da Moors daidai ne bisa ga Procopius, amma Moors, ba da daɗewa ba sun fi yawa, sun kori mafi yawan sojojin Byzantine. Sojojin Byzantine sun yanke shawarar yin yaƙi ne kawai kuma wasu sun ki. Solomon, kewaye da ƙananan masu tsaronsa, ya goyi bayan hare-haren Berbers na ɗan lokaci. A ƙarshe, ba zai iya tsayayya ba, sai ya gudu tare da masu tsaronsa zuwa gefen wani kogi wanda ke gudana kusa da fagen yaƙi. A can, doki ya fada cikin kwari kuma janar bai iya komawa baya ba. An kewaye shi kuma ya mamaye shi, Solomon ya kama shi kuma Berbers suka kashe shi tare da wani ɓangare na masu tsaronsa.

Sojojin Romawa sun ci nasara, wani bangare saboda wasu sojoji sun tsere. Wannan na iya zama saboda cin amana. Corippus ya danganta wannan ga rashin jin daɗin sojoji game da rashin shiga cikin fashi na yakin da ya gabata. Ya kuma danganta alhakin ga shugaban 'yan tawaye na gaba na asalin Jamusanci, Guntharic, wanda a lokacin shi ne dux na Numidia. Solomon, duk da kwarewarsa ta jagoranci, ya riga ya haifar da tawaye a karkashin umarninsa daga Afirka, saboda ya yi tsanani sosai. A cewar asusun Procopius, ana kayar da Byzantines akai-akai, kuma ba a ambaci cin amanar Guntharic ba.

 Sakamako 
Rashin nasara a Cillium ya jefa Afirka cikin rikici na soja har zuwa zuwan John Troglita a cikin 546. An kafa babban hadin gwiwar Moorish. Duk da damar da take da ita na fitar da Byzantines daga Afirka gaba ɗaya, ba za ta iya cin nasara ba saboda rashin hadin kai da dabarun gama gari tsakanin Moors. Daga cikin Romawa, mutuwar Sulemanu ta bar wani wuri na soja da siyasa wanda kawai zuwan Jean Troglita zai cika. A cikin ɗan gajeren lokaci, kabilun sun gamsu da ganimar kamar yadda zai yiwu, har zuwa ganuwar Carthage.
 Haɗin gwiwar Moorish ya kusan korar Byzantines daga Afirka 
Mutuwar Solomon da shan kaye da ya yi sun yi tasiri har zuwa Spain, inda Visigoths suka yi amfani da damar don kewaye Septimius bayan mashigar Gibraltar.Ibid. . Kabilun da suka bayyana kansu masu aminci a Afirka ga Solomon, za su ɗauki kansu sun saki daga alƙawuransu kuma su shiga cikin 'yan tawaye, kamar Cutzinas.

Moors na iya hawa hanyar Theveste-Carthage, amma sun makale a gaban katangar Laribus. Ba da daɗewa ba, za su yi nasarar ɗaukar babban birnin Byzacena, Hadrumetum, ta hanyar yaudara kafin ya sake faɗuwa, ta hanyar daidai, a hannun Romawa.

Laguatan ba sa son shiga dogon kewaye kuma su koma ƙasashensu a lokacin kaka a 544 da 545. Yana da mahimmanci a gare su su yi kiwon dabbobinsu a lokacin damina a ƙasashensu wanda ke farawa daga Nuwamba zuwa farkon lokacin rani. Haka lamarin zai sake faruwa a shekara mai zuwa. Manufar waɗannan shugabannin ba shine su kafa kansu a yankin ba, sai dai kawai su ci gajiyar barnar yankin. Ba tare da taimakonsu ba, a farkon shekara, Antalas zai aika da tayin miƙa wuya na farko zuwa Rome, amma wanda bai sami amsa ba.

Manufar Moors a ciki, akasin haka, shine fiye da duka su sanya kansu a matsayi mafi kyau na ƙarfi a kan daular a yankunan da suke mamayewa. Antalas baya neman lalata ikon Romawa da biranen Romawa kamar yadda halinsa ga wayewar Romawa ya nuna. Don haka ya keɓe Hadrumetum da mazaunanta bayan ya ɗauke shi. Ya kasance yana hulɗa na dogon lokaci, kamar sauran Moors a ciki, tare da al'adun Romawa. Baya ga son kare mutuncin yankinsu a cikin Afirka, suna son dawo da bukukuwan saka hannun jari na gargajiya waɗanda Rome ke ba wa mutanen daji waɗanda suka karɓi miƙa wuya da haɗin gwiwar Romawa, waɗanda Belisarius ya kulla da su. Antalas, duk da haka, zai sami babban buri lokacin da daidaiton iko ya kasance a gare shi ta hanyar son ƙirƙirar daular Romano-Berber kamar maƙwabcinsa ta hanyar buƙatar gwamna ya zama sarki na Byzacena.

Baya ga bambancin hangen nesa na dabaru tsakanin abokan kawancen, akwai kuma rashin haɗin kai tsakanin shugabanni da al'ummai. Masana tarihi na baya sun ga rashin "ruhun ƙasa na Moorish". Rikice-rikice kuma suna raba shugabannin Moorish a cikin gidajensu na asali. Antalas da Cutzinas, duk daga Byzacena, misali, ba sa son juna. Wannan shine abin da zai tura Cutzinas don shiga Troglita daga baya a tsakanin sauran.

 Gurbin siyasa da soja da mutuwar Solomon ta bari 
Mutuwar Solomon a Cillium ta sa Justinian ya naɗa Sergius, wanda a lokacin shi ne gwamnan farar hula da soja na daukacin Afirka. Wannan matakin ya kasance don girmama Solomon kuma Berbers sun ƙi Sergius saboda kisan kiyashin Leptis Magna. Sojoji da jama'a suna ganinsa a matsayin mai girman kai kuma marar cancanta. Jean, mafi kyawun jami'in sojojin, bai yi haɗin gwiwa da Sergius ba kuma sojojin sun kasance marasa motsi. An shirya wani harin ramuwar gayya daga Jean kuma an kira Duke na Byzacena. Duk da haka, an lalata sojojinsa gaba ɗaya lokacin da manzannin John suka kasa kai masa saƙo don sanar da shi cewa wurin tattarawa tuni maƙiyi ya mamaye shi. Cin amana da jami'an Roman suka yi ya kai babban birnin Byzacena, Hadrumetum, ga Moors. Ko da yake Romawa sun sake karɓe shi godiya ga dabara daga mazaunan yankin, shugabannin Moorish yanzu suna ƙarƙashin katangar Carthage kuma za su iya lalata Afirka yadda suka ga dama.

Don magance halin da ake ciki, an tura Areobindus don raba iko da Sergius, amma mutanen biyu ba su yi haɗin gwiwa ba. A Thacia, Sergius ya bar sojojin Aerobindus su kaɗai a kan Moors. Wannan shan kaye ya sa Justinian ya tuno da gwamnan. A halin yanzu, tawaye da Guntharic ya yi ya kifar da Areobindus a Carthage. Sabon gwamnan ya ba da shawarar raba Afirka da Moors ta hanyar ba Byzacena ga Antalas. Guntharic ya kifar da Artabanes, wani jami'in Armeniya, amma ya fi son komawa Constantinople maimakon ɗaukar taken magister militum na Afirka wanda Justinian ya ba shi.

Wani gurbin siyasa da soja saboda haka Solomon ya bari, wanda Sergius ya kasa gyarawa saboda rashin cancancinsa. Sojojin Roman sun kasance marasa ƙarfi, marasa motsi kuma sun sha wahala daga cin amanar shugabanninsu. Corippe ya yi kugarin barnar da Afirka ta sha a lokacin kuma ya kalli lokacin Solomon da sha'awa. Sai kawai zuwan Troglita zai iya magance halin da ake ciki.

 Maido da mulkin Byzantine a Afirka 
 Yaƙe-yaƙe na John Troglita da ƙarshen Tawayen Moorish na Biyu (546–548) 
Tawayen Moor na biyu da hargitsin soja a ƙarshe sun ƙare tare da naɗa John Troglita, janar mai iyawa da gogewa, zuwa matsayin magister militum na Afirka. Da isowarsa a ƙarshen 546, ya ƙaddamar da yaƙi don korar barayi daga Byzacena. A farkon 547, ya yi mummunar kaye, a cikin filayen da ke iyaka da tuddai kudu maso gabashin Hadrumetum a Antalas. An rama kayen Cillium. Moors sun ja da baya zuwa tsaunuka a ciki kuma an dawo da kayan sarautar Solomon da aka kama. Bayan wannan shan kaye, Antalas ya zama ɗan ƙaramin memba na ƙungiyar kuma Carcasan, wani Moor daga Tripolitania, ya maye gurbinsa a matsayin shugaban ƙungiyar.

Jean Troglita tuni yana da gogewa a matsayin gwamnan wani lardin gabas kuma ya san yadda ake tattaunawa da 'yan asalin ƙasar. Ya sabunta tsohuwar foedus da aka yi amfani da ita a ƙarƙashin Belisarius. Wasu 'yan ƙabilun Moorish kaɗan ne kawai a ciki aka kora. Ya sake haɗa da ƙungiyar, shugabannin Moorish da yawa, ciki har da Cutzias. An ci nasarar yaƙin tsawon lokaci da 'yan tawaye tare da goyon bayan shugabannin Moorish. Adadinsu yana da yawa, Corippus na zamani ya ambaci 100,000.

Yaƙin ya ɗauki siffar mamayewa kuma ba wai kawai hare-hare ba ne a tsakanin Moors na Tripolitania. Sun kasance cikin yaƙin har ma a lokacin hunturu. Troglita ya shiga yankinsu, ma, ba wai kawai don korar su ba, amma don raunana su da kuma kawar da babban haɗarin soja da suke haifarwa ga Afirka.

Troglita ya bambanta kansa da ƙarfin hali a duk yaƙe-yaƙe ta hanyar shiga zurfin yankunan Berber kuma ba a sa masa cikas ta hanyar shan kaye ba. An yi mummunar kaye, a cikin filayen Cato (548) ga ƙabilun Moorish.

A ƙarshen yaƙin, Troglita da kansa ya kashe Carcasan. Game da Antalas, ya miƙa wuya ga Jean kuma ba a sake ambatonsa a matsayin mai tayar da zaune tsaye ba.

 Afirka bayan Troglita 
Yanzu an daidaita Afirka kuma an kawar da haɗarin daga Laguatan. An ci nasara kan ƙabilun Moorish. Duk da haka, sojojin Byzantine Africa suna da matsaloli iri ɗaya game da ladabtarwa da rashin isasshen adadi kamar yadda aka saba. Bugu da ƙari, ya iyakance kansa ga tsarin tsaro mai tsauri kuma bai sake haifar da yaƙe-yaƙe kamar na Troglita ba. Haka kuma, Byzantine Africa, tana shan wahala daga manufofin diflomasiyya waɗanda ba koyaushe suke daidaita ba, da kuma rashin isassun janarori da gwamnoni masu cancanta, har yanzu za ta sha wahala daga irin wannan rashin kwanciyar hankali da tawayen Moorish suka haifar. Don haka, gwamnan, bayan John Troglita, zai kashe Cutzinas a 563 kuma ya nemi fansho. Gwamnan bai mutunta tsoffin hanyoyin kawancen tsakanin Romawa da 'yan asalin ƙasar ba. Afirka, wanda aka rufe da kagara, da kuma Moors da har yanzu ba su haɗa kai ba, duk da haka da wuya za ta kasance a hannun Byzantines har zuwa mamayar Musulunci.

Wallafa




Majiay
Manazarta

Bibiyar Tarihi





 Fentress Elizabeth and Wilson Andrew, "The Saharan Diaspora and the Southern Frontiers of Byzantine North Africa", in Conant, P., Jonathan, and Stevens T., Susan (eds), North Africa under Byzantium and Early Islam, Washington, Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and collection Trustees for Harvard University, 2016, 322p.
 Pringle, R. Denys, Sixth-century fortifications in Byzantine Africa vol.1, DPhil. University of Oxford, 1979, 346p.


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