Maido da mutunci

Maido da mutunci Maido da martaba wani nau'i ne na ramawa wanda ke ba da diyya ga daidaikun mutane da al'ummomin da aka kora ta hanyar hanyoyin tabbatar da mutuntakarsu da ƙarfafa hukumarsu. An fi fahimtar maido da martaba a matsayin magani ga wani ra'ayi mai alaƙa, ɗaukar mutunci - lokacin da wata ƙasa kai tsaye ko a kaikaice ta lalata ko ta kwace haƙƙin mallakar dukiya daga masu mallaka ko mamaya kuma sakamakon ganganci ko rashin niyya shi ne ɓata ɗan adam ko ɓata jarirai. 

 Tarihi 
Farfesa Bernadette A Sallyene ne ya fara kirkirar tsarin dawo da mutunci / mutunci bayan bincikenta na kwarewar mallakar ƙasar Afirka ta Kudu da maidowa a cikin littafinta, We Want What's Ours: Learning from South Africa's Restitution Program (Oxford University Press 2014).  Wani Sallyene ya kalli girman kai kamar lokacin da jihar kai tsaye ko a kaikaice ta lalata ko kwace haƙƙin mallaka daga mutane, wanda ya haifar da rashin mutunci ko jariri. Atauhene ya kalli maidowa don wannan ba a iyakance shi ba ga biyan kuɗi (diyanci ga abubuwan da aka kwace), amma kuma maido da mutunci, ko samar da mutane da al'ummomi da aka kwafe su da diyya ta kayan aiki wanda ke tabbatar da bil'adinsu kuma yana ƙarfafa hukumomin su. Maido da mutunci yana ba wa mutane ko al'ummomi da aka yi watsi da su babban matsayi na cin gashin kansu wajen yanke shawarar yadda aka sanya su gaba ɗaya. Ma'anar maido da mutunci "yana ba da harshe da sarari don tattauna yadda za a magance mafi kyawun ɗaukar mutunci, yayin da ake sake tunanin manufar da yiwuwar gyarawa".   Tun daga labarin A Sallyene, malamai da yawa a duk faɗin horo sun yi amfani da waɗannan ra'ayoyin zamantakewar al'umma da shari'a ga jerin karatun shari'a a lokuta daban-daban da wuraren ƙasa.

 Halaye na maido da mutunci 

 Muhimmancin cin gashin kai 
Maido da martaba yana jaddada mahimmancin cin gashin kai baya ga ramakon abin duniya. Alal misali, masanin ilimin zamantakewa kuma masanin shari'a Cesar Rosado ya gudanar da aikin ƙabilanci a wata cibiyar ma'aikata ta Chicago da ake kira Arise, wanda ke hidima ga ma'aikatan da ba su da takardun aiki da kuma sauran ma'aikata masu rauni.Ya kammala da cewa da’awar rashin biyan albashi sau da yawa tauye kadarori ne da ke zama cin mutunci, kuma dokokin da ke kare haƙƙin ma’aikata na tsara tsarin su ne muhimmin ginshiƙi na maido da mutunci saboda suna barin ma’aikata (wani lokaci cibiyoyin ma’aikata ke taimakon) don yin yaƙi sosai don gyara.. A wani misali, masanin shari'a Eva Pils ya bayyana yadda China ta tilasta korar masu gidaje na karkara don ƙirƙirar sarari don biranen da ke fadada cikin sauri sun cancanci zama masu daraja. A cewar Pils, tsarin biyan diyya da sake zama na gwamnatin kasar Sin bai cika iyakar maido da mutunci ba. Kodayake mai haɗari, Pils ya bayyana yadda juriya ta waje ga kwace dukiya ta tilasta zai iya taimakawa wajen maido da mutunci.

 Rabuwa da sake hadewa 
Maido da mutunci ba, a matsayin doka, yana buƙatar haɗawa da sake haɗuwa da yawan mutanen da aka rasa, kamar yadda masana suka yi jayayya cewa rungumar ikon cin gashin kai na wannan yawan na iya haifar da mafi girman ikon mallaka da maidowa na dogon lokaci a gare su. Masanin ilimin ɗan adam Justin Richland an yaba shi da sabunta ma'anar maido da mutunci zuwa: maganin da ke neman samar da mutane da al'ummomi da aka kwace su da diyya ta hanyar matakai da ke tabbatar da bil'adinsu da ƙarfafa hukumomin su, Atuahene, Bernadette (2016-10-27). "Takings as a Sociolegal Concept: An Interdisciplinary Examination of Involuntary Property Loss". Annual Review of Law and Social Science. 12 (1): 179. doi:10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-110615-084457. ISSN 1550-3585. yayin da ma'anar asali ta haɗa da manufar maido da girman kai don "maido da yawan mutanen da aka kwacewa da kuma sake haɗa su cikin ƙirar al'umma ta hanyar girmamawa ga tsarin mulkin mallaka.  Richland ya kalli rabuwa da suka gabata.

 Tsarin maimaitawa 
Sau da yawa ana buƙatar sake dawo da mutunci saboda yanayi bazai ba da damar yin magani nan take ba. Masanin shari'a na Holland Wouter Veraart ya kalli ɗiyya da yawa da aka bayar ga Yahudawa a Faransa da Netherlands biyo bayan kisan kiyashi a matsayin misali na wannan. Zagayen na farko ya mayar da hankali ne kan maido da daidaiton doka ga mutanen da aka wulakanta su.  Zagaye na biyu ya canza mayar da hankali daga magungunan kuɗi kawai don lahani na mutum zuwa magungunan kudi da na ɗabi'a don lahani.

Har ila yau, masanin shari'a Alfred Brophy ya kwatanta yanayin sake dawo da mutunci a cikin binciken da ya yi game da kisan kiyashi na Tulsa na 1921, wanda ya shafi fashi, konewa, da lalata dukiyar Afirka ta Afirka a Gundumar Greenwood, Tulsa, Oklahoma biyo bayan juriya ta al'umma ga kisan kiyashin shari'a. Zagaye na farko na maido da mutunci ya faru a cikin karni na ashirin tare da kafa Amurka a hankali na 'Yan Afirka na Afirka a matsayin' yan ƙasa masu haƙƙin mallaka. Zagaye na biyu ya fara shekaru 75 bayan tashin hankali lokacin da Majalisar Dokokin Oklahoma ta zartar da Dokar sulhu ta Tulsa Race Riot ta 2001, wanda ya kirkiro abin tunawa, ya ba da tallafin kwaleji ga zuriyar waɗanda abin ya shafa, kuma ya ba da kuɗi don ci gaban tattalin arziki a Greenwood. A wannan yanayin, maido da mutunci ya fara ne tare da maido da daraja, kuma wadanda abin ya shafa da zuriyarsu sun sami maido da dukiya kashi uku cikin dari bayan haka. 

Hakazalika, a cikin yanayin rashin da'a na 'yan sanda a Amurka, masanin tarihin shari'a John Acevedo ya jaddada ƙimar magani masu ƙarfi kamar rarrabuwar al'umma da buƙatar yin amfani da lambobin yabo na kuɗi ga waɗanda abin ya shafa da iyalansu ko kuma wani bincike na hukuma da wata hukuma ta jiha ta yi—amsoshi biyu mafi yawan gama gari game da tashin hankalin 'yan sanda ba bisa ka'ida ba - a matsayin mataki na farko don samun cikakkiyar martaba. 

 Misalan cikakken ko ɗan gajeren girmamawa 

 Yaƙin Juyin Juya Halin Amurka da Masu Amincewa 
A lokacin Yaƙin Juyin Juya Halin Amurka, sabuwar gwamnatin ta sanya Loyalists ga mutunci ta hanyar kwace dukiyarsu, soke lasisin sana'arsu, soke hakkinsu na farar hula da siyasa, da tsare su da kuma korar su - wani nau'i na "mutuwar farar hula. "  Ko da bayan sun yi watsi da amincinsu, yawancin Loyalists ko dai ba su karɓi dukiyarsu ba, dole ne su sake sayi shi, ko kuma su biya tarar. Wannan binciken shari'ar ya nuna cewa wani lokacin akwai maido da mutunci kawai: maido da daraja ba tare da maido da dukiya ba.

 Bautar Amurka da Ofishin 'Yanci 
Masanin shari'a Taja-Nia Henderson ya kammala cewa Ofishin 'yanci ya dawo da kuma hana 'yan Amurkan da suka kasance bayi daga mutuncin su. Albashi da ba a biya ba a cikin yanayin Bautar Amurka misali ne mai kyau na ɗaukaka. Masu bautar sun sace ma'aikata da albashi daga 'yan Afirka na Afirka a lokacin bautar dukiya. A fuska, Ofishin 'Yanci ya haifar da maido da mutunci a lokacin Sake ginawa saboda hukumar tarayya ce da aka caje ta taimaka wa' yan Afirka na Afirka yayin da suka sauya daga zama bayi zuwa 'yanci. Ya kasance daga cikin cibiyoyin jiha na farko da aka kirkira don kare haƙƙin 'yan Afirka na Amurka. A zahiri, duk da haka, Ofishin ya kasance a lokaci guda mai ba da daraja da kuma hana mutunci - wani lokacin yana kare haƙƙin tsoffin bayi kuma wasu lokuta yana taimaka wa masu gonar su ƙarfafa halin da ake ciki ta hanyar tabbatar da cewa 'yan Afirka na Afirka sun kasance ma'aikatan gona masu sauƙi.

Asibitin King-Drew na Los Angeles

Masanin shari'a na Jami'ar Pennsylvania Shaun Ossei-Owusu ya rubuta cewa masu kula da tarayya sun rufe Asibitin King-Drew na Los Angeles a cikin 2007 kuma sun ba da gudummawa ga ci gaba da rufe asibitocin birane a cikin al'ummomin da ba su da isasshen kuɗi. A cewar labarin Ossei-Uwusu, ta hanyar rashin maye gurbin ko inganta asibitin King-Drew, gwamnati ta bar al'umma ba tare da cibiyar kiwon lafiya da ke ba da sabis ga kowa ba tare da la'akari da inshora ba  kuma wannan asarar dukiyar al'umma ta zama ɗaukar mutunci. A cikin 2015, asibitin ya sake buɗewa a kan karamin sikelin - amma ba tare da sanannen cibiyar rauni ba, har yanzu yana barin al'umma ba tare da wani muhimmin sabis ba. An sake buɗe asibitin a matsayin karamin mataki zuwa ga cikakken girman kai.

 Harkokin azabtar da 'yan sanda na Chicago (1972-1991) 
Hisotrian Andrew Baer ya kafa abin kunya na azabtar da 'yan sanda na Chicago, wanda Jon Burge da ƙungiyar fararen masu bincike suka aikata daga 1972 da 1991, a matsayin misali mai kyau na ɗaukaka. A matsayin wani ɓangare na maganin, masu shirya ƙungiyoyin zamantakewa sun gina dama ga waɗanda abin ya shafa da zuriyarsu don dawo da mutuncin su ta hanyar shiga cikin gwagwarmayar adalci da diyya. A ƙarshe, a cikin 2015, masu shirya sun sami maido da mutunci ta hanyar Dokar Ma'aikatar Torture Reparations na 'yan sanda na Chicago, dokar birni wacce ta rarraba kusan $ 100,000 ga kowane ɗayan 57 da aka ambata, shawarwarin tunani, kiwon lafiya, horo na sana'a, neman gafara, tunawa da jama'a, cibiyar al'umma, tsarin karatun jama'a don ilimantar da matasa game da abin kunya, da karatun kyauta ga kwalejojin birni ga waɗanda suka tsira da iyalansu.

 Kashe tsibirin teku na Kudancin Carolina 
Masanin tarihi Andrew Kahrl ya rubuta cewa yayin da aka aiwatar da mulkin mallaka a tsibiran tekun South Carolina ta hanyar doka, hanyoyin da masu saka hannun jari suka yi amfani da su wajen yin amfani da harajin kadarorin da ake amfani da su wajen yin amfani da dokokin keta harajin kadarorin da kuma kwace gidaje daga Amurkawa ‘yan Afirka sun zama abin alfahari. Wadanda abin ya shafa dole ne su gabatar da kansu a gaban alƙali a matsayin wawa, jariri, wanda ba shi da masaniya wanda ya cancanci tausayi don samun fansa daga tsarin shari'a. Wato, don dawo da dukiyarsu sau da yawa dole ne su sadaukar da mutuncin su. Masanin shari'a Andrew Kahrl ya ba da shawarar cewa cikakken maido da mutunci yana buƙatar azabtarwa ga masu aikata laifin da kuma matakan da za su rage ayyukan cin zarafin da suka ba da damar cin zarafin rashin adalci.

 Dukiyar aure a Kudancin Najeriya 
A cewar masanin saki'a Anthony Diala, dokar al'ada a kudancin Najeriya wacce ke jagorantar rarraba dukiyar aure ba daidai ba bayan kisan aure, a zahiri, ɗaukar mutunci ne. A bin dokar al'ada, ana lalata mata a lokaci guda kuma an hana su dukiyarsu ta gaskiya. Don magance wannan lahani, Gwamnatin Najeriya ta kirkiro Ma'aikatar Kula da Lafiyar Jama'a, wata hukuma da ke ba da umarni ga maza su raba dukiyar aure da / ko biyan diyya ga mata. Dokokin shari'arsu na iya ba da gudummawa ga maido da mutunci ta hanyar canza al'adun yankin.

 Nuna bambanci a cikin aiki a Amurka 
A {asar Amirka, Hukumar Samar da Damar Samar da Aikin yi da makamantansu, za a iya kallonta a matsayin ƙungiyoyin da ke ci gaba da ɗora mutunci da kuma maido da mutunci lokaci-lokaci. A cewar malaman shari'a Laura B. Nielsen, Ellen C. Berrey, da Robert L. Nelson, haɗarin ramuwar gayya da ƙarewa a wurin aiki, wanda ya taso daga shigar da ƙara a hukumance na da'awar wariya, na iya ƙara ɗaukan darajar. Koyaya, nasarar kotu na iya samar da hanya don maido da mutunci, amma irin waɗannan nasarorin suna da wuya yayin da jam'iyyun ke daidaita mafi yawan shari'o'in nuna bambanci. Wadannan daga sasantawar kotu, duk da aiki a matsayin nau'in biyan kuɗi, sun kasa dawo da mutuncin ma'aikaci gaba ɗaya.

 Laifin luwadi a Kenya 
A cewar masanin kimiyyar siyasa Ari Shaw, aikata laifuka na halayyar jinsi guda a Kenya misali ne mai kyau na ɗaukar mutunci. A kokarin dawo da martabarsu, masu fafutukar LGBT na Kenya sun shigo da ka'idojin kare hakkin bil'adama na duniya tare da amfani da tsarin kare hakkin dan Adam na yankin Afirka. Ta hanyar fafutuka na jama'a, waɗannan 'yan wasan da ba na jiha ba za su iya tabbatar da hukumarsu, wanda ke haifar da dawo da martabar ɗan adam. Maido da cikakken mutunci bai riga ya faru ba a tsarin Shaw, saboda liwadi ya kasance ba bisa ka'ida ba a Kenya.

 Misalan maido da mutunci ba tare da karɓar mutunci ba 

 Yaƙin basasar Colombia 
yakin basasa da ke gudana a Colombia ya kashe kuma ya kori miliyoyin 'yan ƙasa. Masanin shari'a na Colombia Diane Guzman ya yi amfani da tsarin girman kai ga hanawa ƙasa, gidaje, da sauran dukiya, wanda ya shafi lalata da jarirai. Amma har ma a lokuta lokacin da babu wani girman kai kuma kawai hana dukiya, Guzman ya yi jayayya cewa har yanzu ana buƙatar maido da girman kai saboda ba kawai isasshen magani ne don ɗaukar girman kai ba har ma da mafita mai dacewa ga wasu nau'ikan cin zarafin bil'adama. Guzman ya kuma danganta tunanin gyare-gyaren canji - wanda ke cikin dokar mayar da ƙasar Colombia - tare da ra'ayin maido da mutunci. Dogaro da samfurin ra'ayoyin shari'a daga kotun bayar da rarar filaye ta Colombia don fahimtar maido da canji, ta yi iƙirarin babban bambanci shine "yayin da maimaituwa da nufin canza rashin adalci na zamantakewa, maido da martaba yana mai da hankali kan sake tabbatar da ɗan adam 'yan adam da kuma sake kafa hukumarsu.

 Alkawari masu hana wariyar launin fata 
Alkawari masu hana launin fata ba su cancanci zama mutunci ba, a cewar masanin tarihin shari'a Carol Rose, saboda kawai sun haɗa da rasa damar samun dukiya maimakon rasa dukiya. Amma ko da lokacin da ba a dauki mutunci ba, har yanzu ana iya dawo da mutunci ta hanyar ayyukan jama'a da na sirri. Misali, masu gidaje sun yi watsi da alkawuran ƙuntata launin fata a cikin ayyukansu, Kotun Koli ta haramta alkawuran da ke hana launin fata a Shelley v. Kraemer (1948), Majalisa ta zartar da Dokar Gidaje Masu Kyau (1968), kuma yawancin majalisun gida sun zartar da wasu dokoki da ke soke alkawuran launin fata.

 Ƙalubalen da za a iya samu ga maido da mutunci 
Wani lokaci, ƙoƙarce-ƙoƙarce don samun ingantaccen maganin maido da martaba, yana barin al'umma ba tare da komai ba. 

Al'ummar Popela a Afirka ta Kudu sun sha wahala daga karɓar mutunci daga tilasta canja wurin haƙƙin ƙasar al'umma ta ikon mulkin mallaka. Don magance wannan lahani, Kotun Tsarin Mulki na Afirka ta Kudu ta bukaci jihar ta mayar da ƙasar ga al'ummar Popela. A kokarin wucewa da kuma wucewar maganin da kotun ta ba da umarni da kuma cimma maido da mutunci, jihar ta fadada yawan masu karɓar ƙasa da girman ƙasar da aka canja wa kowannensu. Binciken da masanan shari'a Bernadette A Sallyene da Sanele Sibanda suka yi, duk da haka, sun yi iƙirarin cewa kokarin da jihar ta yi na da niyya ya kasa, saboda jihar ba ta bi biyan diyya da umarnin kotu da kuma shirin da ya fi dacewa don cimma maido da mutunci ba.

Masanin ilimin kabilanci Gianpaolo Chiriaco, ya yi nazarin yadda wallafe-wallafen dawowa masu kyau ke wadatar da fahimtarmu game da maido da mutunci.Atuahene, Bernadette (2016-10-27). "Takings as a Sociolegal Concept: An Interdisciplinary Examination of Involuntary Property Loss". Annual Review of Law and Social Science. 12 (1): 179. doi:10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-110615-084457. ISSN 1550-3585. Masana ilimin kide-kide sun kwashe shekaru da yawa suna nadar sauti daga kasashen waje kuma sun ajiye shi a dakunan karatu na jami'a da sauran cibiyoyin da wadanda aka nada ba za su iya shiga ba. Komawa da kyau-tsarin baiwa al'ummar da aka yi rikodin damar samun damar mallakar al'adunsu-wani nau'i ne na maido da martaba. Yana bayyana daban-daban a kowane yanayi domin malamai dole ne su yanke shawara da yawa kamar wanda ya sami kayan, ko yin rikodin bikin jama'a wanda ba a yi nufi ga wanda bai sani ba, da kuma wanda ke riƙe da haƙƙin mallaka na ilimi ga kayan.  Sakamakon haka, maido da mutunci, dangane da rikodin sauti, ƙalubale ne. 

 Dubi kuma 

 Ɗaukaka girman kai
 Gyara
 Maido da siyasa

 Bayanan da aka ambata 

Rukuni:Shafuka masu fassarorin da ba'a duba ba