Phonetics

Phonetics wani reshe ne na ilimin harshe da ke nazarin yadda mutane ke samarwa da fahimtar sauti ko kuma, a yanayin harsunan alamar, makamancin abubuwan alamomi.[1]O'Grady 2005, p. 15. Masanan ilimin harshe waɗanda suka kware wajen nazarin halayen zahirin magana ƙwararrun sauti ne.  A al'adance an kasu fannin na'urar sauti zuwa wasu ƙananan ladabtarwa a kan tambayoyin da suka shafi yadda mutane suke tsarawa da aiwatar da motsi don samar da magana (articulatory phonetics), yadda ƙungiyoyi daban-daban ke shafar kaddarorin sautin da aka samu (acoustic phonetics) ko yadda ɗan adam ke canza raƙuman sauti zuwa bayanan harshe (auditory phonetics).  A al'adance, ƙaramin yanki na harshe na sauti shine wayar - sautin magana a cikin harshe wanda ya bambanta da sashin sauti na sauti;  faifan wayar wani nau'in nau'in waya ne kuma ana bayyana shi a matsayin mafi ƙarancin raka'a da ke fahimtar ma'ana tsakanin sautuna a kowane harshe.[2]Lynch, Matthew (2021-04-07). "The Differences Between a Phone, Phoneme And an Allophone". The Edvocate. Retrieved 2023-02-06..

Wayoyin sauti suna magana ne da abubuwa biyu na maganganun ɗan adam: samarwa (hanyoyin da mutane ke yin sauti) da fahimta (yadda ake fahimtar magana).  Tsarin sadarwa na harshe yana bayyana hanyar da harshe ke samarwa da fahimtar harsuna.  Harsuna tare da hanyoyin baka-ji kamar Ingilishi suna samar da magana ta baki kuma suna jin magana a zahiri (ta amfani da kunnuwa).  Harsunan kurame, [3]Caffrey 2017.irin su Harshen Alamar Australiya (Auslan) da Harshen Alamar Amurka (ASL), suna da tsari na gani da hannu, samar da magana da hannu (ta amfani da hannaye) da fahimtar magana a gani.  ASL da wasu harsunan alamar suna da ƙarin yare na manual-manual don amfani a cikin sa hannu ta hannu ta masu magana da makafi inda ake samar da alamun da hannaye kuma ana gane su da hannaye.Samar da harshe ya ƙunshi matakai da yawa masu dogaro da juna waɗanda ke canza saƙon da ba na harshe ba zuwa siginar magana ko sa hannu na harshe.  Bayan gano saƙon da za a rufa masa asiri ta harshe, dole ne mai magana ya zaɓi kowane kalmomi—wanda aka fi sani da ƙamus—don wakiltar wannan saƙon a tsarin da ake kira zaɓen lexical.  Lokacin shigar da sauti, ana ba da wakilcin tunanin kalmomin abubuwan da ke cikin sautin a matsayin jerin wayoyi da za a yi.  An kayyade wayoyi don fasalulluka waɗanda ke nuna takamaiman manufa kamar rufaffiyar leɓe ko harshe a wani wuri.  Ana haɗa waɗannan wayoyin hannu zuwa jerin umarnin tsoka waɗanda za a iya aikawa zuwa tsokoki kuma idan an aiwatar da waɗannan umarni yadda ya kamata ana samar da sautin da ake so. 

Wadannan motsi suna rushewa da canza yanayin iska wanda ke haifar da motsin sauti.  Ana yin gyaran gyare-gyare ta hanyar masu magana, tare da wurare daban-daban da kuma yanayin magana da ke haifar da sakamako daban-daban.  Misali, kalmomin tack da buhu duka suna farawa da sautin alveolar a cikin Ingilishi, amma sun bambanta da yadda harshe yake nisa daga gaɓoɓin alveolar.  Wannan bambance-bambancen yana da babban tasiri akan rafi na iska kuma ta haka ne sautin da aka samar.  Hakazalika, jagora da tushen iskar iska na iya shafar sautin.  Mafi na kowa hanyar iska shine pulmonic (amfani da huhu) amma ana iya amfani da glottis da harshe don samar da iska.

Hankalin harshe shine tsarin da ake yanke siginar harshe kuma mai sauraro ya fahimce shi.  Don fahimtar magana, ci gaba da siginar sauti dole ne a canza shi zuwa raka'o'in harshe masu hankali kamar sautin waya, morphemes da kalmomi.  Don gano da rarraba sautuna daidai, masu sauraro suna ba da fifiko ga wasu sassa na siginar waɗanda za su iya dogaro da gaske bambance tsakanin nau'ikan harshe.  Yayin da aka fifita wasu alamomi akan wasu, bangarori da yawa na siginar na iya ba da gudummawa ga fahimta.  Misali, ko da yake harsunan baka suna ba da fifikon bayanan sauti, tasirin McGurk yana nuna cewa ana amfani da bayanan gani don bambance bayanan da ba su da tabbas lokacin da alamun sauti ba su da tabbas.

Sassa uku na fasahar wayar zamani, su ne fasahar sautin murya, da ke bayani kan yadda ake yin sauti, da sautin murya, da ke bayani kan sakamakon sauti na magana daban-daban, da kuma sautin sauti, wanda ke nazarin yadda masu sauraro suke fahimta da fahimtar siginar harshe. 

 Tarihi 

Maluman Nahawu na Sanskrit ne suka fara sanin binciken sauti na farko a farkon karni na 6 KZ. Masanin Hindu Pāṇini yana cikin sanannun waɗannan masu binciken na farko.  Nahawunsa mai kashi hudu, an rubuta c.  350 KZ, yana da tasiri a cikin ilimin harshe na zamani kuma har yanzu yana wakiltar "mafi cikakkiyar nahawu na kowane harshe da aka rubuta"[4]Kiparsky 1993, p. 2918.  Nahawunsa ya kafa tushen ilimin harshe na zamani kuma ya bayyana mahimman ka'idodin sauti da yawa, gami da murya.  Wannan farkon asusun ya kwatanta sautin kamar yadda ake samarwa ko dai ta sauti, lokacin da aka rufe muryoyin murya, ko amo, lokacin da muryoyin murya ke buɗewa.  Ka’idojin sauti a cikin nahawu ana daukarsu a matsayin “primitives” ta yadda su ne ginshikin bincikensa na mahanga maimakon abubuwan da suka yi nazari da kansu, kuma ana iya fahimtar ka’idojin daga tsarin sa na sauti [5]Kiparsky 1993, pp. 2922–3.. Nazarin Sanskrit na sauti ana kiransa Shiksha, wanda karni na farko KZ Taittiriya Upanishad ya bayyana kamar haka:

Om!  Za mu yi bayanin Shiksha.

Sauti da ƙararrawa, Yawan (na wasula) da furci (na bak'i),

Daidaita (Saman) da haɗi (na sauti), Da yawa game da karatun Shiksha.  ||  1 |

Taittiriya Upanishad 1.2, Shikshavalli, Paul Deussen ya fassara[6]Deussen, Paul (1980). Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume I. Motilal Banarasidass. p. 222. ISBN 978-8120814684..

 Manazarta