Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis (/ˌfoʊtəˈsɪnθəsɪs/ FOH-tə-SINTH-ə-sis)Photosynthesis". lexico.com (Lexico UK English Dictionary). Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 2022-08-11. Retrieved 2023-07-15.tsarin  halitta ne wanda ta hanyar halayen hoto, kamar yawancin shuke-shuke, algae, da cyanobacteria, suna canza makamashin haske, yawanci daga hasken rana, zuwa makamashin sinadarai da ake buƙata don ƙara haɓaka haɓakarsu. Photosynthesis  yawanci yana nufin

oxygenic photosynthesis, wani tsari ne dake samar da oxygen. Kwayoyin Photosynthetic suna adana makamashin sinadari wanda aka samar a cikin mahadi na cikin salula (haɗin da ke ɗauke da carbon) kamar sukari, glycogen, cellulose da starches. Don amfani da wannan kuzarin sinadari da aka adana, sel sel suna daidaita mahaɗan kwayoyin halitta ta hanyar numfashin salula. Photosynthesis yana taka muhimmiyar rawa wajen samarwa da kiyaye abun ciki na iskar oxygen na sararin duniya, kuma yana samar da mafi yawan makamashin halittun da ake buƙata don sarkar rayuwa a duniya.Bryant, Donald A.; Frigaard, Niels-Ulrik (Nov 2006). "Prokaryotic photosynthesis and phototrophy illuminated". Trends in Microbiology. 14 (11): 488–496. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2006.09.001. PMID 16997562. 

Wasu kwayoyin cuta kuma suna yin photosynthesis anoxygenic, wanda ke amfani da bacteriochlorophyll  don raba hydrogen sulfide  a matsayin mai rage maimakon ruwa, yana samar da sulfur maimakon oxygen. Archaea kamar Halobacterium kuma suna yin nau'in photosynthesis maras-carbon, inda ake amfani da mafi sauƙin photopigment retinal da microbial rhodopsin  abubuwan da aka samu don ɗaukar hasken kore da wutar lantarki proton famfo don haɗa adenosine triphosphate kai tsaye, TPgy currency "na sel. Irin wannan archaeal photosynthesis na iya kasancewa farkon nau'in photosynthesis wanda ya samo asali a Duniya, tun daga Paleoarchean, kafin na cyanobacteria (duba hasashen Duniya Purple)

Yayin da cikakkun bayanai na iya bambanta tsakanin  nau'ikan sunadaran da ke dauke da sinadarin chromophores da makamashin hasken da ke shanyewa. A cikin shuke-shuke, waɗannan pigments sune chlorophylls (samuwar porphyrin da ke ɗaukar ja da shuɗi  bakan haske, don haka nuna kore) waɗanda ke cikin chloroplasts, masu yawa a cikin sel ganye. A cikin ƙwayoyin cuta, an saka su a cikin membrane na plasma. A cikin waɗannan halayen masu dogaro da haske, ana amfani da wasu kuzari don cire electrons daga abubuwan da suka dace, kamar ruwa, samar da iskar oxygen. Ana amfani da hydrogen wanda aka 'yanta ta hanyar tsagawar ruwa wajen ƙirƙirar mahimman ƙwayoyin cuta guda biyu waɗanda ke shiga cikin matakai masu kuzari: rage nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) da ATP.

A cikin shuke-shuke, algae, da cyanobacteria, ana haɗe suga ta hanyar jerin halayen masu zaman kansu na haske da ake kira zagayen Calvin. A cikin wannan tsari, ana shigar da iskar carbon dioxide cikin abubuwan da aka riga aka sani, kamar ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP).Reece, Jane B.; Urry, Lisa A.; Cain, Michael L.; Wasserman, Steven A.; Minorsky, Peter V.; Jackson, Robert B.; Campbel, Neil A. (2011). Biology (International ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. pp. 235, 244. ISBN 978-0-321-73975-9. This initial incorporation of carbon into organic compounds is known as carbon fixation Yin amfani da ATP da NADPH da aka samar ta hanyar halayen masu dogaro da haske, ana rage abubuwan da aka samu sannan a cire su don samar da ƙarin carbohydrates, kamar glucose. A cikin wasu ƙwayoyin cuta, ana amfani da hanyoyi daban-daban kamar sake zagayowar Krebs  don cimma ƙarshen wannan.

Kwayoyin halittar photosythetic na farko sun samo asali ne tun farkon tarihin juyin halitta na rayuwa ta amfani da rage abubuwa kamar hydrogen ko hydrogen sulfide, maimakon ruwa, a matsayin tushen electrons.Olson JM (May 2006). "Photosynthesis in the Archean era". Photosynthesis Research. 88 (2): 109–117. Bibcode:2006PhoRe..88..109O. doi:10.1007/s11120-006-9040-5. PMID 16453059. S2CID 20364747. Cyanobacteria ya bayyana daga baya; Yawan iskar oxygen da suka samar ya ba da gudummawa kai tsaye zuwa iskar oxygen ta Duniya, Buick R (Aug 2008). "When did oxygenic photosynthesis evolve?". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B. 363 (1504): 2731–2743. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0041. PMC 2606769. PMID 18468984. wanda ya sa juyin halitta mai rikitarwa ya yiwu. Matsakaicin adadin kuzarin da photosynthesis na duniya ya ɗauka shine kusan terawatts 130,Whitmarsh, John; Govindjee (1999). "Chapter 2: The photosynthetic process". In Singhal G.S.; Renger G.; Sopory S.K.; Irrgang K.D.; Govindjee (eds.). Concepts in photobiology: photosynthesis and photomorphogenesis. Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 11–51. ISBN 978-0-7923-5519-9. Archived from the original on 2010-08-14. Retrieved 2012-07-07. It is estimated that photosynthetic organisms remove 100×1015 grams of carbon/year fixed by photosynthetic organisms. This is equivalent to 4×1018 kJ/yr of free energy stored in reduced carbon. (in Part 8: "Global photosynthesis and the atmosphere")Nealson KH, Conrad PG (Dec 1999). "Life: past, present and future". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B. 354 (1392): 1923–1939. doi:10.1098/rstb.1999.0532. PMC 1692713. PMID 10670014.Steger U, Achterberg W, Blok K, Bode H, Frenz W, Gather C, Hanekamp G, Imboden D, Jahnke M, Kost M, Kurz R, Nutzinger HG, Ziesemer T (2005). Sustainable development and innovation in the energy sector. Berlin: Springer. p. 32. ISBN 978-3-540-23103-5. Archived from the original on 2016-09-02. Retrieved 2016-02-21. The average global rate of photosynthesis is 130 TW. wanda shine kusan sau takwas na yawan ƙarfin wayewar ɗan adam.[9] Kwayoyin Photosynthetic kuma suna canza kusan tan biliyan 100-115 (91-104 Pg petagrams, ko biliyoyin metrik ton), na carbon zuwa biomass a kowace shekara.Photosynthesis". McGraw-Hill Encyclopedia of Science & Technology. Vol. 13. New York: McGraw-Hill. 2007. ISBN 978-0-07-144143-8.Field CB, Behrenfeld MJ, Randerson JT, Falkowski P (Jul 1998). "Primary production of the biosphere: integrating terrestrial and oceanic components". Science. 281 (5374): 237–240. Bibcode:1998Sci...281..237F. doi:10.1126/science.281.5374.237. PMID 9657713. Archived from the original on 2018-09-25. Retrieved 2018-04-20.An gano Photosynthesis a cikin 1779 ta Jan Ingenhousz wanda ya nuna cewa tsire-tsire suna buƙatar haske, ba kawai ƙasa da ruwa ba.

 Bayani 
Babban labarin: Kayyade carbon na halitta

Yawancin kwayoyin halittun hotuna sune photoautotrophs, wanda ke nufin suna iya hada abinci kai tsaye daga carbon dioxide da ruwa ta amfani da makamashi daga haske. Duk da haka, ba duka kwayoyin halitta ba ne suke amfani da carbon dioxide a matsayin tushen carbon atom don aiwatar da photosynthesis; photoheterotrophs suna amfani da mahadi na halitta, maimakon carbon dioxide, a matsayin tushen carbon.Bryant, Donald A.; Frigaard, Niels-Ulrik (Nov 2006). "Prokaryotic photosynthesis and phototrophy illuminated". Trends in Microbiology. 14 (11): 488–496. doi:10.1016/j.tim.2006.09.001. PMID 16997562. 

A cikin tsire-tsire, algae, da cyanobacteria, photosynthesis yana sakin oxygen. Wannan oxygenic photosynthesis  shine ya zuwa yanzu mafi yawan nau'in photosynthesis da halittu masu rai ke amfani da su. Wasu tsire-tsire masu son inuwa (sciophytes) suna samar da ƙarancin iskar oxygen yayin photosynthesis ta yadda suke amfani da su da kansu maimakon su sake shi zuwa sararin samaniya.https://books.google.com/books?id=L8DHHSO2RFsC&dq=Sciophytes+shade+plants+compensation+uptake+aerobic+respiration&pg=PA282

Kodayake akwai wasu bambance-bambance tsakanin oxygenic photosynthesis a cikin shuke-shuke, algae, da cyanobacteria, tsarin gaba ɗaya yayi kama da waɗannan kwayoyin halitta. Hakanan akwai nau'ikan photosynthesis na anoxygenic da yawa, galibi daga ƙwayoyin cuta, waɗanda ke cinye carbon dioxide amma ba sa sakin iskar oxygen.Fuchs, Georg (1987). "Carbon Dioxide Reduction by Anaerobic Bacteria". In Aresta, M.; Forti, G. (eds.). Carbon Dioxide as a Source of Carbon: Biochemical and Chemical Uses. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. pp. 263–273. doi:10.1007/978-94-009-3923-3_14. ISBN 978-94-009-3923-3. Retrieved 2024-06-10.George, Drishya M.; Vincent, Annette S.; Mackey, Hamish R. (2020). "An overview of anoxygenic phototrophic bacteria and their applications in environmental biotechnology for sustainable Resource recovery". Biotechnology Reports (Amsterdam, Netherlands). 28: e00563. doi:10.1016/j.btre.2020.e00563. ISSN 2215-017X. PMC 7714679. PMID 33304839. 

Ana juyar da carbon dioxide zuwa sukari a cikin tsari da ake kira gyaran carbon; photosynthesis yana ɗaukar makamashi daga hasken rana don canza carbon dioxide zuwa carbohydrates. Gyaran Carbon shine matsayin sakewa sakewa. A cikin fayyace gabaɗaya, photosynthesis kishiyar numfashin salula ne: yayin da photosynthesis tsari ne na rage carbon dioxide zuwa carbohydrates, numfashin salula shine oxidation na carbohydrates ko wasu abubuwan gina jiki zuwa carbon dioxide. Abubuwan gina jiki da ake amfani da su wajen numfashi ta salula sun haɗa da carbohydrates, amino acid da fatty acids. Waɗannan sinadiran suna da iskar oxygen don samar da carbon dioxide da ruwa, da kuma fitar da makamashin sinadarai don fitar da sinadari na halitta.

Photosynthesis da numfashin salula wasu matakai ne daban-daban, yayin da suke faruwa ta nau'ikan halayen sinadarai daban-daban da kuma cikin sassan salula daban-daban (numfashin salula a cikin mitochondria).Stefano, George B.; Snyder, Christopher; Kream, Richard M. (2015-07-17). "Mitochondria, Chloroplasts in Animal and Plant Cells: Significance of Conformational Matching". Medical Science Monitor: International Medical Journal of Experimental and Clinical Research. 21: 2073–2078. doi:10.12659/MSM.894758. ISSN 1643-3750. PMC 4517925. PMID 26184462.Shimakawa, Ginga; Matsuda, Yusuke; Burlacot, Adrien (2024). "Crosstalk between photosynthesis and respiration in microbes". Journal of Biosciences. 49 (2): 45. doi:10.1007/s12038-023-00417-4. ISSN 0973-7138. PMID 38516912. 

Babban ma'auni don photosynthesis kamar yadda Cornelis van Niel  ya fara gabatarwa shine:[

CO2carbon

dioxide + 2H2Aelectron donor + photonslight energy → [CH2O]carbohydrate + 2Aoxidized

electron

donor + H2Owater

Tunda ana amfani da ruwa azaman mai bayarwa na lantarki a cikin photosynthesis na oxygen, ma'aunin wannan tsari shine:

CO2carbon

dioxide + 2H2Owater + photonslight energy → [CH2O]carbohydrate + O2oxygen + H2Owater

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