James Buchanan

James Buchanan Jr. (/bjuːˈkænən/ bew-KAN-ən; Olausson, Lena; Sangster, Catherine (2006). Oxford BBC Guide to Pronunciation. Oxford University Press. p. 56. ISBN 0-19-280710-2 an haife shi a ranar 23 ga watan Afrilu , shekara ta alif 1791 zuwa ranar 1 ga watan Yuni shekara ta alif 1868) shi ne shugaban Amurka na 15, wanda ya yi aiki daga shekarar 1857 zuwa 1861. Buchanan kuma ya yi aiki a matsayin sakataren gwamnati daga 1845 zuwa 1849 kuma ya wakilci Pennsylvania a cikin gidaje biyu na U.S. Majalisa. Ya kasance mai fafutukar kare hakkin jihohi, musamman game da bauta, kuma ya rage rawar da gwamnatin tarayya ta taka kafin yakin basasa.

Buchanan lauya ne a Pennsylvania kuma ya lashe zaɓensa na farko zuwa Majalisar Wakilai ta jihar a matsayin dan Majalisar Tarayya. An zabe shi zuwa Amurka. Majalisar Wakilai a 1820 kuma ta riƙe wannan matsayi na tsawon sharuɗɗa biyar, tare da Andrew Jackson's Democratic Party. Buchanan ya yi aiki a matsayin ministan Jackson zuwa Rasha a 1832. Ya ci zabe a 1834 a matsayin U.S. Sanata daga Pennsylvania kuma ya ci gaba da wannan matsayi na tsawon shekaru 11. An nada shi a matsayin sakataren gwamnati na Shugaba James K. Polk a shekara ta 1845, kuma bayan shekaru takwas aka nada shi a matsayin ministan Shugaba Franklin Pierce a Burtaniya.

Tun daga shekara ta 1844, Buchanan ya zama dan takara na yau da kullum don zaben shugaban kasa na Jam'iyyar Democrat. An zabe shi kuma ya lashe zaɓen shugaban ƙasa na 1856. A matsayinsa na shugaban ƙasa, Buchanan ya shiga tsakani don tabbatar da mafi rinjayen hukuncin Kotun Koli a cikin hukuncin da aka yanke na bautar a cikin shari'ar Dred Scott. Ya yarda da yunƙurin kudanci na injiniya Kansas shiga cikin Ƙungiyar a matsayin bawa a ƙarƙashinKundin Tsarin Mulki na Lecompton, kuma ya fusata ba kawai 'yan Republican ba har ma da Democrats na Arewa. Buchanan ya girmama alkawarinsa na yin aiki guda ɗaya kawai kuma ya goyi bayan takarar Breckinridge wanda bai yi nasara ba a zaben shugaban kasa na 1860. Ya ƙasa dai-daita jam'iyyar Dimokaradiyyar da ta samu karyewa a cikin tsangwama ga Stephen Douglas, wanda ya kai ga zaben dan Republican kuma tsohon dan majalisa Abraham Lincoln.

Shugabancin Buchanan a lokacin gurguwar agwagi, kafin yakin basasar Amurka, ya sha suka sosai. A lokaci guda kuma ya fusata Arewa ta hanyar hana ballewa da kuma Kudu ta hanyar kin biyan bukatarsu. Ya goyi bayan canjin Corwin a kokarin sulhunta kasar. Ya yi ƙoƙari mara nasara don ƙarfafa Fort Sumter, amma in ba haka ba ya hana shirya sojoji. A cikin rayuwarsa na sirri, Buchanan bai taɓa yin aure ba kuma shi kaɗai ne U.S. shugaban ya ci gaba da zama dalibin digiri na tsawon rayuwarsa, wanda ya jagoranci wasu masana tarihi da marubuta don tambayar yanayin jima'i. An bayyana gazawarsa wajen dakile yakin basasa a matsayin rashin iya aiki, kuma ya shafe shekarunsa na ƙarshe yana kare mutuncinsa. Masana tarihi da masana sun sanya Buchanan a matsayin mafi munin shugabanni a tarihin Amurka.

Rayuwar farko

￼ Wurin haihuwar Buchanan

Yarantaka da ilimi

James Buchanan Jr. an haife shi a cikin dangin Scotland-Irish a ranar 23 ga Afrilu, 1791, a cikin gidan katako a wani gona mai suna Stony Batter, kusa da Cove Gap, Peters Township, a cikin tsaunin Allegheny na kudancin Pennsylvania. Shi ne shugaban kasa na ƙarshe da aka haife shi a ƙarni na 18 kuma, har zuwa zaɓen Joe Biden a cikin 2020, wanda kaɗai aka haifa a Pennsylvania.The Presidents Timeline". Buchanan shi ne na biyu a cikin yara goma sha ɗaya da kanne mata shida da ƴan'uwa huɗu, kuma babban ɗan James Buchanan Sr. (1761-1821) da matarsa ​​Elizabeth Speer (1767-1833).Baker 2004, pp. 9–12 James Buchanan Sr., dan Ulster-Scot ne daga wajen Ramelton, wani karamin gari a arewa maso gabas na County Donegal a arewa maso yamma na Ulster, lardin arewa a Ireland, wanda ya yi hijira zuwa sabuwar Amurka da aka kafa a 1783. , Bayan ya tashi daga Derry. ref>Discover Ulster-Scots: Emigration & Influence - Ulster and the White House. https://discoverulsterscots.com/emigration-influence/america/1718-migration-east-donegal/ulster-and-white-house</ref> Ulster-Scots Agency: News - The 'Buchanan Clan Gathering' in Co Donegal (30 June 2010). https://www.ulsterscotsagency.com/news/article/39/the-buchanan-clan-gathering-in-co-donegal/</ref> Ya kasance na Clan Buchanan, wanda mambobinsa sun yi hijira da yawa daga tsaunukan Scotland zuwa Ulster a arewacin Ireland a lokacin dashen Ulster a karni na sha bakwai kuma, daga baya, saboda talauci da tsanantawa daga Crown saboda su. Imani na Presbyterian, ya kara yin hijira da yawa daga Ulster zuwa Amurka tun daga farkon karni na sha takwas zuwa gaba. Ba da daɗewa ba bayan haihuwar Buchanan, iyalin suka ƙaura zuwa wata gona kusa da Mercersburg, Pennsylvania, kuma daga baya suka zauna a garin a shekara ta 1794. Mahaifinsa ya zama mazaunin yankin mafi arziƙi, yana aiki a matsayin ɗan kasuwa, manomi, da mai saka jari. Buchanan ya danganta iliminsa na farko ga mahaifiyarsa, yayin da mahaifinsa ya fi tasiri a kan halinsa.Mahaifiyarsa ta tattauna batun siyasa da shi tun yana yaro kuma tana da sha'awar sha'awar waƙa, tana ambaton John Milton da William Shakespeare ga Buchanan.Baker 2004, pp. 9–12

Buchanan ya halarci Old Stone Academy a Mercersburg sannan Dickinson College a Carlisle, Pennsylvania.Baker 2004, pp. 12. A cikin 1808, an kusan fitar da shi saboda rashin daidaituwa; shi da ’yan uwansa dalibai sun jawo hankulan marasa kyau ga shaye-shaye a gidajen abinci, suna dagula zaman lafiya da daddare, da aikata barna, Baker 2004, pp. 13–16 amma ya roki a ba shi dama na biyu kuma daga karshe ya kammala karatunsa da daraja a 1809.[10Daga baya a wannan shekarar, ya koma babban birnin jihar a Lancaster, don horar da lauya na tsawon shekaru biyu da rabi tare da sanannen James Hopkins. Bayan salon zamani, Buchanan ya yi nazarin Lambobin Amurka da Kundin Tsarin Mulki na Amurka da kuma hukumomin shari'a irin su William Blackstone a lokacin karatunsa.<ref>Baker 2004, pp. 13–16<ref>

Dokar farko da kuma Majalisar Wakilai ta Pennsylvania

A 1812, Buchanan ya ci jarrabawar mashaya kuma bayan an shigar da shi a mashaya, ya kasance a Lancaster, ko da lokacin da Harrisburg ya zama sabon babban birnin Pennsylvania. Buchanan da sauri ya kafa kansa a matsayin fitaccen wakilin doka a birnin. Kudin shiga ya tashi da sauri bayan ya kafa aikinsa, kuma zuwa 1821 yana samun sama da $11,000 a kowace shekara (daidai da $250,000 a cikin 2023).Baker 2004, pp. 13–16 A wannan lokacin, Buchanan ya zama Freemason, kuma ya yi aiki a matsayin Jagora mai Bauta na Masonic Lodge No. 43 a Lancaster kuma a matsayin Mataimakin Babban Jagora na Grand Lodge na Pennsylvania.Klein 1962, p. 27

Buchanan ya kuma yi aiki a matsayin shugaban reshen Lancaster na Jam'iyyar Tarayya. Kamar mahaifinsa, ya tallafa wa shirinsu na siyasa, wanda ya ba da kuɗin tarayya don gine-gine da ayyukan shigo da kaya da kuma sake kafa babban bankin bayan lasisin bankin farko na Amurka ya kare a 1811. Ya zama babban mai suka. ko Shugaban Jamhuriyar Demokiradiyya James Madison a lokacin yakin 1812.Baker 2004, pp. 17–18 Ko da yake shi kansa bai yi aikin soja ba a lokacin yakin 1812, a lokacin mulkin mallaka na Birtaniyya ya shiga cikin gungun samarin da suka saci dawakai ga sojojin Amurka a yankin Baltimore.Klein 1962, p.  Shi ne shugaban kasa na karshe da ya shiga yakin 1812.Moody, Wesley (2016). The Battle of Fort Sumter: The First Shots of the American Civil War. New York, NY: Routledge. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-3176-6718-6 – via Google Books.

A cikin 1814, an zabe shi don 'yan Tarayyar Tarayya zuwa Majalisar Wakilai ta Pennsylvania, Curtis 1883, p. 22 inda ya kasance mafi ƙanƙanta, kuma ya riƙe wannan kujera har zuwa 1816. Tun da zaman da aka yi a Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta Pennsylvania ya kasance watanni uku kawai, Buchanan ya ci gaba da aiki da doka. yana samun riba ta hanyar biyan kuɗi masu yawa, kuma hidimarsa ta taimaka masa ya sami ƙarin abokan cinikiBaker 2004, p. 18 A cikin 1815, Buchanan ya kare Alkalin Kotun Walter Franklin a cikin shari'ar tsige shi a gaban Majalisar Dattijai ta Pennsylvania, bisa zargin rashin da'a na shari'a. An fi samun yawaitar tsige shi a lokacin domin an fi samun alakar cin mutuncin mukami da yanke hukuncin da bai dace ba bisa ga abin da jam’iyyu ke so da kuma farin jinin hukuncin da alkali ya yanke. Buchanan ya rinjayi Sanatocin cewa laifukan shari’a da keta doka ne kawai suka tabbatar da tsige shi.Moody, Wesley (2016). The Battle of Fort Sumter: The First Shots of the American Civil War. New York, NY: Routledge. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-3176-6718-6 – via Google Books.

Aikin majalisa

Babban labarin: Tarihin zaben James Buchanan

U.S. Majalisar wakilai

A cikin zaɓen majalisa na 1820, Buchanan ya nemi kujera a majalisar wakilai. Jim kadan bayan nasarar zabensa, mahaifinsa ya rasu a wani hatsarin mota.Baker 2004, p. 22 A matsayinsa na matashin Wakili, Buchanan ya kasance daya daga cikin fitattun jagororin bangaren "Jam'iyyar Amalgamator" na siyasar Pennsylvania, mai suna saboda ta kunshi 'yan jam'iyyar Democrat-Republican da tsoffin 'yan Tarayyar Tarayya, wadanda suka sauya sheka daga Tsarin Jam'iyyar Farko zuwa Era. ko Kyawun Ji. A wannan zamanin, Demokradiyya-Jamhuriya ta zama jam'iyya mafi tasiri. Hukunce-hukuncen Tarayya na Buchanan sun kasance masu rauni, kuma ya sauya jam’iyyu bayan ya yi adawa da wani dan kishin kasa.lissafin.Nicole Etcheson, "General Jackson Is Dead: James Buchanan, Stephen A. Douglas, and Kansas Policy", in James Buchanan and the Coming of the Civil War, ed. by John W. Quist and Michael J. Birkner, (2013) pp 88–90. A lokacin zaben shugaban kasa na 1824, Buchanan da farko ya goyi bayan Henry Clay, amma ya koma Andrew Jackson (tare da Clay a matsayin zabi na biyu) lokacin da ya bayyana cewa jama'ar Pennsylvania sun fi son Jackson.<ref>Klein, Philip Shriver; Hoogenboom, Ari (1980). A History of Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania: Penn State University Press. pp. 135–136. ISBN 978-0-271-01934 Bayan Jackson ya fadi zaben 1824, ya shiga kungiyarsa, amma Jackson ya raina Buchanan saboda kuskuren fassararsa na kokarinsa na sasanta tsakanin sansanin Clay da Jackson.Nicole Etcheson, "General Jackson Is Dead: James Buchanan, Stephen A. Douglas, and Kansas Policy", in James Buchanan and the Coming of the Civil War, ed. by John W. Quist and Michael J. Birkner, (2013) pp 88–90.Baker 2004, p. 24–27

A Washington, Buchanan ya zama mai kare haƙƙin jihohi, kuma ya kasance kusa da yawancin 'yan majalisar kudu, yana kallon wasu 'yan majalisar New England a matsayin masu tsattsauran ra'ayi. Kusancin da Buchanan yake da shi da mazabarsa ya ba shi damar kafa haɗin gwiwar Demokaradiyya a Pennsylvania, wanda ya ƙunshi tsoffin manoman Tarayya, masu sana'a na Philadelphia, da Ulster-Scots-Amurka. A cikin zaben shugaban kasa na 1828, ya tabbatar da Pennsylvania, yayin da "Jackson Democrats", jam'iyya mai cin gashin kanta bayan da ta balle daga Jam'iyyar Republican Party, ta sami nasara cikin sauki a zaben 'yan majalissar da aka yi.<ref>

Buchanan ya sami kulawa sosai a lokacin da ake shari'ar tsige shi inda ya zama mai gabatar da kara ga alkalin gundumar tarayya James H. Peck; duk da haka, Majalisar Dattawa ta ki amincewa da bukatar Buchanan tare da wanke Peck da kuri'u mafi rinjaye. An nada shi kwamitin noma a shekararsa ta farko, kuma daga baya ya zama shugaban kwamitin shari’a. A shekara ta 1831, Buchanan ya ki amincewa da takarar Majalisar Wakilan Amurka ta 22 daga mazabarsa da ta hada da Dauphin, Lebanon, da Lancaster. Har yanzu yana da buri na siyasa kuma wasu 'yan Democrat na Pennsylvania sun gabatar da shi a matsayin dan takarar mataimakin shugaban kasa a zaben 1832.[21].

Hoton 1834 na Buchanan yana da shekaru 42-43 na Jacob Eichholtz

Ministan Rasha

Bayan da aka sake zabar Jackson a 1832, ya ba Buchanan mukamin jakadan Amurka a Rasha. Buchanan ya yi jinkirin barin ƙasar, kamar yadda mai nisa na St. Petersburg wani nau'i ne na gudun hijirar siyasa, wanda shine manufar Jackson, wanda ya ɗauki Buchanan a matsayin "mai aiki marar aiki" kuma marar aminci, amma a ƙarshe ya yarda.[18]. Ayyukansa sun mayar da hankali kan kulla yarjejeniyar kasuwanci da jigilar kayayyaki da Rasha. Yayin da Buchanan ya yi nasara tare da tsohon, yin shawarwarin yarjejeniya kan jigilar kaya kyauta tare da Ministan Harkokin Waje Karl Nesselrode ya kasance mai wahala.[22] Ya yi Allah wadai da Tsar Nicholas I a matsayin wanda ba shi da tushe bare makama ne kawai shekara guda kafin lokacin da yake rike da mukamin a Majalisa; Amurkawa da yawa sun mayar da martani mara kyau game da martanin da Rasha ta yi game da boren Poland na 1830.[23]

U.S. Sanata

Buchanan ya koma gida ya sha kaye a zaben majalisar dokokin jihar na tsawon shekaru shida a majalisa ta 23, amma majalisar dokokin jihar Pennsylvania ta nada shi ya gaji William Wilkins a Amurka. Majalisar Dattawa. Wilkins, ya maye gurbin Buchanan a matsayin jakadan Rasha. Jasonian Buchanan, wanda aka sake zaɓe a 1836 da 1842, ya yi adawa da sake ba da izini na Babban Bankin Amurka na Biyu kuma ya nemi ya kawar da zargi na majalisa na Jackson daga yakin Bankin.[24]. Buchanan ya yi aiki a Majalisar Dattawa har zuwa Maris 1845 kuma sau biyu an tabbatar da shi a ofis.[2Domin hada kan 'yan Democrats na Pennsylvania a taron Jiha, an zabe shi a matsayin dan takararsu na babban taron kasa. Buchanan ya ci gaba da bin ƙa'idodin Majalisar Dokokin Jihar Pennsylvania kuma wani lokaci ya ƙi amincewa da mukamai a Majalisa wanda ya inganta a cikin jawabansa, duk da buɗaɗɗen buri na Fadar White House.[26]

An san Buchanan ne saboda jajircewarsa ga haƙƙin jihohi da akidar bayyana ƙaddara[27]. Ya yi watsi da tayin da shugaba Martin Van Buren ya yi masa na zama babban mai shari’a na Amurka kuma ya jagoranci manyan kwamitocin majalisar dattijai kamar kwamitin shari’a da kwamitin hulda da kasashen waje[28]. Buchanan na daya daga cikin 'yan majalisar dattawa da suka kada kuri'ar kin amincewaYarjejeniyar Webster-Ashburton don "mika kai" ga Ƙasar Ingila, kamar yadda ya bukaci dukan Aroostook Valley Valley ga Amurka. A cikin Rigimar iyaka ta Oregon, Buchanan ya karɓi matsakaicin buƙatun 54°40′ a matsayin iyakar arewa kuma ya yi magana game da haɗa Jamhuriyar Texas.[26] A lokacin zaɓen gwamna na Pennsylvania na 1838 mai cike da cece-kuce, Buchanan ya zaɓi ya goyi bayan ɗan takarar Demokraɗiyya, David Rittenhouse Porter, [29] wanda aka zaɓa da ƙasa da kuri'u 5,500 a matsayin gwamna na farko na Pennsylvania a ƙarƙashin Kundin Tsarin Mulki na 1838.[30][31]

Buchanan ya kuma yi adawa da dokar gag da John C. Calhoun ya dauki nauyi wanda da zai danne koke-koke na adawa da bauta. Ya bi sahun masu rinjaye wajen toshe wannan doka, inda galibin ‘yan majalisar dattawa suka yi imanin cewa hakan zai yi tasiri wajen karfafa masu ruguzawa[32]. Ya ce, “Muna da ‘yancin yin katsalandan a kan bauta a Kudu, kamar yadda ya kamata mu taba ‘yancin yin koke.”[25] Buchanan ya yi tunanin cewa batun bautar shi ne yankin jihohin, kuma ya zargi masu kawar da kai. don sha'awar sha'awa game da batun. A cikin jagorancin 1844 Democratic National Convention, Buchanan ya sanya kansa a matsayin mai yiwuwa madadin tsohon shugaban kasar Martin Van Buren, amma nadin ya tafi James K. Polk, wanda ya lashe zaben.[26]

Aikin diflomasiyya

Sakataren Gwamnati

Buchanan (na biyu daga hagu) a cikin majalisar ministocin Polk, 1849

An bai wa Buchanan mukamin Sakataren Gwamnati a gwamnatin Polk ko kuma, a matsayin madadin, zama a Kotun Koli, don biya shi diyya don goyon bayansa a yakin neman zabe amma kuma don kawar da shi a matsayin abokin hamayyar jam'iyyar cikin gida. Ya karɓi mukamin Ma'aikatar Jiha kuma ya yi aiki na tsawon wa'adi ɗaya na Polk a ofis. A lokacin aikinsa, {asar Amirka ta yi rikodin ribar yanki mafi girma a tarihi ta hanyar yarjejeniyar Oregon da yerjejeniyar Guadalupe Hidalgo, wanda ya haɗa da yanki wanda yanzu ya zama Texas, California, Nevada, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, da Colorado.[33] A cikin tattaunawa da Biritaniya kan Oregon, da farko Buchanan ya fifita daidaici na 49 a matsayin iyakar yankin Oregon, yayin da Polk ya yi kira da a samar da ƙarin layin iyakar arewa. Lokacin da 'yan Democrat na Arewa suka haɗu a kusa da sanannen taken hamsin da huɗu da arba'in ko Fight ("54 ° 40 'ko yaki") a yakin neman zaben 1844, Buchanan ya karbi wannan matsayi, amma daga baya ya bi jagorancin Polk, wanda ya kai ga Oregon Compromise na 1846, wanda ya kafa daidaici na 49 a matsayin iyaka a cikin Pacific Northwest.[34]

Game da Mexico, Buchanan ya ci gaba da kallon ra'ayi mai ban mamaki cewa harin da ya kaiwa sojojin Amurka a wani gefen Rio Grande a watan Afrilu 1846 ya zama cin zarafi da kuma dalilin da ya dace na yaki. A lokacin yakin Mexican-American, Buchanan ya fara ba da shawara game da ikirarin yankin kudancin Rio Grande, yana jin tsoron yaki da Birtaniya da Faransa. Duk da haka, yayin da yakin ya ƙare, Buchanan ya canza ra'ayinsa kuma ya yi jayayya game da ƙaddamar da wani yanki na gaba, yana jayayya cewa Mexico ce ke da alhakin yakin kuma cewa diyya da aka yi shawarwari don asarar da Amurka ta yi ba ta da yawa. Buchanan ya nemi nadin a babban taron Dimokuradiyya na 1848, kamar yadda Polk ya yi alkawarin yin hidimar wa'adi daya kawai, amma ya sami goyon bayan wakilan Pennsylvania da Virginia, don haka aka zabi Sanata Lewis Cass na Michigan.[35]

Rayuwar farar hula da zaben shugaban kasa na 1852

￼Bust na James Buchanan na Henry Dexter a Gidan Hoto na Kasa

Tare da zaben 1848 na Whig Zachary Taylor, Buchanan ya koma rayuwa ta sirri. Buchanan ya ci gaba da yin shekaru kuma har yanzu yana sanye da salon zamani na samartaka, wanda hakan ya sa 'yan jarida suka yi masa lakabi da "Tsohuwar Ayyukan Jama'a". Masu adawa da bauta a Arewa sun yi masa ba'a a matsayin wani abin tarihi na mutum kafin tarihi sabodako kuma kyawawan dabi’unsa[36]. Ya sayi gidan Wheatland da ke wajen birnin Lancaster kuma ya nishadantar da maziyartai daban-daban yayin da yake lura da al'amuran siyasa.[37] A cikin wannan lokacin, Buchanan ya zama cibiyar sadarwar iyali wanda ya ƙunshi 22 'ya'ya, 'ya'yansu da zuriyarsu, bakwai daga cikinsu marayu ne. Ya samo wa wasu ayyukan yi wa jama’a ayyukan yi ta hanyar ba da goyon baya, kuma ga waɗanda ke goyon bayansa, ya ɗauki matsayin uba. Ya kulla zumunci mai karfi da 'yar uwarsa Harriet Lane, wacce daga baya ta zama uwargidan shugaban kasa ga Buchanan a fadar White House.[36]

A cikin 1852, an nada shi shugaban kwamitin amintattu na Franklin da Kwalejin Marshall a Lancaster, kuma ya yi aiki a wannan matsayin har zuwa 1866.[38] Buchanan bai bar siyasa gaba daya ba. Ya yi niyyar wallafa tarin jawabai da tarihin rayuwarsa, amma zaben shugaban kasa na 1852 ya ci tura. Buchanan ya tafi Washington don tattaunawa game da siyasar Jam'iyyar Democrat ta Pennsylvania, wanda aka raba zuwa sansani biyu karkashin jagorancin Simon Cameron da George Dallas.[39] Ya yi kamfen cikin natsuwa don zaben shugaban kasa na Demokradiyya na 1852. Dangane da Yarjejeniya ta 1850, wanda ya haifar da shigar da California a cikin Ƙungiyar a matsayin ƙasa mai 'yanci da kuma Dokar Bawan Fugitive, yanzu Buchanan ya ƙi amincewa da Yarjejeniyar Missouri kuma ya yi maraba da kin amincewa da Majalisa na Wilmot Proviso, wanda ya haramta bauta a cikin duka. yankunan da aka samu a yakin Mexico da Amurka. Buchanan ya soki abolitionism a matsayin mai tsattsauran ra'ayi kuma ya yi imanin cewa ya kamata majalisar dokoki ta yanke shawarar bautar, ba Majalisa ba. Ya ki son kawar da ’yan Arewa saboda jam’iyyarsa, kuma ya zama sananne a matsayin “fuskar kullu” saboda tausayinsa ga Kudu. Buchanan ya fito ne a matsayin dan takara mai ban sha'awa na takarar shugaban kasa na Democrat, tare da Lewis Cass, Stephen Douglas, da William L. Marcy; duk da haka, babban taron Pennsylvania bai kada kuri’ar amincewa da shi ba, inda wakilai sama da 30 suka yi zanga-zangar adawa da shi.[40] A 1852 Democratic National Convention, ya sami goyon bayan da yawa kudancin wakilan amma ya kasa samun nasarar kashi biyu bisa uku na goyon bayan da ake bukata na zaben shugaban kasa, wanda ya tafi zuwa ga Franklin Pierce. Buchanan ya ƙi ya zama ɗan takarar mataimakin shugaban ƙasa, kuma taron ya zaɓi abokinsa na kud da kud, William R. King.[41]

Ministan Burtaniya

Pierce ya lashe zaben a shekara ta 1852, kuma bayan watanni shida, Buchanan ya karbi mukamin ministan Amurka a Burtaniya, matsayin da ke wakiltar koma baya a aikinsa kuma ya yi watsi da shi sau biyu a baya.[41] Buchanan ya yi tafiya zuwa Ingila a lokacin rani na 1853, kuma ya kasance a kasashen waje na shekaru uku masu zuwa. A shekara ta 1850, Amurka da Birtaniya sun rattaba hannu kan yarjejeniyar Clayton-Bulwer, wadda ta ba wa kasashen biyu damar sarrafa duk wani magudanar ruwa na gaba wanda zai hade Tekun Atlantika da Pacific ta Tsakiyar Amurka. Buchanan ya gana akai-akai da Lord Clarendon, ministan harkokin wajen Biritaniya, da fatan matsawa Burtaniya lamba ta janye daga Amurka ta tsakiya. Ya sami damar rage tasirin Birtaniyya a Honduras da Nicaragua yayin da yake kara wayar da kan masarauta kan muradun Amurkawa a yankin.[42] Ya kuma mai da hankali kan yuwuwar shigar da kasar Cuba, wadda ta dade tana sha'awarsa.[43]

A yunkurin Pierce, Buchanan ya sadu a Ostend, Belgium, tare da U.S. Ambasada a Spain Pierre Soulé da U.S. Ambasada a Faransa John Mason, don tsara tsarin sayan Cuba. Wani daftarin takarda ya haifar, wanda ake kira Ostend Manifesto, wanda ya ba da shawarar siyan Cuba daga Spain, sannan a tsakiyar juyin juya hali da kuma kusa da fatara. Takardar ta ayyana tsibirin "kamar yadda ya zama dole ga jamhuriyar Arewacin Amurka kamar kowace danginta na yanzu". Sabanin shawarar Buchanan, daftarin ƙarshe na ma'anarya ba da shawarar cewa "komo shi daga Spain", idan Spain ta ƙi sayar da ita, za ta zama barata "ta kowace doka, ɗan adam da Allahntaka"[44]. An gamu da ra'ayin da aka raba tare da raba ra'ayi kuma ba a taɓa yin aiki da shi ba. Ya raunana gwamnatin Pierce kuma ya rage goyon baya ga Ƙaddamar Ƙaddamarwa.[44] [45] A cikin 1855, yayin da Buchanan ke son komawa gida ya girma, Pierce ya nemi ya rike katanga a Landan bisa la'akari da ƙaura da wani jirgin ruwa na Burtaniya zuwa Caribbean.[42]

Zaben 1856

Babban labarin: 1856 zaben shugaban kasa na Amurka

1856 Taswirar kuri'un zabe

Sabis na Buchanan a ƙasashen waje ya ba shi damar gujewa muhawarar kan dokar Kansas-Nebraska sannan kuma ya lalata ƙasar a cikin rikicin bautar.[46] Duk da cewa bai fito fili ya nemi shugabancin kasar ba, amma ya amince da kungiyar a madadinsa[47]. Yayin da yake Ingila, ya yi kamfen ta wurin yabon John Joseph Hughes, wanda shi ne Archbishop na New York, ga wani babban limamin Katolika. Na karshen ya yi kamfen ga Buchanan a cikin manyan Katolika da zarar ya ji labarin.[46] Lokacin da Buchanan ya isa gida a ƙarshen Afrilu 1856, ya jagoranci jefa kuri'a na farko, goyon bayan manyan Sanatoci John Slidell, Jesse Bright, da Thomas F. Bayard, waɗanda suka gabatar da Buchanan a matsayin gogaggen shugaba mai kira ga Arewa da Kudu. Yarjejeniyar Dimokuradiyya ta 1856 ta hadu a watan Yuni 1856, ta samar da wani dandamali wanda ke nuna ra'ayoyin Buchanan, gami da goyon bayan Dokar Bawan Fugitive, wanda ke buƙatar dawo da bayin da suka tsere. Dandalin ya kuma yi kira da a kawo karshen zanga-zangar adawa da bauta da kuma Amurka. "hawa a cikin Tekun Mexico".[48] Shugaba Pierce ya yi fatan sake tsayawa takara, yayin da Sanata Stephen A. Douglas shi ma ya yi kaurin suna a matsayin dan takara mai karfi. Ya lashe zaben ne bayan kuri'u goma sha bakwai bayan murabus din Douglas. John C. Breckinridge na Kentucky ne ya haɗa shi a kan tikitin don ci gaba da wakilci na yanki, yana sanya magoya bayan Pierce da Douglas, kuma abokan Breckinridge.[49]

Buchanan ya fuskanci 'yan takara guda biyu a babban zaben: tsohon shugaban Whig Millard Fillmore ya yi takara a matsayin dan takarar jam'iyyar Katolika na Anti-Catholic, anti-igrant American Party (ko "Know-Nothing"), yayin da John C. Frémont ya yi takara a matsayin dan takarar Republican. Bambance-bambancen da ke tsakanin Buchanan da Frémont ya kasance mai ma'ana sosai, tare da 'yan caricaturists masu adawa da juna suna zana ɗan takarar Demokraɗiyya a matsayin dattijo mai ban tsoro.[50] Buchanan bai yi yaƙin neman zaɓe ba, amma ya rubuta wasiƙu kuma ya yi alƙawarin tabbatar da tsarin dimokuradiyya. A zaben, ya dauki kowace kasa bayi sai dai Maryland, da kuma jihohi biyar marasa bauta, ciki har da jiharsa ta Pennsylvania[49]. Ya lashe kashi 45 cikin 100 na yawan kuri'un da aka kada, kuma ya lashe kuri'un zaben, inda ya samu kuri'u 174 cikin 296. Zaben nasa ya sanya shi zama shugaban kasa na farko daga Pennsylvania. A cikin jawabin nasara na gwagwarmaya, Buchanan ya yi tir da 'yan Republican, yana mai kiran su "jam'iyya mai haɗari" da "jam'iyya" wadda ta kai hari ga Kudu ba bisa ka'ida ba.[50] Ya kuma bayyana cewa, “Abin da gwamnatina za ta yi shi ne ruguza jam’iyyu, Arewa ko Kudu, da kuma maido da jituwa a cikin kungiyar a karkashin gwamnatin kasa da kuma masu ra’ayin rikau.” nadin majalisarsa[52].

Shugaban kasa (1857-1861)

===Babban labarin: Shugabancin James Buchanan

Kaddamarwa===

Babban labarin: rantsar da James Buchanan

An kaddamar da Buchanan a ranar 4 ga Maris, 1857, yana karbar rantsuwar ofis daga babban alkalin alkalai Roger B. Taney. A cikin dogon jawabinsa na rantsar da shi, Buchanan ya sadaukar da kansa ga yin hidimar wa'adi daya kacal, kamar yadda wanda ya gabace shi ya yi. Ya kyamaci rarrabuwar kawuna dangane da bauta da matsayinta a yankunan, yana mai cewa bai kamata Majalisa ta taka rawar gani ba wajen tantance matsayin bauta a jihohi ko yankuna[53]. Ya ba da shawarar mafita dangane da Dokar Kansas-Nebraska, wanda ya bayyana cewaKa'idar ikon mallakar jama'a ta kasance mai yanke hukunci, kuma Majalisa ba ta da ta cewa a cikin lamarin. Buchanan ya ba da shawarar a kafa dokar bautar tarayya don kare haƙƙin masu bayi a yankunan tarayya. Ya yi ishara da shari'ar Kotun Koli da ke kan shari'ar, Dred Scott v. Sandford, wanda ya ce zai warware batun bautar har abada. Dred Scott bawa ne wanda mai gidansa John Sanford ya ɗauke shi na ɗan lokaci daga ƙasar bawa zuwa yanki mai 'yanci. Bayan da Scott ya koma ƙasar bawa, sai ya shigar da ƙarar neman 'yancinsa dangane da lokacinsa a cikin ƙasa mai 'yanci.[53]

Mataimakin mai shari'a Robert C. Grier ya leka shawarar a cikin shari'ar "Dred Scott" da wuri ga Buchanan. A cikin jawabinsa na farko, Buchanan ya bayyana cewa batun bautar da ake yi a yankunan zai kasance "cikin sauri kuma a karshe" Kotun Koli za ta warware shi.[54] A cewar masanin tarihi Paul Finkelman:

Buchanan ya riga ya san abin da Kotun za ta yanke. A cikin wani babban keta da'a na Kotun, Mai Shari'a Grier, wanda, kamar Buchanan, ya fito daga Pennsylvania, ya ba da cikakken bayani ga zababben shugaban kasa game da ci gaban shari'ar da muhawarar cikin gida a cikin Kotun. Lokacin da Buchanan ya bukaci al'ummar kasar da su goyi bayan shawarar, ya riga ya san abin da Taney zai ce. Zaton 'yan jam'iyyar Republican na rashin adalci ya zama cikakke.[55]

Masana tarihi sun yarda cewa hukuncin kotun babban bala'i ne saboda ya haifar da tashin hankali sosai, wanda ya kai ga yakin basasa.[56][57][58] A cikin 2022, ɗan tarihi David W. Blight ya yi iƙirarin cewa shekara ta 1857 ita ce, "babban jigon hanyar rabuwar kai ... galibi saboda shari'ar Dred Scott, wanda ya haifar da tsoro, rashin amincewa da ƙiyayyar ƙiyayya da ta riga ta zama ruwan dare a cikin duka Arewa. da Kudu zuwa sabon matakan tsanani.”[59]

Ma'aikata

Majalisar ministoci da gudanarwa

The Buchanan cabinetOfficeNameTermShugaba James Buchanan1857-1861Mataimakin Shugaban Kasa John C. Breckinridge1857-1861Sakataren JihaLewis Cass1857-1860Jeremiah S. Black1860-1861Sakataren Baitulmali18585761 s Dix1861 Sakataren WarJohn B. Floyd1857–1860 1861Attorney GeneralJeremiah S. Black1857–1860Edwin Stanton1860– 1861Master JanarAaron V. Brown1857–1859Joseph Holt1859–1860Horatio King1861Sakataren NavyIsaac Toucey1857–1861Sakataren Cikin GidaJacob Thompson1857–1861 859).
Daga hagu zuwa dama: Jacob Thompson, Lewis Cass, John B. Floyd, James Buchanan, Howell Cobb, Isaac Toucey, Joseph Holt da Jeremiah S. Black

Yayin da rantsar da shi ke gabatowa, Buchanan ya nemi kafa majalisar ministoci mai biyayya, mai jituwa don gujewa fadan da ya addabi gwamnatin Andrew Jackson.[60] Majalisar ministocin ta zama dole ta yi adalci wajen samun daidaito a cikin jam’iyyar da kuma tsakanin yankunan kasar. Buchanan ya fara yin wannan aiki a Wheatland har sai da ya yi tafiya zuwa babban birnin kasar a watan Janairun 1857. A can, kamar sauran baƙi da ke National Hotel, ya kamu da cutar zazzaɓi mai tsanani, wanda bai gama warkewa ba sai bayan watanni da yawa. Da dama daga cikin wadanda suka kamu da rashin lafiya sun mutu, ciki har da dan uwan ​​Buchanan da sakatare mai zaman kansa Eskridge Lane.[52]

Zaɓin majalisar ministocin ya kasance bala'i, tare da ministocin Kudu guda huɗu waɗanda manyan bayi ne waɗanda daga baya suka zama masu biyayya ga Ƙungiyar Tarayyar Amurka [61]. An dauki Sakataren Baitulmali Howell Cobb a matsayin babban hazakar siyasa a majalisar ministoci, [62] yayin da shugabannin sassan uku daga jihohin arewa duk ana daukar su a matsayin kullu.[63] Manufarsa ita ce ta mamaye majalisar ministoci, kuma ya zabi mazaje da za su yarda da ra'ayinsa[64]. Buchanan ya samu matsala da mataimakinsa tun daga farko, lokacin da bai tarbe shi ba a ziyararsa ta farko, amma ya mika shi ga ‘yar uwansa da uwargidan shugaban kasa, waddaBreckinridge bai gafarta masa ba kuma yana ganin rashin mutunci[65]. Ya bar mai tasiri Stephen A. Douglas, wanda ya sanya Buchanan nadin zai yiwu ta hanyar yin murabus a taron kasa a shekarar da ta gabata, lokacin da ya cika mukamin.[66] Da yake mai da hankali kan manufofin ketare, ya nada Lewis Cass tsoho a matsayin Sakataren Gwamnati. Nadin da Buchanan ya yi wa ’yan Kudu da abokan zamansu ya sanya jama’a da dama a Arewa saniyar ware, kuma rashin nada kowane mabiya Douglas ya raba jam’iyyar.[52] A wajen majalisar ministocin, ya bar mukaman da Pierce ya yi da yawa amma ya cire adadin ‘yan Arewa da ke da alaka da abokan hamayyar Demokradiyya Pierce ko Douglas.[65]

Nadin na shari'a

Babban labarin: Jerin alkalan tarayya da James Buchanan ya nada

Buchanan ya nada mai shari’a daya, Nathan Clifford, zuwa Kotun Koli ta Amurka.[67] Ya nada wasu alkalai bakwai na tarayya a kotunan gundumomi ta Amurka. Ya kuma nada alkalai guda biyu a kotun daukaka kara ta Amurka.[68]

Tsangwama a cikin shari'ar Dred Scott

Matsalar Dred Scott v. Sandford, wanda Buchanan ya ambata a cikin jawabinsa na farko, kwanan wata zuwa 1846. Scott ya kai ƙarar a sake shi a Missouri, yana mai da'awar cewa ya rayu a hidima ga mai mallakar a Illinois da Wisconsin Territory. Shari'ar ta kai Kotun Koli kuma ta sami kulawa ta kasa a shekara ta 1856. Buchanan ya tuntubi Alkali John Catron a cikin Janairu 1857, yana tambaya game da sakamakon shari'ar kuma yana ba da shawarar cewa yanke shawara mafi girma, fiye da takamaiman shari'ar, zai zama mai hankali. 69] Buchanan ya yi fatan cewa yanke shawara mai zurfi na kare bauta a yankunan zai iya sa batun ya huta, ya ba shi damar mai da hankali kan wasu batutuwa.[70]

Catron ya amsa a ranar 10 ga Fabrairu, yana mai cewa mafi rinjaye na Kotun Koli na Kudancin za su yanke hukunci a kan Scott, amma za su iya buga hukuncin a kan kunkuntar filaye sai dai idan Buchanan zai iya shawo kan dan uwansa Pennsylvania, Justice Robert Cooper Grier, don shiga yawancin kotun. [71] Buchanan sannan ya rubuta wa Grier kuma ya rinjaye shi, yana ba da mafi yawan damar don ba da shawarar yanke shawara mai fa'ida wanda ya isa ya sanya Yarjejeniyar Missouri ta 1820 ta sabawa kundin tsarin mulki.[72][73]

Kwanaki biyu bayan an rantsar da Buchanan a matsayin shugaban kasa, babban alkalin kotun Taney ya ba da shawarar Dred Scott, wanda ya ki amincewa da bukatar mai shigar da kara na a 'yantar da shi daga bauta. Hukuncin ya kara tabbatar da cewa Majalisa ba ta da ikon da kundin tsarin mulki ya ba da ikon cire bauta a yankunan.[74] Bisa ga wannan shawarar, bayi sun kasance mallakin masu su har abada ba tare da hakki ba, kuma babu wani Ba’amurke ɗan Afirka da zai taɓa zama cikakken ɗan ƙasar Amurka, ko da kuwa yana da cikakken yancin ɗan adam a wata jiha.[75] Ba a bayyana wasikun Buchanan a bainar jama'a ba a lokacin, amma an gan shi yana tattaunawa cikin nutsuwa da babban alkalin yayin rantsar da shi. Lokacin da aka yanke shawarar, 'yan Republican sun fara yada kalmar cewa Taney ya sanar da Buchanan sakamakon da ke tafe. Maimakon rusa tsarin jam’iyyar Republican kamar yadda Buchanan ya yi fata, shawarar ta harzuka ‘yan Arewa, inda suka yi Allah-wadai da shi.[76]

Farkon 1857

Tsoron 1857 ya fara ne a lokacin rani na waccan shekarar, lokacin da reshen New York na Kamfanin Inshorar Rayuwa da Amintacciya ta Ohio ya sanar da rashinsa.[77] Rikicin ya bazu cikin sauri, kuma a faɗuwar rana, bankunan jihohi 1,400 da kasuwanci 5,000 sun yi fatara. Rashin aikin yi da yunwa sun zama ruwan dare a garuruwan arewa, amma kudancin noma ya fi jurewa. Buchanan ya yarda da mutanen kudu wadanda suka danganta tabarbarewar tattalin arzikin da yawan hasashe.[78]

Buchanan ya yi aiki daidai da ka'idodin dimokuradiyya na Jacksonian, wanda ya hana ba da kuɗin takarda, da kuma daskarar da kudaden tarayya don ayyukan ayyukan jama'a, wanda ya haifar da fushi a tsakanin wasu daga cikin jama'a saboda kin aiwatar da shirin bunkasa tattalin arziki.[79] Yayin dagwamnati ta kasance "ba tare da ikon tsawaita agaji ba",[78] za ta ci gaba da biyan basussukan ta musamman, kuma yayin da ba za ta rage ayyukan jama'a ba, ba za a kara ba. Da fatan rage kudin takarda da hauhawar farashin kayayyaki, ya bukaci jihohi da su takaita bankunan da basussukan dala dala 3 zuwa dala 1 na musamman da kuma hana amfani da lamuni na tarayya ko na jiha a matsayin tsaro ga al’amuran banki. Tattalin arzikin ya farfado cikin shekaru da dama, ko da yake Amurkawa da yawa sun sha wahala sakamakon firgici.[80] Buchanan ya yi fatan rage gibin da aka samu, amma a lokacin da ya bar mulki kasafin kudin tarayya ya karu da kashi 15%[78].

Utah war

Manyan labarai: Yaƙin Utah da Jami'an Runaway na 1851

A cikin bazara na 1857, Waliyai na Ƙarshe da shugabansu Brigham Young sun kasance suna ƙalubalantar wakilan tarayya a yankin Utah, suna haifar da tsangwama da tashin hankali ga waɗanda ba Mormons ba. Matasa sun tursasa jami'an tarayya tare da hana mutanen waje daga zama a yankin Salt Lake City. A cikin Satumba 1857, Utah Territorial Militia, da ke da alaƙa da Waliyyai na Ƙarshe, sun yi kisan kiyashi a Dutsen Meadows, inda 'yan bindigar Young suka kai hari kan jirgin karu kuma suka kashe mazauna 125. Buchanan ya fusata da tsaurin kai da kuma halin auren mata fiye da daya na matasa[81]. Tare da rahotannin tashin hankali ga waɗanda ba Mormons ba, Buchanan ya ba da izinin balaguron soji zuwa yankin Utah a ƙarshen Maris 1857 don maye gurbin Young a matsayin gwamna. Rundunar ta ƙunshi mutane 2,500, ciki har da Alfred Cumming da mukarrabansa, kuma Janar William S. Harney ne ya ba shi umarni. Abubuwa masu rikitarwa, sanarwar matashin game da maye gurbinsa ba a isar da shi ba saboda gwamnatin Pierce ta soke kwangilar wasiƙar ta Utah, kuma Matashi ya kwatanta sojojin da ke gabatowa a matsayin hambare mara izini.[82][74]

Shawarar ma'aikatan Buchanan ta tunzura juriya daga Mormons a kusa da Young, kamar yadda Harney ya kasance sananne saboda rashin ƙarfi da rashin tausayi. A cikin Agusta 1857, Albert S. Johnston ya maye gurbinsa saboda dalilai na kungiya.[83] Matashin ya mayar da martani game da matakin soja ta hanyar yin balaguro na makonni biyu, tare da lalata jiragen karusai, shanu, da sauran kadarori na Sojoji. Buchanan sai ya aika Thomas L. Kane a matsayin wakili mai zaman kansa don yin shawarwarin zaman lafiya. Manufar ta yi nasara, an cimma yarjejeniyar zaman lafiya don maye gurbin Gwamna Young tare da Cumming, kuma yakin Utah ya ƙare. Shugaban ya yi afuwa ga mazauna garin da ke tabbatar da biyayya ga gwamnati, kuma ya sanya sojojin tarayya a wuri mai nisa don daidaita tsarin mulkinsa.[84]

Buchanan bai sake yin sharhi game da rikicin ba har sai da Adireshinsa na Ƙungiyar Tarayyar Turai a watan Disamba 1857, ya bar tambayar ko tawaye ne a Utah. Ɗaya daga cikin ayyukan hukuma na ƙarshe na Buchanan a cikin Maris 1861 shine rage girman yankin Utah don goyon bayan Nevada, Colorado, da Nebraska.[85] Yayin da Waliyyan Ƙarshen Ƙarshe suka saba wa ikon tarayya akai-akai, wasu masana tarihi sun yi la'akari da matakin Buchanan martani ne da bai dace ba ga rahotannin da ba a tabbatar ba.[74]

Transatlantic telegraph na USB

Buchanan shine farkon mai karɓar sakon waya na hukuma wanda aka watsa a cikin Tekun Atlantika. Bayan aika da gwajin gwaji da na'urorin telegram, a ranar 16 ga Agusta, 1858 Sarauniya Victoria ta aika sako mai kalmomi 98 zuwa Buchanan a gidansa na bazara a Otal din Bedford Springs a Pennsylvania, yana mai bayyana fatan cewa sabuwar kebul ɗin da aka shimfida zai tabbatar da "ƙarin haɗin gwiwa tsakanin. kasashen da kawancensu ya ginu ne bisa maslaharsu da kimar juna”. Saƙon Sarauniya Victoria ya ɗauki awanni 16 don aikawa.[86][87]

Buchanan ya amsa da cewa: "Wannan nasara ce mafi daukaka, domin ya fi amfani ga bil'adama, fiye da yadda mai nasara ya taba cin nasara a fagen yaki. Bari Atlantic telegraph, a karkashin albarkar sama, ya tabbatar da zama haɗin kai na zaman lafiya na dindindin kuma abota tsakanin al'ummomi na dangi, da kayan aikin da Ubangiji ya tsara don yada addini.wayewa, 'yanci, da shari'a a duk duniya." [88].

Jinin Kansas da rigingimun tsarin mulki

[gyara tushe]

Babban labarin: Jinin Kansas

Ma'auni na jihohi da yankuna masu 'yanci da bayi a cikin 1858, bayan shigar da Minnesota

Dokar Kansas-Nebraska ta 1854 ta kirkiro yankin Kansas kuma ta ba wa mazauna wurin damar yanke shawarar ko za su ba da izinin bauta. Wannan ya haifar da tashin hankali tsakanin "Ƙasa mai 'Yanci" (maganin bauta) da kuma masu zaman bayi, waɗanda suka haɓaka zuwa lokacin "Bleeding Kansas". Mazauna yaki da bauta, tare da taimakon ’yan Arewa, suka shirya nasu gwamnatin yankin a Topeka. Mazaunan da suka fi zama bayi, da yawa daga jihar bawan da ke makwabtaka da Missouri, sun kafa gwamnati a Lecompton, suna ba yankin gwamnatoci daban-daban guda biyu na wani lokaci, tare da tsarin mulki daban-daban guda biyu, kowannensu yana da'awar halacci. Shiga Kansas a matsayin jiha yana buƙatar ƙaddamar da tsarin mulki ga Majalisa tare da amincewar yawancin mazaunanta. A karkashin Shugaba Pierce, jerin tarzoma ta kaure kan wanda ke da 'yancin kada kuri'a a Kansas. Lamarin dai ya ja hankalin al'ummar kasar, kuma wasu a Jojiya da Mississippi sun bada shawarar ballewa idan Kansas ta zama kasa mai 'yanci. Buchanan ya zaɓi ya amince da gwamnatin Lecompton ta bauta.[89]

Buchanan ya nada Robert J. Walker don maye gurbin John W. Geary a matsayin Gwamna na Yanki, kuma an gudanar da kuri'ar raba gardama mai cin karo da juna daga Topeka da Lecompton, inda aka yi magudin zabe. A cikin Oktoba 1857, gwamnatin Lecompton ta tsara tsarin mulkin Lecompton na bautar da ya amince da kuri'ar raba gardama ta iyakance ga tambayar bautar. Koyaya, kuri'ar adawa da bautar, kamar yadda yarjejeniyar Lecompton ta tanada, har yanzu za ta ba da izinin bayin da ke wanzuwa, da duk batunsu, su zama bayi, don haka babu wani ƙuri'ar raba gardama da ta ba da izinin yawancin mazauna yaƙi da bautar da su haramta bautar a Kansas. A sakamakon haka, mazauna masu adawa da bautar sun kaurace wa kuri'ar raba gardama tun da bai samar da zabi mai ma'ana ba[90].

Duk da zanga-zangar Walker da tsoffin gwamnonin Kansas guda biyu, Buchanan ya yanke shawarar yarda da Tsarin Mulki na Lecompton. A cikin watan Disamba na 1857 tare da Stephen A. Douglas, shugaban kwamitin majalisar dattijai akan yankuna, Buchanan ya bukaci duk 'yan Democrat su goyi bayan matsayin gwamnati na shigar da Kansas a karkashin kundin tsarin mulki na Lecompton. A ranar 2 ga Fabrairu, ya aika da Tsarin Mulki na Lecompton zuwa Majalisa. Ya kuma aika da sakon da ya kai hari ga "gwamnatin juyin juya hali" a Topeka, yana hada su da Mormons a Utah. Buchanan ya yi ƙoƙari don tabbatar da amincewar majalisa, yana ba da tagomashi, alƙawura, har ma da tsabar kuɗi don ƙuri'a. Kundin Tsarin Mulki na Lecompton ya sami amincewar Majalisar Dattawa a watan Maris, amma haɗin gwiwar Know-Nothings, Republican, da Democrats na Arewa sun kayar da kudirin a majalisar.[91]

Buchanan bai taɓa gafartawa Douglas ba, saboda kin amincewar 'yan Democrat na Arewa shine yanke shawara a cikin shawarar House, kuma ya cire duk magoya bayan Douglas daga ikonsa a Illinois da Washington, D.C., yana girka 'yan Democrat masu goyon bayan gudanarwa, gami da masu kula da gidan waya.[92][93] ] Maimakon karɓar shan kashi, Buchanan ya goyi bayan Dokar Ingilishi na 1858, wanda ya ba da jihar Kansas da kuma kafaffen filayen jama'a don musanya yarda da Tsarin Mulki na Lecompton. A cikin Agusta 1858, Kansans ta hanyar kuri'ar raba gardama sun yi watsi da Tsarin Mulki na Lecompton sosai.[91] Yankin ya sami kundin tsarin mulki, wanda wakilai da 'yan majalisar dattijai daga jihohin kudu suka yi adawa da shi sosai a Majalisa har sai da aka shigar da Kansas a cikin Tarayyar a cikin Janairu 1861.[92].

Rikicin kan Kansas ya zama fagen fama don kula da Jam'iyyar Democrat. A gefe guda akwai Buchanan, yawancin 'yan Democrat na Kudu, da "fuskan kullu". A daya bangaren kuwa Douglas da mafi yawan 'yan jam'iyyar Democrat na arewa.da kuma wasu ‘yan Kudu kadan. Bangaren Douglas ya ci gaba da goyan bayan koyarwar mashahuran ikon mallaka, yayin da Buchanan ya nace cewa 'yan Democrat suna mutunta shawarar Dred Scott da kuma watsi da shisshigin tarayya na bauta a yankuna.[94]

1858 zaben tsakiyar wa'adi

Lokacin da Douglas na Majalisar Dattijai ya ƙare a 1859, tare da majalisar dokokin Illinois, wanda aka zaba a 1858, yana ƙayyade ko Douglas zai sake lashe zabe. Kujerar majalisar dattijai ita ce batun farko na zaben 'yan majalisar dokoki, wanda shahararren muhawarar da aka yi tsakanin Douglas da abokin hamayyarsa na jam'iyyar Republican, Abraham Lincoln ya nuna. Buchanan, wanda ke aiki ta hanyar wakilai na tarayya da aka nada a Illinois, ya jagoranci 'yan takara na majalisar dokoki a gasar tare da 'yan Republican da Douglas Democrats. Wannan zai iya jefa zaben ga ‘yan Republican cikin sauki, kuma ya nuna zurfin kiyayyar Buchanan ga Douglas.[95] A ƙarshe, Douglas Democrats ya lashe zaɓen majalisa kuma an sake zaɓe Douglas a majalisar dattawa. A zaben na wannan shekarar, sojojin Douglas sun mamaye yankin Arewa, sai dai a jihar Pennsylvania ta Buchanan. In ba haka ba an rage tallafin Buchanan zuwa ƴan ƴan kudu kaɗan.[96][97]

Rabe-raben da ke tsakanin arewaci da kudancin dimokuradiyya ya bai wa ‘yan Republican damar samun rinjaye na majalisar a zabukan 1858, kuma ya ba su damar toshe mafi yawan ajandar Buchanan. Buchanan, bi da bi, ya ƙara da ƙiyayya tare da veto na wasu muhimman dokoki guda shida na Republican.[98] Daga cikin wadannan matakan akwai dokar Homestead, wanda zai ba da kadada 160 na filayen jama'a ga mazaunan da suka zauna a filin har tsawon shekaru biyar, da Dokar Morrill, da ta ba da filayen jama'a don kafa kwalejoji na ba da filaye. Buchanan ya bayar da hujjar cewa waɗannan ayyukan sun saba wa tsarin mulki. A yammaci da arewa maso yammacin Amurka, inda dokar Homestead ta shahara sosai, har ma da yawa daga cikin 'yan jam'iyyar Democrat sun yi Allah wadai da manufofin shugaban, yayin da yawancin Amurkawa da suka dauki ilimi a matsayin muhimmiyar kadara sun nuna rashin amincewarsu da matakin Buchanan na kwalejojin aikin gona.[99]

Manufar harkokin waje

Buchanan ya karbi mulki tare da manufofin ketare mai kishi, wanda aka tsara don kafa U.S. mulkin mallaka sama da Amurka ta tsakiya a kan kuɗin Burtaniya.[100] Buchanan ya nemi ya sake farfado da Kaddara mai bayyanawa da kuma aiwatar da koyarwar Monroe, wacce ta kasance karkashin farmaki daga Mutanen Espanya, Faransanci, da kuma Birtaniya a cikin 1850s.[101] Ya yi fatan sake tattaunawa kan yarjejeniyar Clayton-Bulwer don magance mulkin mallaka na Turai a Yammacin Yammacin Turai, wanda ya yi tunanin iyakance Amurka. tasiri a yankin. Ya kuma nemi kafa kariyar Amurka a kan jihohin Chihuahua da Sonora na Mekziko don tabbatar da 'yan Amurka da zuba jari, kuma mafi mahimmanci, yana fatan cimma burinsa na dogon lokaci na samun Cuba. Duk da haka, Majalisar Wakilai ta hana burin Buchanan a Cuba da Mexico. Bayan doguwar tattaunawa da turawan Ingila, ya shawo kansu su mika tsibirin Bay ga Honduras da kuma gabar sauro ga Nicaragua.[102]

A cikin 1858, Buchanan ya ba da umarnin balaguron Paraguay don azabtar da Paraguay don harbe-harbe a kan USS Water Witch, yana ba da umarnin jiragen ruwa 2,500 da jiragen ruwa 19 a can. Wannan balaguron mai tsada ya ɗauki watanni kafin ya isa Asunción, wanda ya yi nasarar samun gafarar Paraguay da biyan diyya.[102] Shugabannin Raiatea da Tahaa a Kudancin Pacific, sun ƙi yarda da mulkin Sarki Tamatoa V, ba su yi nasara ba, suka roƙi Amurka da ta karɓi tsibiran da ke ƙarƙashin wata mamaya a watan Yuni 1858.[103]. Buchanan ya kuma yi la'akari da sayen Alaska daga Daular Rasha, kamar yadda kifin kifi a cikin ruwa ya zama babban mahimmancin tattalin arziki ga Amurka. Buchanan ya ƙarfafa wannan ta hanyar yada jita-jita ga jakadan Rasha Eduard de Stoeckl a cikin Disamba 1857 cewa yawancin Mormons sun yi niyyar yin hijira zuwaRasha Alaska. A cikin hunturu na 1859, an yi tayin siyan farko na $5,000,000 (daidai da $169,560,000 a 2023). Ko da yake a ƙarshe aikin bai yi nasara ba saboda tanadin Ministan Harkokin Wajen Alexander Gorchakov, tattaunawar ta haifar da ginshiƙi na tattaunawar da aka yi don siyan Alaska.[104]

Buchanan ya nemi yarjejeniyar kasuwanci tare da daular Qing da Japan. A kasar Sin, wakilinsa William Bradford Reed ya yi nasarar shigar da Amurka cikin yarjejeniyar Tianjin. A cikin Mayu 1860, Buchanan ya karɓi tawagar Japan wanda ya ƙunshi sarakuna da yawa waɗanda suka ɗauki yarjejeniyar Harris wanda Townsend Harris ya sasanta don amincewa da juna.[105] Sarki Rama IV na Siam ya ba Buchanan garken giwaye, ko da yake wasikar ta zo ne bayan tafiyar Buchanan daga ofis kuma magajin Buchanan Abraham Lincoln ya ki amincewa da tayin yana mai cewa Amurka. yana da yanayin da bai dace ba[106]. Sauran dabbobin gidan shugaban ƙasa sun haɗa da mikiya guda biyu da karen Newfoundland.[107]

Kwamitin Covode

A cikin Maris 1860, Majalisar ta tsige Kwamitin Covode don bincikar tsarin kulawa na gwamnatin Buchanan saboda zargin da ake yi na tsige shi, kamar cin hanci da karbar wakilai. Magoya bayan Buchanan sun zargi kwamitin, wanda ya kunshi ‘yan Republican uku da ‘yan Democrat biyu, da nuna bangaranci a fili, kuma sun yi ikirarin shugabansa, Rep Rep. John Covode, ya kasance yana aiki ne da ɓacin rai wanda ya samo asali daga tallafin ƙasar da ake takaddama a kai wanda aka tsara don cin gajiyar kamfanin layin dogo na Covode.[108] Membobin kwamitin Dimokuradiyya, da kuma shaidun Demokradiyya, sun himmatu wajen la'antar Buchanan.[109][110]

Kwamitin ya kasa kafa dalilan tsige Buchanan; sai dai mafi rinjayen rahoton da aka fitar a ranar 17 ga watan Yunin da ya gabata, na zargin almundahana da cin zarafi a tsakanin mambobin majalisar ministocinsa. Kwamitin ya tattara shaidun da ke nuna cewa Buchanan ya yi ƙoƙarin ba da cin hanci ga 'yan majalisa a cikin yardarsa ta hanyar masu shiga tsakani a cikin bazara na 1858 dangane da tsarin mulkin Lecompton na Kansas na bautar bautar, kuma ya yi barazana ga danginsu da rasa mukaminsu idan ba su zabe su ba. na kundin tsarin mulki na Lecompton.[110] Shaidu sun kuma shaida cewa gwamnatin tarayya ta yi amfani da kudaden jama’a wajen karfafa bangaren ‘yan adawar Douglas a Illinois.[111] 'Yan jam'iyyar Democrat sun yi nuni da cewa shaida ba ta da yawa, amma ba ta musanta zargin ba; daya daga cikin 'yan jam'iyyar Democrat, Rep. James Robinson, ya bayyana cewa ya amince da ‘yan jam’iyyar Republican, duk da cewa bai sanya hannu ba[110].

Jama’a sun kadu matuka da irin yadda cin hancin ya shafi dukkan matakai da hukumomin gwamnati[112]. Buchanan ya yi iƙirarin cewa "ya ci nasara cikin nasara ta wannan wahala" tare da cikakkiyar kuɓuta. 'Yan jam'iyyar Republican sun rarraba dubban kofe na rahoton kwamitin Covode a duk fadin kasar a matsayin kayan yakin neman zabe a zaben shugaban kasa na wannan shekarar.[113][114]

Zaben 1860

Babban labarin: 1860 zaben shugaban kasa na Amurka

￼John C. Breckinridge, mataimakin shugaban Amurka a karkashin Buchanan

Kamar yadda ya yi alkawari a jawabinsa na farko, Buchanan bai nemi sake tsayawa takara ba. Ya yi nisa har ya gaya wa magajinsa na ƙarshe cewa: "Idan kun kasance cikin farin ciki da shiga Fadar White House kamar yadda zan ji lokacin dawowa Wheatland, kai mutum ne mai farin ciki" [115].

A 1860 Democratic National Convention a Charleston, jam'iyyar ta rabu kan batun bautar a cikin yankuna, da lalata sunan Buchanan a matsayin babban mutumin da ke da alhakin wannan batu. Duk da cewa Douglas ya jagoranci bayan kowace kuri'a, ya kasa samun rinjayen kashi biyu bisa uku da ake bukata. An dage taron bayan kuri'u 53, kuma an sake zama a Baltimore a watan Yuni. Bayan da Douglas ya lashe zaben, 'yan Kudu da dama sun ki amincewa da sakamakon, kuma suka zabi mataimakin shugaban kasa Breckinridge a matsayin dan takarar su. Douglas daBreckinridge ya amince da mafi yawan batutuwa sai dai kariyar bauta. Buchanan, yana jin haushin Douglas, ya kasa sulhunta jam'iyyar, kuma ya goyi bayan Breckinridge. Tare da ɓarkewar jam'iyyar Democrat, ɗan takarar Republican Abraham Lincoln ya lashe zaɓe na hanyoyi huɗu wanda ya haɗa da John Bell na Jam'iyyar Kundin Tsarin Mulki. Taimakon Lincoln a Arewa ya isa ya ba shi rinjayen Kwalejin Zabe. Buchanan ya zama dan Democrat na karshe da ya ci zaben shugaban kasa har zuwa Grover Cleveland a 1884.[116]

Tun a watan Oktoba, Babban Kwamandan rundunar, Winfield Scott, abokin hamayyar Buchanan, ya gargade shi cewa zaben Lincoln zai sa akalla jihohi bakwai su fice daga kungiyar. Ya ba da shawarar a tura dakaru masu tarin yawa da manyan bindigogi zuwa wadancan jihohin domin kare kadarorin gwamnatin tarayya, ko da yake ya kuma yi gargadin cewa ba a samu karin wasu karin sojoji ba. Tun daga shekara ta 1857, Majalisa ta kasa kunnen uwar shegu da kiraye-kirayen da aka yi na samar da sojoji masu karfi kuma ta bar sojojin su fada cikin mummunan yanayi.[117] Buchanan ya ƙi yarda da Scott kuma ya yi watsi da shawarwarinsa.[118] Bayan zaben Lincoln, Buchanan ya umurci Sakataren Yakin John B. Floyd da ya karfafa rundunonin kudanci da irin wannan tanadi, makamai, da maza kamar yadda suke; duk da haka, Floyd ya lallashe shi ya soke wannan umarni[117].

Rabuwa

Tare da nasarar Lincoln, zancen rabuwa da rabuwa ya kai matsayi mai zafi, wanda ya dora wa Buchanan nauyi don yin jawabi a cikin jawabinsa na karshe ga Majalisa a ranar 10 ga Disamba. A cikin sakonsa, wanda bangarorin biyu suka yi tsammani, Buchanan ya ki amincewa da 'yancin jihohi. sun balle amma gwamnatin tarayya ba ta da ikon hana su. Ya dora laifin rikicin ne kawai kan “tsangwama tsakanin ‘yan Arewa da batun bautar da ake yi a jihohin Kudu,” ya kuma ba da shawarar cewa idan ba za su “ soke dokar da suka saba wa kundin tsarin mulki ba... Jihohin da suka ji rauni, bayan sun yi. na farko ya yi amfani da duk wata hanyar lumana da tsarin mulki don samun gyara, zai zama barata a cikin juriya na juyin juya hali ga Gwamnatin Tarayyar."[119] [120] Shawarar Buchanan kawai don magance rikicin shine "gyaran bayani" yana mai tabbatar da tsarin mulkin bautar a cikin. jihohi, dokokin bautar da ke gudun hijira, da mulkin mallaka na farin jini a cikin yankuna[119]. Jawabin nasa ya sha suka da kakkausar murya daga Arewa duka, da kin dakatar da ballewa, da kuma Kudu saboda tauye hakkinsu na ballewa.[121] Kwanaki biyar bayan gabatar da jawabin, Sakataren Baitulmali Howell Cobb ya yi murabus, saboda ra'ayinsa ya yi rashin jituwa da na shugaban.[122] Ko a lokacin da kafuwar kungiyar ‘yan aware ta jihohin ‘yan aware ke kara fitowa fili a cikin hunturu na shekarar 1860, shugaban ya ci gaba da kewaye kansa da ‘yan kudu yana watsi da ‘yan Republican[123].

￼

Matsayin jihohi, 1861

   Jihohin da suka balle kafin 15 ga Afrilu, 1861

   Jihohin da suka balle bayan 15 ga Afrilu, 1861

   Kungiyar ta ce ta halatta bautar

   Kungiyar ta bayyana cewa ta haramta bauta

   Yankuna

South Carolina, wadda ta dade tana da tsattsauran ra'ayi a Kudancin kasar, ta balle daga Tarayyar a ranar 20 ga Disamba, 1860. Duk da haka, ra'ayin 'yan kungiyar ya kasance mai karfi a tsakanin yawancin mutanen Kudu, kuma Buchanan ya nemi yin kira ga masu sassaucin ra'ayi na Kudancin da za su iya hana ballewa a wasu jihohi. Ya gana da kwamishinonin Kudancin Carolinian a ƙoƙarin warware halin da ake ciki a Fort Sumter, wanda dakarun tarayya suka ci gaba da iko da shi duk da wurin da yake a Charleston, South Carolina.[124] Buchanan ya ga Majalisa, ba kansa ba ne, ke da alhakin samar da mafita ga rikicin ballewa. A matsayin sasantawa ga jihohin kudanci, Buchanan ya yi hasashen amincewa da gyare-gyare ga Kundin Tsarin Mulki na Amurka wanda zai ba da tabbacin yancin bautar a jihohin kudu da yankuna da kuma karfafa 'yancin masu bayi na kwato wadanda suka tsere.bayi a matsayin dukiya a jihohin arewa[123].

Ya ki korar sakataren harkokin cikin gida Jacob Thompson bayan da aka zabi na biyu a matsayin wakilin Mississippi don tattauna batun ballewa daga kasar, kuma ya ki korar sakataren yakin kasar John B. Floyd duk da badakalar satar dukiyar kasa. Floyd dai ya yi murabus daga mukaminsa, amma ba kafin ya aike da bindigogi da dama zuwa jihohin Kudancin kasar ba, inda daga karshe suka fada hannun jam'iyyar Confederacy. Duk da murabus din Floyd, Buchanan ya ci gaba da neman shawarwarin masu ba da shawara daga Deep South, ciki har da Jefferson Davis da William Henry Trescot.[124] Abokin Buchanan Rose O'Neal Greenhow ya yi amfani da damar kusanci da shugaban kasar kuma ya yi leken asiri ga kungiyar Confederacy, wadda ta riga ta kafa hanyar sadarwa mai zurfi don tattara bayanai daga abokin hamayyarta na ƙarshe kafin kafa ta.[123].

Kokarin da Sen. John J. Crittenden, Rep. Thomas Corwin, da tsohon shugaban kasa John Tyler don yin sulhu don dakatar da ballewa, tare da goyon bayan Buchanan. Wasu gungun gwamnonin da suka yi taro a birnin New York ma sun yi rashin nasara. Buchanan ya roki zababben shugaban kasar Lincoln a asirce da ya yi kira ga zaben raba gardama na kasa kan batun bauta, amma Lincoln ya ki yarda.[125] A cikin watan Disamba na 1860, lokacin da aka yi taro na biyu na majalisa na 36, ​​majalisar wakilai ta kafa kwamitin na talatin da uku don hana wasu jihohi ballewa. Sun ba da shawarar Canjin Corwin, wanda zai hana Majalisa shiga tsakani da bautar a cikin jihohi. Duk da adawar da ‘yan jam’iyyar Republican suka yi masa, ya zarce majalisun biyu, kuma aka gabatar da shi ga jahohi don amincewa, amma ba a taba amincewa da adadin jihohin da ake bukata ba[126].

Duk da ƙoƙarin Buchanan da sauransu, wasu ƙasashe shida na bayi sun balle a ƙarshen Janairu 1861. Buchanan ya maye gurbin membobin majalisar ministocin Kudancin da suka bar John Adams Dix, Edwin M. Stanton, da Joseph Holt, waɗanda dukansu sun himmatu don kiyaye ƙungiyar. . Lokacin da Buchanan yayi la'akari da mika wuya ga Fort Sumter, sababbin mambobin majalisar sun yi barazanar yin murabus, kuma Buchanan ya tuba. Ranar 5 ga Janairu, Buchanan ya yanke shawarar ƙarfafa Fort Sumter, ya aika da Star of West tare da mutane 250 da kayayyaki. Duk da haka, ya kasa neman Manjo Robert Anderson don samar da wuta ga jirgin, kuma an tilasta shi komawa Arewa ba tare da isar da sojoji ko kayayyaki ba. Buchanan ya zabi kada ya mayar da martani ga wannan aiki na yaki, a maimakon haka ya nemi sasantawa don kaucewa ballewa. Ya sami sako a ranar 3 ga Maris daga Anderson, cewa kayayyaki sun yi ƙasa, amma amsa ya zama na Lincoln don yin, yayin da na ƙarshe ya yi nasara a kan kujerar shugabancin washegari.[127].

=Jihohin da aka shigar a cikin Ƙungiyar

Sabbin jihohi uku an shigar da su cikin Ƙungiyar yayin da Buchanan ke ofis:

Minnesota - Mayu 11, 1858[128]

Oregon - Fabrairu 14, 1859[129]

Kansas - Janairu 29, 1861

Shekaru na ƙarshe da mutuwa (1861-1868)

￼Buchanan a shekarun baya. c. tsakiyar 1860s

Bayan ya bar ofis, Buchanan ya yi ritaya zuwa rayuwa ta sirri a Wheatland, inda ya shafe mafi yawan lokutansa a cikin karatunsa, karanta littattafai da rubuta wasiƙa. Yakin basasa ya barke a cikin watanni biyu da Buchanan ya yi ritaya. Ya goyi bayan kungiyar da yunkurin yaki, yana rubutawa ga tsoffin abokan aikinsu cewa, "harin da aka kaiwa Sumter shine farkon yakin da jihohin Confederate suka yi, kuma ba a bar wani madadin ba face a tuhume shi da karfi a bangarenmu."[130] Buchanan ya goyi bayan shigar da Lincoln na shiga aikin soja na duniya a jahohin arewa, amma ya kasance mai adawa da shelarsa ta 'yantar da shi. Ko da yake ya amince da take hakkin tsarin mulki a wasu daga cikin umarnin shugaban kasa, bai taba sukar su a bainar jama'a ba[131]. Ya kuma rubuta wasiƙa zuwa ga ’yan uwansa ‘yan jam’iyyar Democrat na Pennsylvania a Harrisburg, yana roƙon su da dukan samari da su shiga cikin rundunar sojan tarayya kuma su “haɗa da dubban masu ba da agaji masu jaruntaka da masu kishin ƙasa waɗanda suka riga sun shiga.filin."[130].

Buchanan ya sadaukar da kansa wajen kare ayyukansa kafin yakin basasa, wanda wasu ke kiransa da "Yakin Buchanan"[130]. Ya sami wasiƙun ƙiyayya da wasiƙu na barazana kullum, kuma shaguna a Lancaster sun nuna kamannin Buchanan tare da jajayen idanu, an zana hanci a wuyansa da kalmar "MATSAYI" da aka rubuta a goshinsa. Majalisar dattijai ta ba da shawarar yanke hukunci wanda a karshe ya gaza, kuma jaridu sun zarge shi da hada baki da Confederacy. Tsoffin mambobin majalisarsa, biyar daga cikinsu an ba su ayyukan yi a gwamnatin Lincoln, sun ki kare Buchanan a fili.[132]

Buchanan ya damu da hare-haren vitriolic da aka yi masa, kuma ya yi rashin lafiya da tawayar. A cikin Oktoba 1862, ya kare kansa a musayar wasiƙa da Winfield Scott, wanda aka buga a cikin National Intelligencer.[133] Ba da daɗewa ba ya fara rubuta cikakkiyar kariyarsa ta jama'a, a cikin sigar tarihinsa na Mr. Buchanan's Administration on the Eve of Rebellion, wanda aka buga a 1866, shekara guda bayan yakin basasa ya ƙare. Buchanan ya danganta ballewa da "mummunan tasiri" na 'yan Republican da yunkurin kawar da shi. Ya tattauna irin nasarorin da ya samu a manufofin ketare, ya kuma nuna gamsuwa da matakin da ya dauka, ko da a lokacin rikicin ballewa. Ya zargi Robert Anderson, Winfield Scott, da Majalisa kan batun da ba a warware ba.[131] Shekaru biyu bayan wallafa littafin, Buchanan ya kamu da sanyi a watan Mayun 1868, wanda ya kara tsanantawa da sauri saboda yawan shekarunsa. Ya mutu a ranar 1 ga Yuni, 1868, saboda gazawar numfashi yana da shekaru 77 a gidansa a Wheatland. An shigar da shi a makabartar Woodward Hill a Lancaster.[131]

Ra'ayin Siyasa

James Buchanan (1859) na George Healy kamar yadda aka gani a cikin National Portrait Gallery a Washington, D.C.

Sau da yawa 'yan arewa masu adawa da bautar Buchanan suna ɗaukar "fuska kullu", ɗan arewa mai ra'ayin kudu.[134]. Tausayin Buchanan ga jihohin Kudu ya wuce amfanin siyasa don hanyarsa zuwa Fadar White House. Ya gano dabi'u na al'adu da zamantakewa waɗanda ya gano suna nunawa a cikin ka'idodin girmamawa da salon rayuwar mai shuka wanda kuma da hakan ya ƙara shiga cikin jama'ar da ya yi ritaya tun daga 1834.[135] Jim kadan bayan zabensa, ya ce “babban abin da gwamnatinsa za ta yi shi ne a kamo, in ya yiwu, tada fitinar Bauta a Arewa, a ruguza jam’iyyu”.[134]. Ko da yake Buchanan ya kasance da kansa yana adawa da bautar, [24] ya yi imanin cewa masu lalata suna hana mafita ga matsalar bautar. Ya ce, “Kafin [masu kawo karshen] su fara wannan hargitsi, akwai wata babbar jam’iyya mai girma da kuma girma a yawancin jihohin bayi da ke goyon bayan kawar da bautar a hankali, kuma a yanzu ba a jin wata murya a wurin da ke goyon bayan irin wannan matakin. Masu shafewa sun jinkirta ‘yantar da bayi a jihohi uku ko hudu na akalla rabin karni.”[136] Dangane da manufar mai bautar, ya kasance a shirye ya ba da fa’idar kokwanto. A cikin sakonsa na shekara-shekara na uku zuwa ga Majalisa, shugaban ya yi iƙirarin cewa an yi wa bayi da alheri da mutuntaka ... Dukan masu ba da taimako da kuma son kai na ubangiji sun haɗu don samar da wannan sakamako na ɗan adam. "[137].

Buchanan ya yi tunanin kamewa shine ainihin kyakkyawan mulkin kai. Ya yi imani da kundin tsarin mulkin ya kunshi “... takurawa, ba bisa ga ka’ida ba, amma jama’a suka dora wa kansu da wakilansu... A faffadan ra’ayi, muradun jama’a na iya zama kamar iri daya, amma a idon gida da na yanki. son zuciya, kodayaushe suna bayyana suna cin karo da juna... kuma kishi da za su taso har abada ba za a iya danne su ba sai da hakurin juna da ya mamaye kundin tsarin mulki.”[138] Dangane da bauta da tsarin mulki, ya ce: “Ko da yake a Pennsylvania muduk suna adawa da bautar a zahiri, ba za mu taba karya yarjejeniyar tsarin mulki da muka yi da 'yan uwanmu jihohi ba. Mu za mu kiyaye hakkinsu. A karkashin kundin tsarin mulkin, tambayar tasu ce; Kuma a can sai ya wanzu.” [136]

Gidan James Buchanan, Wheatland

Daya daga cikin fitattun al’amura na wannan rana shi ne haraji[139]. Buchanan ya ci karo da ciniki cikin 'yanci da kuma harajin da aka haramta, tun da ko dai zai amfani wani yanki na kasar don cutar da ɗayan. A matsayinsa na dan majalisar dattijai daga Pennsylvania, ya ce: “Ana kallona a matsayin mai bayar da kariya ga wasu jihohi, alhali kuwa ana la’antar ni a matsayin makiyinta a Pennsylvania.”[140]

Buchanan ya kuma shiga tsakanin muradinsa na fadada kasar don jin dadin al'ummar kasa baki daya, da kuma tabbatar da 'yancin mutanen da ke tsugunar da wasu yankuna. A kan fadada yankuna, ya ce, "Yallabai? Hana mutane daga tsallaka tsaunukan Duwatsu? Kuna iya ba da umarnin Niagara kada ta kwarara. Dole ne mu cika makomarmu." [141] A sakamakon yaduwar bauta. ta hanyar faɗaɗa ba tare da wani sharadi ba, ya ce: "Ina jin ƙaƙƙarfan ƙin duk wani aiki nawa don tsawaita iyakokin ƙungiyar a halin yanzu akan sabon yanki na mallakar bayi." Alal misali, ya yi fatan samun Texas "zai zama hanyar iyakancewa, ba daɗaɗawa, mulkin bauta ba." [141]

Rayuwa ta sirri

Buchanan ya sha wahala daga esotropia. Bugu da kari, ido daya ba shi da hangen nesa, dayan kuma mai hangen nesa. Don rufe wannan sai ya sunkuyar da kansa gaba ya karkata gefe guda yayin mu’amalar jama’a[142]. Wannan ya haifar da izgili, wanda Henry Clay da sauransu suka yi amfani da shi ba tare da tausayi ba yayin muhawarar majalisa.[143]

A cikin 1818, Buchanan ya sadu da Anne Caroline Coleman a babban ball a Lancaster, kuma su biyun sun fara zawarci. Anne diya ce ga attajiri mai kera ƙarfe Robert Coleman; Robert, kamar mahaifin Buchanan, daga County Donegal ne a Ulster. Anne kuma ita ce kanwar alkali Philadelphia Joseph Hemphill, ɗaya daga cikin abokan aikin Buchanan. A shekara ta 1819, su biyun sun yi alkawari, amma sun yi ɗan lokaci tare. Buchanan ya shagaltu da kamfaninsa na lauya da ayyukan siyasa a lokacin tashin hankali na 1819, wanda ya dauke shi daga Coleman na tsawon makonni a lokaci guda. Jita-jita ta yi yawa, kamar yadda wasu ke cewa yana da hannu da wasu mata (ba a san ko su waye ba)[144]. Wasiku daga Coleman sun bayyana cewa tana sane da jita-jita da yawa, kuma ta zarge shi da neman kudinta kawai. Ta fasa alkawari, kuma ba da daɗewa ba, a ranar 9 ga Disamba, 1819, ta mutu ba tare da fa'ida ba saboda "maƙarƙashiya" sakamakon yawan shan laudanum, tana da shekaru 23. Ba a taɓa kafa ba idan an sha maganin ta hanyar koyarwa, ta hanyar haɗari. , ko kuma da niyya.[131][145] Buchanan ya rubuta wa mahaifinta izinin halartar jana'izar, wanda aka ki yarda da shi[146]. A lokacin jana’izar ta, ya ce: “Ina jin farin ciki ya gudu daga gare ni har abada.” [147] Bayan haka, Buchanan ya yi iƙirarin cewa bai yi aure ba saboda sadaukar da kai ga ƙaunatacciyar ƙaunatacciyarsa, wadda ta mutu yana ƙarami.[131]

￼William Rufus DeVane King, abokin zama na Buchanan kuma mai hasashe.

A cikin 1833 da 1840s, ya yi magana game da shirye-shiryen yin aure, amma waɗannan ba su da komai kuma suna iya kasancewa kawai saboda burinsa na zama a Majalisar Dattijai ko Fadar White House. A cikin al'amarin na ƙarshe, mai neman ta kasance 'yar shekara 19 Anna Payne, 'yar uwar tsohuwar uwargidan shugaban kasa Dolley Madison.[131] A lokacin shugabancinsa, wata ’yar uwa marayu, Harriet Lane, wadda ya karbe ta, ta kasance mai masaukin baki a fadar White House.[148] Akwai jita-jita da ba ta da tushe cewa yana da alaka da matar shugaban Polk, Sarah Childress Polk.[149]

Buchanan yana da dangantaka ta kud da kud da William Rufus King, wanda ya zama sanannen manufa na tsegumi. Sarki kamar Buchanan bai taba yin aure ba.[150] King ɗan siyasan Alabama ne wanda ya ɗan yi aiki a matsayin mataimakin shugaban ƙasa a ƙarƙashin Franklin Pierce. Buchanan da King sun zauna tare a cikin waniGidan kwana na Washington kuma ya halarci ayyukan zamantakewa tare daga 1834 har zuwa 1844. Irin wannan tsarin rayuwa ya kasance gama gari, kodayake Buchanan ya taɓa kiran dangantakar a matsayin "sadarwa" [149]. Andrew Jackson ya kira su da izgili da “Miss Nancy” da “Aunt Fancy”, wanda tsohon ya kasance jigon layya na ƙarni na 19 ga ɗan adam.[151][152] Buchanan's Postmaster General, Aaron V. Brown, kuma ya kira Sarki a matsayin "Aunt Fancy", da kuma "mafi kyawun rabi" na Buchanan, da "matarsa".[153][154][155]. Sarki ya mutu sakamakon cutar tarin fuka jim kadan bayan rantsar da Pierce, shekaru hudu kafin Buchanan ya zama shugaban kasa. Buchanan ya siffanta shi a matsayin "daga cikin mafi kyawu, mafi tsarki kuma mafi daidaito mazajen jama'a da na sani"[149]. Marubucin tarihin rayuwa Baker ya yi nuni da cewa watakila yayan mazan biyu sun lalata wasikun da ke tsakanin mutanen biyu. Duk da haka, ta yi imanin cewa haruffan da suka tsira suna kwatanta kawai "ƙaunar abota ta musamman"[156].

Buchanan na rayuwarsa na zama na farko bayan mutuwar Anne Coleman ya jawo sha'awa da hasashe.[156] Wasu zato cewa mutuwar Anne kawai ta yi aiki don karkatar da tambayoyi game da jima'i da Buchanan.[147] Ɗaya daga cikin mawallafin tarihinsa, Jean Baker, ya nuna cewa Buchanan ya kasance marar aure, idan ba jima'i ba.[157] Marubuta da yawa sun ɗauka cewa ɗan luwadi ne, ciki har da James W. Loewen, [158] Robert P. Watson, da Shelley Ross.[159][160] Loewen ya nuna cewa Buchanan, a ƙarshen rayuwarsa, ya rubuta wasiƙa yana mai tabbatar da cewa zai iya auren macen da za ta iya yarda da "rashin ƙwazo ko soyayya"[161][162].

Gado

Sunan tarihi

Duk da cewa Buchanan ya yi hasashen cewa “tarihi zai tabbatar da abin tunawa na,” [163] masana tarihi sun soki Buchanan saboda rashin sonsa ko gazawarsa wajen fuskantar ballewa. Matsayin tarihi na shugabannin Amurka ba tare da togiya ba ya sanya Buchanan a cikin mafi ƙarancin shugabanni.[164] Idan aka yi nazari akan malamai, yana da matsayi a kasa ko kusa da shi ta fuskar hangen nesa/tsari,[165] jagoranci cikin gida, shugabancin manufofin kasashen waje,[166] halayya,[167] da ingantaccen mahimmin tarihi na gadonsu.[168] [1] [mafi kyawun tushe da ake buƙata] Bisa binciken da masanan Amurka da masana kimiyyar siyasa suka yi tsakanin 1948 da 1982, Buchanan yana matsayi a kowane lokaci a cikin mafi munin shugabannin Amurka, tare da Harding, Fillmore da Nixon.[169].

Mawallafin tarihin Buchanan Philip S. Klein ya mayar da hankali a cikin 1962, a lokacin ƙungiyoyin kare hakkin jama'a, kan ƙalubalen da Buchanan ya fuskanta:

Buchanan ya karbi jagoranci...lokacin da zafin da ba a taba ganin irinsa ba ya mamaye al'ummar kasar. Cewa ya rike sassan makiya a wadannan lokutan juyin juya hali, shi kansa babban nasara ne. ’Yan bangar Arewa da Kudu da suka fusata ne suka kara girman rauninsa a cikin guguwar shekarun da ya yi na shugabancin kasar. Halayensa masu yawa, waɗanda a cikin lokacin da ya fi natsuwa zai iya ba shi matsayi a cikin manyan shuwagabanni, da sauri abubuwan bala'i na yaƙin basasa da kuma babban Abraham Lincoln suka mamaye shi.[170]

Mawallafin tarihin rayuwar Jean Baker ba shi da kyauta ga Buchanan, yana cewa a cikin 2004:

Amurkawa sun yi daidai da yaudarar kansu game da shugabancin James Buchanan, sun gwammace su sanya shi a matsayin mara azanci da rashin aiki...Hakika gazawar Buchanan a lokacin rikicin Tarayyar ba aiki ba ne, sai dai nuna son kai ga Kudu, fifikon da ya yi iyaka da shi. rashin aminci a cikin wani jami'in ya yi alkawarin kare duk Amurka. Shi ne wanda ya fi hatsarin manyan shuwagabannin zartarwa, mai taurin kai, kuskuren akidar da ka'idojinsu ba su da wata damar yin sulhu. Kwarewarsa a gwamnati ta sa ya zama mai dogaro da kansa don yin la'akari da wasu ra'ayoyi. A cikin cin amanar kasa, Buchanan ya matso kusa da aikata cin amanar kasa fiye da kowane shugaba a tarihin Amurka.[171]

Wasu masana tarihi, irin su Robert May, sun yi jayayya cewa nasasiyasa ta kasance "komai ne face bautar",[172][173] [174] duk da haka, ana samun ra'ayi mara kyau a cikin ayyukan Michael Birkner game da Buchanan.[175] [176] Ga Lori Cox Han, ya yi matsayi a tsakanin malamai "a matsayin ko dai mafi munin shugaban kasa a tarihin [Amurka] ko kuma a matsayin wani ɓangare na mafi ƙasƙanci matakin rashin nasara".[177]

=Abubuwan tunawa

Wani abin tunawa da tagulla da granite kusa da kusurwar kudu maso gabas na Washington, DC's Meridian Hill Park an tsara shi ta hanyar injiniya William Gorden Beecher kuma mai zanen Maryland Hans Schuler ya sassaƙa. An ba da izini a cikin 1916 amma Amurka ba ta amince da shi ba. Majalisa har zuwa 1918, kuma ba a kammala ba kuma ba a bayyana ba har sai Yuni 26, 1930. Tunawa yana nuna wani mutum-mutumi na Buchanan, wanda maza da mata na gargajiya suka yi wakilta da doka da diflomasiyya, tare da rubutaccen rubutu: "Mai mulki marar lalacewa wanda tafiya ya kasance a kan dutsen. jeri na shari'a," abin da wani memba na majalisar ministocin Buchanan, Jeremiah S. Black.[178]

Buchanan memorial, Washington, D.C.

An gina wani abin tunawa a baya a cikin 1907–1908 kuma an keɓe shi a cikin 1911, akan wurin haifuwar Buchanan a Stony Batter, Pennsylvania. Wani yanki na asali mai girman eka 18.5 (75,000 m2) wurin tunawa shine tsarin dala mai nauyin ton 250 wanda ke tsaye a kan rukunin gidan asali inda aka haifi Buchanan. An ƙera wannan abin tunawa ne don nuna ainihin yanayin ƙanƙara da turmi na asali.[179]

An sanya sunayen kananan hukumomi uku a cikin girmamawarsa, a Iowa, Missouri, da Virginia. Wani kuma a Texas an yi masa baftisma a cikin 1858 amma ya sake masa suna Stephens County, bayan sabon zababben mataimakin shugaban jam’iyyar Confederate States of America, Alexander Stephens, a 1861.[180]. An kuma sanya wa birnin Buchanan, Michigan sunan sa.[181] Wasu al'ummomi da yawa ana kiran su da sunan sa: al'ummar Buchanan, Indiana, birnin Buchanan, Jojiya, garin Buchanan, Wisconsin, da garuruwan Buchanan Township, Michigan, da Buchanan, Missouri.

Makarantar Sakandaren James Buchanan ƙaramar makarantar sakandare ce ta karkara wacce ke bayan garinsu na ƙuruciya, Mercersburg, Pennsylvania.

=Shahararrun hotunan al'adu

Buchanan da gadonsa sune tsakiyar fim ɗin Raising Buchanan (2019). Yi

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