Diglossia

A cikin ilimin harshe, diglossia / / d aɪ ˈɡlɒs iə / dy- GLOSS dy- -ə ,

Babban iri-iri na iya zama babban mataki na yare iri ɗaya (kamar yadda yake a Turai ta Tsakiya, inda Latin (H) ya kasance cikin amfani na yau da kullun kamar yadda maganganun magana (L) ya bambanta), yaren da ba shi da alaƙa, ko yare na yau da kullun duk da haka yana da alaƙa (kamar a arewacin Indiya da Pakistan, inda Hindustani (L) ake amfani da shi tare da daidaitattun rajista na Hindi ( H ) da Jamusanci (H) da Urdu (H) da Jamusanci . Yare (L); Ƙasar Larabawa, inda ake amfani da Larabci na zamani (H) tare da sauran nau'in Larabci (L); da Sinanci, inda ake amfani da Sinanci (H) a matsayin hukuma, daidaitattun wallafe-wallafe da na gida na Sinanci (L) ana amfani da su a cikin sadarwar yau da kullum). [1] [2] Sauran misalan sun haɗa da wallafe-wallafen Katharevousa (H) tare da Hellenanci Demotic (L); wallafe-wallafen Tamil (H) da harshen Tamil (L); Indonisiya, tare da siffofin bahasa baku (H) da bahasa gaul (L); [3] Daidaitaccen Turanci na Amurka (H) tare da Turancin Vernacular na Afirka-Amurka ko Pidgin Hawaiian (L); [4] da wallafe-wallafen (H) tare da magana (L) Welsh .

 Etymology 
Kalmar Helenanci διγλωσσία ( diglossía ), daga δί- ( dí-, "biyu") da γλώσσα ( glóssa, "harshe"), na nufin harsuna biyu ; Emmanuel Rhoides ya ba da ma'anarsa ta musamman "nau'i biyu na harshe ɗaya" a cikin gabatarwar Parerga a cikin 1885. An daidaita kalmar da sauri zuwa Faransanci azaman  ta masanin ilimin harshe na Girkanci kuma masanin demoticist Ioannis Psycharis, tare da bashi ga Rhoides. 

Balarabe William Marçais ya yi amfani da kalmar a cikin 1930 don kwatanta yanayin harshe a cikin ƙasashe masu jin Larabci . Masanin ilimin zamantakewa Charles A. Ferguson ya gabatar da harshen Ingilishi daidai diglossia a cikin 1959 a cikin taken labarin. Fahimtarsa game da diglossia yana kwatanta al'ummar da ke da yare fiye da ɗaya ko kuma nau'in nau'i mai yawa, wanda ya shafi harshen da ake amfani da shi a cikin adabi, jaridu, da sauran cibiyoyin zamantakewa.  An buga labarin sama da sau 9,000.  Kalmar ta sami karɓuwa musamman a tsakanin masana ilimin zamantakewa da kuma adadin waɗannan fassarori daban-daban ko nau'ikan ra'ayi. 

 Rijistar harshe da nau'ikan diglossia 
A cikin labarinsa na 1959, Charles A. Ferguson ya bayyana diglossia kamar haka:

A nan, ana kallon diglossia a matsayin nau'in harshe biyu a cikin al'ummar da ɗaya daga cikin harsunan ke da daraja mai yawa (daga yanzu ake kira "H"), wani kuma daga cikin harsunan yana da ƙananan daraja ("L"). A cikin ma'anar Ferguson, bambance-bambance masu girma da ƙananan suna da alaƙa koyaushe.

Ferguson ya ba da misalin Larabci mai daidaitacce kuma ya ce, "sau da yawa, Larabawa masu ilimi za su kula da cewa ba za su taba amfani da L ba, duk da cewa kallon kai tsaye ya nuna cewa suna amfani da shi akai-akai a cikin tattaunawa ta yau da kullum" 

Joshua Fishman ya faɗaɗa ma'anar diglossia don haɗa da amfani da harsunan da ba su da alaƙa a matsayin manya da ƙananan iri.  Alal misali, a cikin Alsace harshen Alsatian (Elsässisch) yana aiki a matsayin (L) da Faransanci a matsayin (H). Heinz Kloss ya kira (H) bambance-bambancen exoglossia da (L) bambance-bambancen endoglossia . 

A wasu lokuta (musamman tare da harsunan creole ), yanayin haɗin kai tsakanin (H) da (L) ba ɗaya ba ne na diglossia amma ci gaba ; misali, Jamaican Creole as (L) da Standard English as (H) a Jamaica. Haka lamarin yake a cikin Ƙasar Scotland, tare da Scots kamar (L) da Ingilishi na Scotland a matsayin (H).

(H) yawanci shine yaren da aka rubuta yayin da (L) shine yaren magana. A cikin yanayi na yau da kullun, ana amfani da (H); a cikin yanayi na yau da kullun, ana amfani da (L). Wani lokaci, (H) ana amfani da shi a cikin yanayi na yau da kullun kuma kamar yadda ake magana lokacin da masu magana da yarukan biyu ko fiye ko (L) ke sadarwa da juna (a matsayin harshe na harshe ), amma ba akasin haka ba.

Ɗaya daga cikin misalan farko shi ne na Masarawa ta Tsakiya, harshen da ake amfani da shi na yau da kullum a cikin tsohuwar Misira a lokacin Mulkin Tsakiya (2000-1650 BC). A cikin 1350 BC, a cikin Sabon Mulki (1550-1050 BC), harshen Masar ya samo asali zuwa Late Masari, wanda da kansa ya samo asali zuwa Demotic (700 BC - AD 400). Waɗannan nau'o'i biyu na baya sun yi aiki azaman (L) harsuna a cikin lokutansu. Amma a cikin duka biyun, Masari ta Tsakiya ta kasance ma'auni a rubuce, nau'i mai daraja, harshen (H), kuma har yanzu ana amfani da shi don wannan har zuwa karni na hudu AD, fiye da karni goma sha shida bayan ya daina wanzuwa a cikin maganganun yau da kullum.

Wani misali na tarihi shine Latin, Latin na gargajiya shine (H) da Vulgar Latin the (L); na karshen, wanda kusan ba a tantance shi a rubutu ba, shi ne harshen da harsunan Romance suka fito daga gare shi.

Bambance-bambancen (L) ba kawai sauƙaƙawa ba ne ko “lalata” na bambance-bambancen (H). A cikin phonology, alal misali, yarukan (L) suna da yuwuwar samun sautin wayoyi daga (H) kamar yadda akasin haka. Wasu yarukan Jamusanci na Swiss suna da wayoyi uku, ,  da , a cikin sararin sauti inda Standard German ke da wayoyi biyu kawai,  ( Berlin 'Berlin', Bären 'Bear') da  ( Beren 'berries'). Creole na Jamaican yana da ƙarancin wasulan wayoyi fiye da daidaitaccen Ingilishi, amma yana da ƙarin palatal  da  wayoyin hannu.

Musamman a cikin endglossia ana iya kiran nau'in (L) " basilect ", nau'in (H) " acrolect ", da matsakaicin nau'i" mesolect ".

Misalai na musamman na Ferguson sun haɗa da Standard German/Swiss German, Standard Larabci / Larabci vernaculars, Faransanci / Creole a Haiti, da Katharevousa / Dimotik a Girka, Ferguson, Charles (1959). "Diglossia". Word. 15 (2): 325–340. doi:10.1080/00437956.1959.11659702. S2CID 239352211. ...diglossia differs from the more widespread standard-with-dialects in that no segment of the speech community in diglossia regularly uses H as a medium of ordinary conversation, and any attempt to do so is felt to be either pedantic and artificial (Arabic, Greek) or else in some sense disloyal to the community (Swiss German, Creole). In the more usual standard-with-dialects situation the standard is often similar to the variety of a certain region or social group (e.g. Tehran Persian, Calcutta Bengali) which is used in ordinary conversation more or less naturally by members of the group and as a superposed variety by others. ko da yake "ƙananan daraja" yanayin mafi yawan waɗannan misalan ya canza tun lokacin da aka buga labarin Ferguson. Creole yanzu an gane shi azaman daidaitaccen harshe a Haiti; Harsunan Jamusanci na Swiss ba ƙananan yarukan da ba su da daraja a Switzerland (duba Chambers, Ka'idar Sociolinguistic); kuma bayan kawo karshen mulkin soja na Girka a 1974, Dimotiki ya zama yaren Girka guda ɗaya a cikin 1976, kuma a zamanin yau, Katharevousa (tare da wasu kaɗan) ba a amfani da shi. Harold Schiffman ya rubuta game da Jamusanci na Swiss a cikin 2010, "Da alama ya kasance yanayin cewa Jamusanci na Swiss an amince da shi a cikin matsayi na diflossic tare da Standard German, amma wannan yarjejeniya yanzu ta karye."  Shima canjin code ya zama ruwan dare, musamman a duniyar Larabawa; A cewar Andrew Freeman, wannan ya bambanta da bayanin Ferguson game da diglossia wanda ya bayyana cewa nau'ikan biyu suna cikin rarrabawa.   Har zuwa wani ɗan lokaci, akwai sauyawar lamba da daidaitawa a cikin dukkan al'ummomin diglossic, har ma da Jamusanci Switzerland.

Misalai inda High/Low dichotomy ya zama barata dangane da martabar zamantakewa sun haɗa da yarukan Italiyanci da harsuna kamar (L) da Standard Italian as (H) a cikin Italiyanci da yarukan Jamusanci da Jamusanci Standard a Jamus . A Italiya da Jamus, waɗannan masu magana da har yanzu suna magana da yarukan da ba daidai ba suna amfani da waɗannan yarukan a yanayi na yau da kullun, musamman a cikin dangi. A Switzerland masu jin Jamusanci, a gefe guda, yarukan Jamusanci na Swiss har zuwa wani lokaci ana amfani da su a makarantu, kuma zuwa ga mafi girma a cikin majami'u. Ramseier ya kira Diglossia na Switzerland da ke magana da Jamusanci "matsakaici diglossia", yayin da Felicity Rash ya fi son "diglossia na aiki".  Paradoxically, Swiss German yana ba da mafi kyawun misali na diglossia (duk masu magana su ne masu magana da harshen Jamusanci na Swiss German kuma haka diglossic) kuma mafi muni, saboda babu wani matsayi mai mahimmanci. Yayin da ake magana da Swiss Standard German a yanayi na yau da kullun kamar a makaranta, watsa labarai, da jawabai na gwamnati, Swiss Standard German kuma ana magana da shi a cikin yanayi na yau da kullun kawai a duk lokacin da Bajamushen Swiss ke sadarwa tare da baƙon Jamus wanda ake tsammanin ba zai fahimci yare ba. A tsakanin su, Swiss masu jin Jamusanci suna amfani da yaren Jamusanci na Swiss, ba tare da la'akari da aji, ilimi ko batun ba.

A yawancin ƙasashen Afirka, da kuma wasu na Asiya, harshen Turai ya zama na hukuma, yare mai daraja, da kuma harsunan gida ana amfani da su a cikin rayuwar yau da kullun ba tare da yanayi na yau da kullun ba. Misali, Wolof ita ce yare na yau da kullun a Senegal, Faransanci ana magana ne kawai a cikin yanayi na yau da kullun, kuma ana magana da Ingilishi a yanayi na yau da kullun a Najeriya, amma harsunan asali kamar Hausa, Igbo, da Yarbanci ana magana da su a cikin tattaunawa ta yau da kullun. Duk da haka, harshen Turai wanda ke aiki a matsayin harshen hukuma kuma zai iya aiki a matsayin harshen harshe, ana magana da shi a cikin yanayi na yau da kullum tsakanin masu magana da harsuna biyu ko fiye don sauƙaƙe sadarwa. Diglossia na iya kasancewa tsakanin yaruka biyu na harshen Turai kuma. Alal misali, a cikin Cote d'Ivoire, Faransanci na yau da kullum shine harshen da ake amfani da shi a harkokin kasuwanci, siyasa, da dai sauransu yayin da Faransanci na Ivory Coast shine harshen yau da kullum a kan titi, a kasuwanni, da kuma a cikin yanayi na yau da kullum; a Mozambique, ana amfani da Fotigal na Turai a cikin yanayi na yau da kullun, yayin da Fotigal na Mozambique shine yaren magana a cikin yanayi na yau da kullun; kuma ana amfani da Ingilishi na Burtaniya a yanayi na yau da kullun a Najeriya, yayin da Ingilishin Najeriya shine yaren magana a cikin yanayi na yau da kullun. A cikin karkara, yarukan Afirka na gida sun yi rinjaye. Duk da haka, a cikin al'amuran gargajiya, ana iya amfani da harsunan gida a matsayin yare masu daraja: misali, bikin aure tsakanin matasa Baoulé na birni biyu da rashin ilimin yaren Baoulé (wanda ake magana da shi a Cote d'Ivoire) zai buƙaci kasancewar manyan dangi a matsayin masu fassara don gudanar da bikin a cikin harshen. Harsunan gida, idan aka yi amfani da su azaman yare masu daraja, ana kuma amfani da su wajen rubuta kayan aiki a cikin nau'in ƙamus. Har ila yau, akwai harsunan Turai a Afirka, musamman Arewacin Afirka, ba tare da matsayi na hukuma wanda aka yi amfani da shi azaman harshe mai daraja: misali, a Maroko, yayin da Modern Standard Larabci da kwanan nan Tamazight ne kawai harsuna biyu na hukuma da ake amfani da su a cikin yanayi na yau da kullum, tare da Larabci na Moroccan da Amazigh da ake magana da su a cikin yanayi na yau da kullum, yayin da Faransanci da Mutanen Espanya kuma ana magana da su a cikin yanayi na yau da kullum, yin wasu harsunan Larabci ko na Moroc Faransanci ko Mutanen Espanya, da Larabci na Moroko ko Yaren Amazigh. A cikin Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, harsunan hukuma sune Larabci na Zamani da Sifen, waɗanda ake magana da su a cikin yanayi na yau da kullun, yayin da ake magana da Larabci Hassaniya a cikin yanayi na yau da kullun, kuma ana magana da Mutanen Espanya a cikin yanayi na yau da kullun. A Asiya, Philippines ita ce babban misali na irin wannan exoglossia na mulkin mallaka, tare da Ingilishi tun lokacin yakin Mutanen Espanya-Amurka na 1898, Mutanen Espanya kafin lokacin (tare da kasancewar tarihi a cikin sunayen wuri, sunayen sirri, da kalmomin lamuni a cikin harsunan gida) da kuma harsunan Austronesian Philippine na gida da aka yi amfani da su don yanayin yau da kullum; Timor-Leste yana cikin irin wannan yanayi tare da Portuguese. Yawancin kasashen Asiya a maimakon haka sun sake kafa yare mai daraja na gida (kamar Hindi ko Indonesiya) kuma aƙalla sun kawar da yaren mulkin mallaka, wanda aka fi sani da Ingilishi ko Rashanci amma har da Dutch, Faransanci, da Fotigal a ƴan wurare, ban da sadarwa ta duniya, kasuwanci, kimiyya, ko tsakanin ƙabilanci; Harsunan mulkin mallaka ma yawanci sun bar lamuni da yawa a cikin harsunan gida.
Manazarta
Rukuni:Shafuka masu fassarorin da ba'a duba ba