Ka'idojin ƙasa

Ka'idar ƙasa falsafa ce ko tsarin ka'idoji game da yadda, ta hanyar ɗabi'a, ya kamata mutane suyi la'akari da ƙasa. Aldo Leopold (1887-1948) ne ya kirkiro kalmar a cikin A Sand County Almanac (1949), wani rubutu na al'ada na ƙungiyar muhalli. A can ya yi jayayya cewa akwai muhimmiyar buƙata ga "sabon ɗabi'a", "daidaitacciyar ma'amala da alaƙar ɗan adam da ƙasa da dabbobi da tsire-tsire waɗanda ke girma a kanta".Leopold, A. 1949. A Sand County Almanac. pp. 203. Oxford University Press, New York.

Leopold yana ba da ɗabi'ar ƙasa ta muhalli wanda ke ƙin ra'ayoyin mutum game da muhalli kuma yana mai da hankali kan adana yanayin lafiya, mai sabunta kansa. A Sand County Almanac shine gabatarwar tsari na farko na cikakkiyar ko tsarin muhalli.DesJardins, Joseph R. Environmental Ethics: An Introduction to Environmental Philosophy, 5th ed. Boston: Wadsworth, 2013, p. 179 Kodayake an yaba wa Leopold da kirkirar kalmar "da'a ta ƙasa", akwai ra'ayoyin falsafa da yawa waɗanda ke magana game da yadda ya kamata mutane su bi da ƙasar. Wasu daga cikin shahararrun ka'idojin ƙasa sun haɗa da waɗanda suka samo asali a cikin tattalin arziki, utilitarianism, libertarianism, egalitarianism, da muhalli.

 Ka'idojin ƙasa na tattalin arziki 
Wannan dabi'ar ƙasa ce da ta dogara ne akan son kai na tattalin arziki.Leopold, A. 1949. A Sand County Almanac. pp. 203. Oxford University Press, New York. Leopold ya ga kuskuren biyu a cikin irin wannan ɗabi'a. Na farko, ya yi jayayya cewa yawancin membobin tsarin halittu ba su da darajar tattalin arziki. Saboda wannan dalili, irin wannan ɗabi'a na iya watsi da ko ma kawar da waɗannan membobin lokacin da suke da muhimmanci ga lafiyar al'ummar ƙasar. Kuma na biyu, yana da alaƙa da kiyayewa da ake buƙata don yanayin halittu masu kyau ga gwamnati kuma waɗannan ayyukan sun yi yawa kuma sun warwatse don irin wannan ma'aikata ta magance su yadda ya kamata. Wannan yana da alaƙa kai tsaye da mahallin da Leopold ya rubuta A Sand County Almanac. .

Misali, lokacin da Gifford Pinchot ya kafa Hukumar Kula da dazuzzuka ta Amurka, halin da ake ciki shine tattalin arziki mai amfani. Leopold ya yi jayayya game da tsarin muhalli, ya zama ɗaya daga cikin na farko da ya shahara da wannan kalmar da Henry Chandler Cowles na Jami'ar Chicago ya kirkira a farkon shekarun 1900 a Indiana Dunes. Karewa ya zama kalmar da aka fi so don tsarin kula da albarkatun ɗan adam, yayin da rubuce-rubucen Leopold da wahayi, John Muir, ya haifar da ci gaban muhalli.

 Ka'idojin ƙasa masu amfani 
Masana falsafar Burtaniya Jeremy Bentham da John Stuart Mill sun fi kare amfani. Kodayake akwai nau'o'i masu yawa na amfani, gabaɗaya ra'ayi ne cewa aikin da ya dace da ɗabi'a wani aiki ne wanda ke samar da mafi kyawun alheri ga mutane.Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy/ "History of Utilitarianism" Sau da yawa ana amfani da amfani lokacin yanke shawara game da yadda za a yi amfani da ƙasa kuma yana da alaƙa da ɗabi'ar tattalin arziki. Misali, ya zama tushe ga aikin gona na masana'antu; karuwar amfanin gona, wanda zai kara yawan mutanen da za su iya karɓar kayayyaki daga ƙasar noma, ana hukunta su daga wannan ra'ayi a matsayin kyakkyawan aiki ko kusanci. A zahiri, wata hujja ta yau da kullun da ke goyon bayan aikin gona na masana'antu ita ce cewa aiki ne mai kyau saboda yana ƙara fa'idodi ga mutane; fa'idori kamar wadataccen abinci da raguwar farashin abinci. Koyaya, ɗabi'ar ƙasa mai amfani ta bambanta da na tattalin arziki kawai kamar yadda za'a iya amfani dashi don tabbatar da iyakance haƙƙin mutum don samun riba. Misali, a cikin yanayin manomi da ke shuka amfanin gona a kan gangara, idan rugujewar ƙasa zuwa cikin rafin al'umma ya haifar da lalacewar kadarorin makwabta da yawa, to, amfanin kowane manomi zai shawo kan lalacewar da aka yi wa maƙwabtanta. Don haka, yayin da za'a iya amfani da ka'idojin ƙasa don tallafawa ayyukan tattalin arziki, ana iya amfani da shi don kalubalanci wannan aikin.

 Ka'idojin ƙasa na 'yanci 
Wani tsarin falsafa da ake amfani da shi sau da yawa don jagorantar ayyuka yayin yin (ko ba yin) canje-canje ga ƙasar shine 'yanci. A takaice dai, 'yanci shine ra'ayi na ɗabi'a wanda wakilai ke da kansu kuma suna da takamaiman haƙƙin ɗabi'u, gami da haƙƙin samun dukiya.Vallentyne, Peter, "Libertarianism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2010 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.) A cikin ma'anar da ba ta da kyau, ana nuna 'yanci tare da imani cewa kowane mutum yana da' yancin samun' yanci ko' yanci lokacin da wannan' yanci bai tsoma baki da' yanci na wasu mutane ba. Wani sanannen masanin ilimin 'yanci shine John Hospers . Ga masu 'yanci, haƙƙin mallaka haƙƙin halitta ne. Don haka, zai zama abin karɓa ga manomi da ke sama ya dasa a kan gangara muddin wannan aikin bai iyakance 'yancin maƙwabtanta ba.

Wannan ra'ayi yana da alaƙa da amfani. 'Yan Libertarians galibi suna amfani da muhawara masu amfani don tallafawa nasu muhawara. Misali, a cikin 1968, Garrett Hardin ya yi amfani da wannan falsafar ga batutuwan ƙasa lokacin da ya yi jayayya cewa kawai mafita ga "Tragedy of the Commons" ita ce sanya ƙasa da albarkatun ruwa a hannun 'yan ƙasa masu zaman kansu.Harden, Garrett. (1968) "The Tragedy of the Commons." Science, 162, 1243-1248 Hardin ya ba da hujjoji masu amfani don tallafawa gardamarsa. Koyaya, ana iya jayayya cewa wannan ya bar ka'idojin ƙasa na 'yanci a buɗe ga zargi da ke sama da aka gabatar game da hanyoyin tattalin arziki. Ko da ban da wannan, ra'ayi na 'yanci ya kalubalanci zargi cewa mutane da yawa da ke yanke shawara na son kai galibi suna haifar da manyan bala'o'in muhalli, kamar bala'in Dust Bowl.Thompson, Paul. (2010) "Land." Life Science Ethics. ed. Gary L. Comstock. Raleigh: Springer Publishing. Duk da haka, 'yanci ra'ayi ne na falsafa wanda aka saba gudanarwa a cikin Amurka kuma, musamman, wanda manoma da manoma na Amurka ke gudanarwa.   [<span title="Libertarianism is generally agreed to be a philosophy of the individual and the morality of ownership. The Land Ethic, as described by Aldo Leopold, is a philosophy of community and interdependence. These two ideas remain mutually exclusive despite the dogmatic attempt by the former to redefine the latter. (June 2013)">dubious</span> – discuss]

 Ka'idojin ƙasa na daidaito 
Sau da yawa ana haɓaka ɗabi'ar ƙasa ta daidaito a matsayin martani ga 'yanci. Wannan shi ne saboda, yayin da 'yanci ke tabbatar da iyakar' yancin ɗan adam, ba ya buƙatar mutane su taimaka wa wasu. Har ila yau, yana haifar da rarraba dukiya ba daidai ba. Wani sanannen masanin falsafa na daidaito shine John Rawls . Lokacin da ake mai da hankali kan amfani da ƙasa, daidaito yana kimanta rarrabawar da ba daidai ba da rarraba 'ya'yan itace na wannan ƙasar.Thompson, Paul. (2010) "Land." Life Science Ethics. ed. Gary L. Comstock. Raleigh: Springer Publishing. Duk da yake dabi'un ƙasa masu amfani da 'yanci na iya daidaita wannan rarraba mara kyau, tsarin daidaito yawanci yana son daidaito, ko wannan daidai ne ga ƙasa ko samun damar abinci.Arneson, Richard, "Egalitarianism", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2009 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.) Koyaya, akwai kuma tambayar haƙƙoƙi marasa kyau yayin riƙe da ɗabi'ar daidaito. A wasu kalmomi, idan an gane cewa mutum yana da haƙƙin wani abu, to wani yana da alhakin samar da wannan damar ko abu; ko wannan mutum ne ko gwamnati. Don haka, dabi'ar ƙasa mai daidaito na iya samar da hujja mai ƙarfi don adana amfanin ƙasa da ruwa saboda yana haɗa ƙasa da ruwa tare da haƙƙin abinci, ci gaban yawan mutane, da raguwar ƙasa da albarkatun ruwa.

 Ka'idojin ƙasa na muhalli 
Land ethics may also be based upon the principle that the land (and the organisms that live off the land) has intrinsic value. These ethics are, roughly, based on an ecological or systems view. This position was first put forth by Ayers Brinser in Our Use of the Land, published in 1939. Brinser argued that white settlers brought with them "the seeds of a civilization which has grown by consuming the land, that is, a civilization which has used up the land in much the same way that a furnace burns coal.” Later, Aldo Leopold's posthumously published A Sand County Almanac (1949) popularized this idea.

Wani misali shine ra'ayi mai zurfi na muhalli, wanda ke jayayya cewa an gina al'ummomin ɗan adam a kan tushe na tsarin halittu da ke kewaye da su ko al'ummomi masu rai kuma duk rayuwa tana da daraja.Naess, Arne (1973) "The Shallow and the Deep, Long-Range Ecology Movement." Inquiry 16: 95-100 Hakazalika da ka'idojin ƙasa na daidaito, an haɓaka ka'idoji na ƙasa da ke sama a matsayin madadin hanyoyin amfani da 'yanci. Ka'idar Leopold tana daya daga cikin shahararrun hanyoyin muhalli a farkon karni na 21. Sauran marubuta da masu ilimin tauhidi waɗanda ke riƙe da wannan ra'ayi sun haɗa da Wendell Berry (an haife shi a shekara ta 1934), N. Scott Momaday, J. Baird Callicott, Paul B. Thompson, da Barbara Kingsolver .

 Ka'idar ƙasar Aldo Leopold 
A cikin litattafansa na gargajiya, "The Land Ethic," wanda aka buga bayan mutuwarsa a cikin A Sand County Almanac (1949), Leopold ya ba da shawarar cewa mataki na gaba a cikin juyin halitta na ɗabi'a shine fadada ɗabi'ar ɗabi'u don haɗawa da waɗanda ba na ɗan adam ba na al'ummar halittu, Leopold, A. 1949. A Sand County Almanac. pp. 203. Oxford University Press, New York. Leopold ya bayyana ainihin ka'idar ɗabi'arsa ta ƙasar kamar haka: "A abu ne daidai lokacin da yake da niyyar adana amincin, kwanciyar hankali, da kyakkyawa. "

He also describes it in this way: "The land ethic simply enlarges the boundaries of the community to include soils, waters, plants, and animals, or collectively: the land . . . [A] land ethic changes the role of Homo sapiens from conqueror of the land community to plain member and citizen of it. It implies respect for his fellow-members, and also respect for the community as such."

Leopold masanin halitta ne, ba masanin falsafa ba. Akwai muhawara mai yawa game da abin da ainihin ka'idar ƙasar Leopold ta tabbatar da kuma yadda yake jayayya da shi. A cikin ainihinsa, ka'idojin ƙasa suna da'awar (1) cewa ya kamata mutane su kalli kansu a matsayin mambobi masu sauƙi da 'yan ƙasa na al'ummomin halittu, ba a matsayin "masu cin nasara" na ƙasar ba; (2) cewa ya kamata mu ba da la'akari da ɗabi'a ga dukan muhalli ("ƙasa, ruwa, shuke-shuke, da dabbobi"), (3) cewa damuwarmu ta farko ba za ta kasance da tsire-tsire ko dabbobi ba, amma tare da aiki mai kyau na dukan al'ummomi na halittu, kuma (4) cewa "ƙarin ɗabi'ar muhalli" shi ne cewa ya kamata muna neman kiyaye mutunci na muhalli. Bayan wannan, malamai ba su yarda da yadda Leopold ya ki amincewa da hanyoyin gargajiya na mutum game da muhalli da kuma yadda a zahiri ya yi niyyar amfani da ka'idarsa ta ɗabi'a. Har ila yau, suna muhawara ko Leopold ya kafa ɗabi'ar ƙasarsa da farko a kan abubuwan da ke cikin mutum, kamar yadda wurare da yawa a cikin A Sand County Almanac suka nuna, ko kuma ya sanya nauyi mai mahimmanci a kan darajar yanayi. Ɗaya daga cikin shahararrun ɗaliban Leopold, J. Baird Callicott, ya ba da shawarar cewa Leopold ya kafa ka'idodin ƙasarsa a kan da'awar kimiyya daban-daban, gami da ra'ayi na Darwiniyanci game da ka'idoji kamar yadda ya samo asali a cikin soyayya ta musamman ga dangi da dangi, ra'ayi ya Copernican game da mutane a matsayin mambobi masu sauƙi na yanayi da sararin samaniya, da kuma gano yanayin muhalli na zamani cewa tsarin halittu yana da rikitarwa, duk da ke da alaƙa da juna.Callicott, J. Baird. In Defense of the Land Ethic: Essays in Environmental Philosophy. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989, pp. 75-99. Koyaya, Roberta Millstein ta kalubalanci wannan fassarar kwanan nan, wanda ya ba da shaida cewa tasirin Darwin a kan Leopold ba shi da alaƙa da ra'ayoyin Darwin game da halin kirki, amma ga ra'ayoyen Darwin game da dogaro da juna a cikin gwagwarmayar rayuwa.Millstein, Roberta L. (2015) “Re-examining the Darwinian Basis for Aldo Leopold’s Land Ethic,” Ethics, Policy & Environment 18: 301-317.

 Abubuwan jan hankali na dabi'ar ƙasar Leopold 
Ka'idar ƙasa ta Leopold ta shahara a yau tare da manyan masu kula da muhalli saboda dalilai da yawa. Ba kamar hanyoyin muhalli masu tsattsauran ra'ayi ba, kamar zurfin ilimin muhalli ko Biocentrism, ba ya buƙatar babban sadaukarwa na bukatun ɗan adam. Leopold bai yi imani da cewa mutane ya kamata su daina cin abinci ko farauta ba, ko yin gwaji a kan dabbobi. Har ila yau, bai yi kira ga raguwa mai yawa a cikin yawan mutane ba, ko kuma don ba da izinin mutane su tsoma baki da yanayi kawai don gamsar da bukatun ɗan adam masu mahimmanci (ba tare da la'akari da tattalin arziki ko sauran farashin ɗan adam ba). A matsayin dabi'ar muhalli, dabi'ar ƙasar Leopold ra'ayi ne mai matsakaici wanda ke neman daidaitawa tsakanin bukatun ɗan adam da yanayin halitta mai lafiya da bambancin halittu. Yawancin abubuwan da masu kula da muhalli suka fi so - fifiko ga tsire-tsire da dabbobi na asali akan nau'o'in da suka mamaye, farauta ko zaɓin culling don sarrafa nau'o-in da suka fi yawan jama'a waɗanda ke lalata muhalli, da kuma mayar da hankali kan adana yanayin halittu masu lafiya, masu sabunta kansu don amfanin ɗan adam da kuma darajarsu - suna da juna tare da ka'idar ƙasar Leopold.

An tsara fahimtar da ta shafi a matsayin ƙasar duniya a matsayin abin da aka saba da shi. A cikin wannan ra'ayi bambancin halittu da ajiyar carbon na ƙasa - wani bangare na Rage canjin yanayi - kayan jama'a ne na duniya. Saboda haka, ya kamata a mallaki ƙasa a kan sikelin duniya a matsayin na kowa, yana buƙatar ƙarin hadin gwiwar kasa da kasa kan kiyaye yanayi.Creutzig, F. Govern land as a global commons. Nature 546:7656 pp. 28-29

 Rashin amincewa 
Wasu masu sukar sun zargi Leopold da rashin haske wajen bayyana ainihin abin da ka'idar ƙasa take da kuma takamaiman tasirinsa game da yadda ya kamata mutane suyi tunani game da muhalli.DesJardins, Environmental Ethics, pp. 186-88. A bayyane yake cewa Leopold bai yi niyyar ka'idarsa ta asali ba ("A abu yana da kyau lokacin da yake kiyaye mutunci, kwanciyar hankali, da kyau na al'ummar halittu") don a ɗauka a matsayin cikakkiyar ɗabi'a. Ta haka ne, zai hana share ƙasa don gina gidaje, makarantu, ko gonaki, kuma gabaɗaya yana buƙatar hanyar "hannun" ga yanayi wanda Leopold bai goyi bayan ba. Saboda haka, ya kamata a ga ka'idarsa a matsayin jagora na gaba ɗaya don kimanta yanayin halittu da ƙoƙarin cimma abin da ya kira yanayin "harmoniya tsakanin mutane da ƙasa". Amma wannan ba shi da tabbas kuma, a cewar wasu masu sukar, ba shi da amfani sosai.

Wani zargi na biyu na Leopold shine cewa ya kasa bayyana a sarari dalilin da ya sa ya kamata mu karɓi ƙa'idar ƙasa.DesJardins, pp. 185-88. Sau da yawa yana ambaton misalai na lalacewar muhalli (misali, rushewar ƙasa, gurɓataccen gandun daji, da kuma sare daji) wanda ya haifar da halayen mutum na gargajiya, "mai cin nasara" game da yanayi. Amma ba a san dalilin da ya sa irin waɗannan misalai ke tallafawa ka'idar ƙasa musamman ba, sabanin biocentrism ko wasu ka'idojin muhalli masu kyau. Leopold kuma akai-akai yana kira ga ilimin muhalli na zamani, ka'idar juyin halitta, da sauran binciken kimiyya don tallafawa ka'idojin ƙasarsa. Wasu masu sukar sun ba da shawarar cewa irin wannan roko na iya haɗawa da ƙaura ba bisa ka'ida ba daga gaskiyar zuwa dabi'u. Aƙalla, irin waɗannan masu sukar suna da'awar, ya kamata a faɗi ƙarin bayani game da tushen ƙa'idodin ƙa'idodin ƙasar Leopold.

Sauran masu sukar suna adawa da tsarin muhalli na Leopold. A cewar mai ba da shawara kan haƙƙin dabbobi, Tom Regan, ka'idar ƙasar Leopold ta yi sadaukar da amfanin dabbobi ga amfanin duka, kuma saboda haka wani nau'i ne na "fascism na muhalli". Regan, Tom. The Case for Animal Rights. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983, pp. 361-62. A cewar waɗannan masu sukar, mun ƙi irin wannan tsarin gaba ɗaya a cikin al'amuran ɗan adam. Me ya sa, sun tambaya, ya kamata mu karbe su a cikin maganin da muke yi wa dabbobi wadanda ba mutane ba?

A ƙarshe, wasu masu sukar sun yi tambaya ko ka'idar ƙasar Leopold na iya buƙatar tsangwama mara kyau tare da yanayi don kare ma'aunin muhalli na yanzu, amma na ɗan lokaci.DesJardins, p. 194. Idan muhimmin mahimmanci na muhalli shine adanawa amincin da kwanciyar hankali na yanayin halittu, shin wannan ba zai buƙaci sauye-sauye masu tsada ba don hana sauye-shiryen yanayi na halitta. A cikin yanayi, "tsayawa da amincin" na yanayin halittu suna lalacewa ko lalacewa a kowane lokaci ta hanyar fari, wuta, guguwa, kwari, sababbin masu mamayewa, da dai sauransu. Dole ne mutane suyi aiki don hana irin waɗannan canje-canjen muhalli, kuma idan haka, a wane farashi? Me ya sa ya kamata mu sanya irin wannan darajar a kan ma'aunin muhalli na yanzu? Me ya sa muke tunanin aikinmu ne ya zama mai kula da yanayi ko ɗan sanda? A cewar wadannan masu sukar, damuwar Leopold game da adana ma'aunin muhalli na yanzu ya fi mayar da hankali ga mutum kuma ya kasa bi da yanayi tare da girmamawa da ya cancanta.

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