Harshen Proto-Afroasiatic

Proto-Afroasiatic (PAA), wanda aka fi sani da Proto-Hamito-Semitic, Proto-Semito-Hamitic, da Proto-Afrasian, shine harshen da aka sake ginawa wanda duk harsunan Afroasiatic na zamani suka fito. Kodayake kimantawa sun bambanta sosai, masana sun yi imanin cewa an yi magana da shi a matsayin yare ɗaya a cikin shekaru 12,000 zuwa 18,000 da suka gabata (12 zuwa 18 kya), wato, tsakanin 16,000 da 10,000 BC. Kodayake babu wata yarjejeniya game da wurin asalin Afroasiatic, asalin asalin masu magana da Proto-Afroasiatic.  Yawancin malamai sun yarda cewa yana cikin yankin Arewa maso gabashin Afirka Ratcliffe 2012

sake ginawa Proto-Afroasiatic yana da matsala kuma bai ci gaba zuwa matakin da aka samu a cikin ilimin harshe na Indo-Turai ba. Yawancin lokaci da aka raba rassan, tare da nisa mai yawa tsakanin shaidu na rassan asali (karni na 3 BC don Masar da Semitic, ƙarni na 19 da 20 ga yawancin yarukan Chadic, Cushitic, da Omotic) yana nufin cewa ƙayyade takaddun sauti har yanzu ba zai yiwu ba. Baya ga takardun gargajiya da aka tsara, akwai kuma wani ra'ayi daban-daban wanda ya zama sananne tsakanin Masana kimiyyar Masar; babu wata yarjejeniya game da wasula na PAA, kasancewar sautin, ko tsarin syllable. A lokaci guda, malamai ba su yarda da ko kuma har zuwa wane irin Harsunan Semitic na gargajiya ne mai ra'ayin mazan jiya, wakilci mai aminci na yanayin PAA. Wannan yana da mahimmanci ga tambayar ko Tushen ƙamus a cikin harshe sun kasance mafi yawan biradical ko triradical, wato, ko suna da asali biyu ko uku. Har ila yau, yana taka rawa a cikin tambayar matakin da Proto-Afroasiatic ke da tushen-da-tsarin morphology, kamar yadda aka fi nunawa a cikin rassan Semitic, Masar, da Cushitic.

Duk da haka akwai wasu abubuwa na yarjejeniya da sake gina ƙamus. Yawancin malamai sun yarda cewa sunayen Proto-Afroasiatic suna da Jima'i na ilimin lissafi, aƙalla lambobi biyu kuma mai yiwuwa uku na ilimin lissafin (ɗaya, jam'i, kuma mai yiwuwa biyu), da kuma tsarin shari'a tare da aƙalla lokuta biyu. Proto-Afroasiatic na iya kasancewa da alamar suna ko Ergative-absolutive alignment. An kuma sake gina prefix na deverbal *mV- a ko'ina. Duk da yake akwai rashin jituwa game da siffofin wakilan PAA, akwai yarjejeniya cewa akwai masu zaman kansu da "ƙuntata" (marasa damuwa, ƙuntataccen) siffofi. Har ila yau, akwai yarjejeniya cewa yaduwar n = namiji da jam'i, t = mace ya koma PAA, da kuma game da kasancewar wakilin tambaya *mV, wanda watakila bai bambanta animacy ba. Akwai wasu yarjejeniyoyi cewa kalmar PAA tana da nau'o'i biyu ko yiwuwar guda uku, kodayake akwai rashin jituwa game da abin da waɗannan nau'ikan suka kasance da kuma irin lokutan, fannoni, ko yanayin da suka bayyana. Har ila yau, akwai yarjejeniya mai yawa cewa akwai yiwuwar saiti biyu na ƙididdigar ƙididdiga (prefixes da suffixes) da aka yi amfani da su don dalilai daban-daban. Bugu da ƙari, muhimmancin gemination na magana da reduplication da kasancewar ƙididdigar ƙididdiga guda uku, musamman na -*s-, ana sake gina su. Ba za a iya sake gina tsarin lambobi ba, kodayake an ba da shawarar lambobi masu yawa na PAA da saiti masu alaƙa daga 1 zuwa 9.

 Yin soyayya 
Babu wata yarjejeniya game  lokacin da aka yi magana da Proto-Afroasiatic. Cikakken kwanan wata na lokacin da Proto-Afroasiatic zai iya kasancewa shine  , bayan haka an tabbatar da harshen Masar da Semitic. , a duk yiwuwar waɗannan harsuna sun fara rarrabuwa sosai kafin wannan iyaka mai wuya. Kimanin  masana suka bayar game da lokacin da aka yi magana da Proto-Afroasiatic ya bambanta sosai, daga 18,000 KZ zuwa 8,000 KZ. W kimantawa a ƙarshen ƙaramin wannan kewayon har yanzu yana sa Afroasiatic ya zama tsohuwar iyalin harshe da aka tabbatar.  yake bambance-bambance da shawarwari game da fitowar farko, Tom Güldemann ya yi jayayya cewa ana iya buƙatar ƙaramin lokaci don bambancin fiye da yadda ake ɗauka, saboda yana yiwuwa harshe ya sake fasalin saurin saboda hulɗar yanki, tare da juyin halitta na Chadic (kuma mai yiwuwa kuma Omotic) yana aiki a matsayin misalai masu dacewa.Huehnergard 2023 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Afroasiatic_language#

 Matsalolin sake ginawa 
 halin yanzu, babu wani sake fasalin da aka yarda da shi na ilimin Afroasiatic, harshe, haɗin kai, ko phonology. Sabo yawan lokaci tun lokacin da Afroasiatic ya rabu zuwa rassa, akwai iyakoki ga abin da malaman zasu iya sake ginawa. Cognates sukan ɓace daga harsuna masu alaƙa a tsawon lokaci.  halin yanzu babu yawancin mutanen da aka yarda da su na Afroasiatic, Huehnergard 2023 kuma yana da wahala a sami ka'idojin rubutu masu kyau daga ƙananan misalai. [2] M gamsarwa cognates a cikin Afroasiatic sau da yawa suna da iri ɗaya ko kuma irin wannan ma'anar amma sautin daban-daban, gaskiyar da ba a bayyana ta ba.   ƙari, ba koyaushe yake bayyane ba waɗanne kalmomi ne cognates, kamar yadda wasu cognates da aka gabatar na iya zama kamanceceniya. Bugu  ƙari, aƙalla wasu cognates suna iya canzawa ba bisa ka'ida ba saboda canjin analog, yana mai da su da wuya a gane su. Kamar yadda kalmomi  canza ma'ana a tsawon lokaci, tambayar waɗanne kalmomi na iya nufin abu ɗaya sau da yawa yana da wuyar amsawa.  sakamakon haka, Robert Ratcliffe ya ba da shawarar cewa Proto-Afroasiatic bazai sake gina shi ba kamar yadda Proto-Indo-Turai ya kasance.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Afroasiatic_language#

Ya sake ginawa na yanzu yana da cikas saboda gaskiyar cewa an tabbatar da rassan Masar da Semitic na Afroasiatic tun daga farkon 3000 KZ, yayin da harsunan Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, da Omotic rassan an tabbatar da su ne kawai daga baya, wani lokacin a karni na 20. Tsawon tar ilimin harsunan Semitic i aka kwatanta da sauran rassa wani cikas ne a sake gina Proto-Afroasiatic; sau da yawa ana tsara siffofin Semitic zuwa harshe na asali, duk da ƙarancin yarensu da rashin rubutu a wasu rassa.  cognates, siffofin da aka raba suna ɓacewa a tsawon lokaci, kamar yadda za'a iya nunawa a cikin Afroasiatic ta hanyar kwatanta Tsohon Masarawa (2600-2000 KZ) da Coptic (bayan 200 AZ). [1] Duk  haka yana yiwuwa a adana siffofin da ke kusa da PAA a cikin harsunan da aka rubuta daga baya, yayin da harsunan leken da aka rubuta a baya na iya samun siffofin da suka bambanta da PAA. Don samar  ingantaccen sake fasalin Afroasiatic, zai zama dole a fara sake fasalin siffofin reshe, [1] aikin da ya tabbatar da wahala.  zuwa 2023, akwai kawai farkon yarjejeniya game da sake gina Proto-Semitic, kuma babu sake gina kowane ɗayan rassan.  yanzu  sake gina Afroasiatic sau da yawa ya dogara da kwatanta kalmomi ko fasalulluka a cikin yarukan 'ya'ya, wanda ke haifar da sakamakon da ba su gamsar da malamai da yawa ba.

 Urheimat 

 Fasahar sauti 

 Sautin da aka yi amfani da shi 
 halin yanzu babu wata yarjejeniya game da sautin sautin Afroasiatic ko a kan takardun su a cikin yarukan 'ya'ya. Yawancin sake ginawa sun yar cewa PAA tana da jerin abubuwa uku (plosives, fricatives, da affricates) kuma cewa masu ci gaba duk ba su da murya.  ila yau, akwai yarjejeniya ta gaba ɗaya cewa an shirya abubuwan da ke hanawa a cikin triads na ƙayyadaddun murya, murya, da kuma "mai ƙarfi" (watakila Glotalized), kuma PAA ya haɗa da ƙayyadadden pharyngeal da laryngeal. Akwai rashin jituwa game  ko akwai sassan Labialized velar.Frajzyngier & Shay 2012, p. 10. Hayward 2000 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Afroasiatic_language#
Orel & Stolbova 1995
Ehret 1995

Wasula
Abubuwan ƙamus na PAA da aka sake ginawa suna nuna wasula da aka sake ginawa daban-daban, a cewar Levin 2003
Abu Diakonoff et al. 1987[d] Orel da Stolbova 1995 Ehret 1995[e]
'jini' *dṃ *dam- *dîm-/*dam-
'gina' *bVn *ben- *-bĭn-
'tashi' *pi̭r *pir- *-pîr-
'tudu/ tudu' *tṷl *tul- *-tul-
Ƙoƙarin sake gina tsarin muryar Proto-Afroasiatic ya bambanta https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Afroasiatic_language# Duk da yake babu yarjejeniya, da yawa ga amfani da canje-canje na wasali da aka sani da apophony (ko "ablaut") a cikin tsarin "tushen-da-tsari" da aka samu a cikin harsunan Afroasiatic daban-daban.Gragg 2019, p. 41 Allati 2012 Baya ga apophony, wasu harsunan AA na zamani suna nuna canjin wasali da ake kira umlaut.Wolff 2022

labial ko labialized consonants. Orel & Stolbova 1995 Ehret ya gabatar da tsarin wasali guda biyar mai tsawo da gajere *a, *e, *o, *i, da *u, yana mai cewa sake gina shi yana samun goyon bayan wasulan Chadic da Kushitic.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Afroasiatic_language# Vladimir Orel da Olga Stolbova a maimakon haka sun ba da shawarar tsarin wasali shida tare da * a, * e, * o, *i, * ([y]), da * u; sun ci gaba da cewa, wasulan tsakiya *e da *o ba za su iya kasancewa tare a tushe gudahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Afroasiatic_language# Ɗaukar wata hanya ta dabam, Ronny syllabic baƙaƙe (*l, *m, *n, *r) da ƙaramin wasali ko baƙaƙe masu kama da ƙarami (*w, *y, *ʔ, *ḥ, *ʕ, *h, *ʔʷ, *ḥʷ, *ʕʷ, *hʷ) don samar da haruffa;  (*a da *ə), kamar yadda bayanan Berber da Chadic suka goyi bayan, sannan kuma inganta ƙarin wasulan.Meyer & Wolff 2019

Sautuna da lafazi
Wasu malaman sun ƙaddamar da cewa Proto-Afroasiatic harshe ne na tonal, tare da tonality daga baya ya ɓace a wasu rassan. Igor Diakonoff ya yi jayayya da wanzuwar sautin bisa ga sake gina wasu kalmomin da ba su da alaƙa da juna.Diakonoff 1988 Christopher Ehret a maimakon haka ya ɗauki gaskiyar cewa rassa uku na AA suna da sauti a matsayin wurin farawa; ya sanya tsarin sautin sautin aƙalla na sautin tonal guda biyu, sautin faɗuwa, sautin tashi, da yuwuwar sautin na uku, sautin matakin https://en.wikipedia.org/w/Proto-Afroasiatic_language# Wilson 2020, pp. 23–
Diakonoff 1988
Wasu malaman suna jayayya cewa Proto-AA yana da lafazi mai faɗi kuma wasu rassan daga baya sun haɓaka sautin.Meyer & Wolff 2019 Irin waxannan malamai sun yi nuni da cewa sautunan da aka ɓullo da su don rama batattu ko ragi, kuma lura da cewa wasu sautunan sau da yawa ana danganta su da wasu baƙaƙe na ƙarshe.Meyer & Wolff 2019 Zygmunt Frajzyngier da Erin Shay sun lura cewa a cikin harsunan tonal na AA, sautin yawanci yana da nahawu maimakon aikin lexical, kuma suna jayayya cewa don haka babu wani tushe don sake gina shi a matsayin sifa na lexical a cikin PAA, kamar yadda Diakonoff ya yi; sun sami ƙarin ra'ayi na EhretFrajzyngier & Shay 2012 Diakonoff 1988
Frajzyngier & Shay 2012 Frajzyngier & Shay 2012

Morphosyntax
Tushen biradical da triradical
Matsayin da tushen fi'ili na Proto-AA ya kasance asalin triradical (yana da baƙaƙe guda uku) ko biradical (da samun baƙaƙe biyu)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Afroasiatic_language# Daga cikin rassan zamani, yawancin tushen Semitic sune triradical, yayin da mafi yawan tushen Chadic, Omotic, da Cushitic tushen biradical ne.Hayward 2000 “Ka’idar gargajiya” ta yi jayayya da asali na triradicalism a cikin iyali, kamar yadda yake a cikin Semitic.Winand 2023 A cikin wannan ka'idar, kusan dukkanin tushen biradical suna faruwa ne sakamakon asarar baki na uku.[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Afroasiatic_language# https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Afroasiatic_language# ] Tun a tsakiyar zamanai, duk da haka, masu ilimin nahawu sun lura cewa wasu tushen triradical a cikin Larabci sun bambanta da baƙaƙe ɗaya kawai kuma suna da ma'anoni masu alaƙa[Zaborski 2011A cewar masu goyon bayan asali na triradicalism irin su Gideon Goldenberg, waɗannan bambance-bambancen sun zama gama gari a cikin harshe kuma ba su dace da lamarin ba. Ya kwatanta kamanceniyar sauti tsakanin kalmomi masu ma'ana iri ɗaya a cikin Ingilishi kamar su haske, kyalkyali, kyalkyali, gyalkyali, da farin cikiGoldenberg 2005

Wasu malaman suna jayayya cewa tushen PAA yana iya kasancewa mafi yawan biradical, wanda aka ƙara na uku mai tsattsauran ra'ayi.Meyer & Wolff 2019, p.  Christopher Ehret ya bayar da hujjar cewa baƙaƙe na uku sun kasance affixes na ƙirƙira, yana ba da shawarar adadin kalmomin da suka kai talatin da bakwai daban-daban waɗanda daga baya suka zama burbushi a matsayin baƙaƙe na uku. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Afroasiatic_language# sun soki wannan ka'idar, irin su Andrzej Zaborski da Alan Kaye, a matsayin kari da yawa da ba za a iya tabbatar da su ba, ko da yake Zygmont Frajzyngier da Erin Shay sun lura cewa wasu harsunan Chadi suna da adadin da ya kai goma sha biyu.Zaborski 2011

Tsarin kalma
Har yanzu ba a kafa tsarin kalmomin Proto-Afroasiatic https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Afroasiatic_language#CITEREFHetzron2009 ] Igor Diakonoff ya ba da shawarar cewa PAA tana da tsari na kalmomi na fi'ili-subject-object (VSO word order), ma'ana cewa fi'ili zai zo farko a mafi yawan jimloli.Frajzyngier & Shay 2012 ] Hakanan Carsten Peust yana goyan bayan tsarin kalmomi na VSO, kamar yadda ake samun wannan a cikin tsoffin rassa biyu da aka tabbatar, Misira da Semitic.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Afroasiatic_language# ] Duk da haka, Ronny Meyer da H. Ekkecfard Wolff suna jayayya cewa wannan shawara ba ta yi daidai da shawarar Diakonoff ba chewa PAA harshe ne mai banƙyama-cinyewa, wanda batun da abu ba su da inganci.https://en.wikipedia.offwiki/Proto-Afroasiatic_language# ] Zygmont Frajzyngier da Erin S har subn ci gaba da lura cewa, idan Proto-Afroasiatic yana da tsarin kalma na VSO, to dole ne a sami bayani game da dalilin da ya sa rassansa biyu, Omotic da Cushitic, suna nuna tsari-abu-abu-kalma tsari (SOV word order). Frajzyngier & Shay 2012, p.  nau'ikan malamai biyu suna jayayya cewa wannan yanki yana buƙatar ƙarin bincikeFrajzyngier & Shay 2012 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Afroasiatic_language# Güldemann 2018, p.  Schuh 2017
Souag 2023

Lamba
Harsunan Afroasiatic a yau sun bambanta a fili guda ɗaya da jam'i.Meyer & Wolff 2019 Ɗaya daga cikin sifofin farko na Proto-Afroasiatic da Joseph Greenberg ya gabatar shine kasancewar "internal-ga plurals" (wani nau'i na jam'i mai fashe): n wanda aka sanya shi a cikin nau'in wasali * a tsakanin bak'i biyu na tushen tushe, mai yiwuwa ya maye gurbin wani wasali ta hanyar apophony.Gragg 2019, p Duk da haka, Paul Newman ya yi jayayya cewa yayin da jam'i ta hanyar canza wasali suka yawaita a Chadic, ba za a iya sake gina su zuwa Proto-Chadic ko Prboto-Afroasiatic ba.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Afroasiatic_language# https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Afroasiatic_language#ouag ya bayar da hujjar cewa yayin da wsu nau'i na canza wasalin jam'i na iya komawa zuwa ga Proto-Afroasiatic, dagshegmba yawa daga cikin samfuran da aka samu hsa cikin rassan ba sa iya yin hakan.,Souag 2023

c.Ratcliffe 1996, p. 297 ] A maimakon haka Robert Ratcliffe ya yi jayayya cewa wannan tsarin sake maimaitawa ya samo asali ne bayan PAA, a matsayin hanyar da za ta ba da damar sunaye na biradical su saka "internal-a," tsarin da ya zama gama gari ga wasu tushen wasu harsuna; a matsayin madadin hasashe, mai yiwuwa sun samo asali ne daga nau'i mai nau'i mai nau'i na jam'i.Ratcliffe 1996, p. 309-310 Harsunan Afroasiatic kuma suna amfani da affixes da yawa - kaɗan daga cikinsu, duk da haka, suna nan a cikin fiye da ƴan rassan, wanda ke sa su yi wahalar sake gina su.Wilson 2020

e).Souag 2023 Waɗannan ƙarshen sun yi kama da juna sosai, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Afroasiatic_language# kuma saboda shaidar dual a cikin rassa biyu na farko da aka tabbatar na Afroasiatic shi ma yawanci ana sake gina shi don yaren proto.[,Diakonoff 1988, p. 63-64 90] Asarar s.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Afroasiatic_language#

Tsarin shari'a
Ƙarshen shari'ar Proto-Afroasiatic da aka sake ginawa
Harka Na Daya[91] Jam'iHuehnergard 2004
Mai suna *-u-*ū
Zargi / Tabbataccen *-a -*ī
Genitive *-i
Wuri/mai ƙarewa (an gardama) *-shine -
Akwai yarjejeniya da yawa cewa Proto-Afroasiatic yana da juzu'i.https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Afroasiatic_language#CITEREFG%C3%BCldemann2018 ] Da farko Hans-Jürgen Sasse ya gabatar da shi a kan sake gina tsarin shari'ar Proto-Cushitic a cikin 1984, Hayward 2000, p. 88 Proto-Afroasiatic yawanci ana sake gina shi tare da tsarin shari'a mai kama da Proto-Semitic.Huehnergard 2004, p. 140 Wannan yana ba da ƙarshen zaɓe *-u, zargi ko cikakkiya *-a, da genitive *-i.Bubenik 2023, p. 225 .  na wannan tsarin[Stauder 2023, p. 73-74 Wasu shaidun na zaɓi -u na iya kasancewa nga reshen Ogsbmotic.Gragg 2019 hanyar shaidar Semitic a cikin dual da jam'i, kawai nadi da na maɗaukaki sun bambanta Gragg 2019 David Wilson, a daya bangaren, ya yi nuni da cewa, ba a cika samun karshen shari’ar ba a kowane bangare na Afroasiatic kuma hakan ya hana sake gina su don yare.Diakonoff 1988, pp. 64–

Tsohon Akkadian da Palaeosyrian suna da ƙarin ƙarin shari'o'i biya, na wuri a cikin -um da kuma ƙarar ƙarshe a -iš.Bubenik 2023 suna tafka muhawara kan shin hwadannan shari’o’i ne na shari’a ko kuma bayyani a baya.Bubenik 2023 Ƙarshen -iš sau da yawa ana haɗa shi da js na Masar kuma a wasu lokuta ana amfani da shi don sake gina yanayin wurin Proto-Afroasiatic.[Bubenik 2023, pp. 225–226 Bubenik 2023 kuma ya yi imanin cewa zai iya sake gina shari'ar comitative-dative a *-dV ko *-Vd, shari'ar ablative-comparative a *-kV, shari'ar "directive" *-l, da kuma shari'ar ablative a *-p.Diakonoff 1988

Sunaye da sifa da aka samo
mV-prefi
Stauder 2023, p. 243.
MV- prefix shine mafi yadu da aka tabbatar a cikin AA wanda ake amfani da shi don < samun Wilson 2020Wilson 2020 Ga PAA, an sake ginaMeyer & Wolff 2019 siffarta iri-iri kamar *ma-, *ma(i)-, *mV-, da *-m-.Takács 2008 A cikin yarukan ‘ya’ya, an tabbatar da ita da ma’anoni da ayyuka iri-iri, kamar samar da sunaye na dillanci, sunayen wuri, sunayen kayan aiki, da ma’anoniFrajzyngier & Shay 2012 Lipiński 2001, pp. 216–217 Erin Shay ya yi jayayya cewa *mV- shine kawai prefix a cikin AA phylum wanda ke komawa a fili ga yaren proto maimakon yuwuwgar kasancewa siffa ta yanki.,https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Afroasiatic_language#
Stauder 2023
Mahimman ma'ana da asalin wannan prefix a cikin PAA ana muhawara. Akwai doguwar al'ada ta kwatanta prefix da karin magana mai tambaya *mā 'wane'Takács 2008 Carsten Peust ya ba da shawarar asalin PAA gama gari don prefix a cikin samar da sunayen wuri da kayan aiki, amma ya ba da shawarar cewa *mV- prefix da aka yi amfani da shi a cikin sunaye da ɓangarori hakika ci gaban PAA ne na bayan-PAA, wanda aka samo daga suna * mā 'wanda'.Peust 2012, p. 341-342 Christopher Ehret, a halin da ake ciki, ya ba da shawarar cewa prefix ɗin ba ya wanzu a cikin PAA kwata-kwata, amma daga baya< i gaba ne daga sunan mai tambaa >. Gábor Takács da Andrzej Zaborski duk sun ƙi haɗin kai ga *mā gaba ɗaya; Takacs a maimakon haka yana ba da shawarar cewa haɗin kai da ƙa'idodin Masarawa m yana buƙatar ƙarin la'akari, yayin da Zaborskhi ya yi jayayya game da alaƙa da kalma *VmV- 'zama'.khhsshf>Ehret 1995 Ehret 1995

Manazarta 

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