Ƴantar da Afirka daga Mulkin Mallaka

Decolonisation na mulkin mallaka na Afirka wani tsari ne da ya gudana daga tsakiyar shekarun 1950 zuwa shekara ta 1975 a lokacin yakin cacar baka, tare da samun sauye-sauye na gwamnati a nahiyar yayin da gwamnatocin mulkin mallaka suka yi sauye-sauye zuwa kasashe masu cin gashin kansu. Tsarin ya kasance sau da yawa yana cike da tashin hankali, rikice-rikicen siyasa, tarzoma mai yaduwa, da shirya tawaye a cikin kasashen arewaci da na kudu da hamadar Sahara da suka hada da tawayen Mau Mau a Kenya ta Birtaniya, Yakin Aljeriya a Aljeriya na Faransa, Rikicin Kongo a Kongo Belgian, Yakin samun yancin kai na Angola a kasar Portugal Angola da juyin juya halin Zanzibar a masarautar Zanzibar da yakin basasar Najeriya a kasar Biafra mai neman ballewa.  John Hatch, Africa: The Rebirth of Self-Rule (1967) William Roger Louis, The transfer of power in Africa: decolonization, 1940-1960 (Yale UP, 1982). Birmingham, David (1995). The

Decolonization of Africa. Routledge.

ISBN 1-85728-540-9 John D. Hargreaves, Decolonization in Africa (2014). for the viewpoint from London and Paris see Rudolf von Albertini, Decolonization: the Administration and Future of the Colonies, 1919-1960 (Doubleday, 1971).

 Tarihi 


Rarraba Afirka tsakanin shekarar alif 1870 da 1914 wani muhimmin lokaci ne na mamayar Turawa a nahiyar Afirka wanda ya ƙare da kusan dukkan Afirka da albarkatunta sun koma hannun ƙasashen Turai, waɗanda suka yi gasa wajen kwace ƙasa ba tare da yin yaƙi da juna ba. An tabbatar da rarraba Afirka ne a Taron Berlin na 1885, ba tare da la’akari da tsarin siyasa da na zamantakewar da ke akwai ba.

Kusan dukkanin ƙasashen Afirka kafin mulkin mallaka sun rasa ’yancinsu. Keɓantattun ƙasashe guda biyu ne suka tsira: Laberiya, wadda tsoffin bayi daga Amurka suka kafa a farkon ƙarni na 19 kuma aka amince da ita a matsayin ƙasa mai cin gashin kanta a shekarar 1862, amma Turawa suka ɗauke ta a matsayin ƙarƙashin tasirin Amurka; da Habasha, wadda ta samu nasara a Yaƙin Adwa, sai dai daga baya Italiya ta mamaye ta a 1936.

Birtaniya da Faransa su ne suka fi mallakar wurare da yawa a Afirka, sai dai kuma Jamus, Sifaniya, Italiya, Belgium, da Portugal suma suna da yankunan mallaka.

Daga shekarar 1977, ƙasashe 50 na Afirka sun samu 'yancin kai daga ƙasashen Turai.

 Dalilan waje 

File:Colonial Africa (1939).svg|thumb|Yankunan Turawa a Afirka a 1939, shekarar da Yaƙin Duniya na Biyu ya fara

A farkon ƙarni na ashirin  20, ƙaunar ƙasa ta karu a faɗin duniya. Bayan ƙarewar Yaƙin Duniya na Farko, daulolin Jamus, Austro-Hungary, da Ottoman sun karye bisa ga ka'idojin da Woodrow Wilson ya gabatar cikin makalarsa ta maki goma sha huɗu. Ko da yake wasu masu fafutukar 'yanci a Afirka sun gani a matsayin dama, Wilson bai yi niyyar amfani da ka’idar 'yancin kai wajen taimaka wa Afirka ba. Buƙatun jagororin Masar da Tunisiya na neman 'yanci ba su samu karɓuwa ba domin hakan zai haifar da cikas ga muradun ƙasashen da suka yi nasara. Sai dai ra’ayin tsarin duniya bisa ga 'yancin kai ya ci gaba da samun karbuwa.

Bayan 1919, jagororin fafutukar 'yancin kai sun fara kallon Tarayyar Soviet a matsayin abokiyar gwagwarmaya bisa akidar haɗin kan ma'aikata.

Yawancin 'yan Afirka sun yi yaƙi a Yaƙin Duniya na Farko da na Biyu. A Yaƙin Farko, aiki daga Afirka ya zama tilas a gaban gaba na yaki, sannan sojojin Afirka sun yi yaƙi a yakin Sinai da Falasdinu. Da yawa daga cikinsu ba a bar su su riƙe bindiga ko su yi aiki daidai da fararen fata ba. Nutsewar jirgin SS Mendi a 1917 ya jawo mutuwar mutane 607 daga cikin 646 da ke cikinsa — mafi yawansu 'yan Afirka ta Kudu. A Yaƙin Duniya na Biyu, 'yan Afirka sun yi yaƙi a Turai da Asiya.

Kusan mutane miliyan ɗaya daga Afirka ta ƙasa da hamada sun yi aiki a rundunonin Turawa. Wasu sun shiga aikin soja ne da ƙarfi, wasu kuma da son rai domin neman rayuwa mai kyau. Wannan ya haifar da wayewar kai ta siyasa da fata na samun 'yanci, amma an fi yi musu burin banza.Ferguson, Ed, and A. Adu Boahen. (1990). "African Perspectives On Colonialism." The International Journal Of African Historical Studies 23 (2): 334. doi:10.2307/219358. Saboda ƙasashen da suka yi nasara ba su da niyyar barin yankunan mallakarsu, kuma suna buƙatar albarkatu da ma’aikata daga Afirka don farfaɗo da Turai, sai suka rage girman rawar da Afirka ta taka a nasarar yaƙin.

A ranar 12 ga Fabrairu, 1941, Shugaban Amurka Franklin D. Roosevelt da Firayim Ministan Birtaniya Winston Churchill sun haɗu don tsara yadda duniya za ta kasance bayan Yaƙin Duniya na Biyu. Sakamakon haka shine takardar Atlantic Charter. Ba wata yarjejeniya ba ce kuma ba a miƙa ta ga Majalisar Dokokin Birtaniya ko Majalisar Dattawan Amurka ba, amma ta zama sananniya sosai. Sashe na uku na takardar ya nuna 'yancin al’umma su zabi nau’in gwamnatin da suke so, da kuma dawo da ikon mulkin kai.

Firayim Minista Churchill ya bayyana a majalisar dokokin Birtaniya cewa wannan takarda tana magana ne game da "ƙasashe da al’ummomi na Turai da ke ƙarƙashin mulkin Nazi."{{cite Hansard |jurisdiction=Parliament of the United Kingdom |title=War Situation |url=https://hansard.parliament.uk/Commons/1941-09-09/debates/2376309d-cb7b-495f-a38e-d6774539c459/WarSituation |house=Commons |date=9 September 1941 |volume=374|column=69 |speaker=Winston Churchill |position=...

Dalilan Ciki
Cin hanci da rashawa na tattalin arzikin mulkin mallaka ya haɗa da karkatar da albarkatu kamar hakar ma'adinai da kuma ribar da ake samu zuwa hannun masu hannun jari na Turai, wanda hakan ya hana ci gaban cikin gida, ya kuma haifar da babbar damuwa a zamantakewar al'umma.[Boahen, A. (TND) (1990) Africa Under Colonial Domination, Volume 7] Ga farkon masu kishin ƙasa na Afirka, samun ‘yancin kai ya zama wajibi ne na ɗabi’a da aka gina fafutukar siyasa a kansa.

A cikin shekarun 1930, mulkin mallaka ya farfado, a wasu lokuta ba da gangan ba, da ƙananan shugabanni 'yan Afirka da suka sami ilimi a jami’o’in Yammacin Duniya, inda suka fahimci ra’ayoyi kamar ikon kai da kai (TND). Ko da yake ba a karfafa samun ‘yancin kai ba, an samu wasu yarjejeniyoyi tsakanin waɗannan shugabanni da masu mulkin mallaka, kuma irinsu Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya), Kwame Nkrumah (Gold Coast, yanzu Ghana), Julius Nyerere (Tanganyika, yanzu Tanzania), Léopold Sédar Senghor (Senegal), Nnamdi Azikiwe (Nigeria), Patrice Lumumba (Jamhuriyar Dimokuraɗiyyar Kongo), António Agostinho Neto (Tsohuwar Angola ta Portugal, yanzu Angola) da Félix Houphouët-Boigny (Côte d'Ivoire) su ne suka jagoranci fafutukar kishin ƙasa na Afirka.

A lokacin Yaƙin Duniya na Biyu, wasu masana'antu da biranen Afirka sun bunƙasa lokacin da jiragen ruwa masu yaki na U-boat suka hana jigilar albarkatu zuwa Turai ta Tekun Atlantika.

A hankali, garuruwa, masana'antu, da ƙungiyoyin kwadago sun bunƙasa, wanda ya inganta ilimi da koyo, tare da haifar da kafuwar jaridun da ke goyon bayan 'yancin kai.

A shekarar 1945, Taron Na Biyar na Pan-Afriƙa ya nemi a kawo ƙarshen mulkin mallaka, inda wakilan taron suka haɗa da waɗanda suka zama shugabannin Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, da sauran masu kishin ƙasa na Afirka.

Sauyin Zuwa 'Yancin Kai

Bayan Yaƙin Duniya na Biyu, samun ‘yancin kai ya yadu cikin sauri a nahiyar Afirka yayin da ƙasashe da dama suka sami ‘yancin kai daga mulkin mallakar Turai.

A watan Agusta 1941, Shugaban Amurka Franklin D. Roosevelt da Firaministan Birtaniya Winston Churchill sun haɗu don tattaunawa kan manufofin su bayan yaƙin. A wannan taron, sun amince da Yarjejeniyar Atlantic Charter, wadda a wani ɓangare ta tanadi cewa za su, "girmama haƙƙin kowane ƙasa na zaɓar nau'in gwamnati da za su rayu a ƙarƙashinta; kuma suna son ganin haƙƙin ikon kai da mulkin kai ya dawo ga waɗanda aka tilasta musu a rasa shi.""Atlantic Charter", 14 August 1941, https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/official_texts_16912.htm  Wannan yarjejeniya ta zama mataki na farko bayan Yaƙin Duniya na Biyu zuwa samun ‘yancin kai yayin da kishin ƙasa ya ƙaru a Afirka. 

Sakamakon bashi da yawa da suka taru bayan yaƙin, ƙasashen Turai ba su iya ci gaba da kula da mulkin mallakar Afirka ba. Wannan ya ba wa masu kishin ƙasa na Afirka damar yin sulhu kan samun ‘yancin kai cikin sauri da ƙarancin asarar rayuka. Sai dai wasu ƙasashe sun sha wahala sosai tare da yawan mutanen da suka mutu a yayin fafutukarsu don samun ‘yancin kai.

Masanin tarihin James Meriweather ya bayyana cewa manufar Amurka game da Afirka ta kasance ta hanyar matsakaici, inda suka goyi bayan samun ‘yancin kai na Afirka amma kuma suka tabbatar wa ƙasashen mulkin mallaka na Turai cewa za su ci gaba da riƙe abin da suke da shi. Washington na son irin ƙungiyoyin Afirka da za su jagoranci sabbin ƙasashen da suka sami ‘yancin kai, wato ba na kommunist ba kuma ba sosai na dimokiradiyya ba. Meriweather ya ce ƙungiyoyin ba na gwamnati ba sun yi tasiri wajen canza manufofin Amurka game da Afirka. Sun matsa lamba ga gwamnatoci da cibiyoyin masu zaman kansu su janye jarinsu daga ƙasashen Afirka da ba a mulki da rinjaye na mafi yawan jama'a ba. Wannan ya taimaka wajen sauya manufofin Amurka game da Afirka ta Kudu, kamar yadda aka gani a lokacin amincewa da Dokar Yaki da Rarrabuwar Kawuna ta 1986.James Hunter Meriwether, Tears, Fire, and Blood: The United States and the Decolonization of Africa (University of North Carolina Press, 2021).

+ Kasashen Afirka da suka samu 'yancin kai Kasar Sunan koloni Ikon mulki Ranar samun 'yanci Shugaban kasa na farko Hanyar samun 'yanci  Daular Habasha Italiya ta Gabas ta Afirka Daular Italiya 1941 Yekuno Amlak Ba ta taba zama koloni ba  
An mamaye ta dan lokaci ta Italiya bayan yakin Italiya da Habasha na biyu  Al’ummar Amurka ta Kolonizasiya Liberiya Amurka 26 Yuli 1847 Joseph Jenkins Roberts Bayanin samun 'yancin Liberiya  Kolonin Cape  Kolonin Natal  Kolonin Orange River  Kolonin Transvaal Birtaniya 31 Mayu 1910 Louis Botha Dokar Tarayyar Afirka Ta Kudu 1909Har yanzu tana karkashin mulkin kabilar fari har zuwa 1994.  Sultanate na Masar 28 Fabrairu 1922 Fuad I na Masar Juyin juya hali na Masar na 1919  Birtaniya ta Mulkin Soja (Libya) Birtaniya 1 Maris 1949 Idris  Masar ta Libya Birtaniya ta Mulkin Soja (Libya)Faransa yankin soji na Fezzan-GhadamesEmirate na Cyrenaica BirtaniyaFaransaEmirate na Cyrenaica 24 Disamba 1951 Yaki na Jeji na Yamma  Italiya ta Libya ItaliyaBirtaniya 24 Disamba 1951 Idris Yarjejeniyar zaman lafiya da Italiya, 1947Majalisar Dinkin Duniya Resolushin 289  Birtaniya da Masar (Anglo-Egyptian Sudan) Birtaniya 1 Janairu 1956 Ismail al-Azhari –  Masar ta Tunisiya FaransaBirtaniya 20 Maris 1956 Muhammad VIII al-AminHabib Bourguiba –  Masar ta Faransa a MorokoYankin Tangier na DuniyaMasar ta Spain a MorokoYammacin Afirka na SpainIfni FaransaSpain 2 Maris 19567 Afrilu 195610 Afrilu 19584 Janairu 196914 Nuwamba 197527 Fabrairu 1976 Mohammed V Yakin Ifni    6 Maris 1957 Kwame Nkrumah Zaɓen Gabaɗaya na Gold Coast 1956    2 Oktoba 1958 Ahmed Sékou Touré Zaɓen Kundin Tsarin Mulki na Guinea 1958   Kamerun French Cameroon British Cameroon  4 Maris 19161 Janairu 19601 Oktoba 1961 Karl EbermaierAhmadou AhidjoJohn Ngu Foncha –   French Togoland
 Togoland  27 Afrilu 1960 Sylvanus Olympio –  French West Africa20 Yuni 1960 Modibo Keïta –  Léopold Sédar Senghor –   French Madagascar 26 Yuni 1960 Philibert Tsiranana –    30 Yuni 1960 Joseph Kasa-Vubu Taron Teburin Zagaye na Belgo-Congolese   Yankin Amanar Somaliland  26 Yuni 19601 Yuli 1960 Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal  Aden Adde –  Jamhuriyar Dahomey  Jamhuriyar Dahomey Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá  Jamhuriyar Faransa ta Biyar Portugal 1 Agusta 196031 Yuli 1961Benin mai 'yanci ta mamaye Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá na Portugal a 1961. Hubert Maga      1 Agusta 1960 Hubert Maga –  3 Agusta 1960 Hamani Diori –  5 Agusta 1960 Maurice Yaméogo –  7 Agusta 1960 Félix Houphouët-Boigny –   11–12 Agusta 1960 François Tombalbaye –  13 Agusta 1960 David Dacko –  14–15 Agusta 1960 Fulbert Youlou –  16–17 Agusta 1960 Léon M'ba –   Colonial Nigeria British Cameroon  1 Oktoba 19601 Yuni 19611 Oktoba 1961 Nnamdi Azikiwe –    28 Nuwamba 195828 Nuwamba 1960 Moktar Ould Daddah –   Sierra Leone Colony and Protectorate  27 Afrilu 1961 Milton Margai –   9 Disamba 1961 Julius Nyerere –  Ruanda-Urundi  1 Yuli 1919  1 Yuli 1962 Mwambutsa IV na Burundi –  Yuhi V Musinga  Grégoire Kayibanda Juyin Juya Halin Rwanda   French Algeria  5 Yuli 1962Ya kama mukami a 27 Satumba 1962 a matsayin Firayim Minista. Daga ranar samun 'yanci har zuwa rantsar da Ben Bella, Abderrahmane Farès ne shugaban Kw Yakin Algeriya Yarjejeniyar Évian 
   Masarautar Uganda

  9 Oktoba 1962
  Milton Obote
  – 
   Gidan mulkin Birtaniya na Gabashin Afirka
  12 Disamba 1963
  Jomo Kenyatta
  –  Masarautar Zanzibar
   Masarautar Zanzibar
  10 Disamba 1963
  Jamshid bin Abdullah
  – 

  6 Yuli 1964
  Hastings Banda
  – 

  24 Oktoba 1964
  Kenneth Kaunda
  – 
   Gidan mulkin Gambia da kariya
  18 Fabrairu 1965
  Dawda Jawara
  – 

  11 Nuwamba 1965 (a matsayin Rhodesia)
  Ian Smith
  Hanyar Rhodesia ta ƙaddamar da 'yanci kai tsaye 
   Masarautar Bechuanaland
  30 Satumba 1960 – 1966
  Seretse Khama
  – 
   Basutoland
  4 Oktoba 1966
  Leabua Jonathan
  – 
   Mauritius na Birtaniya
  12 Maris 1968
  Seewoosagur Ramgoolam
  – 
  Mulkin kai tsaye na Birtaniya akan Swaziland (1906–1968)
  6 Satumba 1968
  Sobhuza II
  – 
   Kamerun Kamerun na FaransaKasar Afirka ta Faransa Kamerun na Birtaniya Guinea ta Spain
  Mulkin JamusMulkin FaransaMulkin BirtaniyaMulkin Spain
  4 Maris 19161 Janairu 196016–17 Agusta 19601 Oktoba 196112 Oktoba 1968
  Karl EbermaierAhmadou AhidjoLéon M'baJohn Ngu FonchaFrancisco Macías Nguema 
  – 
   Guinea ta Portugal

  24 Satumba 1973 10 Satumba 1974 (an amince)5 Yuli 1975
  Luís CabralJoão Bernardo Vieira Aristides PereiraPedro Pires
  Yakin 'yancin Guinea-Bissau 
   Mozambique na Portugal
  25 Yuni 1975
  Samora Machel
  Yakin 'yancin Mozambique 
   Cape Verde na Portugal
  5 Yuli 1975
  Aristides Pereira
  Yakin 'yancin Guinea-Bissau 
   Tarihin Comoros na Faransa

  6 Yuli 1975
  Ahmed Abdallah
  Zabukan samun 'yanci na 1974 a Comoros 
   São Tomé da Príncipe na Portugal

  12 Yuli 1975
  Manuel Pinto da Costa
  – 
   Angola na Portugal
  11 Nuwamba 1975
  Agostinho Neto
  Yakin 'yancin Angola 
   Tarihin Seychelles na Birtaniya

  29 Yuni 1976
  James Mancham
  –   Yankin Faransa na Afars da Issas  27 Yuni 1977 Hassan Gouled Aptidon Zabukan samun 'yanci na 1977 a Afars da Issas   Sahara ta Spain Yankunan Kudu Tiris al-Gharbiyya (Sahara ta Yamma)
   Mauritania  27 Fabrairu 1976har yanzu ba a samu 'yanci ba
  El-Ouali Mustapha SayedMohamed Abdelaziz
  Yakin Sahara ta Yammarikicin Sahara ta Yamma27 Oktoba 1966 (na doka)Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta kawo karshen mulkin Afirka ta Kudu a Namibia a 1966; Afirka ta Kudu ta bar mulkin ne a 1990.21 Maris 1990Sam NujomaMajalisar Tsaro ta Majalisar Dinkin Duniya Resolution 269Yakin iyakar Afirka ta Kudu Eritrea ta Italiya Masarautar Eritrea Daular Italiya Daular Habasha15 Satumba 1952(Haɗa da Habasha)24 Mayu 1993'yanciIsaias AfwerkiYakin 'yancin Eritrea

Daular Biritaniya
Ghana
A ranar 6 ga Maris, 1957, Ghana (tsohuwar Gold Coast) ta zama kasar Afirka ta farko a kudancin Sahara da ta samu 'yancin kai daga mulkin mallaka na Turai.Esseks, John D. "Political independence and economic decolonisation: the case of Ghana under Nkrumah." Western Political Quarterly 24.1 (1971): 59-64. Tun daga babban taron Pan-African na 1945, shugaban 'yancin kai na Gold Coast (Ghana ta zamani), Kwame Nkrumah, ya bayyana manufarsa a fili. A cikin sanarwar taron, ya rubuta cewa, "Mun yi imani da 'yancin dukkan al'ummai su mulki kansu. Muna tabbatar da 'yancin dukkan al'ummar da aka yi wa mulkin mallaka su mallaki makomarsu. Dukkanin mulkin mallaka dole ne su 'yantu daga ikon mallaka na kasashen waje, ko na siyasa ne ko na tattalin arziki."Nkrumah, Kwame, Fifth Pan-African Congress, Declaration to Colonial People of the World (Manchester, England, 1945).
A shekarar 1948, 'yan Ghana tsoffin sojoji uku 'yan sanda na mulkin mallaka suka kashe su a lokacin zanga-zanga. Rikici ya barke a Accra kuma duk da cewa an daure Nkrumah da sauran shugabannin Ghana na wani dan lokaci, lamarin ya zama mai hanzari ga yunkurin 'yancin kai. Bayan an sake shi daga kurkuku, Nkrumah ya kafa jam'iyyar Convention People's Party (CPP), wadda ta kaddamar da babban kamfen don tallafawa 'yancin kai tare da taken "Gwamnatin Kai Tsaye Yanzu!" Karin kishin kasa a cikin kasar ya kara karfinsu kuma jam'iyyar siyasa ta fadada sosai.
A watan Fabrairun 1951, CPP ta sami ikon siyasa ta hanyar lashe kujeru 34 cikin 38 da aka zaba, ciki har da guda daya ga Nkrumah wanda aka daure a lokacin. Gwamnatin Birtaniya ta sake fasalta kundin tsarin mulkin Gold Coast don ba 'yan Ghana rinjaye a majalisar dokoki a 1951. A 1956, Ghana ta nemi 'yancin kai a cikin Commonwealth, wanda aka bayar cikin lumana a 1957 tare da Nkrumah a matsayin firaminista kuma Sarauniya Elizabeth II a matsayin mai mulki.
Iska ta Canji
Firaminista Harold Macmillan ya yi jawabin "Iska ta Canji" a Afirka ta Kudu, a watan Fabrairun 1960, inda ya yi magana da Majalisar Dokokin kasar game da "iska ta canji da ke kadawa ta wannan nahiyar."Frank Myers, "Harold Macmillan's" Winds of Change" Speech: A Case Study in the Rhetoric of Policy Change." Rhetoric & Public Affairs 3.4 (2000): 555-575. excerpt  Macmillan yana son kauce wa irin yakin mulkin mallaka da Faransa ke yi a Aljeriya. A karkashin mulkinsa, yunkurin 'yancin kai ya ci gaba cikin sauri.Philip E. Hemming, "Macmillan and the End of the British Empire in Africa." in R. Aldous and S. Lee, eds., Harold Macmillan and Britain's World Role (1996) pp. 97-121, excerpt 
Sauran yankunan mulkin mallaka na Birtaniya a Afirka, ban da Kudancin Rhodesia, duk sun sami 'yancin kai kafin 1968. Janyewar Birtaniya daga kudanci da gabashin Afirka bai kasance mai lumana ba. Samun 'yancin kai na Kenya ya riga Yakin Mau Mau na tsawon shekaru takwas. A Rhodesia, sanarwar 'yancin kai ta bangare guda ta 1965 da 'yan tsiraru farare suka yi ta haifar da yakin basasa wanda ya dauki lokaci har zuwa yarjejeniyar Lancaster House ta 1979, wadda ta kafa sharuddan samun 'yancin kai da aka amince da shi a 1980, a matsayin sabuwar al'ummar Zimbabwe.James, pp. 618–21.
Birtaniya ta dauki matakin dawo da yankinta na karshe da Birtaniya ta mamaye a Afirka ta hanyar sanya hannu kan wata yarjejeniya ta hukuma a 2025 wadda ke mika ikon mallaka na tsibirin Chagos ga Mauritius. A karkashin yarjejeniyar, tsibirin Diego Garcia mai mahimmanci da yankin buffer na kilomita 38 nan da nan an mayar da su ga Mauritius. Wannan yarjejeniyar ta ba da damar ci gaba da aiki tare na sansanin Anglo-Amurka a Diego Garcia.

Belgium

Belgium ta mallaki yankuna da dama a zamanin mulkin mallaka, musamman Congo ta Belgium (wanda yanzu ake kira Jamhuriyar Dimokuraɗiyyar Congo) daga 1908 zuwa 1960 da kuma Ruanda-Urundi (wanda yanzu suke matsayin Rwanda da Burundi) daga 1922 zuwa 1962. Har ila yau, tana da ƙaramar mallaka a ƙasar Sin (1902–1931) kuma tana cikin shugabannin haɗaka na Yankin Ƙasa na Tangier a Maroko.

Kimanin kashi 98% na yankunan Belgium a ketare na wancan lokaci guda ɗaya ne kawai, wato Congo ta Belgium, wanda ya fi girman Belgium sau 76. An kafa wannan mallaka ne a shekara ta 1908 bayan an sauya ikon mulki daga Ƙasar 'Yanci ta Kongo, wadda ta kasance mallakar kai tsaye ta sarkin Belgium Leopold II. Tashin hankali da cin zarafin da jami'an Ƙasar 'Yanci ta Kongo suka yi wa mutanen asalin ƙasar, da kuma mugun tsarin tattalin arziƙin ƙwace dukiya, ya haifar da matsin lamba daga ƙasashen duniya don Belgium ta karɓi cikakken ikon ƙasar. Mulkin Belgium a Congo ya ta'allaka ne da abota tsakanin gwamnati, mishan (ƙungiyoyin kirista) da kamfanonin kasuwanci masu zaman kansu, wanda ake kira "hadin gwiwar mulkin mallaka" (trinité coloniale). A shekarun 1940 da 1950, Congo ta samu gagarumar ci gaban birane kuma gwamnati na ƙoƙarin mayar da ita "mallaka abar koyi". Saboda motsin neman 'yanci da ya ƙara ƙarfi da radikalanci, Congo ta samu 'yancin kai a shekara ta 1960 a matsayin Jamhuriyar Congo-Léopoldville.

Daga cikin sauran mallakan Belgium, mafi muhimmanci shi ne Ruanda-Urundi, wani yanki na Gabashin Afirka ta Jamus, wanda aka bai wa Belgium a matsayin mallaka ƙarƙashin hukumar League of Nations bayan Jamus ta rasa dukkan mallakokinta a ƙarshen Yaƙin Duniya na Ɗaya. Bayan juyin juya halin Rwanda, wannan yankin ya zama ƙasashe masu 'yanci guda biyu: Burundi da Rwanda a shekara ta 1962.
 Daular Mallakar Faransa 

Daular mallakar Faransa ta fara rugujewa lokacin Yakin Duniya na Biyu lokacin da gwamnatin Vichy France ke iko da daular. Kasa bayan kasa, yawancin yankuna na mallaka sun fadi hannun wasu kasashen waje: Japan a Indochina, Birtaniya a Siriya, Lebanon da Madagascar, Amurka da Birtaniya a Maroko da Aljeriya, da Jamus da Italiya a Tunisiya. Charles de Gaulle ne ya fara dawo da iko a hankali, inda ya yi amfani da sansanonin mallaka don korar gwamnatin Vichy daga kasar Faransa. De Gaulle da mafi yawan Faransawa sun kuduri aniyar ci gaba da rike da daular cikin sabon tsari. An samar da Hadaddiyar Faransa wacce ta maye gurbin tsohuwar daula, amma har yanzu jami'an birnin Paris ke da cikakken iko. An bai wa yankunan majalisun cikin gida da iyakantaccen iko da kasafin kudi. An samu wata gungun fitattun mutane da ake kira *évolués*, 'yan asalin yankunan da Faransa ke mulki da ke zaune a cikin kasar Faransa.Patrick Manning, Francophone Sub-Saharan Africa 1880-1995 (1998) shf 135-63.Guy De Lusignan, French-speaking Africa since independence (1969) shf 3-86.Rudolph von, Decolonization: the Administration and Future of the Colonies, 1919-1960 (1971), 265-472.

De Gaulle ya shirya babban taro na yankunan Faransa masu 'yanci a Brazzaville, Afirka ta Tsakiya, a watan Janairu zuwa Fabrairu 1944. Tsira da dorewar Faransa ya dogara da goyon bayan wadannan yankuna, don haka De Gaulle ya yi alkawura da dama. Wadannan sun hada da kawo karshen tilasta wa mutane yin aiki, kawo karshen dokokin musamman da suka bambanta fararen fata da 'yan asalin yankuna, samar da zababbun majalisun yankuna, wakilci a Paris a cikin sabuwar "Kungiyar Faransa", da kuma wakilci daga yankin kudu da hamadar Sahara a majalisar Faransa. Sai dai kuma, 'yancin kai an fito fili an ce ba zai taba yiwuwa ba:

Manufar aikin wayar da kan al'umma da Faransa ta aiwatar a yankunan mallaka ya hana kowanne ra’ayi na cin gashin kai, ko sauya hanya daga tsarin daular Faransa; Ko da kuwa a nan gaba, tsarin mulki ba zai bai wa yankunan mallaka damar mulkin kai ba. Quoted in: 

 Rikice-rikice 
Bayan karewar Yakin Duniya na Biyu, Faransa ta fuskanci motsin neman 'yancin kai. A Aljeriya, zanga-zanga a watan Mayu 1945 ta jawo kashe-kashen da suka yi sanadiyyar mutuwar kimanin mutane 20,000 zuwa 45,000. Tashin hankali a Haiphong, Indochina, a watan Nuwamba 1945 ya jawo jirgin yaki na ruwan Faransa ya harba garin.J.F.V. Keiger, France and the World since 1870 (Arnold, 2001) shf 207. Gwamnatin Paul Ramadier (SFIO) ta murkushe Tashin Hankali a Madagascar a 1947. Faransa ta kiyasta mace-macen daga mutane 11,000 zuwa kimanin 89,000 bisa rahoton sojojin Faransa.Anthony Clayton, The Wars of French Decolonization (1994) shf 85

A Kamaru, tawagar Union of the Peoples of Cameroon karkashin Ruben Um Nyobé ta fara tarzoma a 1955, an murkushe ta da karfi tsawon shekaru biyu inda aka kashe kimanin mutane 100,000.

 Aljeriya 
Shugabancin Faransa a Aljeriya ya samo asali ne tun shekaru dari da suka gabata. Kungiyoyin Ferhat Abbas da Messali Hadj ne suka yi fice tsakanin yakin duniya biyu, amma bayan yakin duniya na biyu, matsin lamba ya karu. A 1945, an yi kashe-kashe a Sétif. Yakin 'Yancin Aljeriya ya fara a 1954. Bangarori duka biyu sun aikata danyen aiki, kuma yawan wadanda suka mutu yana da cece-kuce saboda dalilan yaɗa ra'ayi. Yakin ya rikide zuwa rikici na bangarori uku saboda yawan 'yan asalin Turai da suka zauna a Aljeriya tun lokacin mulkin Faransa. Rikicin siyasa a Faransa ya janyo rugujewar Jamhuriyar Hudu, inda Charles de Gaulle ya dawo mulki a 1958 ya kuma janye sojoji da Turawa daga Aljeriya a 1962.James McDougall, "The Impossible Republic: The Reconquest of Algeria and the Decolonization of France, 1945–1962", Journal of Modern History 89#4 (2017) shf 772–811 excerpt  Yakin ya dauki fiye da shekaru takwas, kuma adadin wadanda suka mutu ya kai tsakanin 300,000 zuwa 400,000. A 1962, Jam'iyyar 'Yancin Aljeriya ta cimma yarjejeniyar zaman lafiya da De Gaulle, wato Évian Accords, inda Turawa za su iya komawa kasashensu, ko zauna a Aljeriya a matsayin baki ko kuma su zama 'yan kasa. Mafi yawan Turawa miliyan daya da ke Aljeriya sun bar kasar.

 Al’ummar Faransa 
Masu ra’ayin mazan jiya na Faransa sun gaji da mulkin mallaka bayan bala’o’in da suka fuskanta a Indochina da Aljeriya. Suna son katse duk wata alaka da kasashen Afirka ta Kudu da Hamadar Sahara da Faransa ke da su. Lokacin yakin duniya, de Gaulle ya dogara da wadannan yankuna wajen kafa gwamnatin Faransa mai 'yanci. A ziyararsa ta 1958, ya bayyana kudirinsa na bai wa Afirka ta Kudu da ke karkashin Faransa muhimmanci a siyasar waje.Julian Jackson, De Gaulle (2018), shf 490-93, 525, 609-615. Hadaddiyar Faransa ta tsufa ta maye gurbinta da sabuwar Al’ummar Faransa karkashin tsarin mulkin 1958. Guinea ce kadai ta ki amincewa a kuri’ar raba gardama. Amma dai, Al’ummar Faransa ta ruguje a lokacin yakin Aljeriya; kusan duk sauran kasashen Afirka sun samu 'yancin kai a 1960
 Portugal 


Sabanin sauran ƙasashen Turai a shekarun 1950 da 1960, gwamnatin Estado Novo ta Portugal ba ta janye daga mulkinta na Afirka ba. A cikin shekarun 1960, kungiyoyin ‘yan gwagwarmaya masu ɗauke da makamai sun fara aiki a yankunan Afirka da Portugal ke mulka. Yaƙin Mulkin Mallaka na Portugal, wanda kuma aka sani da Yaƙin 'Yancin Angola, Yaƙin 'Yancin Guinea-Bissau da kuma Yaƙin 'Yancin Mozambique, rikici ne da ya ɗauki shekaru 13 ana yi tsakanin sojojin Portugal da ƙungiyoyin 'yan kishin ƙasa da ke neman 'yanci a yankunan Afirka daga shekarar 1961 zuwa 1974. A wancan lokacin, gwamnatin Portugal, wato Estado Novo, sojoji ne suka kifar da ita a juyin mulki na Carnation Revolution a shekarar 1974, kuma wannan sauyin gwamnati ne ya kawo ƙarshen yaƙin. Daga Mayu 1974 zuwa ƙarshen shekarun 1970, fiye da mutane 500,000 daga cikin ‘yan ƙasar Portugal da ke zaune a yankunan Afirka da Portugal ke mulka (galibinsu daga Angola da Mozambique) sun bar waɗannan yankuna a matsayin ‘yan gudun hijira—retornados.Gudun Hijira daga Angola, The Economist (16 Agusta 1975).Rushe Daular Portugal, Time Magazine (Litinin, 7 Yuli 1975).

 Suwidin 

Sweden ta mallaki wasu ƙauyuka na ɗan lokaci a gabar tekun Gold (a halin yanzu Ghana) daga 22 ga Afrilu 1650 zuwa 20 Afrilu 1663, lokacin da Denmark ta kwace babban birnin Fort Carlsborg da Fort Christianborg.

Cape Coast

A cikin 1652, Swedes sun ɗauki Cape Coast a halin yanzu Ghana, wanda a baya yana ƙarƙashin ikon Dutch kuma kafin hakan Portuguese. Cape Coast ta ta'allaka ne akan katangar Carolusburg da aka gina a shekara ta 1653 kuma aka sanya mata suna bayan Sarki Charles X Gustav na Sweden amma yanzu ana kiranta da Cape Coast Castle.

 Amurka 

Mulkin Mallakar Laberiya
Mallakar Laberiya, daga baya ƙasar Laberiya, ta kasance wani yanki mai zaman kansa na  ƙungiyar Mulkin Mallaka ta Amurka (ACS) wanda ya fara a 1822. Ta zama ƙasa mai cin gashin kanta—Jamhuriyar Laberiya—bayan Sanarwa ayyana 'yancin kai a 1847.
+ Kasashen da suka sami 'yancin kai daga Amurka Ƙasa Sunan mulkin mallaka Ikon mulki Ranar samun 'yanci Shugaban ƙasa na farko Yadda aka sami 'yancin kai   American Colonization Society, Liberia  (American Colonization Society) 26 Yuli 1847 Joseph Jenkins RobertsWilliam Tubman Takaddar 'Yancin Kai ta Liberia
Samun Ƙarfin Mulki
{| class="wikitable sortable tpl-blanktable"
!Ƙasa
!Ranar samun Ƙarfin Mulki
!Hanyar samun Ƙarfin Mulki
|-
|
|3 Yuli 1962
|Faransa ta amince da sakamakon kuri'ar raba gardama na neman 'yanci da aka gudanar kwanaki biyu kafin haka
|-
|
|11 Nuwamba 1975
|'Yanci daga Portugal
|-
|
|1 Agusta 1960
|'Yanci daga Faransa
|-
||30 Satumba 1966
|'Yanci daga Birtaniya
|-
||5 Agusta 1960
|'Yanci daga Faransa
|-
||1 Yuli 1962
|'Yanci daga Belgium
|-
||24 Satumba 1973 10 Satumba 1974 (an amince) 5 Yuli 1975
|'Yanci daga Portugal
|-
||1 Janairu 1960
|'Yanci daga Faransa
|-
||13 Agusta 1960
|'Yanci daga Faransa
|-
||11 Agusta 1960
|'Yanci daga Faransa
|-
||6 Yuli 1975
|Ayyana 'yanci daga Faransa
|-
||30 Yuni 1960
|'Yanci daga Belgium
|-
||15 Agusta 1960
|'Yanci daga Faransa
|-
||27 Yuni 1977
|'Yanci daga Faransa
|-
||28 Fabrairu 1922
|Birtaniya ta dakatar da ikon mallakar ƙasar, ta ba Masar 'yancin kai
|-
||12 Oktoba 1968
|'Yanci daga Sipen
|-
||1 Yuni 19365 Mayu 1941 19 Mayu 1941 10 Fabrairu 1947 19 Fabrairu 1951 15 Satumba 1952
|Ayyukan yaƙin Abyssinia, ayyana 'yanci daga Habasha
|-
||6 Satumba 1968
|'Yanci daga Birtaniya a matsayin Swaziland
|-
||5 Mayu 1941
|Yaƙin Abyssinia
|-
||17 Agusta 1960
|'Yanci daga Faransa
|-
||18 Fabrairu 1965
|'Yanci daga Birtaniya
|-
||6 Maris 1957
|'Yanci daga Birtaniya
|-
||2 Oktoba 1958
|'Yanci daga Faransa
|-
||24 Satumba 1973 10 Satumba 1974 (an amince) 5 Yuli 1975
|Ayyana 'yanci daga Portugal
|-
||4 Disamba 1958
|Jihar mai cin gashin kanta a cikin Ƙungiyar Faransa
|-
||7 Agusta 1960
|'Yanci daga Faransa
|-
||12 Disamba 1963
|'Yanci daga Birtaniya
|-
||4 Oktoba 1966
|'Yanci daga Birtaniya
|-
||26 Yuli 1847
|'Yanci daga Ƙungiyar Kwantar da Hankalin Amurka (American Colonization Society)
|-
||24 Disamba 1951
|'Yanci daga kulawar Majalisar Ɗinkin Duniya bayan mulkin Italiya ya ƙare
|-
| rowspan="2" ||14 Oktoba 1958
|An kafa Jamhuriyar Malagasy a matsayin jiharmu mai cin gashin kanta a Ƙungiyar Faransa
|-
|26 Yuni 1960
|Faransa ta amince da 'yancin Madagascar
|-
||6 Yuli 1964
|'Yanci daga Birtaniya
|-
| rowspan="2" ||25 Nuwamba 1958
|Sudan ta Faransa ta sami ikon kanta
|-
|24 Nuwamba 1958 4 Afrilu 1959 20 Yuni 1960 20 Agusta 1960 22 Satumba 1960
|'Yanci daga Faransa
|-
||28 Nuwamba 1960
|'Yanci daga Faransa
|-
||12 Maris 1968
|'Yanci daga Birtaniya
|-
||7 Afrilu 1956
|'Yanci daga Faransa da Sipen
|-
||25 Yuni 1975
|'Yanci daga Portugal
|-
||21 Maris 1990
|'Yanci daga mulkin Afirka ta Kudu
|-
| rowspan="2" ||4 Disamba 1958
|Cin gashin kai a Ƙungiyar Faransa
|-
|3 Agusta 1960
|'Yanci daga Faransa
|-
||1 Oktoba 1960
|'Yanci daga Birtaniya
|-
||1 Yuli 1962
|'Yanci daga Belgium
|-
||12 Yuli 1975
|'Yanci daga Portugal
|-
||20 Yuni 1960 20 Agusta 1960 22 Satumba 1960
|'Yanci daga Faransa
|-
||29 Yuni 1976
|'Yanci daga Birtaniya
|-
||27 Afrilu 1961
|'Yanci daga Birtaniya
|-
||26 Yuni 1960 1 Yuli 1960
|Haɗewar yankin Tsohon Somaliyar Italiya da Tsohon Somaliyar Birtaniya
|-
| rowspan="2" ||11 Disamba 1931
|Dokar Westminster: ba da cin gashin kai ga Union of South Africa daga Birtaniya
|-
|31 Mayu 1910
|Ƙirƙirar Union of South Africa daga tsoffin yankuna
|-
||9 Yuli 2011
|'Yanci daga Sudan bayan yaƙin basasa
|-
||1 Janairu 1956
|'Yanci daga hadin mulki na Masar da Birtaniya
|-
||'9 Disamba 1961
|'Yancin Tanganyika daga Birtaniya
|-
| rowspan="2" ||30 Agusta 1958
|Cin gashin kai a Ƙungiyar Faransa
|-
|27 Afrilu 1960
|'Yanci daga Faransa
|-
||20 Maris 1956
|'Yanci daga Faransa
|-
| rowspan="2" ||1 March 1962
|An ba da ikon cin gashin kai
|-
|9 October 1962
|'Yancin kai daga Birtaniya
|-
||24 October 1964
|'Yancin kai daga Birtaniya
|-
| rowspan="2" |'|11 November 1965
|Ayyaɗewar 'yancin kai ba tare da izini ba daga Rhodesia ta Kudu
|-
|18 April 1980
|An amince da 'yancin kai daga Birtaniya a matsayin Zimbabwe
|}

 Mulkin mallaka na zamani 

Mulkin mallaka a zamanin mulkin mallaka, yawanci yana nufin ƙasashen Yammacin Turai suna kwace ƙasashe a Amurka, Afirka, Asiya, da Oseaniya. Manyan ƙasashen Turai da suka yi aiki a irin wannan mulkin mallaka sun haɗa da Spain, Portugal, Faransa, Tsardom na Rasha (daga baya Daular Rasha da Ƙungiyar Soviet), Masarautar Ingila (daga baya Masarautar Birtaniya), Netherlands, Belgium da Masarautar Prussia (yanzu mafi yawan Jamus), kuma daga karni na 18, Amurka. Yawancin waɗannan ƙasashen sun sami lokaci na kusan cikakken rinjaye a harkar ciniki ta duniya daga kusan shekara ta 1500 zuwa 1900. Daga ƙarshen karni na 19, Japan ma ta shiga harkar mulkin mallaka, musamman a Hokkaido da Korea.

Yayinda wasu mulkin mallaka na Turai suka mai da hankali kan gajeren lokaci na cin gajiyar damar tattalin arziki (misali Newfoundland ko Siberia) ko kuma don wasu manufofi na musamman kamar masu zaman kansu da ke neman 'yancin addini (Massachusetts), a wasu lokuta an shirya tsare-tsaren dogon lokaci na zamantakewa da tattalin arziki ga dukkan ɓangarorin, amma mafi yawa don ƙasashen masu mulki ne, bisa ga tsari mai zurfi (kamar yadda James Oglethorpe ya yi a Mulkin Georgia a shekarun 1730 da Edward Gibbon Wakefield a Kamfanin New Zealand a shekarun 1840). A wasu lokuta mulkin mallakar Turai ya kasance don samun ribar tattalin arziki ta dogon lokaci, kamar a Congo inda Joseph Conrad ya bayyana rayuwa a ƙarƙashin mulkin Sarki Leopold II na Belgium a karni na 19 kuma Siddharth Kara ya bayyana mulkin mallaka da tasirin Turawa da Sinawa a karni na 20 da 21.

Mulkin mallaka na iya zama wata hanya ta shigar da haɗa mutanen ƙasashen waje cikin al'adun ƙasar mulkin mallaka. Wata hanya a wannan fanni ita ce mulkin harshen ƙasa, ko amfani da harsunan mallakar ƙasar waje ba tare da ba da damar harsunan asali su samu amfani ba musamman wajen gudanarwa (da kuma a wuraren jama'a).

Gado
Tattalin Arziki
Akwai rubuce-rubuce da dama da suka yi nazari a kan gado da tasirin mulkin mallaka da tsarin mulkin mallaka kan cigaban tattalin arzikin Afirka, inda bincike da dama ke nuna sakamako daban-daban na tattalin arziki.

Ra'ayin nazarin zamani na cigaba (modernisation theory) ya bayyana cewa kasashen da suka yi mulkin mallaka sun gina abubuwan more rayuwa domin haɗa Afirka da tattalin arzikin duniya; sai dai an fi mayar da hankali wajen amfani da wannan ababen more rayuwar ne don fitar da albarkatu zuwa kasashen turai. Tsarin tattalin arzikin Afirka an gina shi ne don amfanar da masu mulkin mallaka, inda duk wata riba da ake samu za ta tafi wurinsu, hakan kuma yana hana ci gaban tarin jarin yankunan cikin gida.Bertocchia, G. & Canova, F., (2002) Did colonization matter for growth? An empirical exploration into the historical causes of Africa's underdevelopment. European Economic Review, Volume 46, pp. 1851-1871 Ra'ayin dogaro (dependency theory) na cewa, yawancin tattalin arzikin kasashen Afirka sun ci gaba da zama a matsayin na biyu cikin tsarin tattalin arzikin duniya bayan samun ‘yancin kai, suna dogaro da kayayyakin albarkatu na asali kamar tagulla a Zambiya da shayi a Kenya.Vincent Ferraro, "Dependency Theory: An Introduction", in The Development Economics Reader, ed. Giorgio Secondi (London: Routledge, 2008), pp. 58-64 Duk da wannan dogaro da rashin daidaiton kasuwanci, wani binciken kwatanta (meta-analysis) da aka gudanar a kasashe 18 na Afirka ya gano cewa kashi daya cikin uku daga cikinsu sun samu cigaban tattalin arziki bayan samun ‘yancin kai.

Al’umma
Harshe
Masana irinsu Dellal (2013), Miraftab (2012), da Bamgbose (2011) sun bayyana cewa yawan bambancin harsunan Afirka ya ragu sosai. An yi amfani da harshe a matsayin kayan aiki daga kasashen turai masu mulkin mallaka wajen raba yankuna da kuma kirkirar sabbin ainihi, wanda hakan ya janyo rikice-rikice da tashin hankali a tsakanin kasashen Afirka.IMF Country Report No. 17/80 (2017). Article Iv Consultation - Press Release; Staff Report; And Statement By The Executive Director For Nigeria.

Doka
A farkon shekarun bayan samun ‘yancin kai, kasashen Afirka da dama sun ci gaba da amfani da dokokin mulkin mallaka. Sai dai daga shekarar 2015, yawancin wadannan dokokin na mulkin mallaka an sauya su da dokoki da aka rubuta a cikin gida.

 Manazarta 

 Ƙara karatu


 Brennan, James R. "The Cold War battle over global news in East Africa: decolonization, the free flow of information, and the media business, 1960-1980." Journal of Global History 10.2 (2015): 333+.
 Brown, Judith M. and Wm. Roger Louis, eds. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume IV: The Twentieth Century (2001) pp 515–73. online
 Burton, Antoinette. The Trouble with Empire: Challenges to Modern British Imperialism (2015)
 Chafer, Tony. The end of empire in French West Africa: France's successful decolonization (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2002).
 Chafer, Tony, and Alexander Keese, eds. Francophone Africa at fifty (Oxford UP, 2015).
 Clayton, Anthony. The wars of French decolonization (Routledge, 2014).
 Cohen, Andrew. The politics and economics of decolonization in Africa: the failed experiment of the Central African Federation (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2017).
 Cooper, Frederick. Decolonization and African society: The labor question in French and British Africa (Cambridge University Press, 1996).
 Gerits, Frank. The Ideological Scramble for Africa: How the Pursuit of Anticolonial Modernity Shaped a Postcolonial Order (1945–1966) (Cornell University Press, 2023). ISBN13: 9781501767913.  Major scholarly coverage of British, French and Portuguese colonies. see online reviews and reply by author

 Gordon, April A. and Donald L. Gordon, Lynne Riener. Understanding Contemporary Africa (London, 1996). online


 Horne, Alistair. (1977). A Savage War of Peace: Algeria, 1954-1962. Viking Press.
 James, Leslie, and Elisabeth Leake, eds. Decolonization and the Cold War: Negotiating Independence (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2015).
 Jeppesen, Chris, and Andrew W.M. Smith, eds. Britain, France and the Decolonization of Africa: Future Imperfect? (UCL Press, 2017) online.
 Jerónimo, Miguel Bandeira, and António Costa Pinto, eds. The Ends of European Colonial Empires: Cases and Comparisons (Springer, 2016).
 Khapoya, Vincent B. The African Experience (1994) online
 Louis, Wm Roger, and Ronald Robinson. "The imperialism of decolonization." Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 22.3 (1994): 462–511.
 Manthalu, Chikumbutso Herbert, and Yusef Waghid, eds. Education for Decoloniality and Decolonisation in Africa (Springer, 2019).
 MacQueen, Norrie. The Decolonization of Portuguese Africa: Metropolitan Revolution and the Dissolution of Empire (1997) online
 Mazrui, Ali A. ed. "General History of Africa" vol. VIII, UNESCO, 1993
 McDougall, James. (2017). A History of Algeria. Cambridge University Press.
 McDougall, James. (2006). History and the culture of nationalism in Algeria. Cambridge University Press.
 Meriwether, James Hunter. Tears, Fire, and Blood: The United States and the Decolonization of Africa (University of North Carolina Press, 2021). online review
Michalopoulos, Stelios; Papaioannou, Elias (2020-03-01). "Historical Legacies and African Development." Journal of Economic Literature. 58#1: 53–128. online 
 Milford, Ismay. African Activists in a Decolonising World: The Making of an Anticolonial Culture, 1952–1966 (Cambridge University Press, 2023). 
 Muschik, Eva-Maria. "Managing the world: the United Nations, decolonization, and the strange triumph of state sovereignty in the 1950s and 1960s." Journal of Global History 13.1 (2018): 121–144.
 Ndlovu‐Gatsheni, Sabelo J. "Decoloniality as the future of Africa." History Compass 13.10 (2015): 485–496. online 
 Rothermund, Dietmar. The Routledge companion to decolonization (Routledge, 2006), comprehensive global coverage; 365pp excerpt 
 Sarmento, João. "Portuguese tropical geography and decolonization in Africa: the case of Mozambique." Journal of Historical Geography 66 (2019): 20–30.
 Seidler, Valentin. "Copying informal institutions: the role of British colonial officers during the decolonization of British Africa." Journal of Institutional Economics 14.2 (2018): 289–312. online
 Strang, David. "From dependency to sovereignty: An event history analysis of decolonization 1870-1987." American Sociological Review (1990): 846–860. online 
 Thomas, Martin, Bob Moore, and Larry Butler. Crises of Empire: Decolonization and Europe's imperial states (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2015).
  for the viewpoint from London and Paris.
 White, Nicholas. Decolonization: the British experience since 1945 (Routledge, 2014).
 Wilder, Gary. Freedom time: negritude, decolonization, and the future of the world (Duke University Press, 2015). excerpt 
 Winks, Robin, ed. The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume V: Historiography (2001) ch 29–34, pp 450–557. How historians covered the history online
 Wood, Sarah L. "How Empires Make Peripheries: 'Overseas France' in Contemporary History." Contemporary European History'' (2019): 1–12. online

 Mahaɗa 
 Africa: 50 years of independence  Radio France Internationale in English
 "Winds of Change or Hot Air? Decolonization and the Salt Water Test" Legal Frontiers International Law Blog