Laifi

Laifi ko aikata laifuka, a cikin ilimin laifuka. "Hanyar da halayen mutane ke canzawa zuwa aikata laifula da masu Laifi". Ayyukan shari'a a baya za a iya canza su zuwa laifuka ta hanyar doka ko yanke shawara ta shari'a. Koyaya, yawanci akwai zato na al'ada a cikin ka'idojin Fassarar doka game da aikace-aikacen dokoki, kuma kawai amfani da kalmomi masu bayyanawa ta majalisa na iya karyata wannan zato. Ikon alƙalai na yin sabuwar doka da kuma aikata laifuka kuma an hana su. A hanyar da ba a bayyana ba, inda ba a aiwatar da dokoki sosai ba, ayyukan da waɗancan dokoki suka haramta na iya fuskantar aikata laifuka ta hanyar ingantaccen aiki ko aiwatar da doka. Tsarin aikata laifuka yana faruwa ne ta hanyar cibiyoyin al'umma ciki har da makarantu, iyali, da tsarin shari'ar aikata laifula.

 Matsalolin 
Akwai wasu rashin tabbas game da yanayin da girman gudummawar da wadanda ke fama da aikata laifuka za su yi. Amma, kamar yadda Garkawe (2001) ya nuna, dangantakar da ke tsakanin ilimin azabtarwa da ilimin laifuka ta zama matsala. Damuwa ita ce, a cikin ilimin Realism na Dama da Realism na Hagu,  mai da hankali kan wanda aka azabtar yana inganta haƙƙoƙin zaɓaɓɓu ga wasu waɗanda aka azabtar, kuma yana ba da shawarar zaton cewa wasu haƙƙoƙcin waɗanda aka azabta sun fi muhimmanci fiye da haƙƙoƙi ko dabi'u masu gasa a cikin al'umma.  Misali, mai fafutukar mata ta Musulunci na iya neman daidaito na kulawa ga mata a matsayin wadanda abin ya shafa kuma, sabili da haka, suna buƙatar kawar da zubar da ciki, Zina, da yaudara (Zina laifi ne na Hudud a cikin dokar shari'a), da kuma aikata laifuka na tashin hankali na gida da cin zarafin jima'i.

A cikin ka'idar da aka buga a fannin ilimi, ainihin rukunin masu mulki na al'umma sun kai ga ra'ayi na wucin gadi kan ko wasu ayyuka ko halayen suna da lahani ko laifi. A tarihi wannan ka'idar za a canza ta hanyar kimiyya, shaidar likita, ta hanyar canjin siyasa, kuma tsarin shari'ar aikata laifuka na iya ko bazai bi da waɗannan batutuwa a matsayin laifuka ba.

Sabanin haka, lokacin da siyasa ta yankin ta yanke shawarar cewa ba laifi ba ne, ana iya kawar da su. Misali, Shawarwarin No. R (95) 12 da Kwamitin Ministoci Majalisar Turai ya karɓa kan gudanar da shari'ar aikata laifuka, yana ba da shawarar cewa manufofin aikata laifukan kamar decriminalization, depenalisation ko karkatarwa, da kuma sulhu ya kamata a karɓa a duk inda ya yiwu. Amma muhawara ta doka da oda tsakanin 'yan siyasa na dama da na hagu sau da yawa ba ta da ma'ana kuma ba ta da kimiyya, suna tsara manufofi bisa ga roƙonsu ga masu jefa kuri'a marasa ilimi maimakon gudanar da bincike yadda ya kamata.

 Ka'idoji 
ka'idoji da yawa na iya tallafawa yanke shawara game da aikata laifuka. Wadannan sun hada da ka'idar de minimis, na mafi ƙarancin laifi. A karkashin wannan ka'idar, ka'idar cutar gabaɗaya ta kasa la'akari da yiwuwar wasu takunkumi da tasirin aikata laifuka a matsayin zaɓi da aka zaɓa. Wadannan sauran takunkumi sun hada da kotunan farar hula, dokokin laifi da ka'idoji. Samun magungunan aikata laifuka a wurin ana ganinsa a matsayin "mafiye na ƙarshe" tunda irin waɗannan ayyukan galibi suna keta 'yancin mutum - ɗaurin kurkuku, alal misali, yana hana' yancin motsi. A wannan ma'anar, dokar da ke ba da wannan ta fi mai da hankali kan haƙƙin ɗan adam. Yawancin laifuka na ayyukan kai tsaye (kisan kai, fyade, hari, alal misali) gabaɗaya ba sa shafar irin wannan matsayi, amma yana buƙatar ƙarin hujja a cikin lokuta marasa bayyane.

Ana iya ganin manufofin "Tsaron jama'a" a matsayin ra'ayi mai adawa. Yana jayayya cewa ana amfani da aikata laifuka a kan "duk wani nau'in aiki wanda ke barazana ga tsari mai kyau ko kuma ana tunanin yana da laifi". Ka'idar ragewa na iya hana daidaita dokar ga sababbin yanayi ba tare da saninsa ba. Gabaɗaya, masu tsara manufofi a duniya sun kirkiro ƙananan laifuka, a sabawa ka'idar ragewa kuma sun fi dacewa da tsaron jama'a.

 Hargitsi 
Manyan masana falsafa na shari'ar aikata laifuka, kamar su Dennis Baker da Joel Feinberg sun yi jayayya cewa ya kamata a aikata laifukan hali ne kawai lokacin da ya dace a yi hakan. Musamman, irin waɗannan masu ra'ayi suna tabbatar da cewa ana buƙatar dalilai masu ma'ana don nuna cewa yana da kyau a aikata laifuka a kowane hali. Tabbacin da aka saba ambaton shi don kiran dokar aikata laifuka yana da lahani ga wasu, amma ba zai iya magance dukkan yanayi ba. Misali, mutane ba lallai bane su cutar da tsirara ta jama'a. Feinberg ya ba da shawarar cewa laifi ga wasu kuma yana ba da dalili mai ma'ana don kiran dokar aikata laifuka, amma a bayyane yake ba kamar yadda aka ƙaddara laifi bisa ga ɗabi'a ta al'ada. Karuwanci wani yanki ne mai launin toka, kamar yadda wasu ƙasashe suka ba da izini a cikin nau'o'i daban-daban, kuma yana da wahala a faɗi ko yana cutar da jama'a gaba ɗaya. Ɗaya daga cikin gardama na iya zama cewa karuwanci yana ci gaba da yaduwar cututtukan da ake samu ta hanyar jima'i, gami da HIV / AIDS, sabili da haka yana cutar da jama'a waɗanda ke shiga cikin aikin karuwanci. Koyaya, halatta karuwanci zai canza yadda ake tsara shi, kuma tilasta bin doka na iya samun hanyar hana yaduwar cututtukan da ake samu ta hanyar jima'i, don haka kawar da batun kiwon lafiya kuma za a raunana batun halin kirki na sana'ar.

Mutane sata fuskantar raunin jiki da zamantakewa a wurare daban-daban wanda zai bambanta bisa ga matakin tattalin arziki da ci gaban siyasa na ƙasarsu. Wasu za su ji rauni daga talauci da Rashin abinci mai gina jiki, wasu kuma ta hanyar tashin hankali wanda zai iya fitowa daga babban rikici kamar yaƙi ko daga tashin hankali a cikin fashi. Yanayi na iya lalacewa ta hanyar gurɓataccen yanayi, akwai yiwuwar haɗari a wurin aiki. Yawancin waɗannan tushen rauni za a yi watsi da su yayin da jihar na iya ba da iko ga hukumomi daban-daban a cikin tsarin sama da kasa inda hukumomin da ke da alaƙa da kungiyoyin kare hakkin dan adam zasu iya ba da taimako wajen amsa abubuwan da ke haifar da raunin.

 Hanyoyin ɗabi'a da cin gashin kansu 
Har zuwa inda halayen da ake la'akari da halin kirki a cikin wani iko ya kamata a aikata laifuka ne mai rikitarwa. Yin ƙarya ko karya alkawura ba a hukunta su ba, alal misali. Patrick Devlin ya yi imanin cewa halin kirki yana da mahimmanci wajen kiyaye hadin kan jihar, don haka ya kamata masu yin doka su sami damar aikata laifuka game da halin lalata. Koyaya, masu adawa da wannan tsarin yawanci suna ba da shawarar yin amfani da ka'idar cutarwa kawai kuma cewa lalata ba dalili ba ne a kanta tunda ana iya amfani da sakamakon irin wannan aikin don zuwa ƙarshe shi kaɗai. Tattaunawar Devlin tana amfani da ƙyamar jama'a gaba ɗaya a matsayin ma'anar ɗabi'a; duk da haka, batutuwan da suka shafi nuna bambanci sun nuna cewa wannan ba shi da kyau kuma abokan adawar suna matsawa don ma'anar da ta fi tsananin idan za a yi amfani da wannan hanyar. Devlin ya ba da shawarar juriya don ba da alamar halin lalata. Kazalika da nuna bambanci, ra'ayoyi na iya bambanta sosai a kan batutuwa kamar luwaɗi, rigakafin haihuwa da sauran batutuwa, musamman wadanda addini ya rinjayi. Yarjejeniya za ta kasance da wuya a samu. Sauran 'yan adawa sun fito ne daga kungiyoyi masu sassaucin ra'ayi waɗanda ke son hanyoyin da ke kara yawan haƙƙin mutum. Tushen ɗabi'a don aikata laifuka zai zama na iyaye, don haka ya bambanta da ikon cin gashin kai na mutum. Yarjejeniyar Turai ta 'Yancin Dan Adam, a mafi yawancin bangarorin tallafawa' yancin mutum daga tsangwama ta gwamnati, har yanzu ta haɗa da tanadi don tsangwama "don kare lafiya da ɗabi'a"  kamar yadda doka ke buƙatar belin zama a sa shi (a wasu hukunce-hukunce) yana da wuyar tabbatarwa idan an ɗauki tsarin mutum, tunda, idan an yi watsi da karancin tanadin lafiyar jama'a, ana haifar da lahani ga wasu. 

Joseph Raz ya yi jayayya cewa jihar ba za ta iya kuma bai kamata ta tilasta ɗabi'a ba; maimakon haka, duk wani yunkuri na iyakance ikon cin gashin kai ya kamata a yi shi ne kawai don iyakance lahani. Wasu manufofi na ɗabi'a na iya zama masu adalci idan sun faɗaɗa ikon cin gashin kansu. Idan halin lalata na wasu ya shafi ikon cin gashin kansa na wani, to ana iya yin hakan a kan doka. Akwai wasu kungiyoyi wadanda ka'idar cin gashin kansu ta raunana: wadanda ba su kai shekaru da yawa ba da kuma wadanda suka lalace, alal misali, ta hanyar rikicewar hankali. Gabaɗaya, ana kare waɗannan mutane daga ayyukan da ke da sakamako mai mahimmanci, idan ba su cikin matsayi don yin yanke shawara mai ma'ana da kansu ba. Wannan na iya haɗawa da aikata laifuka na shan giya, shan sigari, caca da ayyukan jima'i. Irin wannan aikata laifuka ba a kalubalanci shi sosai.

A cikin Dokar Burtaniya, an yi bambanci tsakanin ayyukan jama'a da masu zaman kansu a cikin Rahoton Wolfenden, wanda ya bincika ayyukan jima'i (musamman luwadi da karuwanci). Wasu ayyukan za su zama doka a cikin saitunan masu zaman kansu, amma ba bisa ka'ida ba a cikin saituran jama'a. Tabbatar da wannan shine ra'ayin firgici ko cin zarafi ga jama'a. Joel Feinberg ya fi son irin wannan layin, wanda ya yi jayayya cewa dalili ne mai kyau don tallafawa doka idan ya hana "babban laifi" ga mutane ban da ɗan wasan kwaikwayo. Masana falsafa irin su Feinberg suna gwagwarmaya don ƙididdige akidar da ke bayan haramtacciyar ayyukan da a wani wuri zai zama abin karɓa (wanda ke aiki da kansu ba ya haifar da lahani, alal misali), misali tsirara. Tun da irin waɗannan ayyukan a bainar jama'a sun zama ba bisa ka'ida ba bisa ga firgici, to ko aikata laifi ya dogara da sauye-sauyen ra'ayi na jama'a, wanda ya bambanta daga wuri zuwa wuri kuma daga lokaci zuwa lokaci. Ma'anar "zagi" maimakon "matsayi" na iya zama takamaiman.

 Rashin aiki 

Dokar al'ada ba sau da yawa ta sami mai wasan kwaikwayo da ke da alhakin barin - rashin yin wani abu da doka ta buƙaci. Inda wannan ya yi amfani da shi yawanci ya kasance a cikin tsarin masana'antu, a cikin al'amuran tsaro na zamantakewa ko wasu ayyukan da aka tsara na mutum kamar tuki (alal misali, idan aka bugawa da gudu).  Wadannan yanayin da aka sanya akan aiki a wata hanya kuma an fahimci su a cikin wannan mahallin. Akwai ƙananan ayyuka a cikin hukunce-hukuncen doka ta yau da kullun, kodayake waɗannan sun haɗa da alhakin iyaye don kare 'ya'yansu, ga mai mallakar ƙasa don hana aikata laifuka a can, da kuma ga wani da ke haifar da yanayi mai haɗari don ƙoƙarin iyakance wannan haɗari. Masu goyon bayan iyakantaccen alhakin barin aiki sun ba da shawarar cewa kalmomin irin wannan doka ba za su kasance ba su da tabbas, mai yiwuwa sun haɗa da kulawa ko aiki "mai ma'ana", don haka zai zama da wahala a aiwatar da shi. Wannan zai ba masu gabatar da kara cikakken hankali, wanda zai iya tsayayya da adalci. A halin kirki, mutane da yawa suna kallon watsi da shi a matsayin ƙaramin matsala fiye da aiki; idan aka kwatanta da kisan kai, barin wani ya mutu ana ganin shi ƙarami ne. Bukatar ciyar da lokacin mutum da kuzari don taimakawa wasu zai zama kamar ya saba wa ikon cin gashin kai wasu dokoki da yawa da ke da niyyar samar da mutum.

Masu adawa sun nuna cewa waɗannan muhawara sun kasa la'akari da cutar da irin wannan watsi zai iya haifar, ya sabawa ka'idar cutar da yawancin tsarin shari'a suka fara da ita. Rayuwa da amincin jiki galibi sune mafi girman fifiko na tsarin shari'a. Matsalolin ma'anar suna da alaƙa da wasu yankuna da yawa, masu ra'ayi kamar Feinburg sun nuna. Ceto mai nauyi ba zai iya zama da ƙarancin amfani fiye da 'yancin aiki ba. Ana ɗaukar iyakantaccen alhakin a matsayin Mataki na 223 na Dokar Shari'a ta Faransa, wanda ya aikata laifi: " (1) mutumin da ya yi watsi da shi don hana babban laifi na laifi a kan wannan mutumin, idan za'a iya hana wannan laifi ba tare da haɗari ko haɗari ga wasu ba; da kuma (2) mutumin da ya manta da bayar, ga mutumin da ke cikin haɗari, taimako wanda za'a ba tare da hadarin kansa ko haɗari ba ga wasu. "  Wannan ya zama ruwan dare tare da wasu hukunce-hukuncen Turai da yawa. Yayinda yake buɗewa ga zargi na rashin tabbas da kuma ikon mai gabatar da kara, ba a gan shi a matsayin mai zalunci ba.

 Hanyar da ake ciki 
Lokacin da jihar ta yi muhawara ko ta amsa tushen rauni ta hanyar aikata laifuka ga halin da ke haifar da shi, babu ka'idojin da aka riga aka tsara don amfani da su wajen tsara manufofin zamantakewa. Babu gaskiyar ontological ga aikata laifuka. Tsarin shari'ar aikata laifuka yana amsawa ga yawan abubuwan da ba su haifar da wahala ga kowane ɗan ƙasa ba. Bugu da ƙari, abubuwan da ke haifar da mummunan rauni kuma watakila ya kamata a magance su a matsayin laifuka, misali yanayin kisan kai na kamfanoni, ko dai an yi watsi da su ko kuma a magance su azaman al'amuran farar hula.

Tsarin aikata laifuka yana bayyanawa da rarraba halayyar. Yana watsa dokoki don babu wanda zai iya samun uzuri na jahilci, kuma yana kawar da waɗanda ba za su yi biyayya ba. Yanzu akwai wasu dokoki masu aikata laifuka kuma suna shiga cikin tsarin zamantakewar al'ummomin zamani. Kula da aikata laifuka ya zama masana'antu, duk da haka ya kasance mara tasiri wajen samar da kariya ga dukkan 'yan ƙasa daga lahani. Kamar yadda yake, tsari ya kunshi abubuwa uku:

 Halitta tsarin zamantakewa. Wannan tsari ne na zamantakewa da tattalin arziki, "...babban tsari na dangantakar zamantakewa don a samar da waɗannan abubuwan da ake buƙata don rayuwar zamantakewa kuma a rarraba su a wasu hanyoyin da za a iya hangowa" da kuma tsarin akida don a sami "...ci gaban dabi'u, imani, da ra'ayoyin da suka shafi ayyukan samarwa da rarrabawa. Don haka, dole ne al'umma ta haɓaka kayan aikin kirkirar doka, tilasta doka da azabtarwa kuma tsarin dole ne ya zama karɓa ga yawancin waɗanda ke zaune a cikin al'umma. Idan dokokin ba su dace da dabi'u na gaba ɗaya ba, tilasta su zai zama tushen rikici da rashin jituwa. Dole ne a tilasta bin tsarin zamantakewa, a mafi yawancin, da kansa. 
 Ga lokutan da tilasta wa kai ya kasa, dole ne al'umma ta kirkiro tsari na doka. Wannan bangare na tsari yana ganin tsakiya na iko a cikin cibiyoyin siyasa. Wasu jihohi sun tabbatar da tsarin aikata laifuka kamar yadda suke nuna damuwarsu game da aminci da tsaro, manufofin sarrafawa, 'yan sanda, shari'ar aikata laifula, da aikin hukunci. Jiha ta zamani tana rarraba da kuma mallakar ayyukanta. Wannan yana canza halayyar da abubuwan da ke cikin sauran cibiyoyin jihar wanda yanzu dole ne ya yi aiki tare da wasu hukumomin riba.
 Dole ne tsarin siyasa ya sake daidaitawa don sauran ƙungiyoyin siyasa kamar su majalisun dokoki da alƙalai su kafa manufofi da aka amince da su don kula da jihar sannan su samar da ainihin abubuwan da suka fito daga tsarin doka, watau na mutanen da aka bayyana a matsayin masu laifi kuma an aiwatar da su ta hanyar wannan tsarin.

 Tushen aikata laifuka 
Sanya cikin mafi sauƙaƙan sharuddan, ontology yana ma'amala da ko kafa tabbataccen dalilan zama. (Heidegger, Martin, Kasancewa da Lokaci, Gabatarwa, Maganar Plato's Parmenides.) A cikin wasu makarantun gargajiya, irin su na bayan-1688 Ingilishi ko Amurkawa (yawancin rubuce-rubucen Ubannin Kafa na Amurka, amma musamman ma The Federalist) da magabata na Holland (duba Kossmann, E. H. Siyasar Siyasa a cikin Jamhuriyar Dutch 40) da ya dace da Tsarin Siyasa a cikin Jamhuriyar Holland. tunani na shari'a, daidai da bambance-bambancen zamani tsakanin al'umma da ƙasa (wanda wasu ke la'akari da su bisa ga bambancin da Romawa suka yi tsakanin su da abokansu na Italiya, socii, amma ba a ba da maganganun ka'idar da muka gane a yau ba har sai da Thomas Hobbes'Leviathan ya jaddada. Dubi jihar.) Duk da haka, wasu masana ilimin zamani, irin su Aristotle, a cikin iliminsa na Siyasa da Meta, sun ba da shawara a cikin Siyasa da Meta. bambanci aƙalla yana da matsala. Kada a yi la'akari da cewa mutum dabbar siyasa ce don ganin haka.

A matsayinsa na dabba ta siyasa, mutum ya ga kansa yana da haƙƙoƙi,  ko waɗannan haƙƙoƙin tsoffin mutanen Ingila ne, ko haƙƙin ɗan adam na duniya da aka ba da shawara sosai game da kafawa a yau ta hanyar matrix na kasuwanci.  Akalla a cikin tsarin Amurka na yau da kullun, hana haƙƙin ya kai ga rauni (yi la'akari musamman da Justice Stevens mai ra'ayi mara kyau a Castle Rock v. Gonzales), da rauni - haka kuma ka'idar da ke da rinjaye - ya kai, idan aka haɗa shi da niyyar da ake bukata, a mafi yawan lokuta, ga aikata laifuka, lokacin da bai yarda da gyaran farar hula ba. Don haka, kuma a cikin kalmomi masu sauƙi, kuma har zuwa yadda mutane mutane ne ainihin 'yan siyasa, aikata laifuka yana da tushe na ontological.  (Don wata hanyar da za a iya amfani da ita ga batun ilimin aikata laifuka, duba "Samun Laifi da Kula da Jama'a a cikin Tattalin Arziki na Kasuwanci: Dubi baya da Motsawa gaba" na Robert Bohm a cikin Jeffrey Ian Ross, ed. Yanke Edge: Ra'ayoyin Yanzu a cikin Radical / Critical Criminology da Shari'ar Laifi. Westport, Conn: Praeger, 1998.) Wannan, ci gaba, yana da alama ya riƙe idan Ilimin halittu kanta ya kasu kashi biyu cikin siyasa da trans- ko sama- ko kuma meta- siyasa - watau, abin da mulkin Kirista. Ba kome ba ne ko wannan tauhidin Kirista ne ko kuma na wasu imani na apolitical. Ma'anar ita ce mutum na iya, tare da wasu adalci, ya yi jayayya da cewa kasancewa ya rabu. Wannan buƙatar, duk da haka, ba ta tilasta tambayar laifukan siyasa ba. Manufofinmu a nan, a cikin wannan labarin, an iyakance su ga siyasa. Don tambayar gabaɗaya duba Ontology .

Baker ya yi jayayya cewa kawai lahani na manufa da sauran mummunan sakamako (ko ayyuka a cikin yanayin laifuka da haɗari) sune ainihin facie da za a iya aikata laifuka. Ta hanyar wasu mummunan sakamako Baker yana nufin keta sirrin sirri da halayyar da ba lallai ba ne ya haifar da lahani, amma yana haifar da sakamakon da ba a so. Baker ya yi jayayya cewa keta sirrin da ya haifar da tilasta masa karɓar bayanan lalata da ba a so a wuraren jama'a (nuni) zai zama isasshen mummunar sakamako don manufar kiran dokar aikata laifuka, amma ya yi jayana cewa daidaitattun hukunci yana nufin cewa irin wannan hali ya kamata a hukunta shi da tarar maimakon yanayin kurkuku.

 Dubi kuma 

 Laifi a Amurka #Lamba da ci gaban dokokin aikata laifuka
 Laifin rashin gida
 Laifin luwadi
 Rashin aikata laifuka, juyar da aikata laifukaka
 Laifin miyagun ƙwayoyi
 Ƙarfafawa
 Zero tolerance

 Manazarta 

 Ƙarin karantawa 


 Baker, Dennis J. (2009) "The Moral Limits of Consent as a Defense in the Criminal Law", 12 https://ssrn Law Review (2009); Dennis J. Baker (2008) "The Harm Principle vs Kantian Criteria for Tabstring Fair, Principled and Just Criminalisation", 33 Australian Journal of Legal Philosophy 66 https://ssn.com/abstract=13351; Dennis J.Baker (2008) "Constitutionalizing the Harm Law", 27 (2) Criminals = Criminals Criminals, Criminals Abstract, Crimination & Criminals Control Control Control, Criminal Advising!https://ssrn.com/abstract=1130052
 Dennis J. Baker, Hakkin da ba za a yi la'akari da shi ba: Bayyana ikon Shari'ar Laifuka, (London: Ashgate, 2011 ( .) 
 Currie, E. (1991) " Siyasa ta Laifi: Kwarewar Amurka" a cikin Siyasa ta Kula da Laifi . [Inda Aka Ɗauko Hoto da ke shafi na 9] [Hasiya]  (eds.) London: Sage. ISBN 0-8039-8342-5 
 [Inda Aka Ɗauko Hoto da ke shafi na 9] (1993). Wadanda aka azabtar Har yanzu: Gudanar da Siyasa na Wadanda aka shafa. London: Mai hikima. ISBN 0-8039-5052-7 
 [Inda Aka Ɗauko Hoto da ke shafi na 9] (1994). "Yaƙe-yaƙe na Laifuka An manta da su" a cikin Rethinking Peace . [Hasiya]  (Abin da ke tattare da su). Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, shafuffuka 123-31. ISBN 1-55587-488-6  
 Feinberg, Joel, Harm to Others: The Moral Limits of the Criminal Law, OUP, New York: 1984.
 [Inda Aka Ɗauko Hoto da ke shafi na 9] "Mutanen da aka azabtar da cin zarafin iko" a cikin The Plight of Crime Victims in Modern Society . New York: Palgrave Macmillan, shafi na 29-73. ISBN 0-312-61758-5  
 [Inda Aka Ɗauko Hoto da ke shafi na 9] "Bukatar Kyakkyawan Kyakkyawar Kyakkyawa" a cikin Towards A Critical Victimology . Ezzat A. Fattah (ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan, shafi na 14-23. ISBN 0-312-07551-0  
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 Harding, R. (1994). "Kyakkyawan ra'ayi, Tsoro na Ɗabi'a, da kuma Distortion of Criminal Justice Policy". Batutuwan Yanzu a cikin Shari'ar Laifuka, Vol. 6, 27-42
 [Inda Aka Ɗauko Hoto da ke shafi na 9] Umurni, Shari'a da Laifi: Gabatarwa ga Criminology . New York: Random House.
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 [Inda Aka Ɗauko Hoto da ke shafi na 9] (1989). Victimology: Wanda aka azabtar da kuma Tsarin Shari'a na Laifi . London: Routledge. ISBN 0-04-445160-1 
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