Yarjejeniyar Muhalli ta Ƙasa da Ƙasa

Yarjejeniyar muhalli ta ƙasa da ƙasa ko wani lokacin ƙa'idar muhalli, wani nau'in yarjejeniya ce da ke daure a cikin dokokin ƙasa da ƙasa, ba su damar cimma burin muhalli .A wasu kalmomi, "takardar gwamnati ce da aka yi niyya a matsayin doka ta doka tare da manufar da aka bayyana ta farko ta hana ko sarrafa tasirin ɗan adam akan albarkatun ƙasa." Kanie (2007) Governance with Multi-lateral Environmental Agreements: A healthy or ill-equipped fragmentation? in Global Environmental Governance: Perspectives on the Current Debate, edited by Walter Hoffmann and Lydia Swart: 67–86. New York: Center for UN Reform Education

Yarjejeniyar tsakanin al'ummomi biyu ana kiranta da yarjejeniyar muhalli ta biyu . Idan an yi yarjejeniya tsakanin ƙasashe uku ko fiye, ana kiranta yarjejeniyar muhalli ta multilateral (MEA). Irin waɗannan yarjejeniyoyin, waɗanda Majalisar Ɗinkin Duniya ke samarwa da farko, sun ƙunshi batutuwa kamar manufofin yanayi, manufofin ruwa, sharar gida da manufofin abubuwa, muhallin ruwa, manufofin kiyaye yanayi, gurɓataccen hayaniya da amincin nukiliya. 

 Tarihi da amfani. 
An fara amfani da yarjejeniyoyin mahalli da yawa a cikin shekara ta 1857, lokacin da yarjejeniyar ƙasar Jamus ta tsara kwararar ruwa daga tafkin Constance zuwa Austria da Switzerland . Kim, R. E. (2013). The emergent network structure of the multilateral environmental agreement system. Global Environmental Change, 23(5), 980–991. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha. 2013.07.006. Ka'idojin muhalli na kasa da kasa sun bayyana a cikin mulkin muhalli bayan matsalolin muhalli masu iyaka da iyaka sun zama sananne a cikin shekara ta 1960s. Haas, Keohane and Levy (1993) Institutions for the Earth: Sources of effective international environmental protection Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Tsakanin 1857, da 2012, an kulla jimillar yarjejeniyoyin muhalli guda 747, na muhalli. Kim, R. E. (2013). The emergent network structure of the multilateral environmental agreement system. Global Environmental Change, 23(5), 980–991. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha. 2013.07.006. Bayan taron gwamnatocin Stockholm a shekara ta 1972, ƙirƙirar yarjejeniyoyin muhalli na ƙasa da ƙasa ya ƙaru. Zürn (1998) The Rise of International Environmental Politics: A Review of Current Research World Politics, Vol. 50, No. 4, pp. 617–649 Majalisar Dinkin Duniya ta yi amfani da MEAs, yawancin MEAs an aiwatar da su tun daga 1972, a taron Majalisar Dinkin Duniya kan Muhalli na Dan Adam (wanda aka fi sani da taron Stockholm). Environment Canada. (2007). Negotiator's handbook: multilateral environment agreement.  Joensuu, Finland: University of Joensuu. Dukkanin ƙasashe guda 113, da suka halarci taron ne suka amince da sanarwar Stockholm, kuma ita ce takarda ta farko da ke da muhimmanci kan batun muhalli. 

Ana buƙatar tsarin sadarwar hadaddun don tsarin MEA mai aiki. Kim, R. E. (2013). The emergent network structure of the multilateral environmental agreement system. Global Environmental Change, 23(5), 980–991. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha. 2013.07.006. Matakan gwamnati a cikin al'umma na iya kawo cikas ga juna game da sauyin yanayi (misali) saboda ra'ayoyi ko jam'iyyu masu adawa da juna, Eckersley, P. (2016). "Cities and climate change: how historical legacies shape policymaking in  English and German municipalities." Politics: 1–16. yin aiwatar da mafi wahala da tasiri ga dangantakar waje.

Manufofin da ke kewaye da MEA ana ƙaddamar da su ta hanyar ƙasashe masu shiga. Majalisar Ɗinkin Duniya da Kungiyar Kasuwanci ta Duniya sune manyan kungiyoyi tsakanin gwamnatoci don ƙirƙira da aiwatar da yarjejeniyar.

An sami karuwar amfani da tanade-tanaden muhalli a cikin yarjejeniyoyin muhalli na ƙasashen biyu da kuma cikin yarjejeniyoyin saka hannun jari na ƙasa da ƙasa, kamar yarjejeniyar muhalli ta kasashen biyu. 

 Tasiri. 
Ka'idoji na iya ɗaukar hanyoyi masu sassauƙa don haɓaka tasiri. Tolba (1998) Global Environmental Diplomacy: Negotiating agreements for the world 1973–1992 Massachusetts Institute of Technology Misali daya shine amfani da takunkumi: karkashin yarjejeniyar Montreal, an hana masu sanya hannu don siyan chlorofluorocarbons daga wadanda ba su sanya hannu ba, don hana duk wani fa'idar iska. French (1994) Strengthening International Environmental Governance The Journal of Environment Development 3: 59 An kuma yi amfani da kudade don shawo kan rikicin Arewa-Kudanci: mambobin yarjejeniyar Montreal sun kirkiro wani asusu na dala miliyan 240, don sake rarraba kudaden mika mulki. Har ila yau, tana da shekaru goma daban-daban na alheri ga ƙasashe masu tasowa. Hakanan ana ganin wajibai daban-daban a cikin Yarjejeniyar Kyoto kuma suna iya ƙarfafa fa'ida sosai, inda kowace ƙasa ke da manufa daban-daban dangane da ci gabanta.

While protocols appear to be the ultimate top-down mode of governance, having "scant provisions for public participation," it is widely thought that the influence of transnational networks has been growing Public opinion is relevant, as concern must exist to prompt action and dedication of government resources. It kept growing more and more since the young activist Greta Thunberg started Fridays for Future. Non-governmental organizations also fulfill certain roles, from gathering information and devising policies to mobilizing support. Science plays an important part, although Susskind asserts that sometimes this role is diminished by uncertainty, disagreement, and the rise of "adversary science."  

Yadda muke kallon tasirin ladabi ya dogara da abin da muke tsammani daga gare su. Tare da ƙaramin ƙarfi na gudanarwa ko ainihin iko, ƙa'idodi suna yin nasara wajen haɓaka damuwar gwamnati, haɓaka yanayin kwangila, da haɓaka ƙarfin ta hanyar musayar kadarori. Amma duk da haka muddin ikon mulki ya tabbata, ka'idojin muhalli ba za su shafi canje-canje a fuskar jaha ko jama'a ba, ba da garantin aiwatar da aikin ƙasa, ko kuma zama cikin dare ɗaya. Ci gaban dokar muhalli ta duniya na iya zama, kamar yadda Wiener ya nuna, kamar kunkuru, a hankali amma a tsaye. Wiener (1999) On the political economy of global environmental regulation  Georgetown Law Journal, Volume 87, pp. 749 – 794

 Shingaye da suka. 
Tsarin siyasar duniya da ake da su, bambance-bambance da rikice-rikice suna haifar da shinge ga ƙirƙirar ka'idojin muhalli. Na farko, tabbatar da mulkin mallaka na nufin babu wata kasa da za a tilastawa shiga, sai dai a yi kira da a yi hakan. Saboda haka, kamar yadda Faransa ta fada, "Dokar kasa da ƙasa tana da ƙarfin halin kirki, amma 'yan hakora na gaske." French (1994) Strengthening International Environmental Governance The Journal of Environment Development 3: 59 Na biyu, rikicin Arewa da Kudu na iya toshe hadin gwiwa da haifar da rikici. Kasashen da ke Kudancin Duniya, suna kallon matalauta, gaba ɗaya suna ganin kasashen Arewa, masu arziki, suna bukatar daukar nauyin gurbatar muhalli da kuma kawo sauyi mai ma'ana a rayuwarsu, wanda Arewa ba ta ganin cewa ya dace. Kudanci dai na ganin cewa Arewa ta riga ta samu damar bunkasa kuma ta riga ta gurbata da yawa a yayin bunƙasa  masana’antu.

A ƙarshe, ƙasashe na iya rasa kwarin gwiwa don canza manufofinsu na muhalli saboda rikici da wasu muradu, musamman wadatar tattalin arziki. Idan ka'idojin muhalli za su haifar da matsalolin tattalin arziki ko cutar da wata ƙasa, hakan na iya ɓata ka'idojin yayin da wasu ƙasashe ke manne da su, wanda ke haifar da matsala ta masu 'yanci . Bugu da ƙari, ana iya soki ƙa'idodin muhalli don rashin tabbas na kimiyya, ko aƙalla rashin haɗin bayanan kimiyya, waɗanda ƙila a yi amfani da su don "toshe abubuwan buƙatu da yin ɓarna." Zürn (1998) The Rise of International Environmental Politics: A Review of Current Research World Politics, Vol. 50, No. 4, pp. 617–649 Game da matsaloli kamar gurɓata yanayi da sauyin yanayi, juriya yawanci ya samo asali ne na ƙirƙira injiniya .

Saboda waɗannan shingaye, ƙa'idodin muhalli sun zama manufa a bayyane ga zargi da yawa, kamar jinkirin haifar da tasirin da ake so (saboda tsarin aiwatar da yarjejeniya-yarjejeniya), kula da mafi ƙasƙanci gama gari, da rashin kulawa da aiwatarwa. . Hakanan ana iya sukar su don ɗaukar matakan haɓaka inda ka'idodin ci gaba mai dorewa ke ba da shawarar cewa ya kamata a kula da yanayin muhalli.

 Shiga ƙungiyoyin gwamnati. 

 Majalisar Dinkin Duniya 
Majalisar Ɗinkin Duniya tana shiga cikin MEAs a duk duniya akan batutuwa da yawa, gami da bambancin halittu, sinadarai da sharar gida, da yanayi da yanayi. Ɗaya daga cikin misalin zai zama Yarjejeniyar Vienna don Kariya na Ozone Layer, wanda aka haɗa tare don magance mummunar tasirin Chlorofluorocarbons a kan yanayi. Tashar Watsa Labarai ta Majalisar Ɗinkin Duniya (InforMEA) ta tattara MEAs ta hanyar girbi yanke shawara da shawarwari na COP, labarai, abubuwan da suka faru, membobin MEA, wuraren da suka shafi ƙasa, rahotanni na ƙasa da tsare-tsaren aiwatarwa daga sakatarorin MEA kuma suna tsara wannan bayanin a kusa da saitin sharuɗɗan da aka yarda, don amfanin Jam’iyyu da al’ummar muhalli baki daya. 

 Kungiyar Kasuwanci ta Duniya. 
Kungiyar Kasuwanci ta Duniya ta shiga cikin shawarwarin MEA saboda tasirin kasuwancin da yarjejeniyar ke da shi. Ƙungiyar tana da manufofin kasuwanci da muhalli waɗanda ke inganta kariya da kiyaye muhalli. Manufarta ita ce rage shingen kasuwanci da daidaita matakan da suka shafi kasuwanci tare da manufofin muhalli .  Tun da MEAs suna karewa da kiyaye muhalli, zasu iya taimakawa sauƙaƙe ƙuntatawa akan kasuwanci. Stuart, L. (2014). Trade and Environment: Mutually Supportive Interpretation of WTO Agreements in Light of Multilateral Environmental Agreements. New Zealand Journal of Public and International Law 12(2), 379–412. ƙa'idojin WTO sun dogara ne kan rashin nuna bambanci, ciniki cikin 'yanci ta hanyar rage shingen ciniki da gasa ta gaskiya, an kuma yi watsi da MEA saboda rashin bin ka'idojin kungiyar. WTO tana aiki tare da aiwatar da ayyukan MEA sama da 350 a duk duniya. ƙunshi manyan ƙasashe biyar  waɗanda suka himmatu wajen inganta muhalli da ciniki cikin 'yanci. Millimet, D. L., & Roy, J. (2015). Multilateral environmental agreements and the WTO. Economics Letters,134, 20–23. doi:10.1016/j.econlet.2015.05.035 Membobin WTO bisa doka sun daure su mutunta yarjejeniyar rage shingen kasuwanci.  Duk da haka, rikici ya taso saboda takunkumin kasuwanci. 

 Manyan mahalarta MEA. 

 Ostiraliya 
Ana lura da Ostiraliya don nau'ikan nau'ikan nau'ikan dabbobi da yanayi daban-daban, waɗanda suka haɗa da rairayin bakin teku, hamada da tsaunuka,  kuma canjin yanayi babban damuwa ne. Ƙasar tana ƙarƙashin rami mafi girma a duniya. tare da tasirin muhalli. Kusancin Ostiraliya da Antarctica yana haifar da damuwa game da hawan teku da kuma sauye-sauyen raƙuman ruwa waɗanda ke tasiri ga yanayi.

 Kanada. 
Yarjejeniyar muhalli ta Kanada da yawa sun haɗa da iska, nau'ikan halittu da yanayin muhalli, sinadarai da sharar gida, canjin yanayi, haɗin gwiwar muhalli, ruwa da tekuna, da  yanayi .  Kanada ta ɗauki wani yunƙuri saboda albarkatun ƙasa iri-iri, yanayi da kuma wuraren da jama'a ke da yawa, duk waɗannan na iya ba da gudummawa ga matsalolin muhalli. Abubuwan da suka dace sun haɗa da Pakootas v. Teck Cominco Metals, wanda Kotun Koli ta Amurka ta amince da hukuncin wata karamar kotu tare da tuhumar wani kamfanin Kanada, Teck Resources, da laifin gurɓata kogin Columbia a Amurka.  No. 16-35742 D.C. No. 2:04-cv-00256-LRS Teck Resources smelter a Trail, British Columbia yana saman iyakar Amurka. 

 Amurka. 
{Asar Amirka ta dage kan Yarjejeniyar Montreal kan Abubuwan da ke Rage Ozone Layer, da tattaunawar duniya kan Mercury .  Adadin MEAs da Amurka ke ciki ya yi ƙasa da na Kanada, duk da yawan yawan jama'arta da girman sawun carbon da tattalin arzikinta.

 Duba kuma. 

 Dokar muhalli.
 Dokokin kasa da kasa.
 Jerin yarjejeniyar muhalli ta duniya.
 Al adun Muhalli.
 Yanayin tsari muhalli.

 Manazarta. 

 Ci gaba da karatu 

 Mitchell, RB, Andonova, LB, Axelrod, M., Balsiger, J., Bernauer, T., Green, JF, Hollway, J., Kim, RE, da Morin, JF 2020. Abin da Muka Sani (kuma Zamu Iya Sani) game da Yarjejeniyar Muhalli ta Duniya . Siyasar Muhalli ta Duniya, 20: 103-121.
 978-982-04-0475-5 
 Alam, Shawkat et al. Dokar Muhalli ta Duniya da Kudancin Duniya. Jami'ar Cambridge Press: New York, 2015.
 Borsky, Stefan, A. Raschky, Paul. "Haɗin kai tsakanin gwamnatoci a cikin Yarjejeniyar Muhalli ta Duniya". A cikin Jaridar Ƙungiyar Ƙwararru 2, Lamba 2. Yuni 2015.
 M.McEvoya, David da McGintyb, Matthew "Tattaunawa kan harajin fitar da hayaki a cikin yarjejeniyar muhalli ta duniya". A cikin Jaridar Muhalli na Tattalin Arziki da Gudanarwa Volume 90, 217-231. 2018
 Tulkens, Henry da Guesnerie, R. Zane na Manufofin Yanayi. Cambridge, Mass: The MIT Press, 2008.
 Victor, David G. et al. Aiwatar da Tasirin Ayyukan Muhalli na Duniya : Ka'idar da Aiki. MIT Press: Laxenburg, Austria, 1998.

 Hanyoyin haɗi na waje 

 Littafin Jagoran Yarjejeniyar Muhalli na Muhalli da yawa
Category:Muhalli
Category:Haƙƙoƙi
Category:Haƙƙin Ɗan Adam
Category:Shafuka masu fassarorin da ba'a duba ba