Mesopotamia

MesopotamiaTurkish: Mezopotamya; Ancient Greek: Μεσοποταμία Mesopotamíā; Arabic: بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن Bilād ar-Rāfidayn or بَيْن‌ُ ٱلْنَهْرَيْن Bayn ul-Nahrayn; Persian: میان‌رودان miyân rudân; Classical Syriac: ܒܝܬ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ, Bēṯ Nahrēn (Larabci: بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن Bilād ar-Rāfidayn; Girkanci na dā: Μεσοποταμία; Classical Syriac: ܐܪܡ Ā ārām-Nahrīn ko ܒܝܬ ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ Bēṯ Nahrīn) yanki ne na tarihi na Yammacin Asiya da ke cikin yankin Tigris-Euph, a arewacin bangaren jinni. Ta mamaye yankin Iraki na yanzu, da wasu sassan Iran, Turkiya, Syria da Kuwait.Seymour, Michael (2004). "Ancient Mesopotamia and Modern Iraq in the British Press, 1980–2003". Current Anthropology. 45 (3): 351–368. doi:10.1086/383004. ISSN 0011-3204. JSTOR 10.1086/383004. S2CID 224788984. Archived from the original on 30 April 2022. Retrieved 30 April 2022.Miquel, A.; Brice, W. C.; Sourdel, D.; Aubin, J.; Holt, P. M.; Kelidar, A.; Blanc, H.; MacKenzie, D. N.; Pellat, Ch. (2011), "ʿIrāḳ", in Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W. P. (eds.), Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition, Leiden, Netherlands: Brill Online, OCLC 624382576.

Sumerians da Akkadians (gami da Assuriyawa da Babilawa) sun mamaye Mesopotamia daga farkon rubutaccen tarihin (c. 3100 BC) zuwa faɗuwar Babila a 539 BC, lokacin da Daular Achaemenid ta ci ta da yaƙi. Ya fada hannun Alexander the Great a 332 BC, kuma bayan mutuwarsa, ta zama wani bangare na Daular Seleucid ta Girka. Daga baya Suriyawa suka mamaye manyan sassan Mesofotamiya (c. 900 BC - 270 AD)

Kusan 150 BC, Mesopotamia yana ƙarƙashin ikon Daular Parthian. Sissakian, Varoujan K.; Adamo, Nasrat; Al-Ansari, Nadhir; Mukhalad, Talal; Laue, Jan (January 2020). "Sea Level Changes in the Mesopotamian Plain and Limits of the Arabian Gulf: A Critical Review". Journal of Earth Sciences and Geotechnical Engineering. 10 (4): 88–110.Pollock, Susan (1999), Ancient Mesopotamia. The Eden that never was, Case Studies in Early Societies, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 1, ISBN 978-0-521-57568-3Davenport, Ben (9 August 2013). "Ancient Mesopotamia - an overview". www.arch.cam.ac.uk. Retrieved 18 May 2025.A. Leo Oppenheim, Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a Dead Civilization, rev. ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977).Mesofotamiya ya zama filin yaƙi tsakanin Romawa da Parthians, tare da Yammacin Mesofotamiya waɗanda ke ƙarƙashin ikon Roman. A AD 226, yankunan gabashin Mesofotamiya sun faɗi ga Farisa na Sassanid. Rabuwa da Mesopotamia tsakanin Roman (Byzantine daga AD 395) da Sassanid Empires ya ci gaba har zuwa ƙarni na 7 da Musulmai suka mamaye Farisa na Daular Sasanian da mamayar Musulmi na Levant daga Rumawa. Milton-Edwards, Beverley (May 2003). "Iraq, past, present and future: a thoroughly-modern mandate?". History & Policy. United Kingdom. Archived from the original on 8 December 2010. Retrieved 9 December 2010.Yawancin ƙasashen Neo-Assuriyawa da Kiristocin asalin Mesopotamia sun wanzu tsakanin ƙarni na 1 kafin haihuwar BC da ƙarni na 3 kafin haihuwar BC, gami da Adiabene, Osroene, da Hatra.

Mesopotamia shine farkon farkon cigaban Neolithic Revolution daga kusan 10,000 BC. An gano cewa yana da "wahayi zuwa ga wasu mahimman ci gaba a tarihin ɗan adam, gami da ƙirƙirar ƙarancin ƙafa, dasa shukokin farko na hatsi, da haɓaka rubutun kalmomin rubutu, lissafi, ilimin taurari, da aikin gona". An san shi da ɗayan farkon wayewar kai da ya taɓa wanzuwa a duniya.Lemche, Niels Peter (2004). "Assyria and Babylonia". Historical dictionary of ancient Israel. Historical dictionaries of ancient civilizations and historical eras. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press. pp. 64–67. ISBN 978-0-8108-4848-1.

 Bayanin Lantarki 
Babban sunan yankin Mesopotamia (/ ˌmɛsəpəˈteɪmiə /, Girkanci na dā: Μεσοποταμία '[ƙasa] tsakanin koguna'; Larabci: بِلَاد ٱلرَّافِدَيْن Bilād ar-Rāfidayn ko Larabci: بَيْن ٱلنَّهْرَيْن Bayn an-Syria? ܢܗܪ̈ܝܢ Bet Nahrain "ƙasar koguna") ya fito ne daga tsoffin kalmomin asalin Girkanci μέσος (mesos, 'tsakiya') da ποταμός (potamos, 'kogin') kuma an fassara shi zuwa '(ƙasa) tsakanin koguna'. Ana amfani da shi a cikin Septuagint na Helenanci (kusan 250 BC) don fassara Ibrananci da Aramaic kwatankwacin Naharaim. Wani amfani ma na Girka na farko da sunan Mesopotamia ya bayyana daga Anabasis na Alexander, wanda aka rubuta a ƙarshen karni na 2 AD, amma musamman yana nufin tushe daga lokacin Alexander the Great. A cikin Anabasis, Mesopotamia anyi amfani dashi don ayyana ƙasar gabas da Euphrates a arewacin Syria. Wani sunan da ake amfani da shi shi ne "ārām Nahrīn" (Classical Syria), wannan kalmar ta Mesopotamia galibi yahudawa ne ke amfani da ita (Ibraniyanci: Aram Naharayim). Hakanan ana amfani da wannan kalmar sau da yawa a cikin Tsohon Alkawari na Baibul don bayyana "Aram tsakanin kogunan (biyu)".

Kalmar Aramaic biritum / birit narim ta yi daidai da irin wannan yanayin. Daga baya, ana amfani da kalmar Mesopotamia gaba ɗaya ga duk ƙasashen da ke tsakanin Yufiretis da Tigris, ta haka ya haɗa ba kawai sassan Siriya ba har ma da kusan dukkanin Iraki da kudu maso gabashin Turkiya. Yankuna maƙwabta da ke yamma da Kogin Yufiretis da kuma yammacin tsaunukan Zagros suma ana haɗa su a ƙarƙashin babban lokacin Mesopotamia.

Yawanci ana samun karin bambanci tsakanin Arewa ko Mesopotamia ta Kudu da Kudancin ko Lowerananan Mesopotamia. Upper Mesopotamia, wanda aka fi sani da Jazira, yanki ne tsakanin Kogin Yufiretis da Tigris daga asalinsu har zuwa Bagadaza. Mesananan Mesopotamia yanki ne daga Bagadaza zuwa Tekun Fasha kuma ya haɗa da Kuwait da wasu sassan yammacin Iran.
A amfani da ilimin zamani, kalmar Mesobotamiya galibi ma tana da ma'anar lokaci. Galibi ana amfani da shi ne don keɓe yankin har zuwa lokacin da musulmi suka ci yaƙi, tare da amfani da sunaye kamar Siriya, Jazira, da Iraki don bayyana yankin bayan wannan ranar. An yi jayayya cewa waɗannan maganganun daga baya kalmomin Eurocentric ne waɗanda aka danganta ga yankin a cikin tsakiyar ɓarna da yawa na ƙarni na 19 na Yammacin Turai.

 Labarin Kasa 
Mesopotamiya ta kewaye ƙasar tsakanin kogin Euphrates da Tigris, waɗanda duka biranen suke da ruwa a tsaunukan Taurus. Dukkanin kogunan suna ciyar da su ta rafuka masu yawa, kuma gaba daya tsarin kogin yana malalar da yanki mai tsaunuka. Hanyoyin da ke kan hanya a cikin Mesopotamia yawanci suna bin Kogin Yufiretis saboda bankunan Tigris galibi suna da ƙarfi da wahala. Yanayin yankin yana da bushe-bushe tare da babban hamada a arewa wanda ya ba da damar zuwa yanki mai murabba'in kilomita 15,000 (5,800 sq mi) na fadama, lagoons, mudflats, da bankunan reed a kudu. A cikin ƙarshen kudu, Euphrates da Tigris sun haɗu kuma babu komai a cikin Tekun Fasiya.

Yanayin busassun ya fara ne daga yankunan arewacin aikin gona mai noman rani zuwa kudu inda ake noman ban ruwa da mahimmanci idan ana son samun rarar makamashi kan makamashin da aka saka (EROEI). Wannan teburin yana taimakawa ta teburin ruwa mai tsayi da kuma narkar da dusar kankara daga tsaunukan tsaunukan Zagros na arewacin da kuma daga tsaunukan Armenia, asalin Tushen Tigris da Yufiretis wadanda suka ba yankin sunan. Amfanin ban ruwa ya ta'allaka ne akan iya samar da isassun kwadago don ginawa da kiyaye magudanan ruwa, kuma wannan, tun farkon lokacin, ya taimaka wajen haɓaka ƙauyukan birane da tsarin tsarin mulkin siyasa.

Noma a ko'ina cikin yankin ya sami wadatuwa ta hanyar kiwon makiyaya, inda makiyaya masu zama a cikin garken tumaki da awaki (da raƙuma daga baya) daga makiyayar kogin a cikin rani na rani, zuwa filayen kiwo na lokaci-lokaci a gefen hamada a lokacin damuna. Yankin gaba daya babu shi a cikin dutsen gini, karafa masu daraja, da katako, don haka a tarihance dogaro ne da cinikin kayan amfanin gona na nesa don kiyaye waɗannan abubuwa daga yankunan da ke wajen. A cikin filayen fadama a kudu da yankin, hadadden al'adun kamun kifi mai dauke da ruwa ya wanzu tun zamanin da kuma ya kara wa al'adun gargajiya haduwa.

Rushewar lokaci-lokaci a cikin tsarin al'adu ya faru saboda dalilai da yawa. Bukatun kwadago na faruwa daga lokaci zuwa lokaci ya haifar da karuwar mutane wanda ke iyakance iyakokin daukar yanayin muhalli, kuma idan lokaci na rashin kwanciyar hankali ya biyo baya, rugujewar gwamnatin tsakiya da raguwar yawan jama'a. A madadin haka, raunin soja ga mamaya daga kabilun da ke kan tsaunuka ko makiyaya ya haifar da durkushewar kasuwanci da rashin kula da tsarin ban ruwa. Hakanan, son zuciya tsakanin manyan biranen birni yana nufin cewa babban iko a kan dukkan yankin, lokacin da aka sanya shi, ya zama ya zama mai daɗi, kuma tsarin yanki ya rarraba ƙarfi zuwa ƙabilu ko ƙananan yanki. Wadannan hanyoyin sun ci gaba har zuwa yau a cikin Iraki.

 Tarihi 
Tarihin farko na Gabas Gabas ya fara a cikin inananan leananan Maɗaukaki. A ciki, rubuce rubuce ya fito da rubutun hoto a cikin zamanin Uruk IV (c. 4th Millennium BC), da kuma rubuce rubuce na ainihin abubuwan da suka faru na tarihi - da tsohuwar tarihin tsohuwar Mesopotamia - wanda aka fara a tsakiyar karni na uku na BC tare da rubutun cuneiform na farkon sarakunan dynastic. Duk wannan tarihin ya ƙare da ko dai zuwan Daular Achaemenid a ƙarshen karni na 6 BC ko kuma tare da mamayar Musulmi da kafuwar Khalifanci a ƙarshen karni na 7 AD, daga wannan lokacin ne aka san yankin da Iraq. A cikin dogon lokaci na wannan lokacin, Mesopotamia ya haɗu da wasu tsoffin tsoffin ƙasashe masu tasowa sosai, da rikice-rikice na zamantakewa.

Yankin yana ɗaya daga cikin wayewar ruwa huɗu da aka ƙirƙira rubutu, tare da kwarin Nilu a Egyptasar Masar ta Da, da Indus Valley wayewa a cikin ƙasashen Indiya, da Kogin Yellow a cikin Tsohuwar China. Mesopotamia ta haɗu da muhimman birane masu tarihi kamar Uruk, Nippur, Nineveh, Assur da Babila, da kuma manyan yankuna kamar birnin Eridu, masarautun Akkadian, Daular Uku na U, da kuma daulolin Assuriya daban-daban. Wasu daga cikin muhimman shugabannin Mesopotamia sun hada da Ur-Nammu (sarkin Ur), Sargon na Akkad (wanda ya kafa Daular Akkadian), Hammurabi (wanda ya kafa tsohuwar kasar Babila), Ashur-uballit II da Tiglath-Pileser I (wanda ya kafa Daular Assuriya).

Masana kimiyya sun binciko DNA daga tsoffin manoma na shekaru 8,000 da aka samo a wata tsohuwar kabari a Jamus. Sun gwama sa hannu game da alamun jinsi zuwa na mutanen zamani kuma sun sami kamanceceniya da DNA na mutanen da ke rayuwa a yau a Turkiya da Iraki.

 Periodization 
Bayan farawa da wuri a Jarmo (jan digo, kusan 7500 BC), wayewar Mesopotamia a cikin miladiya ta 7 zuwa 5th ta kasance a kusa da al'adun Hassuna a arewa, al'adun Halaf a arewa maso yamma, al'adun Samara a tsakiyar Mesopotamia da Al'adar Ubaid a kudu maso gabas, wanda daga baya ya fadada ya game dukkan yankin.

Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (10,000-8700 BC)

Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (8700-6800 BC)

Jarmo (7500-5000 BC)

Hassuna (~ 6000 BC–? BC), Samarra (~ 5700-4900 BC) da al'adun Halaf (~ 6000-5300 BC)

Lokacin Ubaid (~ 6500-4000 BC)

Lokacin Uruk (~ 4000-3100 BC)

Lokacin Jemdet Nasr (~ 3100-2900 BC)

Farkon Zamanin Tagulla

Lokacin Zamanin Farko (~ 2900-2350 BC)

Daular Akkadian (~ 2350-2100 BC)

Daular Na Uku ta Ur (2112-2004 BC)

Masarautar Assuriya ta farko (ƙarni na 24 zuwa 18 kafin haihuwar Yesu)

Tsakanin Zamanin Tagulla

Farkon Babila (ƙarni na 19 zuwa na 18 kafin haihuwar Yesu)

Daular Babila ta farko (ƙarni na 18 zuwa 17 BC)

Fashewar Minoan (c. 1620 BC)

Late Bronze Age

Tsohon zamanin Assuriyawa (ƙarni na 16 zuwa 11 kafin haihuwar Yesu)

Zamanin Assuriya na Tsakiya (c. 1365-1076 BC)

Kassites a cikin Babila, (c. 1595-1155 BC)

Late Bronze Age ya rushe (12 zuwa ƙarni na 11 BC)

Zamanin ƙarfe

Syro-Hittite jihohin (11th zuwa 7th karni na BC)

Neo-Assuriya Empire (10 zuwa 7 karni na BC)

Masarautar Neo-Babilawa (ƙarni na 7 zuwa na 6 BC)

Tarihin gargajiya

Persia Babila, Achaemenid Assuriya (6th zuwa 4 karni BC)

Seleucid Mesopotamia (ƙarni na 4 zuwa na 3 BC)

Parthian Babila (ƙarni na 3 BC zuwa ƙarni na 3 AD)

Osroene (karni na 2 BC kafin karni na 3 AD)

Adiabene (karni na 1 zuwa na 2 AD)

Hatra (karni na 1 zuwa na 2 AD)

Roman Mesopotamia (ƙarni na 2 zuwa na 7 AD), Roman Assuriya (ƙarni na 2 AD)

Marigayi Tsoho

Daular Palmyrene (karni na 3 AD)

Asōristān (ƙarni na 3 zuwa na 7 AD)

Euphratensis (tsakiyar karni na 4 AD zuwa karni na 7 AD)

Yakin Musulmi (tsakiyar karni na 7 AD)

 Yare da Rubutu 
Yaren farko da aka fara rubutawa a cikin Mesopotamiya shine Sumerian, yare mai rarrabuwar kai. Tare da Sumerian, ana magana da yarukan Semitic a farkon Mesopotamia. Subartuan wani harshe na Zagros, wataƙila yana da alaƙa da dangin harshen Hurro-Urartuan an tabbatar da shi da sunaye na mutane, koguna da tsaunuka da kuma sana'o'i iri-iri. Akkadian ya zama babban harshe a lokacin Akkadian Empire da daulolin Assuriya, amma an kiyaye Sumerian don dalilai na gudanarwa, addini, adabi da kimiyya. Anyi amfani da nau'ikan Akkadian daban-daban har zuwa karshen zamanin Neo-Babylonian. Tsohon Aramaic, wanda ya riga ya zama gama gari a Mesofotamiya, sannan ya zama harshen gudanarwar lardin hukuma na farko daular Neo-Assuriya, sannan kuma Daular Achaemenid: ana kiran laccin da ake kira Aramaic Imperial Aramaic. Akkadian ya fadi warwas, amma shi da Sumerian har yanzu ana amfani da su a cikin haikalin na wasu ƙarni. Rubutun Akkadian na ƙarshe ya faro ne daga ƙarshen karni na 1 Miladiyya.

Farkon tarihin Mesopotamia (kusan tsakiyar karni na 4 BC) an ƙirƙira cuneiform don yaren Sumerian. Cuneiform a zahiri yana nufin "mai-siffa", saboda tsaka-tsakin zanen sililin wanda aka yi amfani da shi don burge alamu a kan laka. Matsakaicin daidaitaccen kowane alamun cuneiform ya bayyana cewa an haɓaka shi daga hotunan hoto. Rubutun farko (7 allunan tsufa) sun fito ne daga É, haikalin da aka keɓe ga allahiya Inanna a Uruk, daga ginin da ake wa lakabi da Temple C ta masu haƙa shi.

Tsarin rubutu na farko na rubutun cuneiform ya dauki shekaru masu yawa kafin ya kware. Don haka, adadi kaɗan ne kawai aka ɗauka a matsayin marubuta don a koya musu yadda ake amfani da su. Har sai lokacin da aka fara amfani da rubutun baƙaƙen rubutu a ƙarƙashin mulkin Sargon sannan manyan sassa na mutanen Mesopotamiya suka zama masu iya karatu da rubutu. An gano manyan rumbun adana bayanai daga mahimman abubuwan tarihi na tsoffin makarantun rubuce-rubuce na Babilawa, ta inda aka yada karatu da rubutu.

A lokacin karni na uku kafin haihuwar Yesu, an sami ci gaban alaƙar juna sosai tsakanin Sumerian da masu amfani da yaren Akkadian, wanda ya haɗa da yaruka biyu da yawa. Tasirin mutanen Sumerian akan Akkadian (kuma akasin haka) a bayyane yake a duk yankuna, daga aron kalmomi ta hanyar mizani mai yawa, zuwa hada-hadar hada-hadar kere-kere, hada-hadar siffofi, da hada-hadar hoto. Wannan ya sa masana suka koma ga Sumerian da Akkadian a cikin karni na uku a matsayin sprachbund. A hankali Akkadian ya maye gurbin Sumeriyanci a matsayin yaren da ake magana da shi na Mesopotamiya a wani wuri a kusan zagayowar karni na 3 da na 2 kafin miladiyya (ainihin lokacin da yake batun muhawara ne), amma Sumerian ya ci gaba da amfani da shi azaman tsarkakakke, bikin, adabi, da kuma ilimin kimiya a cikin Mesopotamiya har zuwa karni na 1 Miladiyya.

 Adabi 

Dakunan karatu sun wanzu a cikin garuruwa da haikalin a lokacin Daular Babila. Wata tsohuwar magana ta Sumerian ta ƙi cewa "wanda zai yi fice a makarantar malaman Attaura dole ne ya tashi da wayewar gari." Mata har ila yau maza sun koyi karatu da rubutu, kuma ga mutanen Babila na Yahudanci, wannan ya shafi ilimin lalataccen yaren Sumerian, da rikitarwa da yalwa da yawa.

An fassara adadi kaɗan na littattafan Babila daga asalin Sumerian, kuma yaren addini da doka ya daɗe ya zama tsohon harshe mai raɗaɗi na Sumer. An tattara kalmomin kalmomi, nahawu, da fassarar layi-layi don amfani da ɗalibai, da kuma sharhi kan tsofaffin matani da bayani game da kalmomi da jimloli marasa fahimta. An tsara haruffan tsarin karatun kuma aka sanya musu suna, kuma an zayyano jerin bayanai dalla-dalla.

Yawancin ayyukan adabin Babilawa har yanzu ana kan nazarin su. Ofaya daga cikin shahararrun waɗannan shine Epic na Gilgamesh, a cikin littattafai goma sha biyu, waɗanda aka fassara daga asalin Sumerian ta wani Sîn-lēqi-unninni, kuma suka tsara akan ƙa'idar ilimin taurari. Kowane bangare ya ƙunshi labarin kasada ɗaya a cikin aikin Gilgamesh. Dukkanin labarin samfur ne wanda yake a hade, kodayake akwai yuwuwar cewa wasu labaran suna manne da adadi na tsakiya.

 Kimiyya da Fasaha 

 Lissafi 

Lissafi da kimiyyar Mesopotamia sun dogara ne akan tsarin adadi na jima'i (na asali 60). Wannan shine asalin lokacin awanni 60, ranar awa 24, da da'irar digiri 360. Kalandar Sumerian ba ta da kyau, tare da makonni uku na kwana bakwai na wata. Wannan nau'ikan ilimin lissafi ya kasance sanadin farkon tsara taswira. Hakanan mutanen Babila suna da ƙa'idodi kan yadda za'a auna yanki da sifofi da yawa. Sun auna kewayen da'ira sau uku ne diamita kuma yanki daya-sha-biyu murabba'in kewayen, wanda zai zama daidai idan π an gyara su a 3. An ɗauki ƙarar silinda a matsayin samfurin yankin tushe da tsawo; duk da haka, an karɓi ƙarar takawar mazugi ko murabba'in murabba'i azaman samfurin tsayi da rabin adadin tushen. Hakanan, akwai wani binciken da aka yi kwanan nan wanda aka yi amfani da kwamfutar hannu π azaman 25/8 (3.125 maimakon 3.14159 ~). Hakanan an san mutanen Babila da mil mil na Babilaini, wanda yakai nisan kusan kilomita bakwai na zamani. Wannan ma'aunin na nisa daga baya an canza shi zuwa mil-mil da aka yi amfani dashi don auna tafiyar Tafiyar Rana, saboda haka, wakiltar lokaci.

 Falaki 

Tun daga zamanin Sumer, firistocin haikalin sun yi ƙoƙari su haɗa abubuwan da ke faruwa a yanzu tare da wasu matsayin taurari da taurari. Wannan ya ci gaba har zuwa zamanin Assuriyawa, lokacin da aka kirkiro jerin Limmu a matsayin shekara-shekara haɗin abubuwan da ke faruwa tare da matsayi na duniya, wanda, lokacin da suka rayu har zuwa yau, ba da damar ƙungiyoyi masu daidaito na dangi tare da cikakken ƙawancen kafa tarihin Mesopotamia.

Masanan Ilmin Babilawa sun kware sosai a ilimin lissafi kuma suna iya hango kisfewar rana da solstices. Masana sunyi tunanin cewa komai yana da wata ma'ana a ilimin taurari. Yawancin waɗannan suna da alaƙa da addini da ƙa'idodi. Masanan taurari na Mesopotamiya sun yi amfani da kalandar wata 12 bisa lafazin wata. Sun raba shekara zuwa yanayi biyu: rani da damuna. Asalin ilimin taurari da kuma ilimin taurari sun samo asali ne daga wannan lokacin.

A lokacin ƙarni na 8 da na 7 kafin haihuwar Yesu, masanan sararin samaniya na Babila sun haɓaka sabuwar hanya don ilimin taurari. Sun fara nazarin falsafar da ke ma'amala da yanayin halittar farko kuma suka fara amfani da dabaru cikin tsarin tsarin duniyar su. Wannan ya kasance muhimmiyar gudummawa ga ilmin taurari da falsafar kimiyya kuma wasu masana sun ambaci wannan sabuwar hanyar a matsayin juyin juya halin kimiyya na farko. Wannan sabuwar dabarar ilmin taurari ya samu karbuwa kuma ya kara bunkasa a ilimin Girka da Hellenistic astronomy.

A zamanin Seleucid da Parthian, rahotannin taurari sun kasance cikakke a kimiyance; yaya da farko iliminsu na zamani da hanyoyin suka bunkasa ba shi da tabbas. Ci gaban Babilawa na hanyoyin tsinkayar motsawar taurari ana ɗauka wani babban lamari a tarihin falaki.

Masanin ilimin falaki na Ba-Greek da Baabila ne kawai da aka sani da ya tallafawa samfurin heliocentric na motsi na duniya shine Seleucus na Seleucia (b. 190 BC). Seleucus sananne ne daga rubuce-rubucen Plutarch. Ya goyi bayan Aristarchus na Samos 'heliocentric ka'idar inda Duniya ke juyawa a kusa da ita wanda hakan ya juya ga Rana. A cewar Plutarch, Seleucus har ma ya tabbatar da tsarin heliocentric, amma ba a san irin hujjojin da ya yi amfani da su ba (sai dai cewa ya yi daidai ne kan ruwaye sakamakon jan hankalin Moon).

Ilmin falaki na Babila ya kasance tushen asalin yawancin Girka, na gargajiya na Indiya, Sassanian, Byzantine, Siriya, na da na Islama, Tsakiyar Asiya, da Yammacin Turai ilimin taurari.

 Magani 
Tsohon rubutun Babilawa game da magani sun samo asali ne daga zamanin tsohuwar Babilawa a farkon rabin karni na 2 BC. Rubutun likita mafi girma a Babila, shine, Littafin Bincike wanda ummânū, ko babban masani, Esagil-kin-apli na Borsippa suka rubuta, a lokacin sarautar Babila Adad-apla-iddina (1069-1046 BC) ).

Tare da magungunan Masarawa na zamani, mutanen Babila sun gabatar da dabarun ganewar asali, hangen nesa, binciken jiki, enemas, da kuma takaddun magani. Bugu da kari, Littafin bincike na Diagnostic ya gabatar da hanyoyin maganin warkewa da ilimin halittar jiki da kuma amfani da karfafawa, hankali, da hankali a cikin bincike, hangen nesa da kuma magani. Rubutun ya ƙunshi jerin alamun cututtukan likita da sau da yawa cikakkun bayanai masu fa'ida tare da ƙa'idodi masu ma'ana waɗanda ake amfani dasu wajen haɗuwa da alamomin da aka lura a jikin mai haƙuri tare da ganewar asali da hangen nesa.

An bi alamun da cututtukan mai haƙuri ta hanyar hanyoyin warkewa kamar bandeji, mayuka da kwayoyi. Idan mara lafiya ba zai iya warkewa ta jiki ba, likitocin Babila galibi sun dogara da fitarwa don tsarkake mara lafiyar daga duk wata la'ana. Littafin Esagil-kin-apli's Diagnostic Handbook ya ginu ne bisa tsari mai ma'ana na tunani da kuma zato, gami da hangen nesa na zamani cewa ta hanyar bincike da duba alamun marasa lafiya, yana yiwuwa a tantance cutar mara lafiya, tsarinta, cigabanta nan gaba , da kuma damar samun lafiyar mara lafiya.

Esagil-kin-apli ya gano cututtuka da cututtuka iri-iri kuma ya bayyana alamunsu a cikin littafin bincikensa na Diagnostic. Wadannan sun hada da alamun cututtuka na yawancin cututtukan farfadiya da cututtukan da ke tattare da su tare da ganewar asali da hangen nesa.

 Fasaha 
Mutanen Mesobotamiya sun ƙirƙira fasahohi da yawa waɗanda suka haɗa da ƙarfe da aikin tagulla, yin gilashi da fitila, saƙar masaka, kula da ambaliyar ruwa, ajiyar ruwa, da ban ruwa. Hakanan sun kasance ɗayan al'ummomin Bronze na farko a duniya. Sun haɓaka daga tagulla, tagulla, da zinariya zuwa ƙarfe. An yiwa fadojin ado da daruruwan kilo na wadannan karafan masu tsadar gaske. Hakanan, anyi amfani da tagulla, tagulla, da baƙin ƙarfe don kayan yaƙi da kuma makamai iri daban-daban kamar takuba, takobi, mashi, da maces.

Dangane da hasashe na baya-bayan nan, mai yiwuwa ne Sennacherib, Sarkin Assuriya ya yi amfani da dunƙulewar Archimedes don tsarin ruwa a Hanging Gardens na Babila da Nineveh a cikin karni na 7 BC, kodayake ƙwararrun malanta na dauke shi ya zama ƙirƙirar Girka ne daga baya. Bayan haka, a lokacin zaman Parthian ko Sasani, an ƙirƙiri Batirin Baghdad, wanda mai yiwuwa shine batir na farko a duniya a Mesopotamia.

 Addini da Falsafa 
Addinin Mesofotamiya na da shine farkon wanda aka rubuta. Mutanen Mesopotamians sun yi imanin cewa duniya faifai ce madaidaiciya, kewaye da wani katon fili, da aka killace, kuma sama da wannan, sama. Sun kuma yi imani cewa ruwa yana ko'ina, saman, ƙasa da gefuna, kuma an halicci sararin samaniya ne daga wannan babban teku. Bugu da kari, addinin Mesopotamia ya kasance yana shirka. Kodayake abubuwan da aka bayyana a sama sun kasance gama gari tsakanin Mesopotamians, akwai kuma bambancin yanki. Kalmar Sumerian ga sararin samaniya ita ce an-ki, wacce ke nufin allahn An da allahiya Ki. Sun yi imani cewa Enlil shine allahn da ya fi ƙarfi. Shi ne babban allahn pantheon.

 Falsafa 
Yawancin wayewar yankin sun rinjayi addinin Ibrahim, musamman Ibrananci Ibrananci; dabi'un al'adu da tasirin adabi suna bayyananniya musamman a littafin Farawa.

Giorgio Buccellati ya yi imanin cewa asalin falsafar za a iya gano asalin hikima ta Mesopotamiya na farko, wanda ya ƙunshi wasu falsafancin rayuwa, musamman da'a, a cikin nau'ikan yare, hirarraki, waƙoƙin almara, almara, waƙoƙi, waƙoƙi, karin magana, da karin magana. Dalilin Babilaini da hankali ya ci gaba fiye da yadda aka tsara.

Babilawa ne suka kirkiro da dabaru na farko, musamman cikin tsananin rashin bin Allah na tsarin zamantakewar su. Tunanin Babilawa bai dace ba kuma ya dace da “dabarar talakawa” wanda John Maynard Keynes ya bayyana. Tunanin mutanen Babila shima ya dogara ne akan tsarin buɗe-ido wanda ya dace da akasarin maganganu marasa kyau. An yi amfani da dabaru har zuwa wani fanni a ilimin sararin samaniya na Babila da magani.

Tunanin Babilawa yana da tasiri sosai a kan falsafancin tsohuwar Girkanci da Helenanci. Musamman, rubutun Babilun Dialogue of Pessimism ya ƙunshi kamanceceniya da tunanin azaba na Sophists, koyaswar Heraclitean na yare, da maganganun Plato, kazalika da share fage ga hanyar Socratic. Falsafan Ioniya Thales ya sami tasirin ra'ayoyin sararin samaniya na Babila.

 Al'ada 

 Bukukuwa 
Tsoffin Mesopotamians suna yin bukukuwa kowane wata. Jigon al'adu da bukukuwa na kowane wata an ƙaddara shi da aƙalla mahimman abubuwa shida:

 Lokaci na Lunar (wata mai ƙaruwa yana nufin yalwa da ci gaba, yayin da wata mai raguwa ke da alaƙa da raguwa, kiyayewa, da bukukuwa na worarƙashin Duniya)
Lokaci na zagayowar aikin gona shekara-shekara 
Equinoxes da solstices
Tarihin gida da kuma majibinta na allahntakaallahntaka
Nasarar Sarki mai ci
Akitu, ko Bikin Sabuwar Shekara (cikakken watan farko bayan bazara daidai)
Tunawa da takamaiman abubuwan tarihi (kafawa, nasarorin soja, ranakun hutu, da sauransu)

 Waka 
An rubuta wasu waƙoƙi don alloli amma an rubuta da yawa don bayyana mahimman abubuwan da suka faru. Kodayake kiɗa da waƙoƙi sun ba da daɗi ga sarakuna, amma kuma mutane da yawa da ke son waƙa da rawa a cikin gidajensu ko kuma a kasuwa suna jin daɗin su. An rera waƙoƙi ga yara waɗanda suka ba wa yaransu. Don haka aka rairaye waƙoƙi ta tsararraki da yawa azaman al'ada ce ta baka har rubutu ya zama gama gari. Wadannan waƙoƙin sun ba da hanyar wucewa cikin ƙarnuka masu mahimman bayanai game da al'amuran tarihi.

Oud (Larabci: العود) wani karamin abu ne, kayan kida mai kida da mutanen Mesopotamians ke amfani da shi. Tsohon tarihin hoto na Oud ya samo asali ne tun zamanin Uruk a Kudancin Mesopotamia sama da shekaru 5000 da suka gabata. Yana kan hatimin silinda a halin yanzu yana cikin Gidan Tarihi na Burtaniya kuma wanda Dokta Dominique Collon ya saya. Hoton yana nuna yadda wata mata ke tsugune da kayan aikinta a jirgin ruwa, tana wasa da hannun dama. Wannan kayan aikin ya bayyana sau daruruwa a duk tarihin Mesopotamiya sannan kuma a tsohuwar Misira daga daular 18 zuwa gaba a cikin gajere da gajere iri. Oud ana ɗaukarsa azaman share fage ne don rawar Turai. Sunanta ya samo asali ne daga kalmar larabci العود al-‘ūd 'itacen', wanda wataƙila sunan itacen da aka yi oud da shi. (Sunan larabci, tare da tabbataccen labarin, shine asalin kalmar 'lute'.)

 Wasanni 
Farauta ta shahara tsakanin sarakunan Assuriya. Dambe da kokawa ana yin su akai-akai a cikin zane-zane, kuma wataƙila wani nau'ikan wasan polo ya shahara, tare da maza suna zama a kafaɗun wasu maza maimakon na dawakai. Sun kuma buga majore, wasa mai kama da rugby na wasanni, amma suna wasa da ƙwallon da aka yi da itace. Sun kuma buga wasan allo irin na senet da backgammon, wanda yanzu aka sani da "Royal Game of Ur".

 Rayuwan Iyali 
Mesopotamia, kamar yadda lambobin doka masu zuwa suka nuna, na Urukagina, na Lipit Ishtar da Hammurabi, a duk tarihinta ya zama mafi yawan al'adun magabata, wanda mazaje suka fi mata ƙarfi. Misali, a zamanin farko na Sumerian, da "en", ko babban firist na alloli maza asali mace ce, ta allahiya mata, namiji. Thorkild Jacobsen, da ma wasu da dama, sun ba da shawarar cewa "majalisar dattawa" ta mallaki al'umar farko ta Mesopotamiya inda maza da mata suke da wakilci iri daya, amma hakan ya wuce lokaci, yayin da matsayin mata ya fadi, na maza ya karu. Game da karatun, kawai zuriyar masarauta da sonsa sonsan mawadata da ƙwararru, kamar malamai, likitoci, masu kula da haikalin, sun tafi makaranta. Yawancin samari an koya musu sana’ar mahaifinsu ko kuma sun koya ne don koyon sana’a. 'Yan mata dole su zauna a gida tare da iyayensu mata don koyon aikin gida da girke-girke, da kuma kula da ƙananan yara. Wasu yara zasu taimaka tare da niƙa hatsi ko tsabtace tsuntsaye. Ba don wannan lokacin ba a cikin tarihi, mata a Mesopotamiya suna da haƙƙoƙi. Zasu iya mallakar dukiya kuma, idan suna da kyakkyawan dalili, zasu rabu.

 Jana'iza 
An binne daruruwan kaburbura a wasu sassan kasar Mesopotamiya, inda aka bayyana bayanai game da halaye na jana'izar Mesofotamiya. A cikin birnin Ur, yawancin mutane an binne su a kabarin dangi a ƙarƙashin gidajensu, tare da wasu abubuwan mallaka. An sami 'yan kaɗan a lulluɓe a cikin tabarma da darduma. An saka yara da suka mutu a cikin manyan “tulu” waɗanda aka saka a cikin ɗakin sujada na iyali. Sauran gawarwakin an gano an binne su a makabartar gari gama gari. An gano kaburbura 17 da abubuwa masu tsada a cikin su. An ɗauka cewa waɗannan kaburburan masarauta ne. An gano wadatattun lokuta daban-daban da suka nemi binnewa a Bahrein, wanda aka gano da Sumerian Dilmun.

 Tattalin Arziki 
Gidajen bauta na Sumerian sun yi aiki azaman bankuna kuma sun haɓaka tsarin sikelin farko na lamuni da bashi, amma mutanen Babila sun haɓaka tsarin farko na banki na kasuwanci. Ya kasance kwatankwacin ta wasu hanyoyin zuwa tattalin arziƙin post-Keynesian na zamani, amma tare da ƙarin "komai yana tafiya".

 Noma 
Noma mai noman rani ya bazu zuwa kudu daga tsaunukan Zagros tare da al'adun Samara da Hadji Muhammed, daga kusan 5,000 BC.

A farkon lokacin har zuwa gidajen ibada na Ur III sun mallaki kashi ɗaya bisa uku na ƙasar da ake da ita, suna raguwa a kan lokaci yayin da mallakar masarauta da sauran masu zaman kansu suka ƙaru da yawa. An yi amfani da kalmar Ensi [wanene?] Don bayyana jami'in da ya tsara aikin duk fuskokin noma na haikalin. Villeins an san su da yin aiki sau da yawa a cikin aikin noma, musamman a filayen haikalin ko manyan gidaje.

Yanayin kasa na kudancin Mesopotamia ya kasance cewa ana iya noma ne kawai ta hanyar ban ruwa da kuma magudanar ruwa mai kyau, lamarin da ya yi matukar tasiri kan juyin halittar wayewar garin Mesopotamiya na farko. Bukatar ban ruwa ta jagoranci mutanen Sumeriya, daga baya kuma Akkadians, don gina biranensu tare da Tigris da Euphrates da rassan waɗannan rafuka. Manyan biranen, kamar Ur da Uruk, sun samo tushe ne daga rafin Euphrates, yayin da aka gina wasu, musamman Lagash, a kan rassan Tigris. Kogunan sun ba da ƙarin fa'idodi na kifi (wanda aka yi amfani da shi duka don abinci da taki), ciyayi, da yumbu (don kayayyakin gini). Tare da ban ruwa, samar da abinci a cikin Mesopotamiya ya dace da na filayen Kanada.

Kwarin Tigris da Euphrates sun kafa yankin arewa maso gabas na Carin Crescent, wanda ya hada da kwarin Kogin Urdun da na Nilu. Kodayake ƙasar da ke kusa da kogunan tana da dausayi kuma tana da kyau don amfanin gona, ɓangarorin ƙasar da ke nesa da ruwa sun bushe kuma galibi ba za a iya rayuwa ba. Don haka ci gaban ban ruwa ya zama mai matukar mahimmanci ga mazaunan Mesopotamia. Sauran abubuwan kere-kere na Mesopotamia sun hada da sarrafa ruwa ta hanyar madatsun ruwa da kuma amfani da magudanan ruwa. Mazaunan farko na ƙasar mai ni'ima a cikin Mesopotamiya sun yi amfani da garma itace don laushi ƙasa kafin su dasa shuki kamar su sha'ir, albasa, inabi, turnips, da apụl. Mazaunan Mesofotamiya suna daga cikin mutanen da suka fara yin giya da giya. Sakamakon kwarewar da ke tattare da noma a yankin Mesopotamiya, manoma ba su dogara kacokam kan bayi don kammala musu aikin gona ba, amma akwai wasu ban da. Akwai haɗarin da yawa da suka ƙunsa don sanya bautar ta zama mai amfani (watau tserewa / taɓar bayi). Kodayake kogunan sun ci gaba da rayuwa, amma kuma sun lalata shi ta hanyar yawan ambaliyar da ke lalata garuruwa duka. Halin da ake ciki na Mesopotamia ya kasance sau da yawa ga manoma; galibi amfanin gona ya lalace saboda haka tushen abinci kamar shanu da raguna kuma an kiyaye su [ta wa?] Da shigewar lokaci sassan kudanci na Sumerian Mesopotamia sun sha wahala daga ƙarɓar gishirin ƙasa, wanda ke haifar da raguwar birane a hankali da kuma ƙaddamar da iko a Akkad, arewacin arewa.

 Ciniki 

Kasuwancin Mesopotamia tare da wayewar Indus Valley ya bunƙasa tun farkon karni na uku kafin haihuwar BC. Domin tarihi mai yawa, Mesopotamia ya kasance alaƙar kasuwanci - gabas da yamma tsakanin Asiya ta Tsakiya da Bahar Rum (wani ɓangare na Hanyar Silk), da kuma arewa maso kudu tsakanin Gabashin Turai da Baghdad (hanyar kasuwanci ta Volga) . Farkon Vasco da Gama (1497-1499) na hanyar teku tsakanin Indiya da Turai da buɗe hanyar Suez Canal a 1869 ya shafi wannan haɗin.

 Gwamnati 
Yanayin kasa na Mesopotamia yana da matukar tasiri ga ci gaban siyasar yankin. Daga cikin koguna da rafuka, mutanen Sumer sun gina biranen farko tare da magudanan ruwa waɗanda suka rabu da yalwa da sararin samaniya ko fadama inda kabilu makiyaya ke yawo.

Sadarwa tsakanin biranen keɓaɓɓu ya kasance da wahala kuma, a wasu lokuta, yana da haɗari. Don haka, kowane birni na Sumerian ya zama birni-birni, mai cin gashin kansa daga sauran kuma mai kiyaye ofyancinta. A wasu lokuta wani birni zai yi ƙoƙari ya mamaye yankin kuma ya haɗa shi, amma irin wannan ƙoƙarin ya yi tsayayya kuma ya gaza ƙarni da yawa. A sakamakon haka, tarihin siyasa na Sumer yana ɗaya daga cikin yaƙe-yaƙe kusan koyaushe. Daga ƙarshe Eannatum ya haɗu da Sumer, amma haɗin kai ya kasance mai tsauri kuma ya kasa dorewa yayin da Akkadians suka mamaye Sumeria a 2331 BC kawai ƙarni na gaba. Daular Akkadian ita ce daula ta farko da ta yi nasara wacce ta wuce zamani sannan kuma ta ga bayan sarakuna cikin lumana. Daular ba ta daɗe sosai ba, kamar yadda Babiloniyawa suka ci su da yaƙi a cikin generationsan shekaru ƙalilan.

 Sarakuna 
Mutanen Mesopotamians sun yi amannar cewa sarakunansu da sarakunansu sun fito ne daga Garin Allah, amma, ba kamar tsoffin Masarawa ba, ba su taɓa yarda cewa sarakunansu alloli ne na gaske ba. Yawancin sarakuna suna kiran kansu "sarkin sararin samaniya" ko "sarki mai girma". Wani suna na yau da kullum shi ne "makiyayi", kamar yadda sarakuna ke kula da mutanensu.

 Karfi 
Lokacin da Assuriya ta zama daula, ta rabu zuwa ƙananan sassa, ana kiranta larduna. Kowane ɗayan waɗannan an laƙaba su da manyan biranensu, kamar Nineveh, Samariya, Dimashƙu, da Arpad. Dukansu suna da gwamnan su wanda dole ne ya tabbatar kowa ya biya harajin sa. Hakiman gwamnoni dole su kira sojoji zuwa yaƙi kuma su ba ma'aikata lokacin da aka gina haikalin. Hakanan ya kasance da alhakin aiwatar da dokoki. Ta wannan hanyar, ya kasance da sauƙi a ci gaba da ikon mallakar babbar daula. Kodayake Babila ƙaramar ƙasa ce a cikin Sumerian, ta girma sosai a duk lokacin mulkin Hammurabi. An san shi da "mai doka", kuma ba da daɗewa ba Babila ta zama ɗayan manyan biranen ƙasar Mesopotamiya. Daga baya ana kiranta Babila, wanda ke nufin "ƙofar alloli." Hakanan ya zama ɗayan manyan cibiyoyin ilmantarwa na tarihi.

 Yaƙe-Yaƙe 
Tare da ƙarshen lokacin Uruk, biranen masu shinge sun haɓaka kuma yawancin ƙauyukan Ubaid sun watsar da su yana mai nuni da ƙaruwar tashin hankali na gari. Wani sarki na farko Lugalbanda yakamata ya gina farin ganuwar kewaye da garin. Yayin da jihohin birni suka fara haɓaka, bangarorin tasirinsu sun mamaye, suna haifar da jayayya tsakanin sauran jihohin-birni, musamman kan ƙasa da magudanan ruwa. An rubuta waɗannan muhawara a cikin allunan ɗaruruwan shekaru kafin babban yaƙi - rakodi na farko na yaƙi ya faru a kusan 3200 BC amma bai zama gama gari ba har zuwa kusan 2500 BC. Wani Sarki na farko na Dynastic II (Ensi) na Uruk a Sumer, Gilgamesh (c. 2600 BC), an yaba masa saboda cin zarafin soja akan Humbaba mai kula da Cedar Mountain, kuma daga baya aka yi bikin a cikin waƙoƙi da waƙoƙi da yawa daga baya waɗanda aka yi iƙirarin cewa zama kashi biyu bisa uku allah kuma daya bisa uku na mutum. Stele of the Vultures a karshen ƙarshen zamanin Dynastic III (2600-2350 BC), don tunawa da nasarar Eannatum na Lagash a kan kishiyar garin da ke makwabtaka da Umma ita ce mafi girman tarihi a duniya da ke bikin kisan kiyashi. Tun daga wannan lokacin zuwa gaba, aka sanya yaƙe-yaƙe cikin tsarin siyasar Mesopotamia. Wani lokaci birni mai tsaka-tsaki na iya yin aiki a matsayin mai sulhu ga biranen biyu masu hamayya. Wannan ya taimaka wajen kafa ƙungiyoyi tsakanin biranen, har ya zuwa jihohin yanki. Lokacin da aka kirkiri dauloli, sai suka kara shiga yaki da kasashen waje. Misali Sarki Sargon, ya ci dukkan biranen Sumer, wasu biranen na Mari, sannan ya tafi yaƙi da arewacin Siriya. Yawancin bangon gidan Assuriya da na Babila an kawata su da hotunan faɗan nasara kuma abokan gaba suna tserewa ko ɓoyewa a tsakanin ciyayi.

 Dokoki 

Birnin-Jaha na Mesopotamiya sun ƙirƙiri lambobin doka na farko, waɗanda aka samo daga fifikon doka da yanke shawara da sarakuna ke yi. An samo lambobin Urukagina da Lipit Ishtar. Mafi shahara a cikinsu shi ne na Hammurabi, kamar yadda aka ambata a sama, wanda ya kasance sananne bayan rasuwa saboda dokokinsa, Code of Hammurabi (wanda aka kirkira a wajajen 1780 BC), wanda shine ɗayan farkon dokokin da aka samo kuma ɗaya daga cikin mafi kyawun adana misalai na wannan nau'in takardun daga tsohuwar Mesopotamia. Ya tsara dokoki sama da 200 don Mesopotamia. Binciken dokokin yana nuna raunin haƙƙin mata na ci gaba, da kuma ƙaruwa a kula da bayi.

 Zane 
Fasaha ta Mesopotamiya ta yi hannun riga da ta tsohuwar Misira a matsayinta na mafi girma, ingantacciya kuma mai zurfin bayani a yammacin Eurasia daga ƙarni na 4 BC har zuwa daular Achaemenid Persia ta mamaye yankin a ƙarni na 6 BC. Babban girmamawa ya kasance a kan nau'ikan daban, masu ɗorewa, siffofin sassaka cikin dutse da yumbu; karamin zanen ya wanzu, amma abin da ke nuna cewa galibi ana amfani da zanen ne don zane-zanen kayan ado na kayan ado, kodayake mafi yawan sassaka ma an zana shi.

Lokacin Protoliterate, wanda Uruk ya mamaye, ya ga samar da manyan ayyuka kamar Warka Vase da hatimin silinda. Zakin mata Guennol fitaccen ƙaramin adon fure ne daga Elam na kimanin 3000 zuwa 2800 BC, wani ɓangare kuma ɓangare na zaki. Nan gaba kadan akwai adadi da yawa na manyan firistoci da masu ibada, galibi a cikin alabasta har zuwa tsayi mai tsayi, wadanda suka halarci hotunan bautar gumaka na allahntaka, amma kaɗan daga cikinsu sun tsira. Zane-zane daga zamanin Sumerian da na Akkadian galibi suna da manyan idanu, idanu, da dogon gemu akan mazajen. Hakanan an gano manyan abubuwan al'ajabi a makabartar Royal a Ur (c. 2650 BC), gami da siffofi biyu na Ram a cikin wani Thicket, Copper Bull da kan bijimi a ɗaya daga cikin Lyres of Ur.

Daga lokuta da yawa da suka biyo baya kafin hawan mulkin Neo-Assuriya Empire Mesopotamian art ya wanzu da yawa siffofi: hatimai na silinda, ƙananan siffofi a zagaye, da abubuwan taimako daban-daban, gami da ƙananan alamomi na tukwanen da aka gina don gida, wasu na addini kuma wasu a fili suke ba. Taimakon Burney wani abu ne mai ban mamaki wanda yakai girman (inci 20 x 15) dutsen allan fuka-fukai mai tsirara tare da ƙafafun tsuntsun dabba mai cin nama, da kuma mujiyoyi da zakuna masu yi mata hidima. Ya zo daga ƙarni na 18 ko na 19 kafin haihuwar Yesu, kuma ana iya yinta. Sune dutse, hadaya ta zabe, ko kuma wadanda suke iya tunawa da nasarori da nuna bukukuwa, ana kuma samun su ne daga gidajen ibada, wanda ba kamar sauran jami'ai ba wadanda basu da rubutun da zai bayyana su; da Assuriyawa Black Obelisk na Shalmaneser III babban kuma mai ƙarfi ƙarshen.

Mamayar da aka yi wa Mesopotamia da duk yankin da ke kusa da Assuriyawa ya haifar da mafi girma da wadata fiye da yadda yankin ya santa a da, kuma fasaha mai girma a cikin fadoji da wuraren taruwar jama'a, babu shakka ɓangare ɗaya an yi niyya don dacewa da darajar fasahar fasaha. makwabta masarautar Masar. Assuriyawa sun kirkiro salon manyan tsare-tsare na cikakkun bayanai cikakkun labarai masu sauki a cikin dutse don fada, da wuraren yaki ko farauta; Gidan Tarihi na Burtaniya yana da tarin fice. Sun samar da ɗan ɗan kaɗan sassaka a cikin zagayen, banda adadi mai mahimmanci, sau da yawa lamassu mai kai-tsaye ta mutum, waɗanda aka sassaka cikin babban taimako a ɓangarorin biyu na toshe mai kusurwa huɗu, tare da kawunan yadda ya kamata a zagayen (da kuma ƙafa biyar, don haka cewa duka ra'ayoyin suna kama da cikakke). Tun kafin su mamaye yankin sun ci gaba da al'adar hatimin silinda tare da zane wanda galibi ke da kuzari da tsafta.

 Gine-Gine 
Nazarin tsoffin gine-ginen Mesopotamia ya dogara ne da shaidar archaeological da ke akwai, da zane-zanen zane na gine-gine, da rubutu kan ayyukan gini. Adabin malamai yawanci yana mai da hankali ne kan gidajen ibada, fadoji, ganuwar gari da ƙofofi, da sauran manyan gine-gine, amma lokaci-lokaci mutum kan sami ayyuka a tsarin gine-ginen ma. Har ila yau, binciken da aka yi akan kayan tarihi ya ba da izinin nazarin birane a farkon biranen Mesopotamiya.

Brick shine abu mafi rinjaye, tunda kayan suna wadatar dasu a cikin gida, alhali kuwa dole ne a kawo dutsen gini zuwa mafi yawan garuruwa. Ziggurat ita ce hanya mafi mahimmanci, kuma biranen galibi suna da manyan ƙofofi, waɗanda ƙofar Ishtar daga Babila ta Neo-Babilawa, wadda aka kawata ta da dabbobi a cikin tubalin polychrome, ita ce mafi shahara, yanzu galibi a cikin Gidan Tarihi na Pergamon a cikin Berlin.

Babban sanannen tsarin gine-ginen daga farkon Mesopotamia sune rukunin gidajen ibada a Uruk daga karni na 4 BC, gidajen ibada da fadoji daga wuraren zamanin farkon zamanin zamanin Dlaastic a cikin kwarin Kogin Diyala kamar Khafajah da Tell Asmar, Daular Uku ta Ur ta wanzu a Nippur ( Wuri mai tsarki na Enlil) da Ur (Tsarkakkiyar Nanna), Tsakanin Tsakiya ta Tsakiya ya kasance a wuraren Siriya-Turkiya na Ebla, Mari, Alalakh, Aleppo da Kultepe, Fadar Girman Bronze Age a Hattusa, Ugarit, Ashur da Nuzi, Fina-Finan Iron Age da gidajen ibada a Assuriyawa (Kalhu / Nimrud, Khorsabad, Nineveh), Babila (Babila), Urartian (Tushpa / Van, Kalesi, Cavustepe, Ayanis, Armavir, Erebuni, Bastam) da Neo-Hittite (Karkamis, Tell Halaf, Karatepe). Gidaje galibi sanannu ne daga tsoffin Babila a Nippur da Ur. Daga cikin tushen rubutu kan ginin gini da ayyukan ibada da suka hada da silinda Gudea daga ƙarshen karni na 3 sanannu ne, da kuma rubutun Assuriya da na Babila daga Iron Age.

Manazarta