Reparations for slavery in the United States

Reparations for slavery be de application of de concept of reparations to victims of slavery or deir descendants. There are concepts give reparations insyd legal philosophy den reparations insyd transitional justice. Insyd de US, reparations for slavery have been both given by legal ruling insyd court den/or given voluntarily (without court rulings) by individuals den institutions.Medish, Mark; Lucichref, Daniel (August 30, 2019). "Congress must officially apologize for slavery before America can think about reparations". NBC News. Retrieved July 12, 2020.Davis, Allen (May 11, 2020). "An Historical Timeline of Reparations Payments Made From 1783 through 2020 by the United States Government, States, Cities, Religious Institutions, Colleges and Universities, and Corporations". University of Massachusetts Amherst. Retrieved July 12, 2020.

De first recorded case for reparations for slavery insyd de United States be to former slave Belinda Royall insyd 1783, insyd de form of a pension, den since then reparations continue to be proposed. To de present day, no federal reparations bills have been passed."Why Was Belinda's Petition Approved?". The Royall House and Slave Quarters. December 27, 2017. Retrieved October 29, 2020. De 1865 Special Field Orders No. 15 ("Forty acres and a mule") be de most well known attempt to help newly freed slaves integrate into society den accumulate wealth.Darity, William (2020). From Here to Equality: Reparations for Black Americans in the Twenty-First Century. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1469654973. However, President Andrew Johnson reversed this order, giving de land back to its former Confederate owners.

Reparations have been a recurring idea insyd de politics of de United States, most recently insyd de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries.Lockhart, PR (March 19, 2019). "The 2020 Democratic primary debate over reparations, explained". Vox. De call give reparations intensified insyd 2020, amidst de protests against police brutality den de COVID-19 pandemic, wey both kill Black Americans disproportionately."Calls for reparations are growing louder. How is the US responding?". The Guardian. June 20, 2020. Retrieved July 20, 2020. Several states, localities and private institutions are beginning to grapple with issue, advancing legislation or convening taskforces to develop proposals for reparations. Calls give reparations give racism den discrimination insyd de US be often made by black communities den authors alongside calls give reparations give slavery.Cashin, Cheryll (June 21, 2019). "Reparations for slavery aren't enough. Official racism lasted much longer". The Washington Post."Black Asheville Demands – Reparations Section". June 26, 2020. Archived from the original on June 15, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.Coates, Ta-Nehisi (June 1, 2014). "The Case for Reparations". The Atlantic.Marable, Manning. "Racism and Reparations: The time has come for whites to acknowledge the legacy of nearly 250 years of slavery and almost 100 years of legalized segregation". Retrieved September 18, 2020. De idea of reparations dey remain highly controversial, due to questions of how dem would be given, how much dem go give, who would pay dem, den who would receive dem.Alfred L. Brophy, The Cultural War over Reparations for Slavery, 53 DePaul Law Review 1181–1213, 1182–1184 (Spring 2004)Jones, Thai (January 31, 2020). "Slavery reparations seem impossible. In many places, they're already happening". The Washington Post. Retrieved July 12, 2020.

Forms of reparations wey have been proposed insyd de United States by city, county, state, den national governments anaa private institutions dey include: individual monetary payments, settlements, scholarships, waiving of fees, den systemic initiatives to offset injustices, land-based compensation wey be related to independence, apologies den acknowledgements of de injustices, token measures (such as naming a building after someone), den de removal of monuments den streets named to slave owners den defenders of slavery.Kepley-Steward, Kristy; Santostasi, Stephanie (July 10, 2020). "Confederate monuments in downtown Asheville removed or covered". WLOS. Retrieved July 12, 2020.

Since further injustices den discrimination have continued since dem overlawed slavery insyd de US,"America's Long Overdue Awakening to Systemic Racism". Time. June 11, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020.Jan, Tracy (March 28, 2020). "Redlining was banned 50 years ago. It's still hurting minorities today". The Washington Post. Retrieved July 12, 2020.Mitchell, Bruce; Franco, Juan (March 20, 2018). "HOLC "redlining" maps: The persistent structure of segregation and economic inequality". Retrieved July 12, 2020.Nelson, Libby; Lind, Dara (February 24, 2015). "The school to prison pipeline, explained". Retrieved July 12, 2020."Report to the United Nations on Racial Disparities in the U.S. Criminal Justice System". April 19, 2020. Retrieved July 12, 2020. some black communities den civil rights organizations have called for reparations give those injustices sanso give reparations directly related to slavery. Some suggest dat de U.S. prison system, starting plus de convict lease system den continuing through de present-day government-owned corporation Federal Prison Industries (UNICOR), wey be modern form of legal slavery dat still primarily den disproportionately affects black populations den oda minorities via de war on drugs den what has been criticized as a school-to-prison pipeline.Love, David; Das, Vijay (September 9, 2017). "Slavery in the US prison system". Al Jazeera. Retrieved July 12, 2020.

 U.S. ein historical context 
Insyd colonial times

De debate on reparations dey reach as far back as de eighteenth century. Quakers, wey were some of de first abolitionists insyd de United States, almost unanimously insisted dat freed slaves be entitled to compensation from their former owners. If an owner repented of ein sin of owning a chattel slave, he dey need to atone give am by making amends. Quakers cited de book of Deuteronomy, insyd wey owners were exhorted to share dema goods plus former slaves.Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice (2007). Slavery and Justice (PDF). Brown University. OCLC 301709830.     

During de Revolutionary War, Warner Mifflin advocated give restitution give freed ex-slaves as early as 1778, insyd de form of cash payments, land, den shared crop arrangements.Heller, Mike (March 2019). "Review of Gary Nash's Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist". George Fox University. Retrieved March 5, 2021.Polgar, Paul J. (December 1, 2018). "Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist". Journal of American History. 105 (3): 660–661. doi:10.1093/jahist/jay310. ISSN 0021-8723."The Fearless and Forgotten Warner Mifflin: Quaker Abolitionist of the New Nation". Historical Society of Pennsylvania. Retrieved March 5, 2021. Gary B. Nash dey write dat, "he may fairly be called de father of American reparationism".Nash, Gary B. (2017). Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 93. ISBN 978-0812294361.Heller, Mike (March 1, 2019). "Review of Gary Nash's Warner Mifflin: Unflinching Quaker Abolitionist (Philadelphia University of Pennsylvania Press, 2017)". Quaker Religious Thought. 132 (1). ISSN 0033-5088.

 Before de Civil War 
Well before dem abolish slavery nationally insyd 1865, abolitionists presented suggestions on wat could anaa should be done to compensate de enslaved workers after their liberation. 

Early insyd 1859, insyd a book dem dedicate to "Old Hero" John Brown, James Redpath declared einself a "reparationist", den implies dat insyd ein view, de lands of de Confederacy should be given to de ex-slaves.Redpath, James (1859). The roving editor, or, Talks with Slaves in the Southern States. New York: A. B. Burdick He sanso quotes an earlier poem, by William North, that dey refer to "the course of reparation". 

Later dat year, after Brown's execution, Redpath reported insyd de first biography of Brown dat he "was not merely an emancipationist, sana a reparationist. He believed, not only dat de crime of slavery should be abolished, sana dat reparation should be made give de wrongs dat had been done to de slave. What he believed, he practiced. On dis occasion [Missouri raid, 1859], after telling de slaves dat dem be free, he asked dem how much their services had been worth, den—having been answered—proceeded to take property to de amount thus due to de negroes."Redpath, James (1860). The public life of Capt. John Brown. Boston: Thayer and Eldridge. 

Dey call give permanent confiscation den redistribution of plantation lands had already been made by Representatives George W. Julian den Thaddeus Stevens, both of de Radical Republican faction.McKivigan, John R. (2008). Forgotten firebrand : James Redpath and the making of nineteenth-century America. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0801446733.

 De Reconstruction period 
De arguments surrounding reparations are based on de formal discussion about many different reparations, den actual land reparations wey African Americans receive am wey be later taken away. Insyd 1865, after de Confederate States of America be defeated insyd de American Civil War, General William Tecumseh Sherman issued Special Field Orders, No. 15 to both "assure de harmony of action insyd de area of operations""Harmony of Action" – Sherman as an Army Group Commander den to solve problems wey de masses of freed slaves cause am, a temporary plan granting each freed family forty acres of tillable land insyd de sea islands den around Charleston, South Carolina give de exclusive use of black people who had been enslaved. De army sanso had a number of unneeded mules wey be given to freed slaves. Around 40,000 freed slaves be settled for 400,000 acres (1,600 km2) top insyd Georgia den South Carolina. However, President Andrew Johnson reversed de order after Lincoln was assassinated, de land was returned to ein previous owners, den black people be forced to leave. Insyd 1867, Thaddeus Stevens sponsored a bill give de redistribution of land to African Americans, sana it did not pass.

Reconstruction came to an end insyd 1877 without de issue of reparations having been addressed. Thereafter, a deliberate movement of segregation den oppression arose insyd Southern states.Jim Crow laws passed insyd some Southeastern states to reinforce de existing inequality dat slavery had produced. In addition, white extremist organizations wey include de Ku Klux Klan engaged insyd a massive campaign of terrorism throughout de Southeast in order to keep African Americans insyd their prescribed social place. Give decades dis assumed inequality den injustice was ruled on insyd court decisions den debated insyd public discourse. 

Insyd one anomalous case, a former slave named Henrietta Wood successfully sued give compensation after having been kidnapped from de free state of Ohio den sold into slavery insyd Mississippi.  After de American Civil War, she was freed den returned to Cincinnati, wey she won ein case insyd federal court insyd 1878, receiving $2,500 (~$81,457 insyd 2024) insyd damages.  Though de verdict was a national news story, it did not prompt any trend toward additional similar cases.McDaniel, W. Caleb. "In 1870, Henrietta Wood Sued for Reparations – and Won". Smithsonian. Retrieved October 6, 2019.

 Post-Reconstruction Era 
Insyd 1896, de National Ex-Slave Mutual Relief, Bounty den Pension Association (MRB&PA) be founded give de purpose of obtaining pensions give former slaves from de Federal government as compensation den reparations give their unpaid labor den suffering. Chartered insyd 1898 insyd Nashville, Tennessee, de organization be founded by former slaves Callie House den Isaiah H. Dickerson. According to some historians, de organization be "de first mass reparations movement wey African Americans led am".Berry, Mary Frances (2005). My Face Is Black Is True. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 230, 4. ISBN 1-4000-4003-5. De organization den ein leaders be hounded plus false allegations den criminal prosecutions until ein last local branches closed insyd de 1930's.        

Insyd 1915, under Callie House's leadership, de association filed a class-action lawsuit, Johnson v. McAdoo, insyd federal court against de U.S. Treasury Department give 68 million dollars. $68 million be de amount of cotton tax collected between 1862 den 1868 den, it was argued, be due to de plaintiffs because dem produced dis cotton den their ancestors as a result of their involuntary servitude. Dis be de first documented Black reparations litigation insyd de US on de federal level. De U.S. Court of Appeals give de District of Columbia denied de claim based on governmental immunity as did de U.S. Supreme Court, wey dey side plus de Appeals Court's decision.Booker Perry, Miranda (Summer 2010). "No Pensions for Ex-Slaves: How Federal Agencies Suppressed Movement to Aid Freedpeople". Prologue Magazine. Vol. 42, no. 2. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved 2 May 2021.       

2020   

De topic became a prominent theme during de 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries"Super Tuesday primaries, 2020". Ballotpedia. Retrieved June 17, 2025. as concerns surrounding race be heightened due to current events.Hagen, Lisa (February 27, 2019). "2020 Democrats' Support for Reparations Lacks Details". US News. Dem further amplify am because of African-American people be dying prematurely den disproportionately due to de COVID-19 pandemic. Ongoing systemic racism den police brutality sanso sparked outrage across de country, notably de killing of Breonna Taylor, a 26-year-old African-American emergency medical technician, wey Louisville Metro Police Department fatally shot am insyd ein home; de murder of Ahmaud Arbery, shot while out give a run by three white men insyd Georgia; den de murder of George Floyd, a Black American killed during an arrest by Minneapolis police after allegedly passing a counterfeit $20 bill, dat sparked de nationwide George Floyd protests.Peyton, Nellie; Murray, Christine (June 24, 2020). "Calls for reparations gain steam as U.S. reckons with racial injustice".        

Candidates dat endorsed de idea included:        

 Andrew Yang said dat he supports H.R. 40, de Commission to Study den Develop Reparation Proposals give African-Americans Act, sponsored by Rep. Sheila Jackson Lee,Rep. Jackson Lee, Sheila (January 3, 2019). "H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act". Congress.gov. Library of Congress. Retrieved June 22, 2020. while speaking on de Karen Hunter showArchived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: "What is Andrew Yang's Black Agenda?" www.youtube.com. November 13, 2019 – via YouTube.
 Marianne Williamson detailed a plan give reparations insyd an interview give Ebony Magazine.Santi, Christina (February 1, 2019). "Dem. Presidential Candidate Calls for $100B in Slavery Reparations". Ebony. Retrieved May 2, 2019.
 Senators Elizabeth Warren den Cory Booker have both indicated some level of support give reparations, according to NPR."2020 Democrats Wrestle With A Big Question: What Are Reparations?". NPR.org. Retrieved May 2, 2019.
 Tulsi Gabbard be a cosponsor of H.R. 40, de only piece of legislation insyd Congress to study den develop reparations proposals"H.R.40 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act". June 19, 2019. den Bernie Sanders be a co-sponsor give de Senate version of de bill."S.1083 – H.R. 40 Commission to Study and Develop Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act". Congress.gov. Retrieved July 12, 2019.
Kamala Harris declared insyd April 2019 she supports reparations.David Weigel (April 4, 2019). "The Trailer: In the Sharpton primary, Democrats put civil rights and reparations at center stage". Washington Post. Retrieved April 6, 2019. asked Sen. Kamala Harris of California whether she supported "some type" of reparations and she said she did

Beto O'Rourke be "open to considering some form of reparations," according to U.S. News & World Report.David Catanese (April 3, 2019). "Beto O'Rourke Takes a Stand on Reparations". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved April 6, 2019. This posture signals he's at least now open to considering some form of reparations."Beto O'Rourke backs reparations commission: 'Absolutely I would sign that into law'". The Washington Times.Jeremy Wallace (April 3, 2019). "Beto O'Rourke joins Julián Castro in backing reparations bill in Congress". Houston Chronicle. Retrieved April 6, 2019. 

Tom Steyer insyd de 2020 Democratic Primaries Debate insyd South Carolina voiced ein support give reparations."Tom Steyer on his South Carolina debate performance". www.youtube.com. February 26, 2020 - via YouTube.

 Proposals for reparations 

 United States government 
Sam proposals have called give direct payments from de U.S. government. Various estimates have been given if such payments were to be made. Harper's Magazine estimated dat de total of reparations due was about "$97 trillion, based on 222,505,049 hours of forced labor between 1619 den 1865, regardless de United States wasn't a recognized independent country until after de Revolutionary War insyd 1787, compounded at 6% interest through 1993".Flaherty, Peter; Carlisle, John (October 2004). "The Case Against Slave Reparations" (PDF). National Legal and Policy Center. p. 1. Retrieved December 20, 2018. Should all anaa part of dis amount be paid to de descendants of slaves insyd de United States, de current U.S. government would only pay a fraction of dat cost, since it has been insyd existence only since 1789. For two centuries, from de 1700s until World War I, de average wage for one day's unskilled labor insyd America was one dollar.    

According to de Brookings Institution, insyd 1860, ova $3 billion (~$83 billion insyd 2023) be de value assigned to de physical bodies of enslaved Black Americans to be used as free labor den production.Why we need reparations for Black Americans - "Black Americans who were enslaved in the United States were valued at an estimated $3 billion in 1860". www.brookings.edu. Retrieved July 19, 2025 Dis be more money dan be invested insyd factories den railroads combined. Insyd 1861, de value placed on cotton produced by enslaved Blacks be $250 million (~$6.66 billion insyd 2023). give de descendants of de 12.5 million Blacks wey be shipped insyd chains from Western Africa, “America get a genetic birth defect wen it comes to de question of race,” as stated recently by U.S. representative Hakeem Jeffries. If America be to atone give dis defect, reparations give Black Americans be part of de healing den reconciliation process.       

De Rev. M.J. Divine, better known as Father Divine, be one of de earliest leaders to argue clearly give "retroactive compensation", den de message was spread via International Peace Mission publications. For July 28, 1951 top, Father Divine issued a "peace stamp" bearing de text: "Peace! All nations and peoples wey be suppressed den oppressed de under-privileged, dem will be obliged to pay de African slaves den dema descendants give all uncompensated servitude den give all unjust compensation, wey be dem have been unjustly deprived of compensation on de account of previous condition of servitude den de present condition of servitude. Dis is to be accomplished insyd de defense of all oda under-privileged subjects den must be paid retroactive up-to-date"."Peace Stamps". peacemission.info. Retrieved November 15, 2017.

At de first National Reparations Convention insyd Chicago insyd 2001, a proposal Howshua Amariel wrote am, a Chicago social activist, would require de federal government to make reparations to proven descendants of slaves. In addition, Amariel stated "For those blacks wey wish to remain insyd America, dem should receive reparations in de form of free education, free medical, free legal den free financial aid give 50 years plus no taxes levied," den "For those desiring to leave America, every black person would receive a million dollars anaa more, backed by gold, insyd reparation". At de convention Amariel's proposal received approval from de 100 anaa so participants.Paul Shepard (February 11, 2001). "U.S. slavery reparations: Hope that a race will be compensated gains momentum". Seattle Times. Retrieved November 10, 2008. Nevertheless, de question of wey would receive such payments, wey should pay dem den insyd wat amount, has remained highly controversial,Bright Simons (April 12, 2007). "Ghanaian President Stirs Controversy Over Slave Trade Reparations". worldpress.org. Retrieved November 15, 2017.Michelle Chen (March 27, 2007). "Bill to Study Slavery Reparations Still Facing Resistance". The NewStandard. Retrieved November 15, 2017. since de United States Census does not track descent from slaves anaa slave owners den relies on self-reported racial categories.        

For July 30, 2008 top, de United States House of Representatives passed a resolution apologizing give American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws."Congress apologizes for slavery, Jim Crows". NPR. July 30, 2008 but made no mention of reparations.        

Nine states officially apologize for dema involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans. Those states be:

 Alabama – April 25, 2007
 Connecticut
 Delaware – February 11, 2016
 Florida – 2008
 Maryland – 2007
 New Jersey – 2008
 North Carolina – 2007
 Tennessee
 Virginia – 2007

 Private institutions 
Private institutions den corporations be sana involved insyd slavery. On March 8, 2000, Reuters News Service reported dat Deadria Farmer-Paellmann, a law school graduate, initiated a one-woman campaign wey dey make a historic demand give restitution den apologies from modern companies dat played a direct role insyd enslaving Africans. Aetna Inc. be ein first target because of dema practice of writing life insurance policies on de lives of enslaved Africans plus slave owners as de beneficiaries. In response to Farmer-Paellmann's demand, Aetna Inc. issued a public apology, den de "corporate restitution movement" be born.Smith, Jessie Carney; Wynn, Linda T. (January 1, 2009). Freedom Facts and Firsts: 400 Years of the African American Civil Rights Experience. Visible Ink Press. ISBN 978-1-57859-260-9. 

By 2002, nine lawsuits be filed around de country coordinated by Farmer-Paellmann den de Restitution Study Group—a New York non-profit. De litigation included 20 plaintiffs, demanding restitution from 20 companies from de banking, insurance, textile, railroad, den tobacco industries.De cases be consolidated under 28 U.S.C. 140728 U.S.C. § 1407 to multidistrict litigation insyd de United States District Court give de Northern District of Illinois. De district court dismissed de lawsuits plus prejudice, den de claimants appealed to de United States Court of Appeals give de Seventh Circuit.      

On December 13, 2006, dat court, insyd an opinion Judge Richard Posner wrote am, modified de district court's judgment to be a dismissal without prejudice, affirmed de majority of de district court's judgment, den reversed de portion of de district court's judgment dismissing de plaintiffs' consumer protection claims, remanding de case give further proceedings consistent plus its opinion.http://www.ca7.uscourts.gov/tmp/Z100WR3H.pdf Thus, de plaintiffs may bring de lawsuit again, sanso must clear considerable procedural den substantive hurdles first:       If one anaa more of de defendants violated a state law by transporting slaves insyd 1850, den de plaintiffs sabi establish standing to sue, prove de violation despite ein antiquity, establish dat de law was intended to provide a remedy (either directly anaa by providing de basis give a common law action give conspiracy, conversion, anaa restitution) to lawfully enslaved persons anaa dema descendants, identify dema ancestors, quantify damages incurred, den persuade de court to toll de statute of limitations, der would be no further obstacle to de grant of relief.In re African-American Slave Descendants Litig., 471 F.3d 754, 759 (7th Cir. 2006).Insyd October 2000, California passed de Slavery Era Disclosure Law requiring insurance companies doing business der to report on dema role insyd slavery. De disclosure legislation, wey Senator Tom Hayden introduced am, be de prototype give similar laws passed insyd 12 states around de United States. 

De NAACP has called give more of such legislation at local den corporate levels. It quotes Dennis C. Hayes, CEO of de NAACP, as saying, "Absolutely, we will be pursuing reparations from companies dat have historical ties to slavery den engaging all parties to come to de table"."NAACP to target private business". The Washington Times. July 12, 2005. Retrieved November 15, 2017. Brown University, whose namesake family was involved insyd de slave trade, has sana established a committee to explore de issue of reparations. Insyd February 2007, Brown University announced a set of responses"Response of Brown University to the Report of the Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice, February 2007" (PDF). Brown University. Retrieved November 15, 2017. to ein Steering Committee on Slavery den Justice.Slavery and Justice: Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice. While insyd 1995 de Southern Baptist Convention apologized give de "sins" of racism, wey include slavery."Southern Baptist Convention Resolution On Racial Reconciliation On The 150th Anniversary Of The Southern Baptist Convention". Southern Baptist Convention. Retrieved November 15, 2017.

Insyd December 2005, a boycott was called by a coalition of reparations groups under de sponsorship of de Restitution Study Group. De boycott targets de student loan products of banks deemed complicit insyd slavery—particularly those identified insyd de Farmer-Paellmann litigation. As part of de boycott, students are asked to choose from oda banks to finance dema student loans.Brendan Coyne, "Student Loan Boycott Demands Slavery Reparations", The NewStandard, December 6, 2005. 

Pro-reparations groups wey include de National Coalition of Blacks give Reparations insyd America advocate give compensation to be insyd de form of community rehabilitation den not payments to individual descendants.

 Black Lives Matter 
Many groups under de Black Lives Matter organization have laid out a list of demands, some of which dey include: reparations, give wat dem say e be past den continuing harms to African Americans, an end to de death penalty, legislation to acknowledge de effects of slavery, a move to defund de police, seizing homes wey white families owned am den providing dem free to blacks,Miller, Joshua Rhett (August 14, 2020). "Seattle BLM protesters demand white people 'give up' their homes". Retrieved October 25, 2024. sanso investments insyd education initiatives, mental health services, den jobs programs."Black Lives Matter Coalition Makes Demands as Campaign Heats Up". The Center for Popular Democracy. August 1, 2016. Retrieved October 19, 2020. These calls give reparations have been bolstered amidst de COVID-19 pandemic den de high rates of police brutality against Blacks.Keeanga Yamahtta-Taylor (April 16, 2020). "The Black Plague". The New Yorker. Retrieved March 17, 2021.

 Arguments for Reparations 

 Accumulated wealth 
Housing discrimination played a big role insyd creating de racial wealth gap dat exists today. After de Great Migration of Southern blacks to Chicago insyd de 1940s, dem used redlining to keep former slaves segregated from whites den to prevent black families from getting a mortgage. Thus dem be forced to buy houses for contracts top from real estate speculators, wey be a scam. Not only did dis cause thousands of Black Americans to lose dema homes den dema money, e sanso created wat be known today as ghettos den prevented Blacks from accumulating wealth. Today, de average white family has roughly 10 times de amount of wealth as de average black family, den white college graduates have ova seven times more wealth dan Black college graduates.    

De wealth of de United States was greatly enhanced by de exploitation of African-American slave labor: sam argue e be de bedrock give de U.S. economy den capitalism. However, former slaves den dema descendants be among de poorest demographic insyd America.Kunnie, Julian (Winter–Spring 2018). "Justice never too late: The historical background to current reparations movements among Africans and African Americans". The Journal of African American History. 103 (1–2): 44–64. doi:10.1086/696364. S2CID 149992900. According to dis view, reparations would be valuable primarily as a way of correcting modern economic imbalances.      

Insyd 2008 de American Humanist Association published an article wey argued dat if emancipated slaves had been allowed to possess den retain de profits of dema labor, dema descendants might now control a much larger share of American social den monetary wealth.Ananda S. Osel, U.S. Apology for Slavery – Apparently Not Front Page News The Humanist, Nov/Dec 2008 (American Humanist Association) Not only did de freedmen not receive a share of these profits, but dem be stripped of de small amounts of compensation paid to sam of dem during Reconstruction.Stevens, Robert (2010). The Bracken Rangers: Company K, 28th Regiment, 1st Indiana Cavalry, and Essays on the American Civil War. Lulu.com. ISBN 978-1257851256 – via Google Books. Therefore, many scholars den activists call give reparations to eliminate "racial disparities insyd wealth, income, education, health, sentencing den incarceration, political participation, den subsequent opportunities to engage insyd American political den social life".

 Health care 
Insyd 2019, VICE magazine published an article dat argued racial health disparities, from slavery through Jim Crow until today, have cost Black Americans a significant amount of money insyd health care expenses den lost wages, den should be paid back.Jason Silverstein (June 19, 2019). "Being Black in America Is a Health Risk. It's Time for Reparations". Vice. Ray den Perry state insyd a Brookings article dat de lack of a social safety net den de wealth gap are particularly highlighted during de COVID-19 pandemic. Dem explain dat “disparities insyd access to health care along plus inequities insyd economic policies combine,” making dis inequality a life anaa death situation give black Americans.Ray, Rashawn; Perry, Andre M. (April 15, 2020). "Why we need reparations for Black Americans". Brookings. Retrieved October 30, 2020.

Current discrimination

Many argue dat giving reparations give slavery be too complicated, but der be a strong basis give dem on de past den current discrimination dat blacks insyd America face.Prager, Jeffery (November 4, 2017). "Do Black Lives Matter? A Psychoanalytic Exploration of Racism and American Resistance to Reparations". Political Psychology. 38 (4): 637–651. doi:10.1111/pops.12436. S2CID 149317387. Ta-Nehisi Coates dey explain am insyd "The Case for Reparations" article insyd The Atlantic as "ninety years of Jim Crow, sixty years of separate but equal, den thirty-five years of racist housing policy". De legacy of these policies have kept African Americans from opportunities to build wealth, while slavery "enriched white slave owners den dema descendants". Today, de district of North Lawndale insyd Chicago, wey redlining be de strongest, be de poorest neighborhood insyd de city, plus an unemployment rate of 18.6% den 42% of residents living below de poverty line.        

De discriminatory practices of 1940 through 1970 still reverberate today, as de average White family has roughly ten times de amount of wealth as de average Black family.Ward, Marguerite. "How decades of US welfare policies lifted up the white middle class and largely excluded Black Americans". Business Insider. Retrieved October 19, 2020. As Bittker claims insyd ein book The Case for Black Reparations, "as slavery faded into de background, e be succeeded by a caste system embodying white supremacy".Bittker, Boris (2003). The Case for Black Reparations. Random House. Many argue dat while reparations may be a first step towards amending de harms wey slavery cause am, de systemic racism dat exists insyd many institutions will not be fixed as easily. Malcolm X stated: "If you stick a knife insyd my back nine inches den pull am out six inches, der's no progress. If you pull am all de way out dat's not progress. Progress be healing de wound dat de blow made.""Malcolm X Quotes". notable-quotes.com. Retrieved October 19, 2020.

 Precedents 
Advocates have used oda examples of reparations to argue dat victims of institutional slavery should be similarly compensated."The Legal Basis of the Claim for Slavery Reparations". American Bar Association. Retrieved November 15, 2017. 

Insyd several cases de federal government has formally apologized to anaa compensated minority groups give past actions:

 Under de Civil Liberties Act of 1988, wey President Ronald Reagan signed am into law, de U.S. government apologized give Japanese American internment during World War II den provided reparations of $20,000 to each survivor, to compensate give loss of property den liberty during dat period. No compensation was given to de descendants of affected individuals though.

 De Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act transferred land, federal money, den a portion of oil revenues to native Alaskans.

 De Apology Resolution of 1993 apologized give de overthrow of de Kingdom of Hawaii, sana gave no compensation.
U.S. state governments have made reparations insyd some specific circumstances:

 Virginia established a compensation fund give victims of involuntary sterilization insyd 2015."Victims of Eugenics Sterilization Compensation Program". Virginia Department of Behavioral Health and Developmental Services (DBHDS). Virginia Department of Behavioral Health and Developmental Services.
Oda countries have sanso opted to pay reparations give past grievances, such as:

 Reparations give de Holocaust, wey dey include de Reparations Agreement between Israel den West Germany den various programs under de Conference for Jewish Material Claims Against Germany top. 

 Arguments against reparations 

 Statute of limitations 
Most state den federal laws under wey parties sabi sue give damages have a statute of limitations wey sets a deadline give filing; these have all long since passed, wey prevents courts from granting relief under existing laws. Dis has been used effectively insyd several suits, wey dey nclude In re: African American Slave Descendants, wey dismissed a high-profile suit against a number of businesses plus ties to slavery."In re: African-American Slave Descents Ligation". Case Law. Retrieved July 9, 2019.

 Technical complications 
De technical side of reparations be very complex, den could be a reason why dem have not yet been implemented. Sam argue against de idea of putting a monetary value on de traumas dat Black Americans have faced, dubbing am "transactionalism". On de oda hand, sam dismiss de case give reparations entirely due to practical concerns, wey include who would receive these financial payments, why should de current generation pay give wrongs give wey dem are not responsible, den how much should be paid.           

De estimates of de monetary value of stolen slave labor den subsequent discrimination vary “from an outrageously low $3.2 million to $4.7 billion,” den to as much as $12 trillion. Dis sanso dey raise de question of who be responsible give paying. Generally, three actors be agreed upon: federal den state governments, wey supported den protected de institution of slavery; private companies dat benefited from it; den “rich families dat owe a good portion of dema wealth to slavery”.Breeanna Hare and Doug Criss (August 15, 2020). "People are again talking about slavery reparations. But it's a complex and thorny issue". CNN. Retrieved October 19, 2020.           

Sam claim dat closing de wealth gap dey involve paying descendants of slaves “individual cash payments insyd de amount dat will close de Black-white racial wealth divide”. Another suggestion be give reparations to "come insyd de form of wealth-building opportunities dat address racial disparities insyd education, housing, den business ownership". For example, insyd de city of Asheville, North Carolina, reparations have been implemented insyd de form of "investments insyd areas wey Black residents face disparities". However, de complications dat surround dis be significant, den odas argue dat putting de money into communities be not efficient, due to people moving den gentrification.           

Insyd ein book, Bittker lays out sam of de practical den constitutional problems dat would likely arise insyd an attempt to execute a program of reparations to Blacks. Would it be de same payment to every person? Would dem have to prove ancestry to an African slave, anaa would it be any black person wey was subject to racism? There be no real answers to these questions, as dis be unprecedented case. Oda cases of reparations, wey include to de Jewish people wey survived de Holocaust anaa de Native Americans insyd de United States, be very different insyd de way dat it be much easier to identify de group wey should receive dem, den de reparations were paid more quickly dan insyd de case of reparations give slavery.          

 Additional arguments den opinions 
Steven Greenhut, de western region director give de R Street Institute, has suggested dat reparations would make racism worse.Greenhut, Steven (April 5, 2019). "Reparations Are More Likely to Divide the Nation Than Heal It". Reason. 

Republican senator Mitch McConnell of Kentucky, wey be a descendant of slave owners,Siemaszko, Corky (July 8, 2019). "Sen. Mitch McConnell's great-great-grandfathers owned 14 slaves, bringing reparations issue close to home". NBC News. Retrieved January 29, 2021. while dey acknowledge dat slavery was an "original sin" of de United States, opposes providing reparations because he believes "none of us currently living are responsible."Ted Barrett, Ted (June 19, 2019). "McConnell opposes paying reparations: 'None of us currently living are responsible' for slavery". CNN. Retrieved July 12, 2020. 

One publication against reparations be David Horowitz, Uncivil Wars: The Controversy Over Reparations for Slavery (2002). Oda works dat discuss problems plus reparations dey include John Torpey's Making Whole What Has Been Smashed: On Reparations Politics (2006), Alfred Brophy's Reparations Pro den Con (2006), den Nahshon Perez's Freedom from Past Injustices (Edinburgh University Press, 2012). 

Reparations insyd de U.S. have never gained widespread public support. Often insyd these conversations, de White reaction is to claim dat dis be a form of unjustifiable "reverse racism", anaa dat demands give reparations be an example of de "Black refusal to move beyond de memory of slavery". A 2020 poll from De Washington Post showed dat "63% of Americans don't think de U.S. should pay reparations to de descendants of slaves". Notably, 82% of Black Americans support reparations, while 75% of White Americans do not. Sam arguments sanso highlight de complications behind reparations, such as "not all Black Americans are descendants of slaves" anaa dat de people alive today are not responsible give de harms of slavery. Odas still argue dat reparations will do nothing insyd de face of racism, den dat structural den policy changes would be more effective. Insyd de midst of America's racial unrest from 2020 to de present, these tensions were particularly exposed.[original research?]

 Reparations den COVID-19 
De call give reparations has amplified due to de coronavirus pandemic, plus people of color disproportionately likely to be laid off, to struggle financially, den to die from de virus. For example, 40% of black-owned businesses have closed permanently since March due to de pandemic, compared to 17% of white-owned businesses during de same period."40% of black-owned businesses not expected to survive coronavirus". CBS News. June 22, 2020. Retrieved October 19, 2020. Dis relates back to de fact dat white families have roughly ten times de wealth of black families. Dis limits black-owned businesses' access to credit den loans, den dem do not have de safety net insyd times of crises dat many white-owned businesses do.[citation needed]     

In addition, African Americans continue to get infected den die from COVID-19 at rates more than 1.5 times dema share of de population.Wood, Daniel (September 23, 2020). "As Pandemic Deaths Add Up, Racial Disparities Persist — And In Some Cases Worsen". NPR News. Retrieved October 30, 2020. Insyd August 2020, de CDC released data wey dey show dat Blacks, Latinos, den American Indians are experiencing hospitalizations at rates 4.5 to 5.5 times higher dan non-Hispanic whites, den dat African Americans are dying at 2.4 times de white rate.    

 Legislation den oda actions 

Federal government
On July 30, 2008, de United States House of Representatives pass a resolution wey dey apologize for American slavery den subsequent discriminatory laws. Na de Senate apologize insyd 2009.

States
Legislation
 California – Adopted legislation wey dey require insurance companies to determine whether dem have records going back to when slavery existed insyd dis country den, if so, to provide information for insurance policies top wey slaveholders held am on slaves to de state's insurance department.McCarthy, Kevin (February 1, 2012). Slavery Era Insurance Registry Laws (Report). OLR Research Report. Retrieved July 12, 2020. De California Reparations Task Force was established insyd 2020 as a non-regulatory state agency to study den develop reparation proposals.
 Illinois – Adopted legislation wey dey require insurance companies to determine whether dem have records going back to when slavery existed insyd dis country den, if so, to provide information for insurance policies top wey slaveholders held am on slaves to de state's insurance department.
 Iowa – Adopted legislation wey dey ask de insurance commissioner to request if insurance companies dem have records going back to when slavery existed insyd dis country den, if so, to provide information for insurance policies top wey slaveholders held am on slaves to de state's insurance department.
 Maryland – Adopted legislation wey dey require insurance companies to determine whether dem have records going back to when slavery existed insyd dis country den, if so, to provide information for insurance policies top wey slaveholders held am on slaves to de state's insurance department.
 New York – Insyd December of 2023, Gov. Kathy Hochul signed a bill wey dey set up a commission give de study of slavery's legacy. De commission will possibly make recommendations give monetary compensation anaa oda reparations give New York's Black residents under de effort. De Democrat-controlled state Legislature approved de measure insyd June.Robinson, David (December 19, 2023). "NY to study reparations for slavery, possible direct payments to Black residents". Utica Observer-Dispatch.

Apologies
 Alabama – Apologized give ein involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans on April 25, 2007."Riley Signs Slavery Apology". Alabama Public Radio. May 31, 2007. Retrieved January 30, 2022.White, David (May 31, 2007). "Riley signs slavery-apology resolution". AL.com. Retrieved January 30, 2022.
 Connecticut – Insyd 2009 apologized give ein involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans."House Passes Resolution to Apologize for Slavery". Hartford Courant. May 22, 2009.
 Delaware – Apologized give ein involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans on February 11, 2016.
 Florida – Insyd 2008, apologized give ein involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans insyd America.
 Maryland – Insyd 2007, apologized give ein involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans insyd America.
 New Jersey – Insyd 2007, apologized give ein involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans insyd America.
 North Carolina – Insyd 2007, apologized give ein involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans insyd America.
 Tennessee – Insyd 2007, de Tennessee House of Representatives voted insyd unanimous support on a resolution wey dey state dat it "regrets" ein involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans. De House had specifically removed any "apology" language from de resolution."Tennessee weighs an apology for slavery". April 16, 2014. Retrieved July 12, 2020."TN votes to express regret for slavery, but not apologize". Chattanooga Times Free Press. Associated Press. April 16, 2020.
 Virginia – Apologized give ein involvement insyd de enslavement of Africans on February 26, 2007.

Counties

 Buncombe County, North Carolina: On June 16, 2020, insyd 7–0 vote, Buncombe County Commissioners decided to remove several Confederate monuments wey dey include de Vance MonumentPenter, Caitlyn (June 16, 2020). "Confederate monuments to be moved from downtown Asheville". Retrieved July 15, 2020. wey be named after North Carolina governor Zeb Vance, a slave owner wey used convict labor to build de railroad to Western North Carolina.Ready, Milton (June 25, 2015). "When past is present: Zeb Vance and his monument". Retrieved July 15, 2020. Significant community involvement led to de decision. Leading up to de vote, de board received 549 supporting messages den 19 opposing.Walter, Rebecca (June 17, 2020). "Monumental decision: Buncombe County approves removal of Confederate statues".

Cities
 Chicago, Illinois: "Insyd 2015, Chicago enacted a reparations ordinance wey dey cover hundreds of African Americans tortured by police from de 1970s to de 1990s. De law calls give $5.5 million insyd financial compensation, as well as hundreds of thousands more give a public memorial, den a range of assistance related to health, education den emotional well-being".Hassan, Adeel; Healy, Jack (June 19, 2019). "America Has Tried Reparations Before. Here Is How It Went". The New York Times. Retrieved July 12, 2020.
 Evanston, Illinois: "De City Council of Evanston, Illinois, voted to allocate de first $10 million insyd tax revenue from de sale of recreational marijuana (wey became legal insyd de state for January 1, 2020 top) to fund reparations initiatives dat address de gaps insyd wealth den opportunity of black residents".
 Asheville, North Carolina: De city council approved reparations on a 7–0 vote on July 14, 2020. "[B]udgetary den programmatic priorities may include sana not be limited to increasing minority home ownership den access to oda affordable housing, increasing minority business ownership den career opportunities, strategies to grow equity den generational wealth, closing de gaps insyd health care, education, employment den pay, neighborhood safety den fairness within criminal justice," de resolution reads. De resolution establishes de Community Reparations Commission wey will make concrete recommendations give programs den resources allocations to ultimately carry out de reparations.Burgess, Joel (July 14, 2020). "In historic move, Asheville approves reparations for Black residents". Citizen Times. Retrieved October 30, 2020. De Asheville City Council sanso voted unanimously on June 9, 2020, to remove two confederate monuments as a result of demands wey a group called "Black Asheville Demands" made am"City OKs monuments' removal, pending county approval". June 15, 2020. Retrieved July 15, 2020. den de work of de Racial Justice Coalition plus led de push give de effort."In historic move, North Carolina city approves reparations for Black residents". July 15, 2020. Retrieved October 30, 2020. De city council meeting had so much community engagement public comment was extended give an extra hour beyond de normal meeting time.
 San Francisco, California: Insyd March 2023, "reparation payments of $5 million to eligible Black residents wey San Francisco’s Board of Supervisors unanimously accepted am".Grove, Rashad (March 16, 2023). "NEWS & POLITICS: SAN FRANCISCO BOARD APPROVES $5 MILLION REPARATION PAYMENTS FOR BLACK RESIDENTS". Ebony.

Organizations den institutions

 Aetna: Apologized insyd 2000 give issuing life insurance policies to enslavers covering de lives of enslaved people from c. 1853 to 1860.Groark, Virginia (May 5, 2002). "Slave Policies". The New York Times. Retrieved May 2, 2010."Ethics Newsline® » News » Aetna Apologizes For Pre-Civil-War Policies Issued On Lives Of Slaves". Globalethics.org. March 13, 2000. Archived from the original on October 17, 2013. Retrieved February 12, 2011. Insyd 2002, when Farmer-Paellman brought suit against Aetna, CSX den Fleet give unjust enrichment by "a system dat enslaved, tortured, starved den exploited human beings,""Aetna, CSX, FleetBoston face slave reparations suit". USA Today. March 24, 2002. Retrieved May 2, 2010. dis suit was dismissed.Cox, James (January 26, 2004). "Judge rejects lawsuit seeking reparations". USA Today. Retrieved May 2, 2010.Olson, Walter (October 31, 2008). "So long, slavery reparations". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved May 2, 2010.

 University of Alabama: Apologized give de history of slavery at de university insyd 2004.Cruz, Gilbert (April 20, 2004). "UA apologizes for history of slavery". Tuscaloosa News. Retrieved January 30, 2022.
 Georgetown University: "Insyd 2016 [de university agreed] to give admissions preference to descendants of de 272 slaves[,] formally apologized give ein role insyd slavery [den] [renamed] two buildings on ein campus to acknowledge de lives of enslaved people". Insyd April, 2019 students at Georgetown University voted to increase dema tuition by $27.20 to benefit de descendants of de 272 slaves wey de Jesuits wey ran de school insyd 1838 sold am. De student-led referendum was non-binding."America Has Tried Reparations Before. Here Is How It Went". The New York Times. June 19, 2019. Retrieved July 12, 2020. In 2015, Chicago enacted a reparations ordinance covering hundreds of African Americans tortured by police from the 1970s to the 1990s. The law calls for $5.5 million in financial compensation, as well as hundreds of thousands more for a public memorial, and a range of assistance related to health, education and emotional well-being. Later dat year, after further pressure den follow up from de Georgetown University Student Association,Li, Amy (June 25, 2019). "Board of Directors Meets, Does Not Vote on GU272 Referendum". The Hoya. Georgetown University. Retrieved July 12, 2020. de university eventually moved forward plus a similar proposal without de students' covering de cost plus a tuition increase.Ebbs, Stephanie (October 30, 2019). "Georgetown University announces reparations fund to benefit descendants of slaves once sold by the school". ABC News. Retrieved July 12, 2020.
 Harvard University started to research ein relationship to slavery insyd 2007. Insyd 2016, Harvard president Drew Faust acknowledged dat de university had been "directly complicit" insyd slavery. Insyd 2022 de university published Harvard & de Legacy of Slavery, more dan a hundred pages long. De report included recommendations to develop educational partnerships plus historically Black colleges den universities, create a public memorial, den identify living descendants of people enslaved by university staff, leaders den faculty. There was a US$100m endowment give implementation. De university has given descendants of slaves preferential consideration give admissions den set up a reconciliation fund give dem.Moscufo, Michela (June 21, 2025). "Harvard hired a researcher to uncover its ties to slavery. He says the results cost him his job: 'We found too many slaves'". The Guardian.
 JP Morgan Chase: Apologized give ein connection to slavery insyd 2005."JP Morgan admits US slavery links". BBC News. November 15, 2017. Retrieved November 15, 2017.
 Princeton Theological Seminary: Insyd 2019, de Seminary announced a $27 million commitment give various initiatives to recognize how it benefited from black slavery. Dis be de largest monetary commitment by an educational institution.
 Virginia Theological Seminary: Set aside $1.7 million to pay reparations to descendants of African Americans wey be enslaved to work on dema campus, first distributed insyd 2021.Wright, Will (May 31, 2021). "Seminary Built on Slavery and Jim Crow Labor Has Begun Paying Reparations". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331.
 Wachovia: Apologized give ein connection to slavery insyd 2005.Katie Benner (June 2, 2005). "Wachovia apologizes for ties to slavery". CNN/Money. Retrieved November 15, 2017.

 Sanso see 

 American Descendants of Slavery (ADOS)
 American slave court cases
 Freedom suit – lawsuits brought by slaves to obtain freedom den reparations
 History of slavery insyd de United States
 History of slavery
 History of slavery insyd Asia
 History of slavery insyd de Muslim world
 Legal remedy
 Liberia
 Public apologies give slavery insyd de United States
 Reparations (website)
 Republic of New Afrika
 Slavery insyd contemporary Africa
 Slavery reparation scam

References 

 Read further 

 21st century 


 Brophy, Alfred L. Reparations: Pro & Con. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006.
 Brooks, Roy L. Atonement and Forgiveness: A New Model for Black Reparations. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004.

 Darity, William Jr., A. Kirsten Mullen, and Marvin Slaughter. 2022. "The Cumulative Costs of Racism and the Bill for Black Reparations." Journal of Economic Perspectives, 36 (2): 99–122.


 Dottin, Paul Anthony. "The end of race as we know it: Slavery, segregation, and the African American quest for redress." Ph.D. Thesis, Florida Atlantic University, 2002.
 Flaherty, Peter, and John Carlisle. The Case against Slave Reparations. Falls Church, Va: National Legal and Policy Center, 2004.
 Hakim, Ida. The Debtors: Whites Respond to the Call for Black Reparations. Red Oak, GA: Cure, 2005.
 Henry, Charles P. Long Overdue: The Politics of Racial Reparations. New York: New York University Press, 2007.


 Martin, Michael T., and Marilyn Yaquinto. Redress for Historical Injustices in the United States: On Reparations for Slavery, Jim Crow, and Their Legacies. Durham: Duke University Press, 2007.
 Miller, Jon, and Rahul Kumar. Reparations: Interdisciplinary Inquiries. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2007. P


 Torpey, John. Making Whole What Has Been Smashed: On Reparations Politics. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2006.

 University of Kansas. Symposium: Law, Reparations & Racial Disparities. Lawrence: University of Kansas, Kansas Law Review, 2009.
 Walters, Ronald W. African Americans and Movements for Reparations: Past, Present, and Future. Dedicated to the Memory and Scholarly Legacy of Dr. Ronald W. Walters. Washington, DC: Association for the Study of African American Life and History, 2012.
 Winbush, Raymond A. Should America Pay? Slavery and the Raging Debate on Reparations. New York: Amistad/HarperCollins, 2003.

 19th century 



 Video 

 Gannon, James (October 25, 2018). A Moral Debt: The Legacy of Slavery in the USA. Al-Jazeera. Gannon is a descendant of Robert E. Lee

 External links 

 Reparations for Slavery: a Reader – a collection of essays on the topic of reparations for slavery.
 Reparations, R.I.P., City Journal, Autumn 2008
 Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African Americans Act Archived October 22, 2008, at the Wayback Machine– A bill introduced by Congressman John Conyers, Jr. every year since 1989, which has not yet passed.
 Making Amends Debate Continues Over Reparations for U.S. Slavery – NPR, August 27, 2001.
 Banished site for Independent Lens on Public Broadcasting Service (PBS)

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