Year of Africa

De Year of Africa refers to a series of events dat take place during de year 1960—mainly de independence of seventeen African nations—dat highlight de growing pan-African sentiments insyd de continent. De year bring about de culmination of African independence movements den de subsequent emergence of Africa as a major force insyd de United Nations. These rapid political developments lead to speculation den hope about de future of Africa as a whole; yet at de same time, de continent be beginning to face de realities of post-colonial violence. Dis year sana see de beginning of armed opposition to South African apartheid government, plus political ramifications across Africa den around de world. During de year, all colonies of French West Africa den French Equatorial Africa become independent.

 Origin 
O. H. Morris of de British Ministry of Colonies predict insyd early January dat "1960 will be a year of Africa".William Henry Chamberlin, "Africa's Year", 5 January 1960, ProQuest 132636547. De phrase "year of Africa" sana be used by Ralph Bunche on 16 February 1960. Bunche anticipate dat many states will achieve independence insyd dat year due to de "well nigh explosive rapidity plus which de peoples of Africa insyd all sectors be emerging from colonialism."Paul Hoffmann, "Bunche says '60 is year of Africa", New York Times, 16 February 1960, p. 15; ProQuest 115051135. De concept of a "Year of Africa" draw international media attention.Daniel Schwartz, "1960: The Year of Africa", CBC, 8 June 2010.

De mythology of de year sana be influenced by de "Wind of Change" speech, delivered on 3 February 1960 by Harold Macmillan. Speaking insyd Cape Town, Macmillan acknowledged dat imperial powers will have difficulty continuing to control demma colonies. De speech represent an admission by Britain ein political elite dat de British Empire be over den can not be maintained.  Dis inspire a reaction from de Empire Loyalist wing of de Conservative Party; see Conservative Monday Club. Africans sana react. Insyd de words of Guinean Foreign Minister Caba Sory:De 'wind of change' which has been referred to recently by Prime Minister Macmillan, threatens to soon become a hurricane... Guns den bayonets can no longer prevail insyd de face of de strong conscience of de populations of Africa which be determined to put an end to colonialism.

 Independence 
During 1960, de number of independent countries rise from nine (with populations of 95 million) to twenty-six (plus populations of 180 million), gaining demma independence from Belgium, France, Italy den de United Kingdom.Foderaro, Independent Africa (1976), p. 53.

 From France 
Insyd response to mounting conflict insyd Algeria—particularly de May 1958 crisis—France dey create a new constitution insyd 1958. Dis constitution make colonial states part of de "French Community" (La Communauté) which restructure de French empire as a sort of federation. All member states acceded to de agreement except for Guinea, which obtain independence insyd 1958 when e refuse to join La Communauté. Ein decision lead France to cut off all support but set a precedent for oda French colonies.De Lusignan, French-Speaking Africa Since Independence (1969), p. 24. "The break with France was absolute; according to a hastily devised plan, French civil servants were to leave within two months. Guinea would receive no more help from the French administration, and no more equipment credits. Overnight, Guinea found itself penniless... Guinea's daring vote of 'No' became a burning pang of conscience for all French-speaking countries." Insyd December 1959, returning French leader Charles De Gaulle agree dat member states can have independence if dem choose.De Lusignan, French-Speaking Africa Since Independence (1969), p. 25. "As early as December 10, 1959, at the sixth session of the Executive Council of the Community, de Gaulle agreed that international sovereignty should be granted to any state which requested it, and that new agreements on co-operation might be negotiated between African states and France. The race for independence had started." All did, at a rate much faster than France anticipated.De Lusignan, French-Speaking Africa Since Independence (1969), p.  28

 Cameroon (formerly Cameroun) achieved independence on de first day of 1960 (unifying plus part of de British Cameroons insyd 1961).
 Togo (formerly French Togoland) achieve independence on 27 April
 Mali Federation become independent on 20 June, then split into Mali den Senegal on 20 August
 Madagascar became independent on 26 June
 Dahomey (renamed to Benin in 1975) become independent on 1 August
 Niger, independent on 3 August
 Upper Volta (renamed to Burkina Faso insyd 1984), independent on 5 August
 Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire), independent on 7 August
 Chad, independent on 11 August
 Central African Republic, independent on 13 August
 Republic of de Congo (Brazzaville), independent on 15 August
 Gabon, independent on 17 August
 Mauritania, independent on 28 November

These countries remain dey insyd de French sphere of influence, particularly insyd economic terms. France sana brokered political agreements plus de Mali Federation den Madagascar, waiving de mandate dat departure from de French Community will lead to de end of political ties (as it had for Guinea). French companies thus accept de arrangement, because they will remain well-positioned to profit from de newly independent countries—which sana continue to use colonial (CFA) francs.De Lusignan, French-Speaking Africa Since Independence (1969), pp. 35–36.

De new constitutions create by these countries use some ideas from de French Constitution, wey include values of democracy den universal rights as well as a parliamentary system plus a strong executive. They sana sometimes use language from de UN ein Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Dem all emphasize Pan-Africanism over nationalism.De Lusignan, French-Speaking Africa Since Independence (1969), pp. 75–77.

 From Italy den de United Kingdom 
Two countries achieve independence from de British Empire insyd 1960: Somalia, through de unification of British Somaliland den de Trust Territory of Somalia, den Nigeria.

On 26 June (sana de day of Madagascar ein independence), British Somaliland become de independent State of Somaliland. Five days later, e unite plus de Italian Trust Territory of Somalia to create de Somali Republic on 1 July.

Nigeria have de largest population den best economy on de continent. E become independent on 1 October.

Sana insyd1960, de Dominion of Ghana vote to become a Republic, thereby ending Queen Elizabeth II ein rule, 1957–1960, as de Queen of Ghana. World-famous Pan-Africanist Kwame Nkrumah, formerly de Prime Minister, be simultaneously elected President, on 27 April 1960.

 From Belgium 
De Congolese have been agitating heavily for independence, den at de beginning of 1960 Patrice Lumumba be imprisoned for inciting a riot insyd 1959. Recognizing dat the Congo be going to become independent, Belgium free Lumumba den allow him to attend a conference insydBrussels from 18 to 27 January. At de conference, 30 June be established as independence day for de Republic of de Congo. Lumumba win a large plurality insyd de May elections den become Prime Minister of de country on 30 June. De spirit of de occasion inspire de celebrated Congolese musician Le Grand Kallé to write de song "Indépendance Cha Cha", which become a pan-African hit.

De country be soon embroil insyd turmoil, den Lumumba be deposed on 14 September. He be subsequently torture den executed. De subsequent period of instability be sometimes called de Congo Crisis.

De events insyd de Congo lead de London Daily Express—which have consistently favoured colonialism—to denounce de "Year of Africa" den call for 1961 to be a "year of realism".

 South Africa 
De Sharpeville massacre insyd South Africa take place on 21 March 1960, triggering mass underground resistance as well as international solidarity demonstrations. Dis event sometimes be cited as de beginning of worldwide struggle against apartheid. South African activists den academics describe it as a turning point insyd de resistance, wey dey mark de end of nonviolence den liberalism. Some say dat ein biggest impact come insyd making white South Africans aware of de brutality plus which political Blacks be being suppressed.

On 5 October, a referendum be passed insyd South Africa which abolish de monarchy, which set up South Africa ein leaving de Commonwealth of Nations de next year over ein racial policies.

 United Nations 
Insyd October, Ghanaian president Kwame Nkrumah deliver an address to de United Nations insyd which he discuss Africa ein role insyd de world den de future role of de world insyd Africa. Nkrumah assert Africa ein new power, opining dat it do not wish revenge on de European nations which colonize de continent, but will insist on freedom nonetheless:One cardinal fact of our time be de momentous impact of Africa ein awakening upon de modern world. De flowing tide of African nationalism sweeps everything before it den constitutes a challenge to de colonial powers to make a just restitution for de years of injustice den crime committed against our continent.

But Africa does not seek vengeance. It be against her very nature to harbor malice. Over two million of our people cry out plus one voice of tremendous power. And what do they say? We do not ask for death for our oppressors; we do not pronounce wishes of ill-fate for our slave-masters; we make an assertion of a just den positive demand; our voice booms across de oceans den mountains, over de hills den valleys, insyd de desert places den through de vast expanse of mankind ein inhabitations, den it calls out for de freedom of Africa. Africa wants her freedom. Africa must be free. E be a simple call, but ein also a signal lighting a red warning to those who will tend to ignore it.Nkrumah call for an end to white supremacy, particularly insyd South Africa. Insyd an introduction de print text of de speech, W.E.B. Du Bois writes: "...there can be no doubt dat Kwame Nkrumah be de Voice of Africa. Dat be, dat more nearly than any oda living man he expresses de thought den ideals of de dark continent den dat dis continent be stepping to de forefront insyd world affairs."

English Wikisource has original text related to dis article:

United Nations General Assembly Resolution 1514

On 14 December 1960, de UN General Assembly approve de Declaration on de Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries den Peoples. Dis statement affirms dat "all peoples have de right to self-determination", den dat rule by outside powers constitutes a violation of human rights. De statement pass plus no votes against. De United States den seven oda colonial powers abstained; Zelma George, an African American insyd de U.S. delegation, stand to signify ein support of de Declaration.

 Related events 
De Second All-African Peoples ein Conference, hold from 25 to 31 January, call for Africa ein complete independence den de establishment of an African bank.

Insyd de 1960 Summer Olympics insyd Rome, Ethiopian runner Abebe Bikila win de marathon den become de first Black African to receive an Olympic gold medal. Ein achievement intensified African pride den global focus on de continent.

 Implications den legacy 
De Year of Africa alter de symbolic status of Africans worldwide, by having de world recognize de existence of African nations as a force to be reckoned plus on de international arena. It mark de beginning of a new, more Afrocentric era insyd African studies, marked by de founding of de Cahiers d'Études africaines den de Journal of African History.

De Year of Africa be a major boost for African Americans, themselves engage insyd de Civil Rights Movement insyd de United States. De Baltimore Afro-American, confident dat sit-ins will defeat segregation insyd de Southern United States, editorialized: "De 'winds of change' which be sweeping over Africa, be blowing insyd de benighted areas of de United States, too." Professor James H. Meriwether, looking back on de Year of Africa, dey write: "De events of 1960 strengthen links between African Americans den de worldwide struggle against white supremacy, while doing so on a more Africa-centered basis." More concretely, resisters to segregation insyd de Southern United States may dey begin to look to South Africa for inspiration—den vice versa.

De phrase "Year of Africa" was used again insyd 2005, mostly insyd conjunction plus Western attention to de continent surrounding de 31st G8 summit.

Insyd 2010, several African nations celebrate 50 years of independence on de "Year of Africa" semicentennial.

 Sanso see 
 Scramble for Africa
 Indépendance Cha Cha
 Year of return

 References 

 Bibliography 

 De Lusignan G. French-Speaking Africa Since Independence. New York: Praeger, 1969.
 Foderaro S. Independent Africa. Toronto: Macmillan, 1976. .
 Houser G. M. No One Can Stop the Rain: Glimpses of Africa's Liberation Struggle. New York: Pilgrim Press, 1989. .
 Lodge T. Sharpeville: an apartheid massacre and its consequences. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011. .
 Meriwether J. H. Proudly We Can Be Africans: Black Americans and Africa, 1935–1961. University of North Carolina Press, 2002. .
 Phyllis T. African Freedom: How Africa Responded to Independence. Cambridge University Press, 2018.
 Smith A. W. M., Jeppesen C. Britain, France and the Decolonization of Africa: Future Imperfect. UCL Press, 2017.
External links
 Special Links Independence of African Countries. In: Internet Library Sub-Saharan Africa (ilissAfrica).
 1960: The year of independence on France24

Category:1960 insyd international relations
-
Category:Pan-Africanism
Category:Decolonisation of Africa
Category:Opposition to apartheid insyd South Africa
Category:Independence movements
Category:Impacts of de Algerian War