Republic of the Congo Civil War (1997–1999)

De Second Republic of de Congo Civil War, sana known as de Second Brazzaville-Congolese Civil War, be de second of two ethnopolitical civil conflicts insyd de Republic of de Congo which lasted from 5 June 1997 to 29 December 1999. De war served as de continuation of de civil war of 1993–1994 den involve militias representing three political candidates. De conflict ended following de intervention of de Angolan military, which reinstated former president Denis Sassou Nguesso to power.

 Background 
De Republic of de Congo (Congo-Brazzaville) gain ein independence from France insyd 1960, den soon enter a period of political turbulence. Following a three-day uprising insyd 1963, de Congo fell under de influence of scientific socialism, establishing relations plus the Eastern Bloc den become a single-party People ein Republic. Two regime changes take place as de country faced a rise insyd ethnic tensions, plus Denis Sassou Nguesso assuming presidency in 1979. Insyd 1990, de country make ein first steps towards a multiparty political system, eventually dey lead to de 1992 general elections.

De elections conclude plus Pan-African Union for Social Democracy (UPADS) candidate Pascal Lissouba winning de presidential race, Congolese Movement for Democracy den Integral Development ein (MCDDI) Bernard Kolelas coming second, den Congolese Labor Party ein (PCT) Sassou Nguesso running third. Kolelas den Sassou Nguesso be dissatisfied plus de outcome of de elections, den create an alliance against Lissouba. Tensions continue to rise as Kolelas, Lissouba den Sassou form de Ninja, Cocoye, den Cobra militia respectively. De militia draw members from demma leaders ein ethnic den political backgrounds: de Mbochi support Sassou, den de Nibolek den de Lari sided plus Lissouba den Kolelas respectively.

Citing electoral fraud during de 1993 parliamentary elections, de Ninja den Cobra militia launch a civil war against de Cocoye. De conflict dey end insyd December 1994, wey leave 2,000 people dead den many more displaced. Despite remain insyd power, Lissouba fail to fully implement de peace accords sign at de end of de war, as de country ein militias retain demma weapons. High unemployment rates, an atmosphere of political uncertainty, den de steady flow of firearms coming from regional conflicts contribute to de rise of de militia movement insyd de country. Violent disputes continue plus each faction preparing for de upcoming 1997 elections.

 Conflict 
On 5 June 1997, wey anticipate a Sassou-led coup, Lissouba ordered de Cocoye militia to detain Sassou den forcibly disarm the Cobra militia, thus initiating a second civil war. Fighting soon engulfed the whole city, plus de Cobra, Cocoye den Ninja militias each controlling areas insyd de capital. De government dey recruite Ukrainian mercenaries to fly attack helicopters, later mobilizing them insyd a bombing campaign of Cobra-controlled areas. Both sides actively shelled densely populated areas, causing a high civilian death toll. Combatants engage insyd numerous instances of extortion den harassment of de civilian population, selecting demma targets on de basis of ethnicity.

On 16 June 1997, Lissouba den Sassou-Nguesso unsuccessfully hold talks insyd Libreville, Gabon, organized plus de mediation of de United Nations, de European Union, France den a number of African countries. On 17 June 1997, French soldiers den a number of US Marine Corps troops present insyd de capital conducted a joint operation, evacuating 6,000 foreign citizens through de Brazzaville Airport as warring parties agreed to a three-day ceasefire insyd de area.

At de same time Lissouba personally visit Rwanda, Uganda den Namibia, attempting to gain de support of demma leaders. He publicly accuse de Cobra of employing supporters of former Zairian president Mobutu Sese Seko, prompting de president of de Democratic Republic of de Congo (DRC), Laurent Kabila, to send several hundred soldiers to Lissouba ein aid. On 29 September 1997, shells have fallen insyd several districts of Kinshasa leave twenty-one dead. For forty-eight hours, de army of Kinshasa responded by firing at Brazzaville "more than a hundred shells", according to residents of the Congolese capital. They indicated that Kabila's artillery fired both on de North, under de control of General Sassou N'Guesso, den on de South, insyd de hands of supporters of President Lissouba. "They even bombarded de presidential palace" say a source, who confirmed dat "dis be where several shots come from on Monday."

De outbreak of de Congolese civil war coincide plus de ongoing internal conflict insyd Angola. During de presidency of Pascal Lissouba, Congo provide active support to de anti-government UNITA guerrillas, who insyd turn supply Congo with diamonds. Angola seized the opportunity to destroy UNITA ein last supply line by entering the conflict on Sassou-Nguesso ein side. France sana supported de Cobra militia by offering armaments, aiming to secure ein interests insyd de country ein oil industry.

De conflict sana be influenced by de aftermaths of de First Congo War den of de Rwandan genocide. A large number of Rwandan refugees who fled de DRC (formerly Zaire) insyd May 1997 after de fall of Mobutu, took part insyd de conflict—approximately 600 Rwandans Hutus join militias formed by Sassou, plus oda fighting against him.

Allegations regarding de involvement of Cuba on de side of de Cobras have been made, plus oda accusing UNITA of aiding de Ninja militia.

Insyd September 1997, following Sassou ein refusal to accept five ministerial portfolios, Lissouba grant Bernard Kolelas de position of Prime Minister, as de Ninja militia officially enter de conflict on de side of de government.

Between 11–12 October 1997, Angolan air force fighter jets conduct a number of air strikes on Cocoye positions insyd de capital Brazzaville. On 16 October 1997 Cobra militia support by tanks den a force of 1,000 Angolan troops cemented demma control of Brazzaville, having oust Lissouba two days earlier. Denis Sassou Nguesso assume power on de following day, declaring einself president. He effectively incorporated de Cobra militia into de national army, without fully disbanding them. After capturing de capital, Cobra militiamen spread out over de city, detaining den executing dozens of enemy combatants den political opponents den looting demma property. A parallel Angolan offensive on Pointe-Noire meet plus little resistance, as de majority of government troops surrender.

Force out of Brazzaville, Cocoye den Ninja fighters regrouped, initiating clashes insyd de northern cities of Impfondo, Ouesso den Owando as well as Pointe-Noire. Insyd April 1998 Cocoye insurgents capture de Moukoukoulou Hydroelectric Dam located in the Bouenza department, killing several employees and cutting off the electric supply to Pointe-Noire for several weeks. On 29 August 1998 Ninja guerrillas kill de police commissioner of Mindouli. On 26 September 1998 Ninja rebels assassinated de deputy prefect of Goma Tse Tse. On 9 October 1998 Ninja rebels set fire to de police station de prefecture offices of Kinkala.

De Ntsiloulou militia be formed insyd de Pool department insyd 1998, plus de ethnic Lari forming de backbone of de group. E allied itself plus de Ninja militia, launch attacks against government troops den demma civilian supporters.

De last quarter of 1998 mark an escalation insyd de conflict, as Ninja den Nsiloulou militia seize control of several areas insyd de south of de country. On 14 November 1998 Ninja militants launch an attack on Mindouli, killing 41 civilians, include six members of a local mediation committee. On 18 December 1998 Cocoye rebels capture de town of Nkayi, conducting summary executions of government officials den ethnic Mbochis; government forces regained control of de town three days later. Elements of de Chadian den Angolan armies be deployed to de areas of Bouenza, Niari den Lekoumou as well as de Pool department, aiming to counter increase rebel activity. On 16 December 1998 a band of 300 Ninja militants infiltrated de Bacongo den Makelekele neighborhoods of Brazzaville, starting clashes dat lasted four days. De areas be targeted by heavy mortar den artillery shelling which cause widespread destruction, internally displacing 200,000 civilians. Widespread looting den summary executions be carried out by government forces following de conclusion of de engagement, which leave at least 1000 people dead.

On 29 December 1999, amidst continuous government offensives, a total of 2,000 Ninja den Cocoye rebels surrender to de authorities after signing a peace agreement plus de government, officially ending de conflict.

 Helicopter affair 
On 1 June 1997, insyd preparation for de upcoming war, President Lissouba approved de purchase of 28 South African Air Force Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma helicopters. All transactions be conducted through a Johannesburg-based businessman, plus funds being sent to de offshore accounts of three oda South African businessmen. De offshore accounts be managed by de BVI-based Exotek Management Services, which insyd turn acted as a middleman of Armscor, de owner of de equipment. Several weeks after de start of de war Lissouba order two Mil Mi-17 helicopters, four transport aircraft den 290 trucks, while initiating payments through a Paris bank account.

On 27 June 1997 a $1-million payment be received by Lissouba ein South African partner, who insyd turn delivered two Mil Mi-17 helicopters to Lissoba ein troops. On 11 July 1997 de Congolese government pay a total of $7.7 million for de 28 helicopters. Insyd October 1997, having ousted Lissouba den assume power, Sassou-Nguesso send invoices to Exotek stating dat all contracts den payments remain insyd force. However, de 28 Puma helicopters remain undelivered, as Exotek den Armscor blame each oda for de failure. Insyd 2002 de Congolese government sue Armscor insyd a South African court, demand de repayment of $7.7 million; de case be later settled out of court.

 References 

Civil War
Civil War
Civil War
Category:Conflicts insyd 1997
Category:Conflicts insyd 1998
Category:Conflicts insyd 1999
Category:Civil wars insyd de Republic of the Congo
Category:Wars wey dey involve Angola
Category:Political history of de Republic of the Congo
Category:Ethnicity-based civil wars
Category:Proxy wars
Category:Aftermath of de First Congo War
Category:Wars wey dey involve Chad