योहान गुटेन्बर्ग

जॊहान्स जेन्सफ्लाईश जुर लाडेन जुम गुटेनबर्ग (जर्मन: Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg )  ( – 3 February 1468)  (लगभग c1393-1406 - 3 फरवरी 1468) एगो जर्मन आविष्कारक आरू कारीगर छेलै, जे चल-टाइप केरौ छपाई मशीन (मूवेबल-टाइप प्रिंटिंग प्रेस) केरौ आविष्कार करलकै।पुर्बी एशिया मँ चल-अचल प्रकार केरौ छपाई पहिलै सं उपयोग मँ छेलै, लेकिन गुटेनबर्ग केरौ प्रिटिंग प्रेस ; :  Encyclopædia Britannica 2006: "Printing":  केरौ आविष्कार सँ छपाई केरौ गति बहुत तेज होय गेलै।

प्रिटिंग प्रेस बाद में पूरा दुनिया मँ फैललै,  आरू एक सूचना क्रांति (information revolution) लानलकै, जेकरा सँ यूरोप भर मँ साहित्य के अभूतपूर्व (unprecedented) रूप सँ बड़ पैमाना प प्रसार (mass-spread) भेलै।ओकरो पुनर्जागरण, सुधार, आरू मानवतावादी आंदोलन के विकास पर गहरो प्रभाव पड़लो छेलै।

गुटेनबर्ग के प्रिंटिंग में बहुत योगदान छै, जेकरा मँ चल-टाइप केरौ भारी मात्रा मँ उत्पादन करै लेली एगो प्रक्रिया केरौ आविष्कार शामिल छै; किताब छापै  लेली तेल-आधारित स्याही केरौ उपयोग; समायोज्य सांचा  (molds); यांत्रिक चल-टाइप (mechanical movable type); आरू वू जमाना केरौ कृषि स्क्रू प्रेस (agricultural screw presses) जैसनो काठ केरौ छपाई मशीन (wooden printing press) केरौ आविष्कार शामिल छै। गुटेनबर्ग के टाइप बनाबै के तरीका मँ, परम्परागत रूप सँ, टाइप धातु के एगो मिश्रधातु आरू ढलाई लेली एगो हाथ के साँचो शामिल मानलो जाय छै। ई मिश्रधातु सीसा (lead), टीन (tin), आरू सुरमा (antimony) के मिश्रण होतै जे अपेक्षाकृत कम तापमान पर पिघलै छेलै, जेकरा सँ जल्दी आरू कम खर्च मँ ढलाई हुअय सकै, बढ़िया सँ ढलै छेलै, आरू एगो मजबूत टाइप बनबै छेलै।  हुनकरो प्रमुख कृति, गुटेनबर्ग बाइबिल, बाइबिल के पहिलो छपलो संस्करण छेलै आरू एकरा अपनो उच्च सौंदर्य आरू तकनीकी गुणवत्ता लेली सराहलो गेलो छै।

गुटेनबर्ग क॑ अक्सर मानव इतिहास केरौ सबस॑ प्रभावशाली लोगो म॑ एक मानलो जाय छै आरू हुनकौ याद म॑ पूरा दुनिया म॑ उत्सव मनैलो गेलो छै। हुनकौ जन्म केरौ ५००वीं बरसी मनाबै लेली, १९०० ई. म॑ हुनकौ मायस्थान मैन्ज म॑ गुटेनबर्ग म्यूजियम केरौ स्थापना करलो गेलो छेलै। १९९७ म॑ टाइम लाइफ न॑ गुटेनबर्ग केरौ आविष्कार क॑ दोसरो सहस्राब्दी केरौ सबस॑ महत्वपूर्ण आविष्कार मानलकै। 

 जीवन आरू कैरियर 

 शुरूआती जीवन 

जोहानिस गुटेनबर्ग केरौ जनम राइन नदी केरौ किनारे बसलो एगो धनी शहर मैन्ज (जेकरा आब जर्मनी कहलौ जाय छै) मँ चौदहमी आरू पंद्रहमी सदी केरौ बीच मँ होलो छेलै। उनकर ठीक-ठीक जनम बरिस मालुम नयँ छै; एकरा बाद के दस्तावेज के आधार प जे ई बताबै छै कि ओ 1420 तक वयस्क भ गेल छेलै, विद्वानऽ सबकर अनुमान 1393 सँ 1406 के बीच रहलौ छै। The year 1400 is commonly assigned to Gutenberg, "for the sake of convenience". Tradition also holds his birthdate to be on the feast day of Saint John the Baptist, 24 June, since children of the time were often named after their birthday's patron saint. There is no verification for this assumption, since the name "Johannes"—and variants such as "Johann", "Henne", "Hengin" and "Henchen"—was widely popular at the time. In full, Johannes Gutenberg's name was 'Johannes Gensfleisch zur Laden zum Gutenberg', with "Laden" and "Gutenberg" being adopted from the family's residences in Mainz. The latter refers to the Hof zum Gutenberg, a large and now destroyed Gothic-style residence inherited by Gutenberg's father. Gutenberg probably spent his earliest years at the manor, which existed beside St. Christoph's.

His father Friele Gensfleisch zur Laden was a patrician and merchant, likely in the cloth trade. Friele later served among the "master of the accounts" for the city and was a  (), a part of the mint's companionship. In 1386 Friele married his second wife, Else Wyrich, the daughter of a shopkeeper; Johannes was probably the youngest of the couple's three children, after his brother Friele ( ) and sister Else ( ). Scholars commonly assume that the marriage of Friele to Else, who was not of patrician lineage, complicated Gutenberg's future. Because of his mother's commoner status, Gutenberg would never be able to succeed his father at the mint; according to the historian  this disconnect may have disillusioned him from high society and encouraged his unusual career as an inventor.

The patrician () class of Mainz—the Gutenbergs included—held a privileged socioeconomic status, and their efforts to preserve this put them into frequent conflict with the younger generations of guild () craftsmen. A particularly violent conflict arose in February 1411 amid an election dispute, and at least 117 patricians fled the conflict in August. Friele left, presumably with the Gutenberg family, and probably stayed in the nearby Eltville since Else had inherited a house on the town walls there. The archbishop mediated a peace between the rival parties, allowing the family to return to Mainz later that Autumn. The situation remained unstable and the rise of hunger riots forced the Gutenberg family to leave in January 1413 for Eltville.

शिक्षा
No documents survive concerning Gutenberg's childhood or youth. The biographer  remarked that "most books on Gutenberg pass over this period with the remark that not a single fact is known". As the son of a patrician, education in reading and arithmetic would have been expected. A knowledge of Latin—a prerequisite for universities—is also probable, though it is unknown whether he attended a Mainz parish school, was educated in Eltville or had a private tutor. Gutenberg may have initially pursued a religious career, as was common with the youngest sons of patricians, since the proximity of many churches and monasteries made it a safe prospect. It has been speculated that he attended the  south of Mainz (near ), as he would later join their brotherhood. It was the site of a well-regarded school and his family had connections there, though his actual attendance remains speculative.

He is assumed to have studied at the University of Erfurt, where there is a record of the enrollment of a student called Johannes de Altavilla in 1418—Altavilla is the Latin form of Eltville am Rhein.

Nothing is now known of Gutenberg's life for the next fifteen years, but in March 1434, a letter by him indicates that he was living in Strasbourg, where he had some relatives on his mother's side. He also appears to have been a goldsmith member enrolled in the Strasbourg militia. In 1437, there is evidence that he was instructing a wealthy tradesman on polishing gems, but where he had acquired this knowledge is unknown. In 1436/37 his name also comes up in court in connection with a broken promise of marriage to a woman from Strasbourg, Ennelin. Whether the marriage actually took place is not recorded. Following his father's death in 1419, he is mentioned in the inheritance proceedings.

प्रिंटिंग प्रेस

Around 1439, Gutenberg was involved in a financial misadventure making polished metal mirrors (which were believed to capture holy light from religious relics) for sale to pilgrims to Aachen: in 1439 the city was planning to exhibit its collection of relics from Emperor Charlemagne but the event was delayed by one year due to a severe flood and the capital already spent could not be repaid. 

Until at least 1444 Gutenberg lived in Strasbourg, most likely in the St. Arbogast parish. It was in Strasbourg in 1440 that he is said to have perfected and unveiled the secret of printing based on his research, mysteriously entitled Aventur und Kunst (enterprise and art). It is not clear what work he was engaged in, or whether some early trials with printing from movable type were conducted there. After this, there is a gap of four years in the record. In 1448, he was back in Mainz, where he took out a loan from his brother-in-law Arnold Gelthus, possibly for a printing press or related paraphernalia. By this date, Gutenberg may have been familiar with intaglio printing; it is claimed that he had worked on copper engravings with an artist known as the Master of Playing Cards.

By 1450, the press was in operation, and a German poem had been printed, possibly the first item to be printed there. Gutenberg was able to convince the wealthy moneylender Johann Fust for a loan of 800 guilders. Peter Schöffer, who became Fust's son-in-law, also joined the enterprise. Schöffer had worked as a scribe in Paris and is believed to have designed some of the first typefaces.

Gutenberg's workshop was set up at Humbrechthof, a property belonging to a distant relative. It is not clear when Gutenberg conceived the Bible project, but for this, he borrowed another 800 guilders from Fust, and work commenced in 1452. At the same time, the press was also printing other, more lucrative texts (possibly Latin grammars). There is also some speculation that there were two presses: one for the pedestrian texts and one for the Bible. One of the profit-making enterprises of the new press was the printing of thousands of indulgences for the church, documented from 1454 to 1455.

In 1455, Gutenberg completed his 42-line Bible, known as the Gutenberg Bible. About 180 copies were printed, three quarters on paper, and the rest on vellum.

 मुकदमा 
Some time in 1456, there was a dispute between Gutenberg and Fust, in which Fust demanded his money back, and accused Gutenberg of misusing the funds. Gutenberg's two rounds of financing from Fust, totaling 1,600 guilders at 6% interest, now amounted to 2,026 guilders. Fust sued at the archbishop's court. A legal document, from November 1455, records that there was a partnership for a "project of the books," the funds for which Gutenberg had used for other purposes, according to Fust. The court decided in favor of Fust, giving him control over the Bible printing workshop.Information Revolutions in the History of the West, Leonard Dudley 2008, p.88

Thus, Gutenberg was effectively bankrupt, but it appears he retained, or restarted, a printing shop and participated in the printing of a Bible in the town of Bamberg around 1459, for which he seems at least to have supplied the type. But since his printed books never carry his name or a date, it is difficult to be certain. It is possible the large Catholicon dictionary, printed in Mainz in 1460 or later, was executed in his workshop, but there has been considerable scholarly debate.Incunabula in Transit, People and Trade, by Lotte Hellinga, 2018, p.155

Meanwhile, the Fust–Schöffer shop was the first in Europe to bring out a book with the printer's name and date, the Mainz Psalter of August 1457, and while proclaiming the mechanical process by which it had been produced, it made no mention of Gutenberg.

 बाद केरो जीवन 
In 1462, during the devastating Mainz Diocesan Feud, Mainz was sacked by Archbishop Adolph von Nassau. On 18 January 1465, Gutenberg's achievements were recognized by Archbishop von Nassau. He was given the title Hofmann (gentleman of the court). This honor included a stipend and an annual court outfit, as well as 2,180 litres of grain and 2,000 litres of wine tax-free.

Gutenberg died in 1468 and was buried likely as a tertiary in the Franciscan church at Mainz. This church and the cemetery were later destroyed, and Gutenberg's grave is now lost.

In 1504, he was mentioned as the inventor of typography in a book by Professor Ivo Wittig. It was not until 1567 that the first portrait of Gutenberg, almost certainly an imaginary reconstruction, appeared in Heinrich Pantaleon's biography of famous Germans.
 बाहरी कड़ी 
 English homepage of the Gutenberg-Museum Mainz, Germany.
 The Digital Gutenberg Project

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