ⴼⵉⵏⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ

ⴼⵉⵏⵣⵓⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏⵙ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷ: ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⴱⴰⵔⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵉⵏⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⴷⵉⵔⴰⵍⵉⵜ ⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⵜ ⵜⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⴼⴼⵓⵙⵜ. ⵜⵙⵡⵓⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵢⴰ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴳⵓⵜ, ⵍⴱⵔⴰⵣⵉⵍ ⴳ ⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ, ⴳⵓⵢⴰⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵍⵇⴱⵍⵜ, ⵜⵉⴳⵣⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉ ⴱⵉ ⵙⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⴳⵣⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵉⵏⵉⴷⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴱⴰⴳⵓ ⴳ ⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎE ⴰⵇⴱⵍⵉ.
ⴰⵏⴰⵖⵉⵣ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ
ⴷⴰ ⴰⵏⵖ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵜⵥⵉⵕⵉⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵇⴱⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵣⵣⵍ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⵎⵣⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ  ⴰⴼⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ. ⵙⵙⴽⵯⵜⵉⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵃⵃⴰⵔ ⴰⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰⵏ, ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴳⵓ ⴼⵉⵙⴱⵓⵜⵛⵉ, ⵙ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰ, ⴰⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⴰ ⵅⴼ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵉⵙⵎ "Veneziola" ⵏⵖ "ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵙ ⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏ". ⵜⵓⵏⵖⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ Veneziola ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵜ Venezuela.

ⵉⴽⴼⴰ , ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵙⴱⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵊⵉⴷⴰ, ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵍⵍⵉⵙⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ. ⴳ ⵓⴷⵍⵉⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ, Summa de geografía, ⵉⵏⵏⴰ ⴷⵉ ⵉⵏⵙⵉⵙⴽⵓ ⵉⵙ ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⵏⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵍⴼⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵔⴰⴱⴱⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵕⵚⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵢⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ Veneciuela. ⴰⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ "Venezuela" ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵣⴳ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵕⵚⵍⵉⵢⵜ.

ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ, ⴰⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ (Estado de Venezuela) ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷ ⴳⵔ 1830 ⴷ 1856, ⵉⴳ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ (República de Venezuela) ⴳⵔ 1856 ⴷ 1864, ⴼⴰⴷⴷ ⵉⵍⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵉⵡⴰⵏⴽⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ (Estados Unidos de Venezuela) ⴳⵔ 1864 ⴷ 1953, ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴷⴰⵖ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⴳⵔ 1953 ⴰⵔ 1999.
 ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ 
 ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵢⴰ 
ⴷⴰⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵍⴽⵎⵏ ⵉⵕⵓⵎⵉⵢⵏ, ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵉⵖⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵕⵚⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵡⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⵎⵎⵣⵔⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵜⴰⵙⵏ, ⵉⵣⴰⵖⴰⵔⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⴷⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴷⵉⵣ. ⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵔⴽⵢⵓⵍⵓⵊⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵏⵖ ⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⴷⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⵍⴽⴽⵎ 15,000 ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⵢⴰ. ⴷⴰ ⵏⵜⵜⴰⴼⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵢⵎⴰ-ⵜⴰⵢⵎⴰ, ⵎⵓⵡⴰⴽⵓ, ⵉⵍ ⵊⵓⴱⵓ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵖⵓⵣⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⴳⴰⴼⴰⵡⵏⴰ. ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⴰⵔ ⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵎⴰⵔⵏ-ⵉⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵣⵉⴳⵣ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ, ⵙⵙⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵃⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵥⵥⵓⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⴳⵓⵔ, ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵓⵖⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵏⵉⵀⵓⵜ.  

ⴰⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵓⵜⵔⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ ⵉⵣⵔⵉ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴷⵉⵣ, ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵡⴰⴽ ⴷ ⴽⴰⵔⵉⴱ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵉⵡⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵉⵏⵓⴽⵓ ⴷ ⵓⴼⵜⴰⵙ ⴰⴽⴰⵔⵉⴱⴰⵏ, ⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵉⵥⴹⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵖⵏⵣⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵏⵉⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ. ⵢⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵇⵇⵉ, ⵜⵉⵥⴹⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵍⴽⴰⵣ ⵙ ⵡⵓⵔⵖ ⴳ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵖⵔⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵜⵓ-ⴽⵡⵉⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴷⵉⵣ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵃⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ, ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵣⴷⴷⴰⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵕⵓ.  

ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵉⵕⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 15, ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴳ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵕⵚⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ, ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵢⵜⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵓⵢⵔⵉⵏ ⵎⵎⵣⵔⵉⵏⵉⵏ. ⵜⵉⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⵏⵜ: ⵉⴽⴰⵔⵉⴱⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⴰⴼⴰ ⴰⴳⵎⵓⴹⴰⵏ, ⵉⵔⴰⵡⴽⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵜⴰⵔⴰⵎ, ⵉⵜⵉⵎⵓⵜⵓⴽⵡⵉⴽⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴷⵉⵣ, ⴷ ⵉⵡⴰⵔⴰⵡⴰⵜⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴷⵉⵍⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵉⵏⵓⴽⵓ. ⵙⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⵎⴰⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵍⵍ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ, ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵃⵜ, ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⴱⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ caciques.

ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵜⴰⵙⵖⵏⵣⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵇⴱⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵊⴰⵕⵉⵏ. ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⴰⵣⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵔⵉⴱ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵣⴱⴰⵢⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵉⵖⵍⵍⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴽⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵣⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⵡⴰⴽ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴼⵜⴰⵙ ⴰⴽⴰⵔⵉⴱⴰⵏ. ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵖⵏⵣⵉⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵣⴰⵣⴰⵣⵓ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⴰⵡⵍⵏ ⵜⵉⵊⵖⵍⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵇⵇⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵢⴰⴳⴳⵓⴳⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴼⵜⴰⵙ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵜⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵥⵟⵟⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⴷⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴼ ⵓⴼⵜⴰⵙ.

ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵣⵕⴰ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⴼⵔ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵓⵙ ⵉⴼⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⴳ 1498, ⵢⵓⴼⴰ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴰⵔⴰⴼⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴳⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵕⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵥⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵕⵢⴰ. ⵉⵙⵎⵉⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⴳⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⴰⵍ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵖⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴱⴷⴷ, ⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵢⴰⵥⵏ, ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉ ⴰⵕⵓⵎⵉⵢ, ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⴳⴰ, ⴷ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⵀⴰⴱⴱⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵕⵚⵍⵉⵢⵏ.

 ⴰⵙⴷⵓⵔⵔⵉ ⴰⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏ 
ⵉⵣⵍⵎ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⵜⵓⴼⵔ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵓⵙ ⴰⴼⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵡⵉⵙ ⴽⵕⴰⴹ ⴳ 1498, ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⴰⵥⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵕⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵉⵍⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵉⵏⵓⴽⵓ. ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵜ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ, ⴳⴳⵯⵣⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵏⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵏ, ⴰⵍⵓⵏⵙⵓ ⴷⵉ ⵓⵅⵉⴷⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵎⵉⵔⵉⴳⵓ ⴼⵉⵙⴱⵓⵜⵛⵉ, ⴳ ⵓⴼⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴼⴰ ⵓⵜⵔⵉⵎ, ⵓⵛⵏ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵙⵎ "Venezuela" ("ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵢⴰⵏⵜ") ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵓⴼⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵜⴳⵎⵎⴰ ⴱⴷⴷⵏⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴳⵊⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⴳⵯⵎⵎⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵉⴳⵯⵎⵎⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵍⵎⴰⵎ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⴰⴽⴰⵢⴱⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵯⵜⵉⵏ ⵡⵉⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵙ, ⵉⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰ.

ⴳ 1522, ⵙⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴷⴷⵓⵖⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⴳ ⴽⵓⵎⴰⵏⴰ, ⴰⵢⴷⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵕⵓⵎⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ.. ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ, ⵙⵔⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵣⵉⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏⵉⵏ, ⵙⴳⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⴽⵓⵔⵓ (1527), ⵎⴰⵔⴰⴽⴰⵢⴱⵓ (1529) ⴷ ⴽⴰⵔⴰⴽⴰⵙ (1567). ⵜⵉⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏⵜ ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵥⵎⵎⴰⵥⵥⵍⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵛⵛⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉ ⴳ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵍⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵙⴰⵏⵏ.  

ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵍⴷⴷⵉ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵍⵓⵏⵢⴰⵍⵜ ⵖⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵕⵓⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵓⵔ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵍⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵉⵎⵖⵓⵣⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⵖⵓⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴼⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴱⵉⵔⵓ ⵏⵖ ⴷ ⵎⵉⴽⵙⵉⴽⵓ. ⵜⴱⴷⴷ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴼⵍⵍⴰⵃⵜ, ⴰⵛⵜⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⴼⴹ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴰⴽⴰⵡ, ⵜⴰⴱⴰⵖⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵍⵎ. ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵜⵏⵣⴱⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵕⵚⵍⵉⵢⵜ ⵜⴷⵓⵙ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵖⵔⴼ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵔⵉⴱ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⴰⵖⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵣⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 16 ⴽⵓⵍⵍⵓ ⵜⵜ. ⵉⵎⵣⵉⵣⵣⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⴰⵜⵜⵓ ⵓⵛⵛⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵕⵚⵍⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵏⴱⴹⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴱⵛⵛⵉⵔⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴽⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙⴽⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵢⵉⵛⵛⵓⵜⵏ, ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵜ. 

ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 16, ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵓⵜⵔⵉⵎ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ (ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⴽⵓⵕⵓ) ⵓⵍⵍⴰ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵡⵊⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴰⵏⴽ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ "ⴼⵉⵙⵍⵔ" ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴰⴽ ⵣⴳ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⵎⵏⴽⴰⴷ ⵜⵛⴰⵕⵍⵣ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵓⵍⵓⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵍⴰⵢⵏ-ⴼⵉⵏⵉⴷⵉⴳ ("ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵢⴰⵏⵜ"), ⵙ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵔⵖ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⵉⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍ ⴹⵓⵕⴰⴹⵓ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵙⴼⵓⴳⴳⵔ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵉⵏ.  

ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 17 ⴷ 18, ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⴷⴼ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵏⴽⵓⴷ ⴰⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏ. ⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵥⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴽⴰⴽⴰⵡ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⵍⴰ, ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵎⴳⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵇⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏⵏ ⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏⵉⵏ ⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵅⴷⴷⴰⵎⵏ. ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 18, ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴽⴰⵕⴰⴽⴰⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵥⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵓⵍⵓⵏⵢⴰⵍⵜ ⵉⴼⵍⵓⵊⵊⴰⵏ. ⴳ 1777, ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⵜⴽⴰⴱⵉⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ, ⵜⵙⵎⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵔⵜ, ⵜⴼⴽ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴹⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⴽⵓⴷ.

ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⴷⵔⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⴳⴰⵔ. ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵜⵎⵓⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵉⴼⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴼⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵕⵢⵓⵍⵜ ⵜⵓⵎⵍⵉⵍⵜ, ⵇⵇⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵕⵚⵍⵉⵢⵏ, ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵉⵢⵏ, ⴷ ⵡⵉⴷⴰ ⵔⴽⵙⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵃⵢⵓ ⵓⵍⴳⵉⵏ. ⵜⵉⵟⵟⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵙⵓⵍ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵍⴰⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵍⵖⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓ.  
 ⴰⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ 
ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⵙⴼⵉⵡ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵕⵓⴱⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵀⵔⴳⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 18 ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 19. ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔ ⵓⵎⵎⵏⵣⵖ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵓⴼⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⵕⵢⵓⵍⵜ ⵎⵉⵏⵣⵓ ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵚⴱⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴽⵔⵔⴼ ⵜⴰⵙⵖⵏⵣⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ. ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵓⵏⵏⵙⵜⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⴷⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵜ, ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵉⴽ ⵏ ⵏⴰⴱⵓⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⴳ 1808, ⵜⵉⴼⴰⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ.

ⴳ 1810, ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴽⴼ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵕⴰⴽⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹ ⴰⴽⵓⵍⵓⵏⵢⴰⵍ ⴰⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏ, ⵉⵙⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴹⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵔⴷⵉⵏⴰⵏⴷ VVI, ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵊⵓⵏⵜⴰⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵏⴱⴹⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⵙⵎⴷⵏ ⴳ 5 ⵢⵓⵍⵢⵓ, 1881. ⵜⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⵜⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵏⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⴰⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⵏⵏⵙⵜⵎ ⴳ 1812 ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⵯⵏⵙⴰⵏⵏ, ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴷⵓⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⵛⴷⴷⴰⵏ.  

ⵢⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔ ⴰⵎ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ. ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵡⵍⴰ ⵖⵔ ⴳⵔⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ (ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ), ⵉⵕⵥⵎ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵣⵣⵍ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴷⵔⴼⵉ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ, ⵉⵎⵓⵔⵙ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴷⴼ ⵙ ⴽⴰⵕⴽⴰⵙ ⴳ 1813, ⵉⵙⵔⵙⵍ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⵉⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵎⵎⵉ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⵓⵍ ⵓⵡⵜⴰⵢ. ⵜⵙⴱⵣⵣⵉⵣ ⵜⵏⵣⴱⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵍⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵡⵡⴰⵖⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵖ ⵢⵓⵔⵔⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵣⵡⴰⴳ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵃⵉⵢⵢⵍ ⴷⴰⵖ, ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵊⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵔⴷⵉⵙⵜ ⵢⵓⴳⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵊⴰⵕⵏ.  

ⵜⴱⴷⴰ ⵜⵉⴽⵍⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵖⵜⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴳ 1816 ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵡⵍ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔ ⵙⴳ ⵀⴰⵢⵜⵉ ⴷⴰ ⴳ ⵜ ⵍⴽⵎⵏ ⵉⴽⵔⵔⴰⴷⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵔⴳⴰⵣⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵓⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⴰⵍⵉⴽⵙⴰⵏⴷⵔ ⴱⵉⵜⵢⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴼⴰⴷⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴷⵍ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⴳⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵍⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⴼⵉⵢⵏ. ⴱⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴰⵎⵥⵏⵜ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵍⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ, ⵉⵎⵎⵔⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⵓⵍ ⵛⴱⴱⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⴰⵎⵏⵏ. ⴳ 1819, ⵜⵓⵡⵙ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵔⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵏ ⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⴱⵎⵢⴰ, ⵜⵎⵓⵏ ⴳⵉⵙ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ, ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴽⵡⴰⴷⵓⵔ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ.  

ⵉⴹⵎⵏ ⵓⵎⵜⵡⵉ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵔⴰⴱⵓⴱⵓ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵊⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ 24 ⵢⵓⵏⵢⵓ, 1821, ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵚⴱⴰⵏⵢⴰ, ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⵡⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ. ⵜⴷⴷⵔⴼⵉ ⴽⴰⵕⴰⴽⴰⵙ ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴳⵣⵣⵓⵍⵏ, ⵉⴼⴽ ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵍⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵢⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴼⵡⵉⵔⵜⵓ ⵛⴰⴱⵉⵍⵍⵓ ⴳ 1823.

ⵜⵖⴰⵎⴰ ⴼⵉⵏⵣⵉⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵓ ⴳ ⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵢⴰ, ⵙ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⴷ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙⴽⵓ ⴷⵉ ⴱⴰⵢⵍⴰ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ. ⵎⴰⵛⵛ, ⵔⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⴽⵔⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⵉ ⴳⵔ ⵡⵉⴷⴰ ⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⴷⵉⵔⴰⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵎⵏⵛⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵅⵚⵚⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴱⴹⵓ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⵏⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵎⴰⵍ.  

 ⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵍⵎⴱⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜ 
ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵣⴳ ⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵢⴰ, ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵢⴷⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵉⴽⵡⴰⴷⵓⵔ ⵜⵉⵜⵔⴰⵔⵉⵏ, ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵖⵉⴼⵙⵏⵜ ⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⴼⵔⴰⵏⵙⵉⵙⴽⵓ ⴷⵉ ⴱⴰⵢⵍⴰ ⵙⴰⵏⵜⴰⵏⴷⵉⵔ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ. ⵜⵙⵔⵙ ⵜⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵓⵏⵉ ⴳⵔ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵔⴼⵉⵢⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵏⵏⵜ ⴷ ⴷⵖⵢⴰ ⵜⵖⵏⵏⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵎⵎⵣⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ. 

ⵓⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵏⵣⵡⵉⵍⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵅⵓⵙⵉ ⴰⵏⵟⵓⵏⵢⵓ ⴱⴰⵢⵉⵣ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵢⵉⵖⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⴰⵢⵉⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵉⵔⵓ (llanero cavalry), ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔ, ⵙⵎⵢⴰⴼⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴹⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵙⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ. ⴳ 1826, ⵉⵏⴷⵀ ⴱⴰⵢⵉⵣ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ "la cosiata" ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵉⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴷ ⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵢⴰ. ⵢⵓⵔⵎ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵔⵢ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴰⵙⴰⴽⵉ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵥⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵎⵖⵓⵔⵏ ⵙⵍⵎⴹⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⴷⵉⵕⴰⵍⵜ.  

ⴳ 1830, ⵜⴱⴹⴰ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ, ⵙ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷ, ⵅⴼ ⴳⵔⴰⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵢⴰ, ⵜⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⴷⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵅⵓⵙⵉ ⴰⵏⵟⵓⵏⵢⵓ ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵣ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ. ⵎⴽⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵍⵓⵍ, ⵜⵎⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ: ⴰⴳⵏⴼⵉ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉⵜⵏ, ⵜⵉⵚⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉ, ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⴱⴹⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵎⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ.  

ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 19, ⵜⵙⵎⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵔⵎⵏⵜⵉⵜ, ⵜⵉⵖⵡⵡⴰⵖⵉⵏ ⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ "caullidos" ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵏ, ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ. ⴰⵔ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵎⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵃⴹⴰⵏ, ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵣⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⵉⴳⵎ ⵉⵙ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜ ⵎⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⴳⴰⴹ ⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵏⴱⴹⵏ. 

ⵜⵖⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ, ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⴼⵍⵍⴰⵃⵜ, ⵜⴱⴷⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵉⴼⴰⴹ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵇⵀⵡⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴽⴰⴽⴰⵡ, ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⴰⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⴹ. ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⴳⴷⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⴳⴰ ⴳ 1854, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⴳⴰⵔ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⵇⵇⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵍⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴳⵍⴰ ⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴼⴰⵙⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴼⵔⵉⵏⵜ.  

ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵎⵏⵖⵉⵜⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵊⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵎⵕⵥⵉ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵙⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴼⵉⴷⵉⵔⴰⵍ (1859-1863) ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵊⵕⴰ ⵢⵉⵎⵉⵖ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⴷⵉⵔⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵉⴳⴳⵉⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴹⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵃⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵙⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵣⵖⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ. ⵉⵙⵏⵀⴰⴱⴱⴰⵔ ⵓⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ, ⵉⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵔⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵉⴳⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⴷⵉⵔⴰⵍⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⴰⴱⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ.  

ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 19, ⵜⵓⴼⴰ ⵏⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵓⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏ, ⴰⴼⵔⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵕⵥⵎⵏ ⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⴷⵓⵙⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⵏⴱⴹ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ.  

 ⴳⵓⵣⵎⴰⵏ ⴱⵍⴰⵏⴽⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍⵏ 
ⴳ 1870, ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⴰⵏⵟⵓⵏⵢⵓ ⴳⵓⵣⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵏ ⴰⴱⵔⵉⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵎⵉ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ, ⵉⴱⴷⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ "ⵜⵓⵟⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⵉⴰⵍⵜ". ⵉⵏⴱⴹ ⴳⵓⵣⵎⴰⵏ ⴱⵍⴰⵏⴽⵓ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵏⵉⵛⴰⵏ, ⵏⵖ ⵙ ⵉⴼⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵛⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵢⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⵎⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ, ⵙⵉⴽⵔ ⴰⵙⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵉ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴳⴹⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ.

ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴷⴼ ⵉⵙⵏⵎⴰⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵉⵔⵉⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⵙⵍⵢⴽ ⵏ ⵜⴱⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵍⵉⵣⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴷⴷⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ, ⵉⵜⵉⵍⵉⴳⵔⴰⴼⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵉⵏ. ⵜⵏⴼⵍ ⴽⴰⵕⴰⴽⴰⵙ, ⵜⵡⴷⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵛⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵥⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵜⵔⴰⵔⵜ, ⵜⵙⵙⴱⵖⵔ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵣⴳ ⵜⵙⵉⴼⴰⴹ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵍⵇⵀⵡⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴽⴰⴽⴰⵡ.

ⵢⵉⵔⵉ ⴷⴰⵖ ⴳⵓⵣⵎⴰⵏ ⴱⵍⴰⵏⴽⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵍⵉ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴷⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵓⴳⵍⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵅ ⵉⵙⴳⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵏ. ⵎⴰⵛⴰ, ⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⵙⵎⵙⵉ ⵜ ⵜⴽⴰⵢⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⵓⴷⵎⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ, ⴰⵎⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵣⵣⵓⴳ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⵏⴰⵜⵏ ⵏⵖ ⴰⵙⴼⵙⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ.  

ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴳⵓⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ 1887, ⵜⴽⵛⵎ ⴼⵉⵏⵣⵉⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵎⵏⵜⵉⵜ, ⴳ ⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⴰⵟⴰⵍⵏ, ⴷ ⵢⵉⵎⵉⵖⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ Caudillo. ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⴽⵉⵎ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 1890, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵉⵕⴰⵍ ⵅⵡⴰⴽⵉⵏ ⴽⵔⵉⵙⴱⵓ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ, ⵢⴰⵔⵎ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵉⵔⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴰⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⴷⵔⴰ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ 1898 ⵜⴰⵎⵜⵔⵓⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ. 

ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⴽⵛⵎ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜ, ⵜⵓⴼⴰ ⴷ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⵖⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵏⵉⴷ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵕⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⵎⴽⵙⵓⵍ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵎⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⴼⴰⴹ. ⴳ 1902, ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵕⵓⵎⵉⵢⵉⵏ, ⴳⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⴱⵕⵉⵟⴰⵏⵢⴰ, ⴰⵍⵉⵎⴰⵏ, ⵉⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰ ⴳⴷⵍⵏ ⴰⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⴷ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵣⴳ ⵉⴼⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ, ⵉⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵎⵎⴻⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴼⴹⵃⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵎⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵡⵍⵍⵊ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵏⴹⴼⴰⵕ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵏ.  

ⵉⵔⵡⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵔⵉⴷ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⴽⵉⴱⵔⵢⴰⵏⵓ ⴽⴰⵙⵜⵔⵓ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⴷⵉⵣ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴳ 1899, ⵉⵙⵎⵙⵉ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⴽⵏⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ.

 ⵜⵉⴷⴽⵏⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⴰⵏⴷⵉⵣⵉⵏ (1889-1935) 

ⴳ 1899, ⵉⴽⵛⵎ ⵓⵊⵉⵏⵉⵕⴰⵍ ⴽⵉⴱⵔⵢⴰⵏⵓ ⴽⴰⵙⵜⵔⵓ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⵛⵎ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵥⵓⵏⵜ, ⵢⴰⵎⵥ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ, ⵉⴱⴷⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴰⵄⵙⴽⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵓⵎⵥⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵣⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴷⵉⵣ. ⵉⵍⵎⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⵉⵏ, ⵉⵏⴷⴷⴰⵀⵎⵓⵜⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵏⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴽⵛⵎ ⵓⴳⴷⴰⵍ ⴰⵢⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ 1902-1903 ⵏⵏⴰ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙⵏ ⵙⴽⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⵡⵕⵓⴱⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵙⴱⵣⵣⵉⵣⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⵓ ⵉⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ. 

ⵓⵡⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵇⴰⵡⵎⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴽⴰⵙⵜⵔⵓ ⴷ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵢ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵉⵏⵓⴼⴰ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⴰⵏ ⵥⵍⵉⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⵉⴱⵍⵓⵎⴰⵙⵉ. ⴳ 1908, ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴽⴰⵙⵜⵕⵓ ⴳ ⴱⵔⵔⴰ ⴼ ⵓⵙⴰⵙⴼⵔ ⴰⵎⵙⵏⵉⵊⵊⵉ, ⵉⵏⴽⵔ ⵓⵎⴰⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵛⵔⵉⴽ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵢⴰⵥⵏ, ⵅⵡⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵙⵉⵏⵜⵉ ⴳⵓⵎⵉⵣ, ⵢⴰⵡⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⴳⵯⴷⵎ, ⵉⵏⴱⴹ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵉⵎⵎⵓⵜ ⴳ 1935.

ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⴳⵓⵎⵉⵣ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⴷⵏⴽⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵖⵣⵣⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ. ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⵎⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ, ⵉⴱⵏⵓ ⴰⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵙⵓⴼⵓ ⵉ ⵡⵓⴳⴳⵉⴷ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵉⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⴰⴳⴳⵯⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵡⵉⵣ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ. ⵔⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵍⴳⵉⵏⵜ, ⵜⵜⵓⴽⵔⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵥⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵜⵣⵣⴳⵓⵏ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴼⵙⵙⴰ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ.  

ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵎⴷⵏⴽⴰ, ⵢⵓⵡⵉⴷ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵏ ⴳⵓⵎⵉⵣ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴳⴳⵉⴳ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ. ⵉⴼⵔⴰ ⴰⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ, ⵉⵍⴷⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵔⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵏ, ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⴰⵙⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵉ ⵉⵙⵥⵕⴰⴼ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵏ. ⵜⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 20 ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵙⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ, ⴽⵛⵎⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ ⵛⵉⵍ (Shell) ⴷ ⵙⵜⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⵢⵍ (Standard Oil), ⴱⴷⵓⵏⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 1920.   

ⴷⵖⵢⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵍⵇⵀⵡⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴽⴰⴽⴰⵡ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵙⵉⴼⴹ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ, ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⴷ ⴰⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴷⵔⴰ ⴷⴰⵖ ⵓⵡⵍⵍⵊ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴷⴳⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⵉ. ⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⵍⴰ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴳ ⵉⴼⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⴳⵓⵎⵉⵣ ⴷ ⵉⵛⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵎⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵏⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⴰⵏⵏ.

ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⴽⵛⵎ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 1930, ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵉⴼⴹ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵜ, ⵜⴳ ⴰⵏⴼⴽⴰⵢ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ. ⵎⴰⵛⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵊⵊⴰ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴳⵓⵎⵉⵣ ⴳ 1935 ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⴳⴰⵡⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⵜ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⴱⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⵉⵖⵣⵣⵉⴼⵏ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⴻⵜⵜⵔⵏ ⴰⵏⴼⴰⵍ.   

 ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵜ (1935-1958) 

ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵅⵡⴰⵏ ⴼⵉⵙⵉⵏⵜⵉ ⴳⵓⵎⵉⵣ ⴳ 1935, ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⵓⵎⴰⵡⵙⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵖⵉ, ⴰⵊⵉⵏⵉⵕⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵍⵓⴱⵉⵣ ⴽⵓⵏⵜⵔⵉⵔⴰⵙ, ⵜⴰⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⴱⴷⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵉⴳⵣⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴽⵢⴰⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍ. ⵉⵕⵥⵎ ⵉ ⵉⵏⴽⵔⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ, ⵉⴼⵍ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ ⵏ ⵜⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ, ⵉⴱⴷⵓ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⵔⵉ ⵓⴷⵓⵣ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ.  

ⵉⵙⵙⴽⵛⵎ ⵍⵓⴱⵉⵣ ⴽⵓⵏⵜⵔⵉⵔⴰⵙ "ⴰⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴼⴱⵕⴰⵢⵕ" ⴳ 1936 ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵡⴰⵜⵙⵏ ⴰⵙⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ, ⵉⵏⴰⵡⵍ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵙⴳⵎⵉ, ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵙⵉ, ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵅⴷⴷⴰⵎⵏ. ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵓⵙⵖⵉⵍⵏ (modéré), ⵙⵎⵉⵙⵏ ⵉⵥⵎⵎⴰⵥⵥⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⵏⴰⴹ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⵓⵕⵥⵎⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴽⵏⴰ.  

ⴳ 1941, ⵉⵅⵍⴼ ⵉⵣⵢⴰⵙ ⵎⵉⴷⵉⵏⴰ ⴰⵏⴳⴰⵔⵉⵜⴰ ⵍⵓⴱⵉⵣ ⴽⵓⵜⵔⵉⵔⴰⵙ, ⵉⴽⵎⵎⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴷⵉⵎⵇⵕⴰⵟ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⴽⴼⵍ. ⵜⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ, ⵙⴳⵉⵙⵏ Acción Democrática (AD), ⵉⵣⵣⵔⵉ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵡⵓⵔⵉ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵉⴷⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵙⴳ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ. ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵖⴱⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⵉⵥⴹⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵄⵔⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⵔⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵔⵏ ⴰⵙⵍⴼⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵙⵓⵙⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ.  

ⴳ 1945, ⵜⵏⴽⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵓⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⴰⵢⵏ ⵜⵙⴽⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⴳⵯⴷⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏ ⵎⵉⴷⵉⵏⴰ, ⵉⵙⵔⴽ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵊⵓⵏⵜⴰⵜ ⵜⵓⵖⵔⵉⵎⵜ-ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵕⵓⵎⵉⵍⵓ ⴱⵉⵜⴰⵏⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵅⴼ. ⵜⵙⵙⵓⴷⴼ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ, ⵜⵙⵙⵉⵔⵉⵡ ⴰⵙⴳⵎⵉ, ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵉⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⴰⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⴳ 1947, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⴳⴰⵍ ⵕⵓⵎⵉⵍⵓ ⴳⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳⵓⵙ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⴰⵎⵣⵡⴰⵔⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ.

ⵜⴳⵣⵣⵓⵍ ⵜⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼⵜ ⵏ ⴳⴰⵍⵍⵉⴳⵓⵙ. ⴳ ⵏⵓⵡⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ 1948, ⵏⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵃⴹⵉⵢⵏ, ⴷⴷⵓ ⵓⵏⴷⴰⵀ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵔⵍⵓⵙ ⴷⵉⴳⴰⵍⴷⵓ ⵛⴰⵍⴱⴰⵡⴷ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵕⴽⵓⵚ ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵣ ⵅⵉⵎⵉⵏⵉⵣ, ⵏⴳⴳⵯⴷⵎⵏ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙ, ⴼⴽⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⵓⴼⵙⴰ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴳ ⵜⴰⵔⵎⵏⵜⵉⵡⵜ. ⵜⵣⵔⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙ, ⵢⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴳⵉⵙ ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵣ ⵅⵉⵎⵉⵏⵉⵣ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵡⵔⵉⴽ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ.  

ⴷⴷⵓ ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵣ ⵅⵉⵎⵉⵏⵉⵣ, ⵉⵊⵕⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵜⵉⵣⵣⵍⴰ ⵉ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵓⴷⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ. ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⴹⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ, ⵙⵏⵍⴼⵏ ⴽⴰⵕⴰⴽⴰⵙ, ⵢⴰⵍⵉ ⵓⵙⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵔⵏⴰ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ, ⵜⵜⵓⴽⵔⴰⴼⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵣⵓⴳⵏ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ. ⵉⵙⵙⵏⴽⵔ ⵓⵖⵣⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⵣⵍⵍⵄ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵎⵖⵓⵔⵏ, ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ. ⴳ 23 ⵉⵏⵏⴰⵢⵔ, 1958, ⵜⵏⴽⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵍ ⵜⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ, ⵜⵙⴱⵣⵣⵉⵣ ⴼ ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵣ ⵅⵉⵎⵉⵏⵉⵣ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⵡⵍ ⵣⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ, ⵉⵙⵎⵙⵉ ⵎⴰⵢⴰ ⵜⵉⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴽⵏⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ.
 ⴰⵣⵎⵣ ⴰⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉ (1958-1998) 
ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⴽⴼ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵕⴽⵓⵚ ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵣ ⵅⵉⵎⵉⵏⵉⵣ ⴳ 1985, ⵜⴽⵛⵎ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵏⵜⵉⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⴽ ⴽⴽⵓⵥⵜ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ. ⵜⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉⵢⵏ, ⵜⴳ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵕⵓⵎⵉⵍⵓ ⴱⵉⵏⵜⴰⴽⵓⵔⵜ ⵣⴳ ⵓⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ Acción Democrática (AD). 

ⴱⴰⵛ ⴰⴷ ⴹⵎⵏⵏ ⴰⵔⴳⴳⵉⴳ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ, ⵏⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ, AD, COPEI (ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵢⵏ ⵉⴷⵎⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵏ) ⴷ URD (ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ), ⵙⵏⵉⵏ "Pacto de Puntofijo" ⴳ 1958, ⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⴼ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵣⵔⴰⴽⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ, ⴷⵔⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ, ⵎⵣⵖⵏ ⴼⵅ ⵜⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵜ. ⵙⵉⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⵓⵏⴼⴰⵔⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵜ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵛⴰⵛⴽⴰ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵣⴳ ⵉⵏⵏⴳⵯⴷⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⵎⴰⵍ.  

ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ 1960 ⴷ 1970, ⵜⴼⵍⵥ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵣⴳ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ. ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⴳ 1975, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⴳ 1976, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰⵏ Petróleos de Venezuela, S.A. (PDVSA) ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ, ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵣⴳ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ. ⵉⵙⵥⵕⴼ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⴹⵓⵍⴰⵕ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴷⴷⴰⵡⵜ, ⴰⵙⴳⵎⵉ, ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵙⵉ, ⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵣⴳ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⴼⵍⵓⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵜ.  

ⵎⴰⵛⴰ, ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⴳⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵓⴱⴹⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⵍⴰ, ⵢⴰⵊⵊ ⴰⵡⵍⵍⵊ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⵙⵙⵉⵙ. ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 1980, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⵏⵙⵜⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵍⵓⴳⵍ ⵉⵛⵇⵇⴰⵏ, ⴰⴱⵣⴰⴳ (ⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎ) ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⵉⵎⵣⵣⵉ. 

ⴳ 1989, ⵉⵙⵎⵀⵍ ⵓⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⴽⴰⵕⵍⵓⵚ ⴰⵏⴷⵔⵉⵙ ⴱⵉⵔⵉⵣ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵛⵛⵃⵕⵓⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙ ⵜ ⵉⵡⵚⵚⴰ , ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⴼⵓⵖ ⵜⵔⵡⴰⴽⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴽⵕⵉⴹⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ "Caracazo", ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵎⵎⵓⵜⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⵉⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⴷⵔⴰⴷⵙ. ⵜⴼⴹⵃ ⵜⵙⵎⴰⵙⵙⵜ ⴰⵎⵢⴰⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵔⵔⵇ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ.  

ⵜⴳⴳⵓⴷⵉ ⵜⵏⴰⴱⴱⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴷⴳⵉ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴼⵖ ⴳ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵏⵏⴳⵯⴷⵎⵏ ⵙⴼⵓⴳⴳⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ 1992 ⴷⴷⵓ ⵓⵏⴷⴰⵀ ⵏ ⵓⵍⵢⵓⵜⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵏⵉⵍ ⵀⵉⴳⵓ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵙⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔ-200. ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵏ, ⵜⵜⵓⴽⵔⴰⴼⵏ, ⵉⵔⴱⵃ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ ⵜⴰⵢⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵎⵥⵕⵖⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵥⵎⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ. ⴳ 1994, ⵉⴷⵡⵍ ⵔⴰⴼⴰⵢⵉⵍ ⴽⴰⵍⴷⵉⵔⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼⵜ, ⵉⴼⴽ ⴰⵙⵓⵔⴼ ⵉ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⴳⴰⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⴳⵓⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵖⴱⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵇⴱⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ.  

 ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔⵜ (1999-ⴷⵖⵉ) 
ⴳ ⴷⵓⵊⴰⵏⴱⵉⵔ 1998, ⵢⵓⵍⵉ ⵓⴼⵙⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⴰⵇⵇⴱⵓⵔ ⵀⵉⴳⵓ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ, ⵉⴳ ⴰⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼ, ⵉⴼⴽ ⵉⴳⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵙⵉ ⴰⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ, ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⵔⵉ ⴰⵥⵍⴰⴹ, ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ. ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⵉⵔⴰ ⴳ 1999, ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵏⴼⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵖⵔ "ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ", ⵉⵙⵉⵔⵉⵡ ⵜⵉⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼⵉⵏ.

ⵉⴱⴷⴰ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⴼⴰⵔⵜ, ⴰⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵡⴰⵜⵙⵏ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵉ ⴱⵟⵟⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ. ⵙ ⵜⵙⵉⴷⴰⴼ ⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⴳⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ, ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵎⵉⴳⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⴰⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ, ⴰⵙⴳⵎⵉ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⵎ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵍⵏ. ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ, ⵜⴽⵔⵉ ⵜⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵜⵇⵓⴱⴱⴰⵏⵉⵜ, ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⵍ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⵣⴳ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⴹ.

ⴰⵔⴼⵓⴼⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵣⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴰⵛⴽⵓ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵙ ⵜⵓⴼⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⴰⵎ ⴽⵓⴱⴰ, ⵔⵓⵙⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵛⵛⵉⵏⵡⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵏⵜⵜⵓ ⵜⴰⵏⴽⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴳⴰⵍ-ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ "ALBA" (Bolivarian Alliance for the Peoples of Our America).< ⵜⵍⴷⵉ ⴷ ⴼⵍⵍⴰⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵕⵖⵔⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎⵎⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴰⵣⵖⴰⵏ ⵣⴳ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⵯⵔⵉ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵢⵉⵏ.  

ⴳ 2002, ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴽⴼ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵏⴳⵯⴷⵎ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ ⵣⴳ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴷⵖⵢⴰ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴼⴼⵖⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵔⵡⴰⴽⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⴷⵉⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⴰⵙ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵓⴼⵓ ⵔⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜ ⵉⴷ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴳ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵡⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ. ⵉⵏⵊⵎ ⵉⵍⵎⵎⴰ ⵣⴳ  ⴳ 2004, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴷⴰⵖ ⴳ 2006 ⴷ 2012. ⴳ ⵜⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⵙⴳⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⴹ ⵣⴳ ⵜⵓⴳⴳⵓⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵜⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏⵜⵉ, ⵉⵙⴰⵙⵙ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵉⴷⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ. 
ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ ⴳ 2013, ⵢⵓⵍⵉ "ⵓⵎⴽⴽⴰⵙⵓ" ⵏⵏⵙ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴼⵔⵏ, ⵏⵉⴽⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⴷⵓⵔⵓ, ⵢⴰⵎⵥ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ, ⵉⵏⵏⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⵏ ⵙⵓⵍ. ⵉⴽⵎⵎⵍ ⵎⴰⴷⵓⵔⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵍⵎⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵏⵙⵜⵎ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵛⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⴳⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ, ⴰⴱⵣⴰⴳ (ⵏ ⵡⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎ), ⴰⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵥⵥⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵖⵉⴼⵙⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⵙ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ. ⵉⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵜⵛⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵏⵣⵣⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⴰⵍⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⵔⵡⴰⴽⵉⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏⵉⵏ  ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ.  

ⵜⵓⵎⵥ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ ⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵕⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ 2015, ⵎⴰⵛⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ  ⴷⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⴷⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ. ⴳ 2017, ⵉⵙⵏⵍⵓⴼⴰ ⵎⴰⴷⵓⵔⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⵜⴰⵢ (Constituent Assembly) ⵏⵏⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⴽⴷⵉ ⵏⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔⵜ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵉⵙⵙ ⴰⴱⵕⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴱⴹ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⵎⴰ. ⵜⵏⴽⵔ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵎⵎⵣⵔⴰⵢⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷⴰⵖ ⴳ 2018, ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⴽⵣⵏ ⴰⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ ⵅⵡⴰⵏ ⴳⵓⵡⴰⵢⴷⵓ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⴼ.  

ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 2020, ⵜⵎⵍⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⴹⴹⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⴰⴳⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵜ, ⵙ ⵉⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏⵏ ⵔⵡⵍⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴰⴱⴱⴰⵢⵜ ⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴳⴳⵉⴳ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ. ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵥⵍⵉⵜ, ⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⵡⴰⵥⵥⴰⵢⵏ, ⵜⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵓⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴽⴷⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⵍ ⵣⴳ ⵉⵛⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵔⵓⵙⵢⴰ, ⵛⵛⵉⵏⵡⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵕⴰⵏ.
 ⵜⴰⴷⵉⵎⵖⴰⵔⴼⵜ 
ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵛⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵜ. ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 93% ⵣⴳ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵣⴷⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵏ, ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴷⴳ ⵢⵉⵥⵥⵍⵎⴹ, ⵜⴳ ⴽⴰⵕⴰⴽⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ. ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 73% ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵣⴷⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ 100ⴽⵎ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴼⵜⴰⵙ.
ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵉⵏⵓⴽⵓ, ⵖⴰⵙ 5% ⵣⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⴰⵢⴷ ⴷⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⵣⴷⵖⵏ.  ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵢⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⵉⴼ, ⵜⴳ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ.. ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰⵖ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ Barquisimeto, Valencia, Maracay, Maracaibo, Barcelona-Puerto La Cruz, Mérida, ⴷ San Cristóbal. 

ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⵓⵎⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵎⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ "????" ⴳ ⵓⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ ⵏ "????". ⵜⴰⴼ ⵏⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵔ  ⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 1.5 ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ (ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ 4-6% ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ) ⵣⵓⴳⵏ ⵙⴳ 1999.  

 ⵜⴰⵢⵜⵏⵉⵜ 
ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⴰⵎⵎⵏ ⵔⴽⵙⵏⵉⵏ. ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ 2011, ⵙⵎⴰⴳⵉⵏ 51.6% ⵉⵅⴼⴰⵡⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵎⵉⵏⵓⵔⵉ, ⵜⵙⵎⴰⴳⵉ 43.6% ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵎⵍⵉⵍⵏ, ⵖⴰⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⴰⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⴰⵏⵏ (3.6%) ⵏⵖ ⴰⵎ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ (1.2%). ⴽⵛⵎⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵕⵚⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵔⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵢⵜⵉⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ (2.6%) ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⵢⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵉⵢⵏ (0.7%).  

ⴳⵔ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵕⵚⵍⵉⵢⵉⵏ, 58% ⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⵓ, ⵉⴹⴼⵓⵕⵏ ⵜⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⴰⵡ ⵙ (7%), ⴽⴰⵔⵉⵏⴰ (5%), ⴼⵉⵎⵓⵏ (4%), ⴷ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏⵉⵏ.  

ⴷⴰ ⵎⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵊⵉⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵎⴰ ⵙ ⴷ 60.6% ⵣⴳ ⵉⵥⵓⵕⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⵕⵓⴱⵜ, 23% ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵕⵚⵍⵉⵢⵏ, ⵜⴳ 16.3% ⴷ ⵉⵖⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⴼⵔⵉⵇⵜ.  

ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵉⴽⵓⵍⵓⵏⵢⴰⵍⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 12, ⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵏ ⵣⴳ ⵜⴳⵣⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴰⵏⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵚⴱⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴼ ⵜⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ. ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⵎⵎⴰ, ⵍⴽⵎⵏⵜ ⵏⵏ ⵜⴰⴹⴹⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵕⵓⵎⵉⵢⵏ, ⴰⵢⵜ ⵓⵏⵥⵓⵍ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⵖ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⵉⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ, ⵖⵏⵓⵏ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵏⴰⵡ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ.  

 ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ 
ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷⵜ, ⴷ ⵜⴰⴷⴰ ⵙ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ, ⴳ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵜ. ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵜⴰⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⵡⴷ "expressions" ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵉⴱⴰⵢⵏ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵕⵚⵍⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵉⵢⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵇⵛⵜⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵜ ⵍⵍⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵀⵓⵔⴰⵙ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ.

ⵙ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵜ, ⵢⵓⴽⵣ ⵓⴷⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ 1999 ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⵕⵚⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ. ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ 34 ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵕⵚⵍⵉⵢⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⴰⵡⴰⵍ, ⵙⴳⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ Wayuu, Warao, Pemón, ⴷ Kariña. 

ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵜ ⴰⵎ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵢⵉⵏ, ⵢⵉⴳⵓⵜ ⵎⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵔ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵉⵎⵏⴰⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵍⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵖⵏⵣⵉⵜ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⴽⴰⵕⴰⴽⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴼⵜⴰⵙ. ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ, ⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵣⵡⴰⴳⵜ, ⵜⵉⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ  ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⵜⵓⵜⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⴱⵔⵜⵇⵉⵣⵜ, ⵜⴰⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⴰⵄⵕⴰⴱⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵛⵉⵏⵡⵉⵜ (ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵏⴷⴰⵔⵉⵏⵜ).  

ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵍⵉ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ, ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵡⴰⴳⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍⵜ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵓⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵡⵉⵏⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⴽⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵚⴱⵍⵢⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏⵉⵏ.

 ⴰⵙⴳⴷ 
ⵜⴳⴰ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵉⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⴽⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴽⵏ ⵉⵕⵓⵎⴰⵏⵏ. ⴷⴰ ⴰⵏⵖ ⵉⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵓⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ 2011 ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 71% ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉ, ⵜⵉⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⵜ 17% ⵢⴰⴹⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵉⴹⴰⵏⵏ ⵢⵉⴷⵙⵏ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵜⵉⵏⵊⵉⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴱⵉⵏⵜⵓⴽⵓⵙⵜⴰⵍⵉⵏ.  

ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵖⴰⵎⴰ "practice" ⵜⴰⵙⴳⴷⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵣⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ. ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵙⴼⵓⴳⵍⵓⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵏⵎⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵎⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⴼⵍⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴽⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵕⵚⵍⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴼⵔⵉⵇⵉⵏⵢ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⴷⵢⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜ ⵓⵏⵎⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵙⴰⵏ ⵅⵡⴰⵏ (Fiesta de San Juan), ⵉⴷⴰⵢⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵜⵜⵔⴽⴰⵣⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵔⵉ (Yare) ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ María Lionza ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵔⴽⴰⵙⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵏⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵊⵊⵓ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ.  

ⵜⵉⴳⵍⵉⵣⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵔⵓⵜⵉⵙⵜⴰⵏⵜⵉⵏ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵏⵊⵉⵍⴰⵏⵏ, ⴳⵎⴰⵏ ⴷⵖⵢⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 20, ⵙ ⵓⵙⴷⵉⴽⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⵙ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵥⵍⴰⴹ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⴰⵔⴰⵏⵏ. ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰⵖ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵉⵃⵉⵓⵏ ⵓⵔⵜⵓⴷⵓⴽⵙⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⴳⵯⵔⵔⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵡⵉⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⴳⵓⵔⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴰⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵊⵉⵀⵓⴼⴰ. 

ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴰⵖ ⴳ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵜⵎⴳⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵓⵙⵍⵎⵉⵏ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏⵉⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ, ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⵢⵓⵙⴰ ⴷ ⴰⵎ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵏ ⵣⴳ ⵜⵓⵔⵓⴱⵜ, ⴰⴳⵎⵓⴹ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⴼⵔⵉⵇⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴼⴰ, ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 20. ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⴳ ⵜⴷⵎⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴽⴰⵕⴰⴽⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵕⴽⴰⵢⴱⵓ.  

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴹⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⴰⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⴷ, ⵢⴰⵊⵊ ⵜⵉⴼⵍⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⴳⵍⵉⵣⵜ ⵜⴰⴽⴰⵜⵓⵍⵉⴽⵜ ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵢⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ.
 ⵜⴰⵣⵡⴰⴳⵜ 
ⵜⴳⴰ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ, ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵏ, ⵓⵔ ⴷ ⴰⵖⴱⴰⵍⵓ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵜ. ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 20, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ 1940 ⴷ 1970, ⵜⵓⵎⵥ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵏⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⵔⵓⴱⵜ, ⵙⴳ ⵓⴳⵎⵓⴹ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ ⴷ ⵓⵔⴳⴳⵉⴳ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ. ⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵟⴰⵍⵢⴰ,  ⵍⴱⵔⵜⵇⵉⵣ ⴷ ⵚⴱⴰⵏⵢⴰ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵜⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵡⵔⵓⴱⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ, ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵓⴱⴱⴰ ⵎⵥⵥⵉⵢⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵢⵓⵙⴰⵏ ⵣⴳ ⴰⵍⵎⴰⵏⵢⴰ, ⴼⵕⴰⵏⵚⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵕⵓⴼⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵎⵓⴹ.  

ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵏ ⵣⴳ ⵓⴳⵎⵓⴹ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵢⵜ ⵍⵓⴱⵏⴰⵏ, ⵉⵙⵓⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵉⵍⵉⵙⵟⵉⵏⵉⵢⵉⵏ, ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵙⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⵍⴽⵎⵏ, ⵎⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴱⴱⴰⴱⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ. ⵙⴽⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵛⵛⵉⵏⵡⴰ ⴷ ⵊⵊⴰⴱⴱⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ.  

ⵙ ⵓⵏⵎⴳⴰⵍ, ⵣⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 2000, ⵜⵍⵎⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴰⴹⴹⴰⵏⴳⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵖⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ, ⴰⵏⵏⵙⵜⵎ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴰⴳⵏⵉⵏ. ⴷⴰ ⴰⵖ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ UNHCR ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵜ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 7.7 ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴼⵍⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⵍⴽⵎ 2024, ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵙⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⵣⴷⵖⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵊⴰⵕⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵢⴰ, ⵉⴽⵡⴰⴷⵓⵔ, ⵜⵛⵉⵍⵉ ⴷ ⴱⵔⴰⵣⵉⵍ. 

ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵍⵎⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵏ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵓⵍⴳⵉⵏ, ⵍⴽⵎⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ, ⴰⴼⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵡⵡⵓⵔⵉ, ⵎⴰⵛⵛⴰⵏ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ "Quito Process" ⵙ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵣⵎⵎⵣⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵉⵏ.  

ⵜⵍⴰ ⵜⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵢⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴷⵉⵎⵓⵖⴰⵔⴼⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ, ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ, ⴷ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵉⵅⴷⴷⴰⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵡⴰⴳ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵍⵍⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⴷⵖ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴼⵓⵙⵏ ⵉⴼⵓⵍⵍⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵎⵎⴰⵜⵜⵉⵏ ⵖⵔ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ. ⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵜⴰⵣⵣⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵏ ⵖⵔ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⴳⵯⵎ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵡⵀⵎⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⴷⴰⴼ ⵉ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵡⵊⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵖⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ.  

 ⴰⵙⴳⵎⵉ 
ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⴳ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ, ⵉⴳ ⵓⵛⵛⵉⵍ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵣⵣⴰⵏⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵡⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 6 ⴷ 15, ⵎⴽⴷⴰ ⵉⴼⵕⴹ ⵓⴷⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ 1999. ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ, ⵙⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⴰⵎⵏⵣⵓ, ⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵖⵔ ⴼⴰⴱⵓⵕ. 

ⵜⵓⵍⵉ ⵜⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵔⵉ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 20, ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 95% ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ 2000 ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴽⴰ ⵏ UNESCO.  ⵜⴳⴰ ⴱⴷⴷⴰ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵉⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⵉⵏⵣⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⵏⵉⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵊⵊ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ.  

ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓⵜⵏ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔⵜ, ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ "ⵜⵙⵎⵉⴳⴰⵍ", ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⵙⵖⵓⴷⵓⵏ ⴰⴷⴰⴼ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⵎⵢⵓⴼⵏ. ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵉⴳⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵕⵓⴱⵉⵏⵚⵓⵏ, ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵉⴳⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵔⵉⴱⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⵉⴳⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵓⴽⵔⵉ ⴰⵙⴼⴰⴹ  ⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵙⴽⴽⵉⵍⵜ, ⴰⵙⵏⵖⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⴰⵙⵉⵏⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵏⴰ ⵏ ⵓⴽⵛⵛⵓⵎ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵢⵉⵏ.. ⵜⵙⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵙⵏⵖⵓⴱⴰ ⵜⴰⵔⵙⴽⴽⵉⵍⵜ ⴳ 2005, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵉⵣⵡⵍ ⵎⵉ ⵙⵏⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴽⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵉⴳⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⴳⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴽⵓⴱⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵡⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵢⵓⵔⴷⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴷⵜⵜⴰ ⵓⵙⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ.  

ⵙⴳ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ, ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ (ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵜⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ 1721), ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⴷⵉⵣ|, ⵜⴰⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵉⵎⵓⵏ ⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵣⵓⵍⵢⴰ. ⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵏ, ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵍⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ.  

ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⴼⵉⵏⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵙⴽⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵉⵍⵎⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 2010 ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ. ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴷⴰⵡⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⵎⵔⵔⵜⵏⵜ ⵣⴳ ⵓⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ, ⵡⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵉⴱⵉⴷⴰⵖⵓⵊⵉⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵏⵀⵉⴱⴱⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴷⴷⴰⵡⵜ. ⴹⵕⵏ ⵜⵖⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴰⴷⵏ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ, ⵉⵙⵔⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵙⵍⴰⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴳⵎⵉⵜⵏ. ⴰⵎ ⵜⵢⴰⴼⵓⵜ, ⵉⴹⵕ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⴼ ⵖⵔ ⵓⵙⴳⵎⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵙ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ.  

 ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵙⵉ 
ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ, ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵉⵎⵓⴼⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴽⴽⴰ ⴰⴷⴰⴼ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴼⴰⴱⵓⵕ ⴷ ⵓⵖⵣⵓⵔⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵡⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴳⴳⴰⴹ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ. ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⵣⴷⴳ, ⴰⴳⵣⵣⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵡⵓⵜⵛⵉ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 20 ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵣⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵡⵜⴰⵢ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴽⵔⴰⵢ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰⵡⵉⵏ. 

ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵕⵜ, ⵜⵙⵙⵉⵔⵉⵡ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⵉⵏⵓⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ "ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵉⴳⵍⵜ ⵏ ⴱⴰⵔⵢⵓ ⴰⴷⵉⵏⵜⵔⵓ" ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵕⵥⵎ ⴳ 2003 ⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴽⵓⴱⴰ. ⵜⵙⵔⵙⵍ ⵜⵙⵎⵉⴳⵍⵜ ⵜⵉⵙⴷⵓⵙⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵓⵔⵉⵏ, ⵜⵉⵏⵓⴼⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵏⵉⵊⵊⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⵎⵣⵉⵣⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵥⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵡⴰⵜⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵉⴷⴰⴼ. ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ, ⵜⴽⵔⵉ ⵜⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰⵡⵉⵏ, ⵜⵙⵙⵉⵔⵉⵡ ⴰⴷⴰⴼ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵏⵓⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏⵏ.  

ⵎⴰⵛⵛⴰ, ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴹ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵓⵏⵏⵙⵜⵎ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 2010 ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵙⵉ. ⵍⵎⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼ ⴷ ⵜⵙⴷⵓⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⴰⵔ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏ, ⵉⵎⵉⵡⴰ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⵉⵊⵊⵉⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵜⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏⵜⵉ. ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵡⴰⵣⵣⵓⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵓⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵣⵓⴳⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵖⵕⴰⴹ ⴷⵔⵓⵙⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵡⵓⵔⵉ.  

ⵓⵔⵔⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴷⴰⵖ ⵡⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⴷⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵖⴰⵍ ⵉⵙ ⴰⴼⵓⴹⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵍⴰⵕⵢⴰ, ⵎⵉⵣⵍ ⴷ ⵜⴷⵉⴼⵜⵉⵔⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵎⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ, ⵅⴼ ⵓⵢⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⴼⴽⴰ ⵏ PAHO. ⵜⴰⵍⵉ ⴷⴰⵖ ⵜⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵍⵎⵢⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⴷⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜ.  

ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⴱⵕⴱⴰⵢⵕⴰⵕ ⵏ ⴽⵓⴼⵉⴷ-19 ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵓⵣ, ⵉⵙⵙⵓⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵡⴰ ⵉⵎⵙⵏⵉⵊⵊⵉⵜⵏ, ⵜⴰⵣⵎⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴷⴷⴰⵡⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⴹⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵣⵣⴰⵢⵜ. ⵓⵣⵏⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⴷ ⵓⵚⴰⵍⵉⴱ ⴰⵣⴳⴳⵯⴰⵖ ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵡⵙⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵏⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵉⵙ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵏⵏⵙⵜⵎ.  

ⴰⵙⵙⴰ, ⵉⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴰⴼ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵏⵓⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⴳⴰⵔ: ⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴳⵏⴰⴼ ⵓⵙⵍⵉⴳⵏ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵓⴼⵏⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵡⵉⴷⴰ ⵣⵎⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴼⵔⵉⵏ, ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵎⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴱⴷⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵔⵔⵜⵏ.  

 ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ 
ⵜⴳⴰ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⴷⵉⵔⴰⵍⵜ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⴷ ⵢⵉⵅⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ. ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⵓⴷⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ 1999 ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵙⵎ ⵙ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷ, ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵕⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ, ⵉⴳ ⴰⵣⵔⵉⴳ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ.  

ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵓⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⵙ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵚⴹⵉⵚ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ, ⵉⵖⵉⵢ ⵓⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵜⵜⵕⵛⵛⵃ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵜⵜⵎⵉ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎ ⴰⴷⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔⵉ ⴳ 2009. ⴷⴰ ⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍ ⵓⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵡⵙⴰⵙⵏ, ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵜⵉⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵣⴳⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⴷⵓⵙⵏⵉⵏ, ⴳ ⵉⴽⵛⵎ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⴷ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ.  
ⴷⴰ ⵉⴳⵣⵣⴰ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⴼ, ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵓⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ. ⵉⵍⴰ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵣⵣⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⵏⵏ, ⴰⴷⴳⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵙⵜⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵣⵣⴳⴰⵔ. ⵎⴰⵛⵛⴰⵏ, ⵙⴳ 2017, ⵢⵓⵡⵉ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵏⵉⴽⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⴷⵓⵔⵓ ⴰⴷⵖⴰⵔ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⵢⵏⵓ ⵜⵉⵙⵖⴰⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵔⵉⴼⵉⵏ.  

ⵉⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⵏⵣⵔⴰⴼ, ⵙ ⵡⵓⴷⵎ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷ, ⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵥⴰⵎ ⴰⵟⵟⴰⵚ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵖⵉⵍ. ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵙⵏⴱⴹⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴼⵜ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴱⴹⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ, ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵉⵏⴱⴹⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⵏⵎⵍ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ. ⴷⴰ ⵙⴳⵓⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴹⴰ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵉⵍⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵙⵔⵎⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ (PSUV).  

ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜ ⵎⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵥⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ. ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵙⵙⵉⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵣⴰⵢⴽⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⴱⵜ ⴱ 2010, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⵎⵎⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵏⴱⴹⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢⴰⵏ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ (CNE). ⵢⵉⴳⵓⵜ ⴷⴰⵖ ⵎⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵜⵜⵡⴰⴽⴽⵙ ⵓⵖⵔⴰⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵜⵓⵣⵣⵓⴳⵏ ⵙ ⵛⵛⵉⵍ, ⴰⵢⴰⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵙⵍⵎⴹⵏ ⴰⵎⵣⵉⵣⵡⵔ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉⵜⵏ.  

ⵙⴳ 2019, ⵜⵍⵎⴰⵡⴰⵢ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵉⵣⵡⵔ: ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴱⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵓⵔⵓ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴽⵓⴷⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⴰⵏⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵅⵡⴰⵏ ⴳⵡⴰⵢⴷⵓ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴳⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴰⵎ ⵓⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵜ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵓⵔⴷⴰ. ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⴰⵣ ⴳⵡⴰⵢⴷⵓ ⵙⴳ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 50 ⴰⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ ⴰⵏⵏ, ⵙⴳⵉⵙⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵕⵓⴱⵜ, ⵜⵇⵇⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰⵡⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵓⵔⵓ.  

ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵎⴰ PSUV, ⴰⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⵉ ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵀⵉⴳⵓ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⴰⵍ, ⵉⴳⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ, ⵜⵇⵇⴰⵎⴰ ⵜⵎⵓⵏⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ, MUD ⴷⴰ ⵏⵜⵜⵓ ⵅⴼ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⴽⵕⵉⵥⵏ ⵉⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⴷⵉⵎⵓⵇⵕⴰⵟⵉⵢⵏ. 

 ⵜⵉⵟⵟⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔⵉⵏ 
ⵜⴱⴹⴰ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵅⴼ 23 ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵥⵓⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵏⴹⴼⵓⵕⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴼⵉⴷⵉⵔⴰⵍⵉⵏ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵣⵉⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴱⴹ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⵙ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷⵜ. ⴽⵓ ⵜⴰⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⵓⵔⵙ ⵓⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵓⵣⵔⵉⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ, ⵙ ⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵜⵙⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴽⴽⵓⵥ ⵉⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⵏ.  

ⵜⴽⵛⵎ ⵜⵎⴷⵉⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴽⴰⵕⴰⴽⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵎⵓⵍ ⴰⵎⴰⵥⵓⵏ, ⵜⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵥⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ. ⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵜⵔⵓⴱⵓⵍⵉⵜⴰⵏⵏ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵙⵙⵓⵜⵍⵏⵉⵏ ⵍⴽⵎⵏ ⵉⴳⵣⵎⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵎⵉⵔⴰⵏⴷⴰ ⴷ ⴼⴰⵔⴳⴰⵙ.

ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴻⵜⵜⵔ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⴳⵡⴰⵢⴰⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⴽⵉⴱⴰ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵊⵓⵎⵎⴰ ⵏ 159,500 km² ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⴳⵡⴰⵢⴰⵏⴰ, ⵎⴰⵛⵛⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵜⴷⴳⴳⵉ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵢⴰ. ⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵓⵎⵏⴰⵡⴰⵛ ⴰⴷ ⵖⵔ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 19, ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴼⵙⵉ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵙⵏⵜⴰⵢ ⵜⵉⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜ ⴼⵓⴽⴽⵓⵏⵜ.  

ⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴷ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔⵜ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⵡⵉⵍⴰⵢⵉⵏ, ⴽⵓ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵖⵉⴼⵙ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⴰⴳⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵓⴼⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵙⵖⵉⵡⵙ ⴰⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏ, ⴰⵙⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⵔⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵙⵙⴰⵢ.  

ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵍⵉ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎⵏ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⴰⵡ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⴷ ⵉ ⵜⵎⴳⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵏ. ⵜⵉⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵣⵡⴰⵔ ⵉⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰ ⵀⵉⴳⵓ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ, ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜ ⵎⴰ ⴳ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵅⴷⴰⵎⵏⵜ ⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⵏⴰⵍ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵥⵕⴼ ⵣⴳ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ. ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵥⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏ.
 ⴰⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔⵉⵢⵏ 
ⵣⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 2000, ⵜⵙⵎⵀⵍ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵥⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵏⵄⵉⵎⵉⵍ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⴰⴹ ⴰⵔⵙⵜⴰⵏ, ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵡⴰⵖⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ. ⵉⴹⴰⵀⵉⵕⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵓⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵜⵜⴰⴳⵍⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴰⵎⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴽⵓⴷⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵏⵉ, ⵜⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵎⵍⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⵓⵛⵛⵉⵍⵜ.  
ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵔⵡⴰⴽⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵅⴰⵜⴰⵔⵉⵏ ⵏ 2014 ⴷ 2017, ⵜⴽⵏⵔ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ, ⵜⴳ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵉ ⵜⵔⵡⴰⴽⵉⵏ, ⵜⵔⵏⵓ ⴳ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵏⵓⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⵔⵓⵜ. ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ, ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ Amnesty International ⴷ Human Rights watch, ⵉⵙ ⵊⵕⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴷⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵎⵎⴰⵜⵏ ⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏⵉⵏ, ⴰⵥⵥⴰⵕ, ⴷ ⵜⵉⵏⵖⵉ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵣⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵥⵡⴰⵢⵜ.  

ⵣⴳ 2016, ⵣⵔⵉⵏ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⴹⴰⵀⵉⵕⵏ ⵏⵏⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵥⵡⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵜ, ⴼⴽⵉⵏ ⵉ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵍ ⴰⵎⵣⵣⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ, ⴳⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵎⵙⵜⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ, ⴰⵎⵎⵙⴽⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵜⵙⵉⴷⴰⴼ ⴳ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴱⵍⴰ ⵉⵍⴰ ⴰⴷⴳⴳⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵕⵍⴰⵎⴰⵏ. ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵏⵥⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵥⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵏⴹⵕⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⴰ ⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ, ⵙⵍⵎⴹⵏⵜ ⵜⵉⵟⵟⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ.  

ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵎⵣⴰⵖ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴳⴳⵉⵜⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵓⵛⵛⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⵔⴳⴳⴰⴳ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⴳ ⵓⵢⴷⴰ ⵜⴳⵍⵎ ⵙ ⵜⴰⴷⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ. ⵎⴰⵛⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵢⵏ ⵓⵍⴳⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵙⴳⴰⵎⴰ ⵓⵙⵙⵔⵎⵙ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⵉⵙⵓⵍⵏ, ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵥⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ, ⵉⵊⵕⴼ ⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴰⴷⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔⵉ.  

 ⵜⵉⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵉⵏ 
ⵜⵏⴼⵍ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 20. ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵥⵟⵟⵉⴹ ⴰⴱⵍⴷⵉⵢ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⵓⵜⵔⵉⵎⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 20, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ, ⴷⴷⵓ ⵀⵉⴳⵓ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ, ⵜⵙⵏⵍⴼ ⵜⴰⵏⵉⵍⴰ ⵖⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵊⵉⵏⴷⴰⵜ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵎⴱⵉⵔⵢⴰⵍⵉⵜ, ⵜⴰⴳⵜⵙⴰⵏⵓⴷⵜ. ⵉⵙⴰⵍⵉ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ ⴰⵙⵉⴷⴼ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙⵜ ⴷ ⵓⴽⴰⵔⵉⴱⴰⵏ, ⵢⵉⵔⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴽⵔⵉ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⵏ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ.  

ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⵔⵙⵍ ⵏ "ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵔⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵖⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵏⵏⵖ (ALBA)" ⴳ 2004, ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⴽⵓⴱⴰ, ⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵏⴽⵉⴰⵔⴰⴳⵡⴰ. ⵜⵡⴰⵜⵙ ⵜⵎⵓⵏⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⵍⵉ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⵙⴳⴰⵡⴰⵏ, ⵜⵉⴳⵎⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⵣⴰⵢⵜ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⵢⵓⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍⵉⵏ.  ⵜⵙⴷⵓⵙ ⴷⴰⵖ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵉⵙⵖⵡⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴷ ⵛⵛⵉⵏⵡⴰ, ⵔⵓⵙⵢⴰ, ⵉⵔⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵓⵔⴽⵢⴰ, ⴰⵢⴷⴰ ⴰⵙ ⵉⴹⵎⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵎⵙⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵓⵎⵙⵉⵖ ⴷ ⵉⵙⵓⴳⴰⵎ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ.  

ⵏⵀⴰⴱⴱⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵣⵉ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ, ⵏⵀⵉⴱⴱⵉⵔⵉⵏⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵏⵉⴽⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⴷⵓⵔⵓ. ⵜⵙⵔⵙ ⵡⴰⵛⵉⵏⵟⵓⵏ ⴰⵥⵥⴰⵢⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵎⵙⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵙⵉⵖ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ  ⴰⵎ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ, ⴰⵙⵔⵡⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴷⵓⵀⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴼⵓⴽⴽⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ. ⵓⵔ ⵜⵓⴽⵉⵣ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ, ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵡⵕⵓⴱⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵣⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵜ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵓⵔⵓ ⴳ 2018, ⴼⴽⵉⵏ ⴰⵙⵏⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵓⵎⴰⵏⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ ⵊⵡⴰⵏ ⴳⵡⴰⵢⴷⵓ.
:en:PDVSA
ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵖⴰⵎⴰ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⵙⵔⵙⵍ ⵏ OPEC, ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵉⵜⵎⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵔⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⵎ ⵢⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵉⴱⵍⵓⵎⴰⵙⵉⵜ. ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵙⵓⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ, ⴰⵎⵓⵙⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵜⵜⴼ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ "Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC)" ⴷ UNASUR.  

ⵣⴳ 2017, ⵜⵔⵏⴰ ⵜⵥⵍⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⴷⵉⴱⵍⵓⵎⴰⵙⵉⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵥⵥⴰⵢⵏ ⴷ ⵡⵓⴷⵓⵣ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵎⵖⵓⵔⵏ. ⵎⴰⵛⵛⴰⵏ, ⵜⵓⴼⴰ ⴷⴰⵖ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵛⵔⵉⴽⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⴰⵙⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴳⵎⵓⴹ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵎⴰⵙ, ⵜⴽⵎⵎⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵉⴼⴹ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵥⵥⴰⵢⵏ..  

ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵜ, ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵏⵏⴳⵯⴷⴰⵎⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵢⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⴷⵊⴰⵕⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵓⵎⵢⴰⵡⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵏⵖⵉ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴽ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵏⴼⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵣⵡⴰⴳⵜ. ⵜⴽⵔⵉ ⵜⵓⵙⵙⴷⴰ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ 2022 ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵉⴱⵍⵓⵎⴰⵙⵉⵢⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵙ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ.  

 ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ 
ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵕⵉⵏ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ (Fuerza Armada Nacional Bolivariana, FANB) ⵙⵎⵎⵓⵙ ⵉⴳⵎⵉⵡⵏ ⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵏ: ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵢⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴹⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⵎⴰⴹⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵉⵍⵉⵛⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵕⵜ. ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵏⵙⵙⵉⵅⴼ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⴰⵎⴰⵏⴰⵔ, ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴱⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⵀⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴰⵡⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵖ.  

ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜ ⵜⵉⵙ 20, ⵜⵓⵔⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵕⵜ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵉⵍⴰⵍⵜ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ, ⵜⵙⵏⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵏⴳⵯⴷⴰⵎⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ. ⵎⴰⵛⵛ, ⴷⴷⵓ ⵀⵉⴳⵓ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ (ⵍⵍⵉ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴼⵙⵢⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ), ⵉⵜⵜⵢⴰⵍⴰⵙ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵏⵎⵏⵜ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⴷ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵕⵜ.  

ⵉⵙⵔⵙ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎ ⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙ ⵏ 2008 ⵜⴰⵡⵏⴳⵉⵎⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵎⵓⵏⵉ ⵜⵓⵖⵔⵉⵎⵜ-ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⴰⴷⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⵄⵙⴽⵔⵉⵢⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ, ⵜⴰⵍⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵖⵉⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴰⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏ. ⴷⴰ ⵙⵙⵏⵥⵓⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵥⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵙⵙⴼⴹ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴰⵣⵔⵉⴳ ⴳⵔ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹ, PSUV.  

ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴻⵅⴷⴰⵎ ⵜⵎⵉⵍⵉⵛⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⴼⴰⵕⵜ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰⵏ ⴳ 2009, ⴰⵎ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵃⵔⴰⵣ, ⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⴳⵉⵙ ⵉⵎⵅⴰⵙⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵎⵥⵖⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴳⵔⴰⵡⵍⴰ, ⴰⵔⵢⵏ ⴰⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⴳⵯⵏⵙⴰⵏ. ⴳ 2023, ⵙⴳⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵉⴹⴽⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷⵉⴳⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 4 ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵯⵎⴰⵎⵏ, ⵎⴰⵛⵛⴰⵏ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⴰⴹⵏ ⵉⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵢⵓⴼⴼ ⵢⵉⵣⵡⵍ ⴰⴷ.  

ⵜⵣⴷⵔ ⵜⵙⵎⵙⵜⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⴰⵖ ⴷ ⵜⵓⴷⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⴳⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ 2014. ⵉⵛⵛ ⵓⵏⵀⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵡⴰ, ⴰⵙⵎⵓⵜⵜⴳ ⴷ ⵜⵖⵕⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴽⵓⵕⴰⵢ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ, ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵖⵓⵔ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⵓⵛⵛⵔⴽⴰ ⵜⴰⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⴰⴽⴷ ⵔⵓⵙⵢⴰ, ⵛⵛⵉⵏⵡⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵕⴰⵏ.  

ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵊⴷⵉ ⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵏⵉⴽⵓⵍⴰⵙ ⵎⴰⴷⵓⵔⵓ. ⵓⵎⵥⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴽⵔⴰⵢⴳⴰⵜ ⵉⴳⵔ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵡⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵟⵟⴰⴼ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ, ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵖⵓⵔⵙⵏ ⵜⵙⴳⵍⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵉⵍⵜ. ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴳⵍⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵍⴰⴹⵏ ⵜⴰⴹⴰ ⴰⴷ ⴰⵎ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵔⴳⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ, ⴰⵡⴷ ⴳ ⵉⵣⵎⴰⵣ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ. 

 ⴰⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴱⴽⴽⵉⴹ 
ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵚⴽⴰ ⵓⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ ⵉⵍⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵓⴷⵓⵙⵜⵓⵔ ⵏ 1999 ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⴹⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵜⵉⵟⵟⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ, ⵜⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ.  ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴱⴹⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵣⵔⴼⵜ (TSJ) ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵏⴱⴹⴰⵢⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵓⵔⵜ, ⵉⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵏⴱⴹⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⴷⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵏⴰⵡⴰⵍⵏ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⵉⵎⵏ, ⵉⴱⴽⴽⵉⴹⴰⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔⵏ.  

ⴳ ⵜⵎⵙⴽⵔⵜ, ⵜⵣⴷⵔ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵜⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⵔⴰⴼⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 2000. ⵉⵙⵎⵍ ⵓⵎⵓⵍⵍⵉ ⴰⵏⴱⴱⴰⴹ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴱⴹⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴰⵔⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢⵏ, ⵉⵙⵔⴳ ⵎⴰⵢⴰ ⵉⵏⵎⵎⵓⵍⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⴰⵟⵟⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⴱⴹⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴰⵢⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴱⵖⵓⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ. ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴳⴳⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵏⵎⵣⴰⵖⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ, ⵉⵙⴱⴷⴷⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵎⵎⴰⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵜⴳⴳⴰⵔⵏ ⵉ ⵉⴼⵓⴽⴽⵙⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⵔⵓⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ. 

ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵔ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⴽⴽⵉⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ. ⵜⵓⴽⴽⵕⴹⴰ ⵙ ⵉⴽⵔⵔⴰⴷⵏ, ⴰⵣⴱⴰⵢ, ⴷ ⵜⵏⵖⵉ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⴽⵔⵉⵙⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵏⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵉⵖⵔⵎⴰⵏⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴽⴰⵕⴰⴽⴰⵙ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⴰⴽⴰⵢⴱⵓ. ⵉⴹⴽⴹ ⵓⵙⴰⴹⴰⴼ ⴰⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵕⴹⵉ ⵉⵙ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵊⵕⵓⵏ 40.4 ⵉⴱⴽⴽⵉⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵉ ⵉ ⴽⵓ 100,000 ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⴳ 2022, ⵉⵣⴷⵔ ⴷ ⵣⴳ 80 ⵉ ⴽⵓ 100,000 ⴳ 2016, ⵎⴰⵛⵛⴰⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⴷ ⵉⵊⵊ ⵙⴳ ⵡⵉⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴰⵢⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ.  

ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵉ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵉ ⵓⴱⵓⵍⵉⵙ ⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵕ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ, ⵙⵍⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵀⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵓⴱⴽⴽⵉⴹ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵙⵎ "Operaciones de Liberación del Pueblo" (OLP). ⵉⵙⵙⵏⵜⵎ ⵓⵙⴰⵔⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⴰⵔⵓⵍⴳⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵥⵥⴰⵕ ⴳ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵎⵎⴰⵥ.  

ⴷⴰ ⵙⵡⵓⵔⵓⵢⵏ ⵉⵥⴹⵡⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵔⵡⵍ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵓⵀⴷⵓⵜⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴱⴽⴽⵉⴹ ⴷ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵙⵓ ⵏ ⵉⵡⵜⵜⴰ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ, ⵍⵓⵎⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵉⴷⵖⴰⵔⵏ ⴰⵥⵏⵉⵏ ⵉ ⴽⵓⵍⵓⵎⴱⵢⴰ. ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵙⴰⵏⵏ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵉⴼⵙⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵔⴰⵏⵏ ⵙ ⵜⴷⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴳ ⵉⵎⴷⵢⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵔⵡⵍ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵎⵉ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ "ⴰⴽⴰⵔⵜⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⴰⴼⵓⴽⵉⵏ" (“Cartel of the Suns").  

ⵜⵜⵓⴳⵍⴰⵎⵏ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵖⵣⵓⵜⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴳⴰⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵀⵔⵛⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵜ, ⵙ ⵜⵓⴳⵜ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ, ⴰⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵓⴼⴰ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴼⵔⵢⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ. ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⴼⴽⴰ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵉⴳⵎ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎ, ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⵡⴰⴹⴰⴼ ⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵓⵙ, ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⵜⴽⵕⴹⵉ ⴳⵔ ⵉⵏⴽⵔⴰⴼⵏ ⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⴰⵡⵉ ⵜⵉⵎⵎⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵢⵉⵎⴰⵏ ⴽⵓ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙ.  

 ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ 
ⴷⴰ ⴰⵏⵖ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴹⴼⴰⵕⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵏⵀⴰⴱⴱⴰⵔ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⴳ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 2000. ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴳⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⵎⵎⵓⵍ ⵉ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵉⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵕⵥⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵉⴱⵙⴷⴷⵉⵜⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵎⵎⴰⵜⵏ, ⴰⵥⵥⴰⵕ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴳⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵡⴰⵍ ⵉⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ.  

ⵉⴳⴳⵓⵜ ⵎⴰ ⵖ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵓⴳⴷⴰⵍ ⵜⵍⴻⵍⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ. ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵍⵎⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏⵜ ⵜⴷⴰⴱⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⴰⵙⵍⴳⵎ, ⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵔⴰⴳⵜ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵙⵉⵡⴷ, ⴽⴽⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵏⵖⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵇⵙⵙⵉⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ. ⵜⵜⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥⵏ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵏⵖⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵏⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵢⴰⵍⴽⴰⵎ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵣⵖⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏⵖ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵓⴼⵖ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵔⵡⴰⴽⵉⵏ.  

ⵉⵔⵏⴰ ⵓⵎⵙⴰⵢ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵔⵡⴰⴽⵉⵏ ⵏ 2014. ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⵎⵎⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴱⴷⴷⵉ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴼⴹⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴳⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ, ⵉⵎⵖⵏⴰⵙⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵎⴷⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵔⵡⴰⴽⵉⵏ, ⵅⴼ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴼⵔⵓⵜ, ⴳⵉⵜⵙⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵕⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵡⵓⵎⵍⴰⵏ (SEBIN) ⴷ Directorate General of Military Counterintelligence (DGCIM). ⵏⵏⴰⵏ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵏⴽⵔⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵖⵉⴼⵙⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⵉ ⵡⴰⵥⵥⴰⵕ, ⵜⵉⴽⵕⴹⵉ ⴰⵡⵙⵢⴰⵏ, ⴷ ⵜⵍⴽⴽⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵙ ⴱⵣⵣⵉⵣⵣ.  

ⵍⵎⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵣⵍⵜ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵍⵢⵓⴱⵓⵍⴷⵓ ⵍⵓⴱⵉⵣ ⴷ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⵢⴰ ⴽⵓⵔⵉⵏⴰ ⵎⴰⵜⵛⴰⴷⵓ ⴰⵜⵜⵢⴰⵎⴰⵥ ⵏⵖ ⵓⴽⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵖⵔⴰⵜ ⵣⴳ ⵉⵙⵜⴰⵢⵏ. ⵜⵉⵎⵢⵓⵔ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴱⵔⵔⵉⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⴽⴽⵉⵔⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵙ ⵜⵎⴳⴳⴰ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵓⵏⴳⵓⵣ ⵏⵖ ⵓⵏⴽⵛⵓⵎ ⴰⵎⴽⵙⵓⵍ.  

ⵏⵀⴰⴱⴱⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴷⴷⴰⴷⵏ ⵉⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵏ ⴷⵖ ⵏⵜⵜⵏⵉ. ⵊⵕⵓⵏ ⵡⴰⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵜⵛⵉ ⴷ ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏ, ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵔⴱⵣⵣⴰⴳ, ⵉⵙⴽⵔ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵛⴷⴷⴰⵏ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ  ⵉⵏⵎⵓⵔⵉⵢⵏ. ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⴹⴽⴰⴹ UN ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 7 ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵙⵖⴰⵡⵙⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵡⵉⵙⵉ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ, ⵣⵓⴳⵏ 7 ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ, ⴼⴼⵖⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⴰⵣⵉⵔⵜ ⵙⴳ  2015.  

ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵡⴰⵏⴽⴰⴹ ⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏ, ⵜⵙⵓⵍ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⴰⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵇⵇⵉⵎ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ. ⴷⴰ ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵏⴰⴽⴰⵕ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵉⵏⵓⵎⵎⴰⵍ ⵏ ⴰⴼⵓⴽⴽⵙ ⴰⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡ, ⵜⴳ ⴰⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵉ ⵜⴰⴳⴳⴰⵍⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵎⴽⵙⵓⵍⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵏⵎⴰⵍⴰ ⵉⵎⵣⵉⵣⵣⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵏⵖⵎⵙ ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⵜⵙⵎⴷⵓⴷⵉ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ. ⴰⵔ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵉⵙⴰⴳⴳⵯⵏ ⵙ ⵓⴼⵓⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵏⴱⴹⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⴱⴽⴽⵉⴹⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵉⴱⴽⴽⵉⴹⵏ ⵉⵎⵉⵍⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴼⴼⵓⴳⵏⴰ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔⵏ ⵣⴳ 2017.  

 ⴰⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ 
ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵓⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴳ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ, ⵉⵟⵟⴼ ⵉⴹⵉⵚ ⴼ, ⴷⵔⵓⵖ, ⴽⵔⴰⵢⴳⴰⵜ ⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⴷⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵜ. ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵚⵏⵏⴰⴼⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵏ, ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵓⵍⴰ ⵉⴷⵖⵔⴰⵏⵏ, ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⴳⵔ ⵜⵉⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⴳⵓⴼⵙⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ. ⵢⵓⵊⵊⴰ ⵓⵙⵔⵉⵡⵉ ⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ, ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⴰⵍ ⵍⵎⴹⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⵣⵔⴰⴼⵜ, ⴰⵃⵡⵡⵙ, ⵜⵉⴽⴽⵉ (ⴰⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ) ⴷ ⵜⴽⵏⵏⴰⴹⵜ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ.  

ⵜⴽⵛⵎ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ PDVSA ⴳ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⴽⴰⵛⴰⴼⵏ ⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏⵉⵏ, ⵉⴳ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵣⵍⵉ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵍⵢⴰⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴹⵓⵍⴰⵕⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵙⵖⵓⵏⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⵍⵓⴳⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓ. ⵎⵍⴰⵏ ⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵙⴰⴳⴳⵯⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵍⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵣⴷⴰⵢⵉⵏ ⴳⵔ ⵉⴼⵙⵢⴰⵏⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵔⴷⴰⵙⵜ, ⵉⵎⴰⵡⵙⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴷ ⵉⵥⴹⵡⴰⵏ ⵉⵥⵕⴼⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵔⵓⵍⴳⵉⵏⵏ ⴳ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ.  

ⴷⴰ ⴰⵏⵖ ⵎⵎⴰⵍⵏ ⵡⵉⴷⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵙ, ⴷ ⵜⵏⵜⴰⵎⵉⵏ, ⵉⵙ ⵉⵣⵔⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⵣⵣⵓⵎ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵉⵎⵉⴹⴰⵏⵏ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵏ exchange ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⴰ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⴷ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵓⵎⵉⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵉⴷⴰⴼ.  

ⴷⴰ ⵜⴱⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵉⵎⵣⵉⵣⵣⵍⵏ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⴰⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⵥⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵉⴳⴰ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ, ⴰⵔ ⵙⵉⵙⵏⵜ ⴽⴽⴰⵏⵜ, ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵉⴼⵏⴰⵜⵏ ⵏⵖ ⵉⵎⵣⴹⴰⵡⵏ ⵉⵇⴱⵓⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴷ ⵙⵓⵍ ⵓⵔ ⵎⵛⴰⵛⴽⴰⵏ.  

ⵉⵊⵕⴼ ⴷⴰⵖ ⵓⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴼⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ. ⴷⴰ ⵎⵎⴰⵍⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵉⵙ ⵜⵜⵢⴰⴽⴰⵔⵏⵜ, ⵏⵖ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏⵜ ⵙ ⴳⴰⵔ ⵜⴰⵖⴰⵔⴰⵙⵜ, ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵜⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵔⴰⴷ ⵢⴰⴷⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴼⵜⵓ ⵙ ⵜⵏⵓⴼⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴷⵓⵙⵉ, ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵜⵛⵉ ⵏⵖ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴷⴷⴰⵡⵉⵏ, ⴰⵢⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴼⴳⴰⵏⵜ ⴳ ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ.  

ⵡⴰⵜⵙⵏ ⵡⴰⵥⵥⴰⵢⵏ ⵉⴳⵔⴰⵖⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵔⴰⵙ ⵡⴰⵏⵓⵎⵎⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ, ⴰⵙⵙⵉⵔⴷ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ, ⴷ ⵉⴼⵓⴽⴽⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴳⴰⵏ. ⴳ 2024, ⵍⵎⴰⵡⴰⵢⵏ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵉⵎⵙⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵥⵥⴰⵢⵏ ⵙⴳ ⴷⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ, ⴽⴰⵏⴰⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵕⵓⴱⵜ. ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⴰⵔ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ, ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⵓⵙⵎⵀⵍ ⵉⵍⵎⴹ ⴳ ⵓⴳⵏⵙ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵙ ⵢⵉⵅⴼ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵎⵉⵏⵣⵉ ⵓⵔ ⵍⵉⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵏⵓⵔⴰⵢ ⵎⴳⴰⵍ ⵓⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ ⵜⴰⵙⵉⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⴷ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵚⵕⴹⵏⵜ ⵉ ⵉⵎⵙⵖⴰⵏⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ.
ⴷⴰ ⵜⵜⴽⴹⴰⴹⵏⵜ ⵜⵎⴰⴷⴷⴰⵙⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵓⵙⵖⵜ ⵉⵙ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵎⵔⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵍⵢⴰⵕⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴹⵓⵍⴰⵕ ⴰⴷ ⵉⴷⴷⵖⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 2000, ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ ⴷ ⵉⵊⵊⵏ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵏⵏⵙⵜⵎ ⵉⵣⵣⴳⵉⵣⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ.

 ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ 
ⵜⴽⴽⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵣⵉⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵣⴳ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵜⵉⵏⴱⵖⵓⵔⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵏ ⵢⵉⴼⴼⵓⵙ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⴷ ⵉⵊⵕⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⵙⵙⵜⵎ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⴰⵏ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ ⵎⴰⴷⵓⵔⵓ. ⴳ 2024, ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 82% ⵏ ⵉⴼⵉⵏⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵏ ⴷⴷⵔⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⴹ, ⵜⴷⴷⵔ 53% ⴳ ⵓⵥⵍⴰⴹ ⴰⵏⴷⴷⴰⴱⵓ, ⵙⵖⴼ ⴰⵢⴷⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵉⵏⵉ ⵓⵎⴷⵊⴰⵡ ⵓⵙⵍⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵜⵜⴰ ⵉⵎⵓⵏⵏ. ⵜⵥⵕⴰ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵢⴰⴷⵍⵍⵉ ⵊⵊⵏⵊⵎⵏⵜ ⵜⵙⵉⴷⴰⴼ ⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ, ⵉⴹⵕ GDP ⵏⵏⵙ ⵙ ⵎⴰⴷ ⵉⵜⵜⴳⴳⴰⵏ 80% ⴳ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ, ⵉⵏⵜⵓ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⵉⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵉⵎⵣⴷⴰⵖⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵣⵓⴳⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⴹⵏⵉⵏ.
ⵜⵍⴰ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵉⵔⴽⵙⵏ, ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⴱⴷⴷⵏ ⵅⴼ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴽⵕⴰⴹⵜ ⵏ GDP, ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 80% ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⴼⴰⴹ ⴷ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵉⴷⴰⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ. ⵢⵓⵎⵥ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵓⵙⵍⵉⴳ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ ⵙⵏⴰⵜ ⵜⴽⵕⴰⴹⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ, ⵢⵉⵍⵉ ⴰⵢⴷⴰ ⴷ ⵢⴰⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵓⵙⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ.
ⴷⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔ  ⵜⴰⵙⵔⵜⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵥⵕⴼⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ . ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⵔⵓⵙ ⵜⵎⵔⵙⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⴷⴰ, ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ, ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵎⵉⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵉⵣⴰⵔ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵍⵎⴹⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ ⴳ ⵓⵙⵡⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵉⵣⵔⴼⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵉⵍⵉⵜ, ⴱⴷⵔⵏ ⵓⴽⵓⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵢⴷⴰ ⴳⴳⵓⵜⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⵎ ⵡⴰⵏⵥⴰ. ⴰⵔ 2022, ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 5% ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴱⴷⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵙⵉⴼⴹ ⵏ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵣⴳ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ.

ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ, ⵜⵙⵏⴼⵍ ⵜⵡⴰⴼⵉⵜ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴳ ⵜⵓⴷⴷⵎⴰ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 20 ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ, ⵣⴳ ⵓⵎⵙⵉⴼⴹ ⴰⴼⵍⵍⴰⵃ ⵖⵔ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵣⴳ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵉⵙⵙⵓⴼⵓⵖⵏ ⴰⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴷ ⵉⵊⵊ ⵏ ⵓⴳⵎⴰⵎ ⴰⵎⵙⵔⵙⵍ ⵏ OPEC. ⵎⴰⵛⵛⴰ, ⵢⵓⵊⵊⴰ ⵓⵡⵍⵍⵊ ⴰⴷ ⵅⴼ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴰⴷ ⵜⴳ ⴰⵎⴳⴷⵓⵍ ⵉ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵢⵜ ⴷ ⵜⴹⵓⵕⵉ ⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⴳⴳⵏ, ⴰⵢⴷⴰ ⵉⴳⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵔⵡⴰⵙ ⴰⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 1980 ⴷ ⵓⴱⵔⴱⵣⴳ ⴳ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 1990. ⵓⵖⵓⵍ ⵏ ⵉⵜⴰⴳⴳⵏ ⵖⵔ ⵓⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⴹⴰⵕⴰⵜ ⵏ 2001 ⵢⵓⵊⵊⴰ ⵜⴰⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴰⴷ ⴷⴰⵖ ⵜⵙⵙⴰⵍⵉ ⴰⵖⵣⴰⴷ ⴰⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏ ⵙ ⵜⵙⵉⵎⵉⴳⴰⵍ ⵜⵉⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⵉⴰⵔⵉⵏ, ⵉⴽⵔⵉ ⴰⵥⵍⴰⴹ ⵉ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵢⵓⵊⵊⴰ ⵜⴰⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴱⴷⴷ ⴱⴰⵀⵔⴰ ⵅⴼ ⵓⵖⵣⴰⴷ ⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ.
 ⴰⵙⵍⴳⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎ, ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴱⵔⴱⵣⴳ 
ⵜⵜⵓⵙⴽⵛⴰⵎⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⵏⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎ ⴷ ⵉⵜⴰⴳⴳⵏ ⴳ 2003 ⴷⴷⵓ ⵓⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⵀⵉⴳⵓ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ, ⵉⴳ ⵓⵡⵜⵜⴰⵙ ⵏⵏⵙⵏ ⴰⴷ ⵓⵔ ⴰⵊⵊⵉⵏ ⴰⵔⵙⵎⴰⵍ ⴰⴷ ⵉⵔⴳⴳⵯⵍ, ⴳ ⵜⵙⴳⴰ ⵏ ⴰⵙⵔⴳⴳⵉⴳ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⵍⴰⴳ ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰⵢ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷ ⵡⴰⴽⵓⴷ, ⵡⵓⵙⵏ ⵉ ⵜⴼⵔⵖⵉⵡⵉⵏ. ⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡ ⵜⴳⵎⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵎⵎⵙⴽⴰⵍ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⵙ ⵏ ⵉⵏⴳⵔⴰⵡⵏ ⵣⵓⵏⴷ CADIVI, SITME, ⴷ DICOM ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵜ ⵢⵓⵊⵊⴰⵏ ⵉⴹⵓⵍⴰⵕⵏ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵢⵓⴼⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵙⵉⴷⴰⴼ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵜⵙⵙⴱⵖⵙ ⴰⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ ⵜⴰⵙⵖⵏⵣⵉⵜ ⴳ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⴽⴰⵏⵏ.  

ⵙⵔⴳⵏ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⵏⵏ ⴰⴷ, ⵎⵓⵏⵏⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵉⵜⴰⴳⴳⵏ ⵟⵟⴰⵕⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵔⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ 2014 ⴷ ⵓⴽⵔⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ PDVSA, ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵔ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⴷⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵏⵣⵣⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⴷⵙⵍⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⵎ, ⵉⵙⴰⴼⴰⵔⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵎⵙⵙⵉⵖ. ⵉⴱⴷⴰ ⵓⴱⵣⵣⴰⴳ ⴰⵔ ⵢⴰⵇⵇⵯⵍⴰⵢ ⴳ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 2000, ⵓⵔ ⵜⵍⴽⵉⵎ 2016 ⴰⵢⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵢⴰⵖⵓⵍ ⵉⴳⴰ ⴰⴱⵔⴱⵣⵣⴰⴳ. ⴷⴰ ⵜⵙⴳⵓⵔⵉ International Monetary Fund ⵉⵙ ⵜⵎⵍ ⵜⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵣⵣⴰⴳ ⴰⵙⴳⴳⵯⴰⵙⴰⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 1,000,000% ⴳ 2018, ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⴳⵎⵉⴹⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵢⴰⵜⵜⵓⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵣⵎⵎⴰⵎⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ.  

ⵜⵔⴰⵔ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵙ ⵓⵙⵉⵣⴷⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎ ⵎⵏⵏⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ, ⵜⵓⵍⵙ ⴰⵙⵜⴰⵍ ⵉ ⵓⴷⵔⵉⵎ ⴳ 2008, 2018 ⴷ 2021, ⵜⴽⴽⵙ ⵜⴰⵎⵓⵜⵜⵔⵜ ⵏ 14 ⵉⴷ ⵥⵓⵕⵉ ⵣⴳ ⵓⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵕ.ref></ref> ⵎⵇⵇⴰⵔ ⵜⵙⴽⵔ ⵎⴰⵢⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ, ⵉⵅⵙⵔ ⵓⴱⵓⵍⵉⴼⴰⵕ ⴰⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰⵏ ⴰⵣⴰⵍ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵓⵎⵎⵉⴷ, ⵉⵙⵔ ⵓⵢⴰ ⴰⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴹⵓⵍⴰⵕ ⴷ ⵉⴷⵔⵉⵎⵏ ⵓⵏⵜⵉⵍⵏ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵀⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵖⵏⵣⵉⵜ ⵜⵉⴽⵓⵢⴰⵙⵙⵉⵏ.  

ⴳⵉⵏ ⴷⴰⵖ ⵉⵙⴰⵔⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵎⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣ ⴰⴱⵔⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵅⴰⵜⵔⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⴳ ⵏⵣⵣⴰⵏⵜ ⵜⵖⴰⵡⵙⵉⵡⵉⵏ, ⴽⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵉⴽⴽⴰⵍ, ⵙ 30 ⵏ ⵜⵡⴰⵍ ⴰⵜⵉⴳ ⵏⵏⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷ. ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⵓⵍⴼⴰⵏ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ CLAP ⴰⴼⴰⴷ ⴰⴷ ⴱⴹⵓⵏ ⵜⵉⵔⴰⵎ ⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵍⵏⵉⵏ ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⵖⵢⴰ ⵣⴷⵉⵏ ⴷ ⵓⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵙⵎⵢⵓⴼ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ.  

ⵍⵍⵉⴳ ⵜⵍⴽⵎ ⵜⴳⵉⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵡⴰⵏⵜ ⵏ 2010, ⵉⵏⵏⵙⵜⵎ ⵢⴰⴷ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ. ⵉⴹⵕ ⵓⵏⴰⴼⵓⵖ ⴰⴼⵉⵍⴰⵃⵉ ⵙ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵣⴳⵏ, ⵅⵙⵉⵏ ⵉⵙⵓⴽⴰⵏ, ⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏⵜ ⵜⵏⵓⴼⴰ ⵜⵉⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⴰⵜⵔⵉⵙⵉⵏⵜⵉ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵎⴰⵏ ⵓⵔ ⴳⵉⵏ ⵉⵎⵏⵜⴰⵡⵏ. ⵉⴽⵯⵎⵎⵛ GDP ⵙ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 70% ⴳⵔ 2014 ⴷ 2021 — ⵉⴳ ⵓⴽⵯⵡⵎⵎⵛ ⴰⴷ ⵡⴰⴷ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⵉⵀⵔⵛⵏ ⴳ ⵓⵣⵎⵣ ⵏ ⵓⴼⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ ⴰⵜⴰⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵜ.  

ⵣⴳ 2019, ⵉⵙⵙⵉⵥⵉⵢ ⵓⵙⵍⵉⴱⵉⵔⴰⵍ ⴰⴳⵣⵎⴰⵏ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴹⵓⵍⴰⵕ ⵓⵔ ⵉⴳⵉⵏ ⴰⵎⴰⴷⴷⵓⴷ ⴰⴱⵣⵣⴰⴳ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵓⵔ ⵉⵙⴷⵡⵍ ⴰⵏⵏⵙⵜⵎ ⴰⴷⵎⵙⴰⵏ. ⵜⵙⵙⵓⵍⵡⵓ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⵉⵙⵍⴳⵏⵏ, ⵜⴰⵊⵊ ⴷⴰⵖ ⵜⵉⵏⵉⵉⴷⴰⴼ ⵜⵉⴱⵕⵕⴰⵏⵉⵏ ⴰⴷ ⴽⵛⵛⵎⵏⵜ, ⵜⵥⵥⵉⴹⵕ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵙⵎⵔⵙ ⵢⵉⵔⵉⵡⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴹⵓⵍⴰⵕ ⴰⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵎⵔⴰⵙⵏ ⴳ 60% ⵏ ⵜⵙⵎⵀⴰⵍ ⵏ ⵜⵙⵖⵏⵣⵉⵜ.  

 ⵜⴰⵎⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⴷ ⵢⵉⴳⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵥⴹⴰⵕⵜ 
ⵜⵍⴰ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴰⵙⴰⵜⵉⵎ ⵉⴼⵔⵔⵣⵏ ⴰⵎⵇⵇⵔⴰⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ, ⵉⵜⵜⵓⴹⴽⴰⴹ ⵉⵙ ⵉⵍⴽⵎ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 300 ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵔⵎⵉⵍ, ⴰⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵡⴰⴳⴳⴰⵙ ⵏ ⵓⵔⵉⵏⵓⴽⵓ. ⴳ ⵓⵎⵣⵔⵓⵢ, ⵜⴳⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵡⴰⵏⴽ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵉⵅⵙⵙ ⵏ ⵜⴷⴰⵎⵙⴰ ⵜⴰⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰⵏⵜ, ⵜⴳ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵎⵣⵣⵏⵣ ⴰⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ.  

ⵜⴻⵜⵜⵢⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢ ⴱⴷⴷⴰ PDVSA, ⵍⵍⵉ ⵉⵜⵜⵓⵙⵏⴰⵎⵓⵔⵏ ⴳ 1976, ⵉⵙ ⵜⴳⴰ ⵢⴰⵜ ⵙⴳ ⵜⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵜⵉⵎⵕⵡⵉⵜⵉⵏ ⴰⴽⴽⵯ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ. ⵏⵜⵜⵏⵜⵉ ⴰⴷ ⴷ ⵉⴽⴽⴰ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵥⵕⴼ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴷⴷⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⵜ, ⴷ ⵉⵖⴰⵡⴰⵙⵏ ⵉⵏⴰⵎⵓⵏⵏ ⴳ ⵜⴰⵙⵓⵜⴰ ⵜⵉⵙ 20. ⵎⴰⵛⵛⴰⵏ, ⴷⴼⴼⵉⵔ ⵏ ⵡⴰⵍⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵀⵉⴳⵓ ⵜⵛⴰⴼⵉⵣ ⵖⵔ ⵜⵏⴱⴰⴹⵜ ⴳ 1999, ⵜⴰⵖⵓⵍ PDVSA ⵜⵍⵍⴰ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵢⴰⵏ ⵓⵏⴱⴰⴹ ⴰⵙⵔⵜⴰⵏ ⵢⵓⵙⵙⵏ, ⴰⵡⵉⵏ ⵎⴷⴷⵏ ⵉⵍⴰⵏ ⵜⴰⵎⵏⵉⵍⵜ ⵉ ⵓⵙⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⵜⵉⵔⵙⵓⵜⵉⵏ ⴳ ⵜⵜ ⵉⵏⵏ ⵉⴽⴽⴰⵏ ⵉⵎⵙⵙⵓⴳⵓⵔⵏ ⵉⵎⵓⵣⴰⵢⵏ.  

ⵉⴹⵕ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵙ ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵏ 3.5 ⵉⴷ ⵎⵍⵢⵓⵏ ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵎⵉⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⴳ 1998 ⴰⵔ ⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 700,000 ⵏ ⵉⴱⵔⵎⵉⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ ⴳ 2020, ⵙ ⵓⵎⴰⵜⴰ, ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⴳⴰⵔ ⴰⵙⵡⵓⴷⴷⵓ, ⴰⴳⵓⴼⵙⵓ ⴷ ⵓⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵓⵙⵙⴰⵔⵓ. ⵔⵏⴰⵏ ⵡⴰⵥⵥⴰⵢⵏ ⵏⵏⴰ ⵜⵙⵔⵙ ⵎⴰⵔⵉⴽⴰⵏ ⵅⴼ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ 2019 ⵓⴳⴳⴰⵔ ⵉ ⵎⴰⵢⴰ, ⵙⴰⵙⵙⵏⵜ ⴰⴷⴰⴼ ⵏ PDVSA ⵖⵔ ⵉⴳⴰⴷⴰⵣⵏ ⵉⵎⴰⴹⵍⴰⵏⵏ, ⵙⴳⵔⵙⵏ ⵉⵇⴰⵕⵉⴹⵏ ⴷ ⵡⴰⵢⵍⴰ ⵏⵏⵙ ⴳ ⴱⵕⵕⴰ, ⵜⴽⵛⵎ ⴳ ⵓⵢⴰ ⵜⵎⵙⵙⵓⵔⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴹⴼⵓⵕⵜ ⵏ  CITGO.  

ⴰⵎ ⵜⵎⵔⴰⵔⵓⵜ, ⵜⵔⵏⴰ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⵍⴰ ⴳ ⵉⵙⵉⴼⴹⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴱⵉⵜⵕⵓⵍⵢⵓⵎ ⵉ ⵜⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵜⵉⵎⴷⴷⵓⴽⴽⴰⵍ ⵣⵓⵏ ⴷ ⵛⵛⵉⵏⵡⴰ, ⵔⵓⵙⵢⴰ ⴷ ⵉⵕⴰⵏ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵙⴰⵙⴰⵜⵏ ⵏ "barter" ⴷ ⵉⵜⴰⴳⴳⵏ ⴹⵕⵏⵉⵏ. ⵉⵎⴹⴰⵕⴰ ⴷ ⵓⴼⴰⵔⵙ ⵙ ⵉⵎⵉⴽⴽ ⴳ 2023 ⵙ ⵡⴰⵜⵜⴰⵢⵏ ⵏ 850,000 ⵉⴱⵔⵎⵉⵍⵏ ⴳ ⵡⴰⵙⵙ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⵉⵙⵓⵍ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵉⵙⵡⵉⵔⵏ ⵏ ⴷⴰⵜ ⵜⴰⵙⵙⴰⵙⵜ ⵙ ⴽⵉⴳⴰⵏ.  

ⵜⵍⴰ ⴷⴰⵖ ⴼⵉⵏⵉⵣⵡⵉⵍⴰ ⵉⵙⴰⵜⵉⵎⵏ ⵎⵇⵇⵓⵔⵏⵉⵏ ⵏ ⵓⴳⴰⵣ ⴰⴳⴰⵎⴰⵏ, ⵜⴳ ⴳⵔ ⵎⵔⴰⵡⵜ ⵜⵉⵎⵣⵡⵓⵔⴰ ⴳ ⵓⵎⴰⴹⴰⵍ, ⵎⴰⵛⴰ ⴷⴰ ⵉⵇⵇⴰⵎⴰ ⴷⴷⵓ ⵜⴳⵎⵉ ⵙ ⵜⵎⵏⵜⵉⵍⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴰⵔ ⵏ ⵜⵓⵚⴽⵉⵡⵉⵏ ⵜⵉⵏⴰⴷⴷⴰⵡⵉⵏ.  
ⵜⴰⵏⵏⴰⵢⵉⵏ

ⵉⵙⴰⵖⵓⵍⵏ

ⴰⵙⵎⵉⵍ:ⵜⵉⵎⵓⵔⴰ ⵏ ⵜⵎⵔⵉⴽⵜ ⵜⴰⵍⴰⵜⵉⵏⵜ