This entry provides the description of a country's legal system. A statement on judicial review of legislative acts is also included for a number of countries. The legal systems of nearly all countries are generally modeled upon elements of five main types: civil law (including French law, the Napoleonic Code, Roman law, Roman-Dutch law, and Spanish law); common law (including United State law); customary law; mixed or pluralistic law; and religious law (including Islamic law). An additional type of legal system - international law, which governs the conduct of independent nations in their relationships with one another - is also addressed below. The following list describes these legal systems, the countries or world regions where these systems are enforced, and a brief statement on the origins and major features of each.
Civil Law - The most widespread type of legal system in the world, applied in various forms in approximately 150 countries. Also referred to as European continental law, the civil law system is derived mainly from the Roman Corpus Juris Civilus, (Body of Civil Law), a collection of laws and legal interpretations compiled under the East Roman (Byzantine) Emperor Justinian I between A.D. 528 and 565. The major feature of civil law systems is that the laws are organized into systematic written codes. In civil law the sources recognized as authoritative are principally legislation - especially codifications in constitutions or statutes enacted by governments - and secondarily, custom. The civil law systems in some countries are based on more than one code.
Common Law - A type of legal system, often synonymous with "English common law," which is the system of England and Wales in the UK, and is also in force in approximately 80 countries formerly part of or influenced by the former British Empire. English common law reflects Biblical influences as well as remnants of law systems imposed by early conquerors including the Romans, Anglo-Saxons, and Normans. Some legal scholars attribute the formation of the English common law system to King Henry II (r.1154-1189). Until the time of his reign, laws customary among England's various manorial and ecclesiastical (church) jurisdictions were administered locally. Henry II established the king's court and designated that laws were "common" to the entire English realm. The foundation of English common law is "legal precedent" - referred to as stare decisis, meaning "to stand by things decided." In the English common law system, court judges are bound in their decisions in large part by the rules and other doctrines developed - and supplemented over time - by the judges of earlier English courts.
Customary Law - A type of legal system that serves as the basis of, or has influenced, the present-day laws in approximately 40 countries - mostly in Africa, but some in the Pacific islands, Europe, and the Near East. Customary law is also referred to as "primitive law," "unwritten law," "indigenous law," and "folk law." There is no single history of customary law such as that found in Roman civil law, English common law, Islamic law, or the Napoleonic Civil Code. The earliest systems of law in human society were customary, and usually developed in small agrarian and hunter-gatherer communities. As the term implies, customary law is based upon the customs of a community. Common attributes of customary legal systems are that they are seldom written down, they embody an organized set of rules regulating social relations, and they are agreed upon by members of the community. Although such law systems include sanctions for law infractions, resolution tends to be reconciliatory rather than punitive. A number of African states practiced customary law many centuries prior to colonial influences. Following colonization, such laws were written down and incorporated to varying extents into the legal systems imposed by their colonial powers.
European Union Law - A sub-discipline of international law known as "supranational law" in which the rights of sovereign nations are limited in relation to one another. Also referred to as the Law of the European Union or Community Law, it is the unique and complex legal system that operates in tandem with the laws of the 27 member states of the European Union (EU). Similar to federal states, the EU legal system ensures compliance from the member states because of the Union's decentralized political nature. The European Court of Justice (ECJ), established in 1952 by the Treaty of Paris, has been largely responsible for the development of EU law. Fundamental principles of European Union law include: subsidiarity - the notion that issues be handled by the smallest, lowest, or least centralized competent authority; proportionality - the EU may only act to the extent needed to achieve its objectives; conferral - the EU is a union of member states, and all its authorities are voluntarily granted by its members; legal certainty - requires that legal rules be clear and precise; and precautionary principle - a moral and political principle stating that if an action or policy might cause severe or irreversible harm to the public or to the environment, in the absence of a scientific consensus that harm would not ensue, the burden of proof falls on those who would advocate taking the action.
French Law - A type of civil law that is the legal system of France. The French system also serves as the basis for, or is mixed with, other legal systems in approximately 50 countries, notably in North Africa, the Near East, and the French territories and dependencies. French law is primarily codified or systematic written civil law. Prior to the French Revolution (1789-1799), France had no single national legal system. Laws in the northern areas of present-day France were mostly local customs based on privileges and exemptions granted by kings and feudal lords, while in the southern areas Roman law predominated. The introduction of the Napoleonic Civil Code during the reign of Napoleon I in the first decade of the 19th century brought major reforms to the French legal system, many of which remain part of France's current legal structure, though all have been extensively amended or redrafted to address a modern nation. French law distinguishes between"public law" and "private law." Public law relates to government, the French Constitution, public administration, and criminal law. Private law covers issues between private citizens or corporations. The most recent changes to the French legal system - introduced in the 1980s - were the decentralization laws, which transferred authority from centrally appointed government representatives to locally elected representatives of the people.
International Law - The law of the international community, or the body of customary rules and treaty rules accepted as legally binding by states in their relations with each other. International law differs from other legal systems in that it primarily concerns sovereign political entities. There are three separate disciplines of international law: public international law, which governs the relationship between provinces and international entities and includes treaty law, law of the sea, international criminal law, and international humanitarian law; private international law, which addresses legal jurisdiction; and supranational law - a legal framework wherein countries are bound by regional agreements in which the laws of the member countries are held inapplicable when in conflict with supranational laws. At present the European Union is the only entity under a supranational legal system. The term "international law" was coined by Jeremy Bentham in 1780 in his Principles of Morals and Legislation, though laws governing relations between states have been recognized from very early times (many centuries B.C.). Modern international law developed alongside the emergence and growth of the European nation-states beginning in the early 16th century. Other factors that influenced the development of international law included the revival of legal studies, the growth of international trade, and the practice of exchanging emissaries and establishing legations. The sources of International law are set out in Article 38-1 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice within the UN Charter.
Islamic Law - The most widespread type of religious law, it is the legal system enforced in over 30 countries, particularly in the Near East, but also in Central and South Asia, Africa, and Indonesia. In many countries Islamic law operates in tandem with a civil law system. Islamic law is embodied in the sharia, an Arabic word meaning"the right path." Sharia covers all aspects of public and private life and organizes them into five categories: obligatory, recommended, permitted, disliked, and forbidden. The primary sources of sharia law are the Qur'an, believed by Muslims to be the word of God revealed to the Prophet Muhammad by the angel Gabriel, and the Sunnah, the teachings of the Prophet and his works. In addition to these two primary sources, traditional Sunni Muslims recognize the consensus of Muhammad's companions and Islamic jurists on certain issues, called ijmas, and various forms of reasoning, including analogy by legal scholars, referred to as qiyas. Shia Muslims reject ijmas and qiyas as sources of sharia law.
Mixed Law - Also referred to as pluralistic law, mixed law consists of elements of some or all of the other main types of legal systems - civil, common, customary, and religious. The mixed legal systems of a number of countries came about when colonial powers overlaid their own legal systems upon colonized regions but retained elements of the colonies' existing legal systems.
Napoleonic Civil Code - A type of civil law, referred to as the Civil Code or Code Civil des Francais, forms part of the legal system of France, and underpins the legal systems of Bolivia, Egypt, Lebanon, Poland, and the US state of Louisiana. The Civil Code was established under Napoleon I, enacted in 1804, and officially designated the Code Napoleon in 1807. This legal system combined the Teutonic civil law tradition of the northern provinces of France with the Roman law tradition of the southern and eastern regions of the country. The Civil Code bears similarities in its arrangement to the Roman Body of Civil Law (see Civil Law above). As enacted in 1804, the Code addressed personal status, property, and the acquisition of property. Codes added over the following six years included civil procedures, commercial law, criminal law and procedures, and a penal code.
Religious Law - A legal system which stems from the sacred texts of religious traditions and in most cases professes to cover all aspects of life as a seamless part of devotional obligations to a transcendent, imminent, or deep philosophical reality. Implied as the basis of religious law is the concept of unalterability, because the word of God cannot be amended or legislated against by judges or governments. However, a detailed legal system generally requires human elaboration. The main types of religious law are sharia in Islam, halakha in Judaism, and canon law in some Christian groups. Sharia is the most widespread religious legal system (see Islamic Law), and is the sole system of law for countries including Iran, the Maldives, and Saudi Arabia. No country is fully governed by halakha, but Jewish people may decide to settle disputes through Jewish courts and be bound by their rulings. Canon law is not a divine law as such because it is not found in revelation. It is viewed instead as human law inspired by the word of God and applying the demands of that revelation to the actual situation of the church. Canon law regulates the internal ordering of the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Anglican Communion.
Roman Law - A type of civil law developed in ancient Rome and practiced from the time of the city's founding (traditionally 753 B.C.) until the fall of the Western Empire in the 5th century A.D. Roman law remained the legal system of the Byzantine (Eastern Empire) until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Preserved fragments of the first legal text, known as the Law of the Twelve Tables, dating from the 5th century B.C., contained specific provisions designed to change the prevailing customary law. Early Roman law was drawn from custom and statutes; later, during the time of the empire, emperors asserted their authority as the ultimate source of law. The basis for Roman laws was the idea that the exact form - not the intention - of words or of actions produced legal consequences. It was only in the late 6th century A.D. that a comprehensive Roman code of laws was published (see Civil Law above). Roman law served as the basis of law systems developed in a number of continental European countries.
Roman-Dutch Law - A type of civil law based on Roman law as applied in the Netherlands. Roman-Dutch law serves as the basis for legal systems in seven African countries, as well as Guyana, Indonesia, and Sri Lanka. This law system, which originated in the province of Holland and expanded throughout the Netherlands (to be replaced by the French Civil Code in 1809), was instituted in a number of sub-Saharan African countries during the Dutch colonial period. The Dutch jurist/philosopher Hugo Grotius was the first to attempt to reduce Roman-Dutch civil law into a system in his Jurisprudence of Holland (written 1619-20, commentary published 1621). The Dutch historian/lawyer Simon van Leeuwen coined the term "Roman-Dutch law" in 1652.
Spanish Law - A type of civil law, often referred to as the Spanish Civil Code, it is the present legal system of Spain and is the basis of legal systems in 12 countries mostly in Central and South America, but also in southwestern Europe, northern and western Africa, and southeastern Asia. The Spanish Civil Code reflects a complex mixture of customary, Roman, Napoleonic, local, and modern codified law. The laws of the Visigoth invaders of Spain in the 5th to 7th centuries had the earliest major influence on Spanish legal system development. The Christian Reconquest of Spain in the 11th through 15th centuries witnessed the development of customary law, which combined canon (religious) and Roman law. During several centuries of Hapsburg and Bourbon rule, systematic recompilations of the existing national legal system were attempted, but these often conflicted with local and regional customary civil laws. Legal system development for most of the 19th century concentrated on formulating a national civil law system, which was finally enacted in 1889 as the Spanish Civil Code. Several sections of the code have been revised, the most recent of which are the penal code in 1989 and the judiciary code in 2001. The Spanish Civil Code separates public and private law. Public law includes constitutional law, administrative law, criminal law, process law, financial and tax law, and international public law. Private law includes civil law, commercial law, labor law, and international private law.
United States Law - A type of common law, which is the basis of the legal system of the United States and that of its island possessions in the Caribbean and the Pacific. This legal system has several layers, more possibly than in most other countries, and is due in part to the division between federal and state law. The United States was founded not as one nation but as a union of 13 colonies, each claiming independence from the British Crown. The US Constitution, implemented in 1789, began shifting power away from the states and toward the federal government, though the states today retain substantial legal authority. US law draws its authority from four sources: constitutional law, statutory law, administrative regulations, and case law. Constitutional law is based on the US Constitution and serves as the supreme federal law. Taken together with those of the state constitutions, these documents outline the general structure of the federal and state governments and provide the rules and limits of power. US statutory law is legislation enacted by the US Congress and is codified in the United States Code. The 50 state legislatures have similar authority to enact state statutes. Administrative law is the authority delegated to federal and state executive agencies. Case law, also referred to as common law, covers areas where constitutional or statutory law is lacking. Case law is a collection of judicial decisions, customs, and general principles that began in England centuries ago, that were adopted in America at the time of the Revolution, and that continue to develop today.

Topic: Afghanistanbefore the Taliban's takeover of Kabul in August 2021, Afghanistan had a mixed legal system of civil, customary, and Islamic (sharia) law; after August 2021, the Taliban’s so-called “interim government” has claimed to be implementing its own interpretation of Islamic law, partially based on the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence. (2021)before the Taliban's takeover of Kabul in August 2021, Afghanistan had a mixed legal system of civil, customary, and Islamic (sharia) law; after August 2021, the Taliban’s so-called “interim government” has claimed to be implementing its own interpretation of Islamic law, partially based on the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence.

Topic: Akrotirilaws applicable to the Cypriot population are, as far as possible, the same as the laws of the Republic of Cyprus; note - the Sovereign Base Area Administration has its own court system to deal with civil and criminal matters

Topic: Albaniacivil law system except in the northern rural areas where customary law known as the "Code of Leke" is still present

Topic: Algeriamixed legal system of French civil law and Islamic law; judicial review of legislative acts in ad hoc Constitutional Council composed of various public officials including several Supreme Court justices

Topic: American Samoamixed legal system of US common law and customary law

Topic: Andorramixed legal system of civil and customary law with the influence of canon (religious) law

Topic: Angolacivil legal system based on Portuguese civil law; no judicial review of legislation

Topic: Anguillacommon law based on the English model

Topic: AntarcticaAntarctica is administered through annual meetings - known as Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings - which include consultative member nations, non-consultative member nations, observer organizations, and expert organizations; decisions from these meetings are carried out by these member nations (with respect to their own nationals and operations) in accordance with their own national laws; more generally, the Antarctic Treaty area, that is to all areas between 60 and 90 degrees south latitude, is subject to a number of relevant legal instruments and procedures adopted by the states party to the Antarctic Treaty; note - US law, including certain criminal offenses by or against US nationals, such as murder, may apply extraterritoriality; some US laws directly apply to Antarctica; for example, the Antarctic Conservation Act, 16 U.S.C. section 2401 et seq., provides civil and criminal penalties for the following activities unless authorized by regulation or statute: the taking of native mammals or birds; the introduction of nonindigenous plants and animals; entry into specially protected areas; the discharge or disposal of pollutants; and the importation into the US of certain items from Antarctica; violation of the Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of up to $10,000 in fines and one year in prison; the National Science Foundation and Department of Justice share enforcement responsibilities; Public Law 95-541, the US Antarctic Conservation Act of 1978, as amended in 1996, requires expeditions from the US to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the Office of Oceans and Polar Affairs, Room 2665, Department of State, Washington, DC 20520, which reports such plans to other nations as required by the Antarctic Treaty; for more information, contact antarctica@state.gov

Topic: Antigua and Barbudacommon law based on the English model

Topic: Argentinacivil law system based on West European legal systems; note - in mid-2015, Argentina adopted a new civil code, replacing the old one in force since 1871

Topic: Armeniacivil law system

Topic: Arubacivil law system based on the Dutch civil code

Topic: Ashmore and Cartier Islandsthe laws of the Commonwealth of Australia and the laws of the Northern Territory of Australia, where applicable, apply

Topic: Australiacommon law system based on the English model

Topic: Austriacivil law system; judicial review of legislative acts by the Constitutional Court

Topic: Azerbaijancivil law system

Topic: Bahamas, Thecommon law system based on the English model

Topic: Bahrainmixed legal system of Islamic (sharia) law, English common law, Egyptian civil, criminal, and commercial codes; customary law

Topic: Bangladeshmixed legal system of mostly English common law and Islamic law

Topic: BarbadosEnglish common law; no judicial review of legislative acts

Topic: Belaruscivil law system; note - nearly all major codes (civil, civil procedure, criminal, criminal procedure, family, and labor) were revised and came into force in 1999 and 2000

Topic: Belgiumcivil law system based on the French Civil Code; note - Belgian law continues to be modified in conformance with the legislative norms mandated by the European Union; judicial review of legislative acts

Topic: BelizeEnglish common law

Topic: Benincivil law system modeled largely on the French system and some customary law

Topic: BermudaEnglish common law

Topic: Bhutancivil law based on Buddhist religious law

Topic: Boliviacivil law system with influences from Roman, Spanish, canon (religious), French, and indigenous law

Topic: Bosnia and Herzegovinacivil law system; Constitutional Court review of legislative acts

Topic: Botswanamixed legal system of civil law influenced by the Roman-Dutch model and also customary and common law

Topic: Bouvet Islandthe laws of Norway apply where applicable

Topic: Brazilcivil law; note - a new civil law code was enacted in 2002 replacing the 1916 code

Topic: British Indian Ocean Territorythe laws of the UK apply where applicable

Topic: British Virgin IslandsEnglish common law

Topic: Bruneimixed legal system based on English common law and Islamic law; note - in April 2019, the full sharia penal codes came into force and apply to Muslims and partly to non-Muslims in parallel with present common law codes

Topic: Bulgariacivil law

Topic: Burkina Fasocivil law based on the French model and customary law; in mid-2019, the National Assembly amended the penal code

Topic: Burmamixed legal system of English common law (as introduced in codifications designed for colonial India) and customary law

Topic: Burundimixed legal system of Belgian civil law and customary law

Topic: Cabo Verdecivil law system of Portugal

Topic: Cambodiacivil law system (influenced by the UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia) customary law, Communist legal theory, and common law

Topic: Cameroonmixed legal system of English common law, French civil law, and customary law

Topic: Canadacommon law system except in Quebec, where civil law based on the French civil code prevails

Topic: Cayman IslandsEnglish common law and local statutes

Topic: Central African Republiccivil law system based on the French model

Topic: Chadmixed legal system of civil and customary law

Topic: Chilecivil law system influenced by several West European civil legal systems; judicial review of legislative acts by the Constitutional Tribunal

Topic: Chinacivil law influenced by Soviet and continental European civil law systems; legislature retains power to interpret statutes; note - on 28 May 2020, the National People's Congress adopted the PRC Civil Code, which codifies personal relations and property relations

Topic: Christmas Islandlegal system is under the authority of the governor general of Australia and Australian law

Topic: Clipperton Islandthe laws of France apply

Topic: Cocos (Keeling) Islandscommon law based on the Australian model

Topic: Colombiacivil law system influenced by the Spanish and French civil codes

Topic: Comorosmixed legal system of Islamic religious law, the French civil code of 1975, and customary law

Topic: Congo, Democratic Republic of thecivil law system primarily based on Belgian law, but also customary and tribal law

Topic: Congo, Republic of themixed legal system of French civil law and customary law

Topic: Cook Islandscommon law similar to New Zealand common law

Topic: Coral Sea Islandsthe common law legal system of Australia applies where applicable

Topic: Costa Ricacivil law system based on Spanish civil code; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court

Topic: Cote d'Ivoirecivil law system based on the French civil code; judicial review of legislation held in the Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court

Topic: Croatiacivil law system influenced by legal heritage of Austria-Hungary; note - Croatian law was fully harmonized with the European Community acquis as of the June 2010 completion of EU accession negotiations

Topic: Cubacivil law system based on Spanish civil code

Topic: Curacaobased on Dutch civil lawbased on Dutch civil law

Topic: Cyprusmixed legal system of English common law and civil law with European law supremacy

Topic: Czechianew civil code enacted in 2014, replacing civil code of 1964 - based on former Austro-Hungarian civil codes and socialist theory - and reintroducing former Czech legal terminology

Topic: Denmarkcivil law; judicial review of legislative acts

Topic: Dhekelialaws applicable to the Cypriot population are, as far as possible, the same as the laws of the Republic of Cyprus; note - the Sovereign Base Area Administration has its own court system to deal with civil and criminal matters

Topic: Djiboutimixed legal system based primarily on the French civil code (as it existed in 1997), Islamic religious law (in matters of family law and successions), and customary law

Topic: Dominicacommon law based on the English model

Topic: Dominican Republiccivil law system based on the French civil code; Criminal Procedures Code modified in 2004 to include important elements of an accusatory system

Topic: Ecuadorcivil law based on the Chilean civil code with modifications; traditional law in indigenous communities

Topic: Egyptmixed legal system based on Napoleonic civil and penal law, Islamic religious law, and vestiges of colonial-era laws; judicial review of the constitutionality of laws by the Supreme Constitutional Court

Topic: El Salvadorcivil law system with minor common law influence; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court

Topic: Equatorial Guineamixed system of civil and customary law

Topic: Eritreamixed legal system of civil, customary, and Islamic religious law

Topic: Estoniacivil law system

Topic: Eswatinimixed legal system of civil, common, and customary law

Topic: Ethiopiacivil law system

Topic: European Unionunique supranational law system in which, according to an interpretive declaration of member-state governments appended to the Treaty of Lisbon, "the Treaties and the law adopted by the Union on the basis of the Treaties have primacy over the law of Member States" under conditions laid down in the case law of the Court of Justice; key principles of EU law include fundamental rights as guaranteed by the Charter of Fundamental Rights and as resulting from constitutional traditions common to the EU's 27 member states; EU law is divided into 'primary' and 'secondary' legislation; primary legislation is derived from the consolidated versions of the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union and are the basis for all EU action; secondary legislation - which includes directives, regulations, and decisions - is derived from the principles and objectives set out in the treaties

Topic: Falkland Islands (Islas Malvinas)English common law and local statutes

Topic: Faroe Islandsthe laws of Denmark apply where applicable

Topic: Fijicommon law system based on the English model

Topic: Finlandcivil law system based on the Swedish model

Topic: Francecivil law; review of administrative but not legislative acts

Topic: French Polynesiathe laws of France, where applicable, apply

Topic: French Southern and Antarctic Landsthe laws of France, where applicable, apply

Topic: Gabonmixed legal system of French civil law and customary law

Topic: Gambia, Themixed legal system of English common law, Islamic law, and customary law

Topic: Georgiacivil law system

Topic: Germanycivil law system

Topic: Ghanamixed system of English common law and customary law

Topic: Gibraltarthe laws of the UK, where applicable, apply

Topic: Greececivil legal system based on Roman law

Topic: Greenlandthe laws of Denmark apply where applicable and Greenlandic law applies to other areas

Topic: Grenadacommon law based on English model

Topic: Guamcommon law modeled on US system; US federal laws apply

Topic: Guatemalacivil law system; judicial review of legislative acts

Topic: Guernseycustomary legal system based on Norman customary law; includes elements of the French civil code and English common law

Topic: Guineacivil law system based on the French model

Topic: Guinea-Bissaumixed legal system of civil law, which incorporated Portuguese law at independence and influenced by Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), West African Economic and Monetary Union (UEMOA), African Francophone Public Law, and customary law

Topic: Guyanacommon law system, based on the English model, with some Roman-Dutch civil law influence

Topic: Haiticivil law system strongly influenced by Napoleonic Code

Topic: Heard Island and McDonald Islandsthe laws of Australia apply where applicable

Topic: Holy See (Vatican City)religious legal system based on canon (religious) law

Topic: Hondurascivil law system

Topic: Hong Kongmixed legal system of common law based on the English model and Chinese customary law (in matters of family and land tenure); PRC imposition of National Security Law incorporates elements of Chinese civil law

Topic: Hungarycivil legal system influenced by the German model

Topic: Icelandcivil law system influenced by the Danish model

Topic: Indiacommon law system based on the English model; separate personal law codes apply to Muslims, Christians, and Hindus; judicial review of legislative acts

Topic: Indonesiacivil law system based on the Roman-Dutch model and influenced by customary law

Topic: Iranreligious legal system based on secular and Islamic law

Topic: Iraqmixed legal system of civil and Islamic law

Topic: Irelandcommon law system based on the English model but substantially modified by customary law; judicial review of legislative acts by Supreme Court

Topic: Isle of Manthe laws of the UK apply where applicable and include Manx statutes

Topic: Israelmixed legal system of English common law, British Mandate regulations, and Jewish, Christian, and Muslim religious laws

Topic: Italycivil law system; judicial review of legislation under certain conditions in Constitutional Court

Topic: Jamaicacommon law system based on the English model

Topic: Jan Mayenthe laws of Norway apply where applicable

Topic: Japancivil law system based on German model; system also reflects Anglo-American influence and Japanese traditions; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court

Topic: Jerseythe laws of the UK apply where applicable; includes local statutes

Topic: Jordanmixed system developed from codes instituted by the Ottoman Empire (based on French law), British common law, and Islamic law

Topic: Kazakhstancivil law system influenced by Roman-Germanic law and by the theory and practice of the Russian Federation

Topic: Kenyamixed legal system of English common law, Islamic law, and customary law; judicial review in the new Supreme Court established by the new constitution

Topic: KiribatiEnglish common law supplemented by customary law

Topic: Korea, Northcivil law system based on the Prussian model; system influenced by Japanese traditions and Communist legal theory

Topic: Korea, Southmixed legal system combining European civil law, Anglo-American law, and Chinese classical thought

Topic: Kosovocivil law system; note - the European Union Rule of Law Mission (EULEX) retained limited executive powers within the Kosovo judiciary for complex cases from 2008 to 2018

Topic: Kuwaitmixed legal system consisting of English common law, French civil law, and Islamic sharia law

Topic: Kyrgyzstancivil law system, which includes features of French civil law and Russian Federation laws

Topic: Laoscivil law system similar in form to the French system

Topic: Latviacivil law system with traces of socialist legal traditions and practices

Topic: Lebanonmixed legal system of civil law based on the French civil code, Ottoman legal tradition, and religious laws covering personal status, marriage, divorce, and other family relations of the Jewish, Islamic, and Christian communities

Topic: Lesothomixed legal system of English common law and Roman-Dutch law; judicial review of legislative acts in High Court and Court of Appeal

Topic: Liberiamixed legal system of common law, based on Anglo-American law, and customary law

Topic: LibyaLibya's post-revolution legal system is in flux and driven by state and non-state entities

Topic: Liechtensteincivil law system influenced by Swiss, Austrian, and German law

Topic: Lithuaniacivil law system; legislative acts can be appealed to the Constitutional Court

Topic: Luxembourgcivil law system

Topic: Macaucivil law system based on the Portuguese model

Topic: Madagascarcivil law system based on the old French civil code and customary law in matters of marriage, family, and obligation

Topic: Malawimixed legal system of English common law and customary law; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court of Appeal

Topic: Malaysiamixed legal system of English common law, Islamic (sharia) law, and customary law; judicial review of legislative acts in the Federal Court at request of supreme head of the federation

Topic: MaldivesIslamic (sharia) legal system with English common law influences, primarily in commercial matters

Topic: Malicivil law system based on the French civil law model and influenced by customary law; judicial review of legislative acts in the Constitutional Court

Topic: Maltamixed legal system of English common law and civil law based on the Roman and Napoleonic civil codes; subject to European Union law

Topic: Marshall Islandsmixed legal system of US and English common law, customary law, and local statutes

Topic: Mauritaniamixed legal system of Islamic and French civil law

Topic: Mauritiuscivil legal system based on French civil law with some elements of English common law

Topic: Mexicocivil law system with US constitutional law influence; judicial review of legislative acts

Topic: Micronesia, Federated States ofmixed legal system of common and customary law

Topic: Moldovacivil law system with Germanic law influences; Constitutional Court review of legislative acts

Topic: Monacocivil law system influenced by French legal tradition

Topic: Mongoliacivil law system influenced by Soviet and Romano-Germanic legal systems; constitution ambiguous on judicial review of legislative acts

Topic: Montenegrocivil law

Topic: MontserratEnglish common law

Topic: Moroccomixed legal system of civil law based on French civil law and Islamic (sharia) law; judicial review of legislative acts by Constitutional Court

Topic: Mozambiquemixed legal system of Portuguese civil law and customary law; note - in rural, apply where applicable predominantly Muslim villages with no formal legal system, Islamic law may be applied

Topic: Namibiamixed legal system of uncodified civil law based on Roman-Dutch law and customary law

Topic: Naurumixed legal system of common law based on the English model and customary law

Topic: Navassa Islandthe laws of the US apply where applicable

Topic: NepalEnglish common law and Hindu legal concepts; note - new criminal and civil codes came into effect on 17 August 2018

Topic: Netherlandscivil law system based on the French system; constitution does not permit judicial review of acts of the States General

Topic: New Caledoniacivil law system based on French civil law

Topic: New Zealandcommon law system, based on English model, with special legislation and land courts for the Maori

Topic: Nicaraguacivil law system; Supreme Court may review administrative acts

Topic: Nigermixed legal system of civil law, based on French civil law, Islamic law, and customary law

Topic: Nigeriamixed legal system of English common law, Islamic law (in 12 northern states), and traditional law

Topic: NiueEnglish common law

Topic: Norfolk IslandEnglish common law and the laws of Australia

Topic: North Macedoniacivil law system; judicial review of legislative acts

Topic: Northern Mariana Islandsthe laws of the US apply, except for customs and some aspects of taxation

Topic: Norwaymixed legal system of civil, common, and customary law; Supreme Court can advise on legislative acts

Topic: Omanmixed legal system of Anglo-Saxon law and Islamic law

Topic: Pakistancommon law system with Islamic law influence

Topic: Palaumixed legal system of civil, common, and customary law

Topic: Panamacivil law system; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court of Justice

Topic: Papua New Guineamixed legal system of English common law and customary law

Topic: Paraguaycivil law system with influences from Argentine, Spanish, Roman, and French civil law models; judicial review of legislative acts in Supreme Court of Justice

Topic: Perucivil law system

Topic: Philippinesmixed legal system of civil, common, Islamic (sharia), and customary law

Topic: Pitcairn Islandslocal island by-laws

Topic: Polandcivil law system; judicial review of legislative, administrative, and other governmental acts; constitutional law rulings of the Constitutional Tribunal are final

Topic: Portugalcivil law system; Constitutional Court review of legislative acts

Topic: Puerto Ricocivil law system based on the Spanish civil code and within the framework of the US federal system

Topic: Qatarmixed legal system of civil law and Islamic (sharia) law (in family and personal matters)

Topic: Romaniacivil law system

Topic: Russiacivil law system; judicial review of legislative acts

Topic: Rwandamixed legal system of civil law, based on German and Belgian models, and customary law; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court

Topic: Saint BarthelemyFrench civil law

Topic: Saint Helena, Ascension, and Tristan da CunhaEnglish common law and local statutes

Topic: Saint Kitts and NevisEnglish common law

Topic: Saint LuciaEnglish common law

Topic: Saint MartinFrench civil law

Topic: Saint Pierre and MiquelonFrench civil law

Topic: Saint Vincent and the GrenadinesEnglish common law

Topic: Samoamixed legal system of English common law and customary law; judicial review of legislative acts with respect to fundamental rights of the citizen

Topic: San Marinocivil law system with Italian civil law influences

Topic: Sao Tome and Principemixed legal system of civil law based on the Portuguese model and customary law

Topic: Saudi ArabiaIslamic (sharia) legal system with some elements of Egyptian, French, and customary law; note - several secular codes have been introduced; commercial disputes handled by special committees

Topic: Senegalcivil law system based on French law; judicial review of legislative acts in Constitutional Court

Topic: Serbiacivil law system

Topic: Seychellesmixed legal system of English common law, French civil law, and customary law

Topic: Sierra Leonemixed legal system of English common law and customary law

Topic: SingaporeEnglish common law

Topic: Sint Maartenbased on Dutch civil law system with some English common law influencebased on Dutch civil law system with some English common law influence

Topic: Slovakiacivil law system based on Austro-Hungarian codes; note - legal code modified to comply with the obligations of Organization on Security and Cooperation in Europe

Topic: Sloveniacivil law system

Topic: Solomon Islandsmixed legal system of English common law and customary law

Topic: Somaliamixed legal system of civil law, Islamic (sharia) law, and customary law (referred to as Xeer)

Topic: South Africamixed legal system of Roman-Dutch civil law, English common law, and customary law

Topic: South Georgia and South Sandwich Islandsthe laws of the UK, where applicable, apply

Topic: Spaincivil law system with regional variations

Topic: Sri Lankamixed legal system of Roman-Dutch civil law, English common law, Jaffna Tamil customary law, and Muslim personal law

Topic: Sudanmixed legal system of Islamic law and English common law; note - in mid-July 2020, Sudan amended 15 provisions of its 1991 penal code

Topic: Surinamecivil law system influenced by Dutch civil law; note - a new criminal code was enacted in 2017

Topic: Svalbardthe laws of Norway where applicable apply; only the laws of Norway made explicitly applicable to Svalbard have effect there; the Svalbard Act and the Svalbard Environmental Protection Act, and certain regulations, apply only to Svalbard; the Spitsbergen Treaty and the Svalbard Treaty grant certain rights to citizens and corporations of signatory nations; as of June 2017, 45 nations had ratified the Svalbard Treaty

Topic: Swedencivil law system influenced by Roman-Germanic law and customary law

Topic: Switzerlandcivil law system; judicial review of legislative acts, except for federal decrees of a general obligatory character

Topic: Syriamixed legal system of civil and Islamic (sharia) law (for family courts)

Topic: Taiwancivil law system

Topic: Tajikistancivil law system

Topic: TanzaniaEnglish common law; judicial review of legislative acts limited to matters of interpretation

Topic: Thailandcivil law system with common law influences

Topic: Timor-Lestecivil law system based on the Portuguese model; note - penal and civil law codes to replace the Indonesian codes were passed by Parliament and promulgated in 2009 and 2011, respectively

Topic: Togocustomary law system

Topic: Tokelaucommon law system of New Zealand

Topic: TongaEnglish common law

Topic: Trinidad and TobagoEnglish common law; judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court

Topic: Tunisiamixed legal system of civil law, based on the French civil code and Islamic (sharia) law; some judicial review of legislative acts in the Supreme Court in joint session

Topic: Turkeycivil law system based on various European legal systems, notably the Swiss civil code

Topic: Turkmenistancivil law system with Islamic (sharia) law influences

Topic: Turks and Caicos Islandsmixed legal system of English common law and civil law

Topic: Tuvalumixed legal system of English common law and local customary law

Topic: Ugandamixed legal system of English common law and customary law

Topic: Ukrainecivil law system; judicial review of legislative acts

Topic: United Arab Emiratesmixed legal system of Islamic (sharia) law and civil law

Topic: United Kingdomcommon law system; has nonbinding judicial review of Acts of Parliament under the Human Rights Act of 1998

Topic: United Statescommon law system based on English common law at the federal level; state legal systems based on common law, except Louisiana, where state law is based on Napoleonic civil code; judicial review of legislative acts

Topic: United States Pacific Island Wildlife Refugesthe laws of the US apply where applicable

Topic: Uruguaycivil law system based on the Spanish civil code

Topic: Uzbekistancivil law system; note - in early 2020, the president signed an amendment to the criminal code, criminal procedure code, and code of administrative responsibility

Topic: Vanuatumixed legal system of English common law, French law, and customary law

Topic: Venezuelacivil law system based on the Spanish civil code

Topic: Vietnamcivil law system; note - the civil code of 2005 reflects a European-style civil law

Topic: Virgin IslandsUS common law

Topic: Wake IslandUS common law

Topic: Wallis and FutunaFrench civil law

Topic: Worldthe legal systems of nearly all countries are generally modeled upon elements of five main types: civil law (including French law, the Napoleonic Code, Roman law, Roman-Dutch law, and Spanish law); common law (including English and US law); customary law; mixed or pluralistic law; and religious law (including Islamic sharia law); an additional type of legal system - international law - governs the conduct of independent nations in their relationships with one another

Topic: Yemenmixed legal system of Islamic (sharia) law, Napoleonic law, English common law, and customary law

Topic: Zambiamixed legal system of English common law and customary law

Topic: Zimbabwemixed legal system of English common law, Roman-Dutch civil law, and customary law


Topic: Introduction
Background: Burma was a province of British India until 1937 and then a self-governing colony until independence in 1948.  Military governments have generally led the country since.  Recent years have seen a series of reforms leading to a substantial opening of the long-isolated country.Burma was a province of British India until 1937 and then a self-governing colony until independence in 1948.  Military governments have generally led the country since.  Recent years have seen a series of reforms leading to a substantial opening of the long-isolated country.

Topic: Geography
Area: total: 676,578 sq km

land: 653,508 sq km

water: 23,070 sq km
Climate: tropical monsoon; cloudy, rainy, hot, humid summers (southwest monsoon, June to September); less cloudy, scant rainfall, mild temperatures, lower humidity during winter (northeast monsoon, December to April)
Natural resources: petroleum, timber, tin, antimony, zinc, copper, tungsten, lead, coal, marble, limestone, precious stones, natural gas, hydropower, arable land

Topic: People and Society
Population: 57,526,449 (2022 est.)
Ethnic groups: Burman (Bamar) 68%, Shan 9%, Karen 7%, Rakhine 4%, Chinese 3%, Indian 2%, Mon 2%, other 5%
Languages: Burmese (official)
Religions: Buddhist 87.9%, Christian 6.2%, Muslim 4.3%, Animist 0.8%, Hindu 0.5%, other 0.2%, none 0.1% (2014 est.)
Population growth rate: 0.78% (2022 est.)

Topic: Government
Government type: parliamentary republic
Capital: name: Nay Pyi Taw (note - Yangon, aka Rangoon, is the former capital)
Executive branch: chief of state: Prime Minister, State Administration Council (SAC) Chair, Sr. Gen. MIN AUNG HLAING (since 1 August 2021); note - MIN AUNG HLAING self-appointed himself to the role of prime minister of a “caretaker” provisional government that subsumed the SAC on 1 August 2021; the SAC, chaired by MIN AUNG HLAING, has served as the executive governing body since 2 February 2021, following the 1 February 2021 military takeover of the government and the declaration of a state of emergency and still exists under the provisional government according to state media

head of government: Prime Minister, State Administration Council (SAC) Chair, Sr. Gen. MIN AUNG HLAING (since 1 August 2021); MIN AUNG HLAING self-appointed himself to the role of prime minister of a “caretaker” provisional government that subsumed the SAC on 1 August 2021
Legislative branch: description: bicameral Assembly of the Union or Pyidaungsu consists of:
House of Nationalities or Amyotha Hluttaw, (224 seats; 168 members directly elected in single-seat constituencies by absolute majority vote with a second round if needed and 56 appointed by the military; members serve 5-year terms)
House of Representatives or Pyithu Hluttaw, (440 seats, currently 433; 330 members directly elected in single-seat constituencies by simple majority vote and 110 appointed by the military; members serve 5-year terms); note - on 1 February 2021, the military dissolved the Assembly of the Union; the State Administration Council (SAC) governs in place of the Assembly of the Union

Topic: Economy
Economic overview: prior to COVID-19 and the February 2021 military coup, massive declines in poverty, rapid economic growth, and improving social welfare; underdevelopment, climate change, and unequal investment threaten progress and sustainability planning; since coup, foreign assistance has ceased from most funding sourcesprior to COVID-19 and the February 2021 military coup, massive declines in poverty, rapid economic growth, and improving social welfare; underdevelopment, climate change, and unequal investment threaten progress and sustainability planning; since coup, foreign assistance has ceased from most funding sources
Real GDP (purchasing power parity): $247.24 billion (2020 est.)
Real GDP per capita: $4,500 (2020 est.)
Agricultural products: rice, sugar cane, beans, vegetables, milk, maize, poultry, groundnuts, fruit, plantains
Industries: agricultural processing; wood and wood products; copper, tin, tungsten, iron; cement, construction materials; pharmaceuticals; fertilizer; oil and natural gas; garments; jade and gems
Exports: $17.52 billion (2019 est.)
Exports - partners: China 24%, Thailand 24%, Japan 7%, Germany 5% (2019)
Exports - commodities: natural gas, clothing products, rice, copper, dried legumes (2019)
Imports: $17.36 billion (2019 est.)
Imports - partners: China 43%, Thailand 15%, Singapore 12%, Indonesia 5% (2019)
Imports - commodities: refined petroleum, broadcasting equipment, fabrics, motorcycles, packaged medicines (2019)
Exchange rates: kyats (MMK) per US dollar -Page last updated: Tuesday, Aug 02, 2022