Topic: Photos of Timor-Leste

Topic: Introduction
Background: Timor was actively involved in Southeast Asian trading networks for centuries, and by the 14th century exported aromatic sandalwood, slaves, honey, and wax. A number of local chiefdoms ruled the island in the early 16th century when Portuguese traders arrived, chiefly attracted by the relative abundance of sandalwood on Timor; by mid-century, the Portuguese had colonized the island. Skirmishing with the Dutch in the region eventually resulted in an 1859 treaty in which Portugal ceded the western portion of the island. Imperial Japan occupied Portuguese Timor from 1942 to 1945, but Portugal resumed colonial authority after the Japanese defeat in World War II. East Timor declared itself independent from Portugal on 28 November 1975 and was invaded and occupied by Indonesian forces nine days later. It was incorporated into Indonesia in July 1976 as the province of Timor Timur (East Timor). An unsuccessful campaign of pacification followed over the next two decades, during which an estimated 100,000 to 250,000 people died. In an August 1999 UN-supervised popular referendum, an overwhelming majority of the people of Timor-Leste voted for independence from Indonesia. However, in the next three weeks, anti-independence Timorese militias - organized and supported by the Indonesian military - commenced a large-scale, scorched-earth campaign of retribution. The militias killed approximately 1,400 Timorese and displaced nearly 500,000. Most of the country's infrastructure, including homes, irrigation systems, water supply systems, and schools, and nearly all of the country's electrical grid were destroyed. On 20 September 1999, Australian-led peacekeeping troops deployed to the country and brought the violence to an end. On 20 May 2002, Timor-Leste was internationally recognized as an independent state. In 2006, internal tensions threatened the new nation's security when a military strike led to violence and a breakdown of law and order. At Dili's request, an Australian-led International Stabilization Force (ISF) deployed to Timor-Leste, and the UN Security Council established the UN Integrated Mission in Timor-Leste (UNMIT), which included an authorized police presence of over 1,600 personnel. The ISF and UNMIT restored stability, allowing for presidential and parliamentary elections in 2007 in a largely peaceful atmosphere. In February 2008, a rebel group staged an unsuccessful attack against the president and prime minister. The ringleader was killed in the attack, and most of the rebels surrendered in April 2008. Since the attack, the government has enjoyed one of its longest periods of post-independence stability, including successful 2012 elections for both the National Parliament and president and a successful transition of power in February 2015. In late 2012, the UN Security Council ended its peacekeeping mission in Timor-Leste and both the ISF and UNMIT departed the country. Timor was actively involved in Southeast Asian trading networks for centuries, and by the 14th century exported aromatic sandalwood, slaves, honey, and wax. A number of local chiefdoms ruled the island in the early 16th century when Portuguese traders arrived, chiefly attracted by the relative abundance of sandalwood on Timor; by mid-century, the Portuguese had colonized the island. Skirmishing with the Dutch in the region eventually resulted in an 1859 treaty in which Portugal ceded the western portion of the island. Imperial Japan occupied Portuguese Timor from 1942 to 1945, but Portugal resumed colonial authority after the Japanese defeat in World War II. East Timor declared itself independent from Portugal on 28 November 1975 and was invaded and occupied by Indonesian forces nine days later. It was incorporated into Indonesia in July 1976 as the province of Timor Timur (East Timor). An unsuccessful campaign of pacification followed over the next two decades, during which an estimated 100,000 to 250,000 people died. In an August 1999 UN-supervised popular referendum, an overwhelming majority of the people of Timor-Leste voted for independence from Indonesia. However, in the next three weeks, anti-independence Timorese militias - organized and supported by the Indonesian military - commenced a large-scale, scorched-earth campaign of retribution. The militias killed approximately 1,400 Timorese and displaced nearly 500,000. Most of the country's infrastructure, including homes, irrigation systems, water supply systems, and schools, and nearly all of the country's electrical grid were destroyed. On 20 September 1999, Australian-led peacekeeping troops deployed to the country and brought the violence to an end. On 20 May 2002, Timor-Leste was internationally recognized as an independent state.In 2006, internal tensions threatened the new nation's security when a military strike led to violence and a breakdown of law and order. At Dili's request, an Australian-led International Stabilization Force (ISF) deployed to Timor-Leste, and the UN Security Council established the UN Integrated Mission in Timor-Leste (UNMIT), which included an authorized police presence of over 1,600 personnel. The ISF and UNMIT restored stability, allowing for presidential and parliamentary elections in 2007 in a largely peaceful atmosphere. In February 2008, a rebel group staged an unsuccessful attack against the president and prime minister. The ringleader was killed in the attack, and most of the rebels surrendered in April 2008. Since the attack, the government has enjoyed one of its longest periods of post-independence stability, including successful 2012 elections for both the National Parliament and president and a successful transition of power in February 2015. In late 2012, the UN Security Council ended its peacekeeping mission in Timor-Leste and both the ISF and UNMIT departed the country. Visit the Definitions and Notes page to view a description of each topic.

Topic: Geography
Location: Southeastern Asia, northwest of Australia in the Lesser Sunda Islands at the eastern end of the Indonesian archipelago; note - Timor-Leste includes the eastern half of the island of Timor, the Oecussi (Ambeno) region on the northwest portion of the island of Timor, and the islands of Pulau Atauro and Pulau Jaco
Geographic coordinates: 8 50 S, 125 55 E
Map references: Southeast Asia
Area: total: 14,874 sq km

land: 14,874 sq km

water: 0 sq km
Area - comparative: slightly larger than Connecticut; almost half the size of Maryland
Land boundaries: total: 253 km

border countries (1): Indonesia 253 km
Coastline: 706 km
Maritime claims: territorial sea: 12 nm

contiguous zone: 24 nm

exclusive fishing zone: 200 nm
Climate: tropical; hot, humid; distinct rainy and dry seasons
Terrain: mountainous
Elevation: highest point: Foho Tatamailau 2,963 m

lowest point: Timor Sea, Savu Sea, and Banda Sea 0 m
Natural resources: gold, petroleum, natural gas, manganese, marble
Land use: agricultural land: 25.1% (2018 est.)

arable land: 10.1% (2018 est.)

permanent crops: 4.9% (2018 est.)

permanent pasture: 10.1% (2018 est.)

forest: 49.1% (2018 est.)

other: 25.8% (2018 est.)
Irrigated land: 350 sq km (2012)
Population distribution: most of the population concentrated in the western third of the country, particularly around Dili
Natural hazards: floods and landslides are common; earthquakes; tsunamis; tropical cyclones
Geography - note: Timor comes from the Malay word for "east"; the island of Timor is part of the Malay Archipelago and is the largest and easternmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands; the district of Oecussi is an exclave separated from Timor-Leste proper by Indonesia; Timor-Leste has the unique distinction of being the only Asian country located completely in the Southern Hemisphere
Map description: Timor Leste map showing the major population centers of this country on the eastern end of the island of Timor in the Timor Sea.Timor Leste map showing the major population centers of this country on the eastern end of the island of Timor in the Timor Sea.

Topic: People and Society
Population: 1,445,006 (2022 est.)
Nationality: noun: Timorese

adjective: Timorese
Ethnic groups: Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) (includes Tetun, Mambai, Tokodede, Galoli, Kemak, Baikeno), Melanesian-Papuan (includes Bunak, Fataluku, Bakasai), small Chinese minority
Languages: Tetun Prasa 30.6%, Mambai 16.6%, Makasai 10.5%, Tetun Terik 6.1%, Baikenu 5.9%, Kemak 5.8%, Bunak 5.5%, Tokodede 4%, Fataluku 3.5%, Waima'a 1.8%, Galoli 1.4%, Naueti 1.4%, Idate 1.2%, Midiki 1.2%, other 4.5% (2015 est.)

note: data represent population by mother tongue; Tetun and Portuguese are official languages; Indonesian and English are working languages; there are about 32 indigenous languages
Religions: Roman Catholic 97.6%, Protestant/Evangelical 2%, Muslim 0.2%, other 0.2% (2015 est.)
Demographic profile: Timor-Leste’s high fertility and population growth rates sustain its very youthful age structure – approximately 40% of the population is below the age of 15 and the country’s median age is 20.  While Timor-Leste’s total fertility rate (TFR) – the average number of births per woman – decreased significantly from over 7 in the early 2000s, it remains high at 4.3 in 2021 and will probably continue to decline slowly.  The low use of contraceptives and the traditional preference for large families is keeping fertility elevated.  The high TFR and falling mortality rates continue to fuel a high population growth rate of nearly 2.2%, which is the highest in Southeast Asia.  The country’s high total dependency ratio – a measure of the ratio of dependents to the working-age population – could divert more government spending toward social programs. Timor-Leste’s growing, poorly educated working-age population and insufficient job creation are ongoing problems.  Some 70% of the population lives in rural areas, where most of people are dependent on the agricultural sector.  Malnutrition and poverty are prevalent, with 42% of the population living under the poverty line as of 2014. During the Indonesian occupation (1975-1999) and Timor-Leste’s fight for independence, approximately 250,000 Timorese fled to western Timor and, in lesser numbers, Australia, Portugal, and other countries. Many of these emigrants later returned.  Since Timor-Leste’s 1999 independence referendum, economic motives and periods of conflict have been the main drivers of emigration.  Bilateral labor agreements with Australia, Malaysia, and South Korea and the presence of Timorese populations abroad, are pull factors, but the high cost prevents many young Timorese from emigrating.  Timorese communities are found in its former colonizers, Indonesia and Portugal, as well as the Philippines and the UK.  The country has also become a destination for migrants in the surrounding region, mainly men seeking work in construction, commerce, and services in Dili.Timor-Leste’s high fertility and population growth rates sustain its very youthful age structure – approximately 40% of the population is below the age of 15 and the country’s median age is 20.  While Timor-Leste’s total fertility rate (TFR) – the average number of births per woman – decreased significantly from over 7 in the early 2000s, it remains high at 4.3 in 2021 and will probably continue to decline slowly.  The low use of contraceptives and the traditional preference for large families is keeping fertility elevated.  The high TFR and falling mortality rates continue to fuel a high population growth rate of nearly 2.2%, which is the highest in Southeast Asia.  The country’s high total dependency ratio – a measure of the ratio of dependents to the working-age population – could divert more government spending toward social programs. Timor-Leste’s growing, poorly educated working-age population and insufficient job creation are ongoing problems.  Some 70% of the population lives in rural areas, where most of people are dependent on the agricultural sector.  Malnutrition and poverty are prevalent, with 42% of the population living under the poverty line as of 2014.During the Indonesian occupation (1975-1999) and Timor-Leste’s fight for independence, approximately 250,000 Timorese fled to western Timor and, in lesser numbers, Australia, Portugal, and other countries. Many of these emigrants later returned.  Since Timor-Leste’s 1999 independence referendum, economic motives and periods of conflict have been the main drivers of emigration.  Bilateral labor agreements with Australia, Malaysia, and South Korea and the presence of Timorese populations abroad, are pull factors, but the high cost prevents many young Timorese from emigrating.  Timorese communities are found in its former colonizers, Indonesia and Portugal, as well as the Philippines and the UK.  The country has also become a destination for migrants in the surrounding region, mainly men seeking work in construction, commerce, and services in Dili.
Age structure: 0-14 years: 39.96% (male 284,353/female 268,562)

15-24 years: 20.32% (male 142,693/female 138,508)

25-54 years: 30.44% (male 202,331/female 218,914)

55-64 years: 5.22% (male 34,956/female 37,229)

65 years and over: 4.06% (2020 est.) (male 27,153/female 29,024)
Dependency ratios: total dependency ratio: 90.3

youth dependency ratio: 83.7

elderly dependency ratio: 6.6

potential support ratio: 15.2 (2020 est.)
Median age: total: 19.6 years

male: 18.9 years

female: 20.2 years (2020 est.)
Population growth rate: 2.15% (2022 est.)
Birth rate: 30.94 births/1,000 population (2022 est.)
Death rate: 5.61 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)
Net migration rate: -3.82 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)
Population distribution: most of the population concentrated in the western third of the country, particularly around Dili
Urbanization: urban population: 32.1% of total population (2022)

rate of urbanization: 3.31% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.)
Major urban areas - population: 281,000 DILI (capital) (2018)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.07 male(s)/female

0-14 years: 1.06 male(s)/female

15-24 years: 1.03 male(s)/female

25-54 years: 0.93 male(s)/female

55-64 years: 0.9 male(s)/female

65 years and over: 0.79 male(s)/female

total population: 1 male(s)/female (2022 est.)
Mother's mean age at first birth: 23 years (2016 est.)

note: median age at first birth among women 25-49
Maternal mortality ratio: 142 deaths/100,000 live births (2017 est.)
Infant mortality rate: total: 33.69 deaths/1,000 live births

male: 36.96 deaths/1,000 live births

female: 30.2 deaths/1,000 live births (2022 est.)
Life expectancy at birth: total population: 69.92 years

male: 68.25 years

female: 71.7 years (2022 est.)
Total fertility rate: 4.21 children born/woman (2022 est.)
Contraceptive prevalence rate: 26.1% (2016)
Drinking water source: improved: urban: 98% of population

rural: 82.5% of population

total: 87.4% of population

unimproved: urban: 2% of population

rural: 17.5% of population

total: 12.6% of population (2020 est.)
Current Health Expenditure: 7.2% (2019)
Physicians density: 0.76 physicians/1,000 population (2020)
Sanitation facility access: improved: urban: 88.7% of population

rural: 56.1% of population

total: 66.3% of population

unimproved: urban: 11.3% of population

rural: 43.9% of population

total: 33.7% of population (2020 est.)
HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate: 0.2% (2020 est.)
HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS: 1,200 (2020)
HIV/AIDS - deaths: (2020) <100
Major infectious diseases: degree of risk: very high (2020)

food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever

vectorborne diseases: dengue fever and malaria
Obesity - adult prevalence rate: 3.8% (2016)
Tobacco use: total: 39.2% (2020 est.)

male: 67.6% (2020 est.)

female: 10.8% (2020 est.)
Children under the age of 5 years underweight: 37.5% (2013)
Child marriage: women married by age 15: 2.6%

women married by age 18: 14.9%

men married by age 18: 1.2% (2016 est.)
Education expenditures: 6.8% of GDP (2018 est.)
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write

total population: 68.1%

male: 71.9%

female: 64.2% (2018)
Unemployment, youth ages 15-24: total: 13.2%

male: 10.9%

female: 15.9% (2016 est.)
People - note: one of only two predominantly Christian nations in Southeast Asia, the other being the Philippines

Topic: Environment
Environment - current issues: air pollution and deterioration of air quality; greenhouse gas emissions; water quality, scarcity, and access; land and soil degradation; forest depletion; widespread use of slash and burn agriculture has led to deforestation and soil erosion; loss of biodiversity
Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Climate Change-Paris Agreement, Desertification, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection

signed, but not ratified: Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban
Air pollutants: particulate matter emissions: 17.88 micrograms per cubic meter (2016 est.)

carbon dioxide emissions: 0.5 megatons (2016 est.)

methane emissions: 4.74 megatons (2020 est.)
Climate: tropical; hot, humid; distinct rainy and dry seasons
Land use: agricultural land: 25.1% (2018 est.)

arable land: 10.1% (2018 est.)

permanent crops: 4.9% (2018 est.)

permanent pasture: 10.1% (2018 est.)

forest: 49.1% (2018 est.)

other: 25.8% (2018 est.)
Urbanization: urban population: 32.1% of total population (2022)

rate of urbanization: 3.31% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.)
Revenue from forest resources: forest revenues: 0.13% of GDP (2018 est.)
Revenue from coal: coal revenues: 0% of GDP (2018 est.)
Major infectious diseases: degree of risk: very high (2020)

food or waterborne diseases: bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, and typhoid fever

vectorborne diseases: dengue fever and malaria
Waste and recycling: municipal solid waste generated annually: 63,875 tons (2016 est.)
Total water withdrawal: municipal: 99 million cubic meters (2017 est.)

industrial: 2 million cubic meters (2017 est.)

agricultural: 1.071 billion cubic meters (2017 est.)
Total renewable water resources: 8.215 billion cubic meters (2017 est.)

Topic: Government
Country name: conventional long form: Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste

conventional short form: Timor-Leste

local long form: Republika Demokratika Timor Lorosa'e (Tetum)/ Republica Democratica de Timor-Leste (Portuguese)

local short form: Timor Lorosa'e (Tetum)/ Timor-Leste (Portuguese)

former: East Timor, Portuguese Timor

etymology: timor" derives from the Indonesian and Malay word "timur" meaning "east"; "leste" is the Portuguese word for "east", so "Timor-Leste" literally means "Eastern-East"; the local [Tetum] name "Timor Lorosa'e" translates as "East Rising Sun"

note: pronounced TEE-mor LESS-tay
Government type: semi-presidential republic
Capital: name: Dili

geographic coordinates: 8 35 S, 125 36 E

time difference: UTC+9 (14 hours ahead of Washington, DC, during Standard Time)
Administrative divisions: 12 municipalities (municipios, singular municipio) and 1 special adminstrative region* (regiao administrativa especial); Aileu, Ainaro, Baucau, Bobonaro (Maliana), Covalima (Suai), Dili, Ermera (Gleno), Lautem (Lospalos), Liquica, Manatuto, Manufahi (Same), Oe-Cusse Ambeno* (Pante Macassar), Viqueque

note: administrative divisions have the same names as their administrative centers (exceptions have the administrative center name following in parentheses)
Independence: 20 May 2002 (from Indonesia); note - 28 November 1975 was the date independence was proclaimed from Portugal; 20 May 2002 was the date of international recognition of Timor-Leste's independence from Indonesia
National holiday: Restoration of Independence Day, 20 May (2002); Proclamation of Independence Day, 28 November (1975)
Constitution: history: drafted 2001, approved 22 March 2002, entered into force 20 May 2002

amendments: proposed by Parliament and parliamentary groups; consideration of amendments requires at least four-fifths majority approval by Parliament; passage requires two-thirds majority vote by Parliament and promulgation by the president of the republic; passage of amendments to the republican form of government and the flag requires approval in a referendum
Legal system: civil law system based on the Portuguese model; note - penal and civil law codes to replace the Indonesian codes were passed by Parliament and promulgated in 2009 and 2011, respectively
International law organization participation: accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations; accepts ICCt jurisdiction
Citizenship: citizenship by birth: no

citizenship by descent only: at least one parent must be a citizen of Timor-Leste

dual citizenship recognized: no

residency requirement for naturalization: 10 years
Suffrage: 17 years of age; universal
Executive branch: chief of state: President José RAMOS-HORTA (since May 2022); note - the president is commander in chief of the military and is able to veto legislation, dissolve parliament, and call national elections

head of government: Prime Minister Taur Matan RUAK (since 22 June 2018)

cabinet: the governing coalition in the Parliament proposes cabinet member candidates to the prime minister, who presents these recommendations to the President of the Republic for swearing in

elections/appointments: president directly elected by absolute majority popular vote in 2 rounds if needed for a 5-year term (eligible for a second term); last election held in April 2022; following parliamentary elections, the president appoints the leader of the majority party or majority coalition as the prime minister

election results: 2022: José RAMOS-HORTA elected president in a run-off election -  RAMOS-HORTA (CNRT) 62.1%, Francisco GUTERRES (FRETILIN) 37.9%

2017: Francisco GUTERRES (FRETILIN) 57.1%, António da CONCEICAO (PD) 32.46%
Legislative branch: description: unicameral National Parliament (65 seats; members directly elected in a single nationwide constituency by proportional representation vote to serve 5-year terms)

elections: last held on 12 May 2018 (next to be held in July 2023)

election results: percent of vote by party - AMP - 49.6%, FRETILIN 34.2%, PD 8.1%, DDF 5.5%, other 2.6%; seats by party - AMP 34, FRETILIN 23, PD 5, DDF 3; composition - men 39, women 26, percent of women 40%
Judicial branch: highest courts: Court of Appeals (consists of the court president and NA judges)

judge selection and term of office: court president appointed by the president of the republic from among the other court judges to serve a 4-year term; other court judges appointed - 1 by the Parliament and the others by the Supreme Council for the Judiciary, a body chaired by the court president and that includes mostly presidential and parliamentary appointees; other judges serve for life

subordinate courts: Court of Appeal; High Administrative, Tax, and Audit Court; district courts; magistrates' courts; military courts

note: the UN Justice System Programme, launched in 2003 and being rolled out in 4 phases through 2018, is helping strengthen the country's justice system; the Programme is aligned with the country's long-range Justice Sector Strategic Plan, which includes legal reforms
Political parties and leaders: Alliance for Change and Progress or AMP [Xanana GUSMAO] (collapsed in 2020; alliance included CNRT, KHUNTO, PLP)
Democratic Development Forum or DDF
Democratic Party or PD [Mariano Assanami SABINO]
Frenti-Mudanca (Front for National Reconstruction of Timor-Leste - Change) or FM [Jose Luis GUTERRES]
Kmanek Haburas Unidade Nasional Timor Oan or KHUNTO [Armanda BERTA DOS SANTOS]
National Congress for Timorese Reconstruction or CNRT [Kay Rala Xanana GUSMAO]
People's Liberation Party or PLP [Taur Matan RUAK]
Revolutionary Front of Independent Timor-Leste or FRETILIN [Mari ALKATIRI]
Timorese Democratic Union or UDT [Gilman SANTOS]
International organization participation: ACP, ADB, AOSIS, ARF, ASEAN (observer), CPLP, EITI (compliant country), FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICCt, ICRM, IDA, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM, IPU, ITU, MIGA, NAM, OPCW, PIF (observer), UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, Union Latina, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WHO, WMO
Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Isilio Antonio De Fatima COELHO DA SILVA (since 6 January 2020)

chancery: 4201 Connecticut Avenue NW, Suite 504, Washington, DC 20008

telephone: [1] (202) 966-3202

FAX: [1] (202) 966-3205

email address and website:
info@timorlesteembassy.org

http://www.timorlesteembassy.org/
Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador (vacant), Charge d'Affaires Thomas DALEY (since August 2021)

embassy: Avenida de Portugal, Praia dos Coqueiros, Dili

mailing address: 8250 Dili Place, Washington, DC 20521-8250

telephone: (670) 332-4684, (670) 330-2400

FAX: (670) 331-3206

email address and website:
ConsDili@state.gov

https://tl.usembassy.gov/
Flag description: red with a black isosceles triangle (based on the hoist side) superimposed on a slightly longer yellow arrowhead that extends to the center of the flag; a white star - pointing to the upper hoist-side corner of the flag - is in the center of the black triangle; yellow denotes the colonialism in Timor-Leste's past, black represents the obscurantism that needs to be overcome, red stands for the national liberation struggle; the white star symbolizes peace and serves as a guiding light
National symbol(s): Mount Ramelau; national colors: red, yellow, black, white
National anthem: name: "Patria" (Fatherland)

lyrics/music: Fransisco Borja DA COSTA/Afonso DE ARAUJO

note: adopted 2002; the song was first used as an anthem when Timor-Leste declared its independence from Portugal in 1975; the lyricist, Francisco Borja DA COSTA, was killed in the Indonesian invasion just days after independence was declared

Topic: Economy
Economic overview: Since independence in 1999, Timor-Leste has faced great challenges in rebuilding its infrastructure, strengthening the civil administration, and generating jobs for young people entering the work force. The development of offshore oil and gas resources has greatly supplemented government revenues. This technology-intensive industry, however, has done little to create jobs in part because there are no production facilities in Timor-Leste. Gas is currently piped to Australia for processing, but Timor-Leste has expressed interest in developing a domestic processing capability.   In June 2005, the National Parliament unanimously approved the creation of the Timor-Leste Petroleum Fund to serve as a repository for all petroleum revenues and to preserve the value of Timor-Leste's petroleum wealth for future generations. The Fund held assets of $16 billion, as of mid-2016. Oil accounts for over 90% of government revenues, and the drop in the price of oil in 2014-16 has led to concerns about the long-term sustainability of government spending. Timor-Leste compensated for the decline in price by exporting more oil. The Ministry of Finance maintains that the Petroleum Fund is sufficient to sustain government operations for the foreseeable future.   Annual government budget expenditures increased markedly between 2009 and 2012 but dropped significantly through 2016. Historically, the government failed to spend as much as its budget allowed. The government has focused significant resources on basic infrastructure, including electricity and roads, but limited experience in procurement and infrastructure building has hampered these projects. The underlying economic policy challenge the country faces remains how best to use oil-and-gas wealth to lift the non-oil economy onto a higher growth path and to reduce poverty.Since independence in 1999, Timor-Leste has faced great challenges in rebuilding its infrastructure, strengthening the civil administration, and generating jobs for young people entering the work force. The development of offshore oil and gas resources has greatly supplemented government revenues. This technology-intensive industry, however, has done little to create jobs in part because there are no production facilities in Timor-Leste. Gas is currently piped to Australia for processing, but Timor-Leste has expressed interest in developing a domestic processing capability. In June 2005, the National Parliament unanimously approved the creation of the Timor-Leste Petroleum Fund to serve as a repository for all petroleum revenues and to preserve the value of Timor-Leste's petroleum wealth for future generations. The Fund held assets of $16 billion, as of mid-2016. Oil accounts for over 90% of government revenues, and the drop in the price of oil in 2014-16 has led to concerns about the long-term sustainability of government spending. Timor-Leste compensated for the decline in price by exporting more oil. The Ministry of Finance maintains that the Petroleum Fund is sufficient to sustain government operations for the foreseeable future. Annual government budget expenditures increased markedly between 2009 and 2012 but dropped significantly through 2016. Historically, the government failed to spend as much as its budget allowed. The government has focused significant resources on basic infrastructure, including electricity and roads, but limited experience in procurement and infrastructure building has hampered these projects. The underlying economic policy challenge the country faces remains how best to use oil-and-gas wealth to lift the non-oil economy onto a higher growth path and to reduce poverty.
Real GDP (purchasing power parity): $4.19 billion (2020 est.)

$4.59 billion (2019 est.)

$3.87 billion (2018 est.)

note: data are in 2017 dollars
Real GDP growth rate: -4.6% (2017 est.)

5.3% (2016 est.)

4% (2015 est.)
Real GDP per capita: $3,200 (2020 est.)

$3,600 (2019 est.)

$3,100 (2018 est.)

note: data are in 2017 dollars
GDP (official exchange rate): $2.775 billion (2017 est.)

note: non-oil GDP
Inflation rate (consumer prices): 0.6% (2017 est.)

-1.3% (2016 est.)
GDP - composition, by sector of origin: agriculture: 9.1% (2017 est.)

industry: 56.7% (2017 est.)

services: 34.4% (2017 est.)
GDP - composition, by end use: household consumption: 33% (2017 est.)

government consumption: 30% (2017 est.)

investment in fixed capital: 10.6% (2017 est.)

investment in inventories: 0% (2017 est.)

exports of goods and services: 78.4% (2017 est.)

imports of goods and services: -52% (2017 est.)
Agricultural products: rice, maize, vegetables, coffee, roots/tubers nes, other meats, cassava, pork, beans, mangoes/guavas
Industries: printing, soap manufacturing, handicrafts, woven cloth
Industrial production growth rate: 2% (2017 est.)
Labor force: 286,700 (2016 est.)
Labor force - by occupation: agriculture: 41%

industry: 13%

services: 45.1% (2013)
Unemployment rate: 4.4% (2014 est.)

3.9% (2010 est.)
Unemployment, youth ages 15-24: total: 13.2%

male: 10.9%

female: 15.9% (2016 est.)
Population below poverty line: 41.8% (2014 est.)
Gini Index coefficient - distribution of family income: 28.7 (2014 est.)

38 (2002 est.)
Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 4%

highest 10%: 27% (2007)
Budget: revenues: 300 million (2017 est.)

expenditures: 2.4 billion (2017 est.)
Budget surplus (+) or deficit (-): -75.7% (of GDP) (2017 est.)
Public debt: 3.8% of GDP (2017 est.)

3.1% of GDP (2016 est.)
Taxes and other revenues: 10.8% (of GDP) (2017 est.)
Fiscal year: calendar year
Current account balance: -$284 million (2017 est.)

-$544 million (2016 est.)
Exports: $60 million (2020 est.) note: data are in current year dollars

$120 million (2019 est.) note: data are in current year dollars

$120 million (2018 est.) note: data are in current year dollars
Exports - partners: Singapore 51%, China 20%, Japan 9%, Indonesia 6% (2019)
Exports - commodities: crude petroleum, natural gas, coffee, various vegetables, scrap iron (2019)
Imports: $850 million (2020 est.) note: data are in current year dollars

$1.04 billion (2019 est.) note: data are in current year dollars

$1.06 billion (2018 est.) note: data are in current year dollars
Imports - partners: Indonesia 39%, China 27%, Singapore 10%, Malaysia 5% (2019)
Imports - commodities: refined petroleum, cars, cement, delivery trucks, motorcycles (2019)
Reserves of foreign exchange and gold: $544.4 million (31 December 2017 est.)

$437.8 million (31 December 2015 est.)

note: excludes assets of approximately $9.7 billion in the Petroleum Fund (31 December 2010)
Debt - external: $311.5 million (31 December 2014 est.)

$687 million (31 December 2013 est.)
Exchange rates: the US dollar is usedthe US dollar is used

Topic: Energy
Electricity access: electrification - total population: 85.6% (2018)

electrification - urban areas: 100% (2018)

electrification - rural areas: 79.2% (2018)
Electricity: installed generating capacity: 284,000 kW (2020 est.)

consumption: -103 million kWh (2019 est.)

exports: 0 kWh (2019 est.)

imports: 0 kWh (2019 est.)

transmission/distribution losses: 103 million kWh (2019 est.)
Electricity generation sources: fossil fuels: 100% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)

nuclear: 0% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)

solar: 0% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)

wind: 0% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)

hydroelectricity: 0% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)

tide and wave: 0% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)

geothermal: 0% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)

biomass and waste: 0% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)
Coal: production: 0 metric tons (2020 est.)

consumption: 0 metric tons (2020 est.)

exports: 0 metric tons (2020 est.)

imports: 0 metric tons (2020 est.)

proven reserves: 0 metric tons (2019 est.)
Petroleum: total petroleum production: 14,000 bbl/day (2021 est.)

refined petroleum consumption: 3,500 bbl/day (2019 est.)

crude oil and lease condensate exports: 32,900 barrels/day (2018 est.)

crude oil and lease condensate imports: 0 barrels/day (2018 est.)

crude oil estimated reserves: 0 barrels (2021 est.)
Refined petroleum products - production: 0 bbl/day (2015 est.)
Refined petroleum products - exports: 0 bbl/day (2015 est.)
Refined petroleum products - imports: 3,481 bbl/day (2015 est.)
Natural gas: production: 5,104,670,000 cubic meters (2019 est.)

consumption: 0 cubic meters (2021 est.)

exports: 5,104,670,000 cubic meters (2019 est.)

imports: 0 cubic meters (2021 est.)

proven reserves: 0 cubic meters (2021 est.)
Carbon dioxide emissions: 538,000 metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)

from coal and metallurgical coke: 0 metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)

from petroleum and other liquids: 538,000 metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)

from consumed natural gas: 0 metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)
Energy consumption per capita: 5.74 million Btu/person (2019 est.)

Topic: Communications
Telephones - fixed lines: total subscriptions: 2,012 (2020 est.)

subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: (2020 est.) less than 1
Telephones - mobile cellular: total subscriptions: 1,425,260 (2019)

subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 110.22 (2019)
Telecommunication systems: general assessment: Timor-Leste has been moving forward with the regeneration of its economy and rebuilding key infrastructure, including telecommunications networks, that were destroyed during the years of civil unrest; fixed-line and fixed broadband penetration in Timor-Leste remains extremely low, mainly due to the limited fixed-line infrastructure and the proliferation of mobile connectivity; in an effort to boost e-government services, in 2018 the government contracted Timor Telecom to build a national terrestrial fiber network; the project, completed in 2019, has helped boost fixed broadband subscriber growth and will continue to do so over the next few years; the number of subscribers through to 2026 is expected to develop steadily, though from a low base; by August 2020, Timor-Leste had three telecom service providers who jointly achieved a 98% network coverage nationally; all three major mobile operators - Timor Telecom, Telkomcel and Telemor - launched LTE services during 2019; Timor-Leste has seen a rapid increase in mobile broadband penetration over the last few years, driven by a rising proportion of mobile subscribers having smartphones; the mobile broadband market is still at an early stage of development, strong growth is predicted over the next five years; at the end of 2020, the government issued new policy guidelines to maximize the use of spectrum in Timor-Leste; it invited mobile operators to submit applications for the allocation of spectrum in the 1800MHz, 2300MHz and 2600MHz bands; in November 2020, the government approved the deployment of a submarine fiber link connecting the south of the country to Australia via the North Western Cable System (NWCS). (2021)

domestic: system suffered significant damage during the violence associated with independence; limited fixed-line services, less than 1 per 100 and mobile-cellular services are now available in urban and most rural areas with teledensity of over 104 per 100 (2020)

international: country code - 670;  international service is available; partnership with Australia telecom companies for potential deployment of a submarine fiber-optic link (NWCS); geostationary earth orbit satellite

note: the COVID-19 pandemic continues to have a significant impact on production and supply chains globally; since 2020, some aspects of the telecom sector have experienced a downturn, particularly in mobile device production; progress towards 5G implementation has resumed, as well as upgrades to infrastructure; consumer spending on telecom services has increased due to the surge in demand for capacity and bandwidth; the crucial nature of telecom services as a tool for work and school from home is still evident, and the spike in this area has seen growth opportunities for development of new tools and increased services
Broadcast media: 7 TV stations (3 nationwide satellite coverage; 2 terrestrial coverage, mostly in Dili; 2 cable) and 21 radio stations (3 nationwide coverage) (2019)
Internet country code: .tl
Internet users: total: 382,348 (2020 est.)

percent of population: 29% (2020 est.)
Broadband - fixed subscriptions: total: 75 (2020 est.)

subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 0.01 (2020 est.)

Topic: Transportation
National air transport system: number of registered air carriers: 2 (2020)

inventory of registered aircraft operated by air carriers: 2
Civil aircraft registration country code prefix: 4W
Airports: total: 6 (2021)
Airports - with paved runways: total: 2

2,438 to 3,047 m: 1

1,524 to 2,437 m: 1 (2021)
Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 4

914 to 1,523 m: 2

under 914 m: 2 (2021)
Heliports: 8 (2021)
Roadways: total: 6,040 km (2008)

paved: 2,600 km (2008)

unpaved: 3,440 km (2008)
Merchant marine: total: 1

by type: other 1 (2021)
Ports and terminals: major seaport(s): Dili

Topic: Military and Security
Military and security forces: Timor-Leste Defense Force (Falintil-Forcas de Defesa de Timor-L'este, Falintil (F-FDTL)): Joint Headquarters with Land, Air, Naval, Service Support, and Education/Training components; National Police (Polícia Nacional de Timor-Leste, PNTL) (2022)
Military expenditures: 1.8% of GDP (2021 est.)

1.8% of GDP (2020 est.)

1.7% of GDP (2019 est.) (approximately $45 million)

1.3% of GDP (2018 est.) (approximately $30 million)

1.6% of GDP (2017 est.) (approximately $35 million)
Military and security service personnel strengths: approximately 2,000 personnel (2022)
Military equipment inventories and acquisitions: Timor-Leste Defense Force's limited inventory consists of equipment donated by other countries; the only recorded deliveries of major arms to Timor-Leste since 2010 were naval patrol craft from China and South Korea (2021)
Military service age and obligation: 18 years of age for voluntary military service; 18-month service obligation (2021)
Military - note: since achieving independence, Timor-Leste has received security assistance from or has made defense cooperation arrangements with Australia, China, Indonesia, Malaysia, New Zealand, the Philippines, Portugal, the UN, and the US; some F-FDTL personnel train with the Indonesian military and the two countries maintain a joint Border Security Task Force to jointly monitor and patrol the border, particularly the Oecussi exclave area where smuggling and trafficking are prevalent (2022)

Topic: Transnational Issues
Disputes - international: Timor-Leste-Australia: Timor-Leste and Australia reached agreement on a treaty delimiting a permanent maritime boundary in March 2018; both countries ratified the treaty in August 2019 Timor-Leste-Indonesia: three stretches of land borders with Indonesia have yet to be delimited, two of which are in the Oecussi exclave area, and no maritime or Economic Exclusion Zone boundaries have been established between the countries; maritime boundaries with Indonesia remain unresolved; between 2005 and 2015, 500 border landmarks were placed and another 200 were proposedTimor-Leste-Australia: Timor-Leste and Australia reached agreement on a treaty delimiting a permanent maritime boundary in March 2018; both countries ratified the treaty in August 2019Timor-Leste-Indonesia: three stretches of land borders with Indonesia have yet to be delimited, two of which are in the Oecussi exclave area, and no maritime or Economic Exclusion Zone boundaries have been established between the countries; maritime boundaries with Indonesia remain unresolved; between 2005 and 2015, 500 border landmarks were placed and another 200 were proposed
Trafficking in persons: current situation: human traffickers exploit domestic and foreign victims in Timor-Leste, and traffickers exploit victims from Timor-Leste abroad; traffickers exploit Timorese women, girls, and occasionally young men and boys from rural areas in sex trafficking or domestic servitude; Timorese men are exploited in forced labor in agriculture, construction, and mining; families place children in bonded domestic and agricultural labor to pay debts; traffickers deceive young men and women with promises of a scholarship or employment opportunities in Indonesia, Malaysia, and other countries in the region only taking them to a different county, taking their passports, and forcing them into labor, including domestic servitude; sex traffickers in Timor-Leste prey on foreign women from East and Southeast Asia; traffickers also recruit Timorese women to send them to China, Indonesia, or Malaysia for commercial sex

tier rating: Tier 2 Watch List — Timor-Leste does not fully meet the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking but is making significant efforts to do so; efforts include re-establishing funding to NGOs for victim services and integrating an anti-trafficking curriculum for officials; however, authorities decreased investigations and convictions; victim protection services were inadequate, and no government-wide standard operating procedures for victim identification were implemented; understanding of trafficking remains low among officials (2020)
Illicit drugs: NA


Topic: Photos of Turkmenistan

Topic: Introduction
Background: Present-day Turkmenistan covers territory that has been at the crossroads of civilizations for centuries. The area was ruled in antiquity by various Persian empires, and was conquered by Alexander the Great, Muslim armies, the Mongols, Turkic warriors, and eventually the Russians. In medieval times, Merv (located in present-day Mary province) was one of the great cities of the Islamic world and an important stop on the Silk Road. Annexed by Russia in the late 1800s, Turkmen territories later figured prominently in the anti-Bolshevik resistance in Central Asia. In 1924, Turkmenistan became a Soviet republic; it achieved independence upon the dissolution of the USSR in 1991. President for Life Saparmyrat NYYAZOW died in December 2006, and Gurbanguly BERDIMUHAMEDOW, a deputy chairman under NYYAZOW, emerged as the country's new president. BERDIMUHAMEDOW won Turkmenistan's first multi-candidate presidential election in February 2007, and again in 2012 and in 2017 with over 97% of the vote in both instances, in elections widely regarded as undemocratic.  In February 2022, BERDIMUHAMEDOW announced that he would step down from the presidency and called for an election to replace him. His son, Serdar BERDIMUHAMEDOW, won the ensuing election, held in March 2022, with 73% of the vote. Gurbanguly BERDIMUHAMEDOW, although no longer head of state, maintains an influential political position as head of the Halk Maslahaty (People’s Council).

Turkmenistan has sought new export markets for its extensive hydrocarbon/natural gas reserves, which have yet to be fully exploited. As of late 2021, Turkmenistan exported the majority of its gas to China and smaller levels of gas to Russia. Turkmenistan's reliance on gas exports has made the economy vulnerable to fluctuations in the global energy market, and economic hardships since the drop in energy prices in 2014 have led many Turkmenistanis to emigrate, mostly to Turkey. Heavy restrictions placed by the government in 2020 on entry and exit into the country in response to the COVID-19 pandemic have resulted in a steep drop in emigration, however.Visit the Definitions and Notes page to view a description of each topic.

Topic: Geography
Location: Central Asia, bordering the Caspian Sea, between Iran and Kazakhstan
Geographic coordinates: 40 00 N, 60 00 E
Map references: Asia
Area: total: 488,100 sq km

land: 469,930 sq km

water: 18,170 sq km
Area - comparative: slightly more than three times the size of Georgia; slightly larger than California
Land boundaries: total: 4,158 km

border countries (4): Afghanistan 804 km; Iran 1,148 km; Kazakhstan 413 km; Uzbekistan 1,793 km
Coastline: 0 km (landlocked); note - Turkmenistan borders the Caspian Sea (1,768 km)
Maritime claims: none (landlocked)
Climate: subtropical desert
Terrain: flat-to-rolling sandy desert with dunes rising to mountains in the south; low mountains along border with Iran; borders Caspian Sea in west
Elevation: highest point: Gora Ayribaba 3,139 m

lowest point: Vpadina Akchanaya (Sarygamysh Koli is a lake in northern Turkmenistan with a water level that fluctuates above and below the elevation of Vpadina Akchanaya, the lake has dropped as low as -110 m) -81 m

mean elevation: 230 m
Natural resources: petroleum, natural gas, sulfur, salt
Land use: agricultural land: 72% (2018 est.)

arable land: 4.1% (2018 est.)

permanent crops: 0.1% (2018 est.)

permanent pasture: 67.8% (2018 est.)

forest: 8.8% (2018 est.)

other: 19.2% (2018 est.)
Irrigated land: 19,950 sq km (2012)
Major lakes (area sq km): Salt water lake(s): Caspian Sea (shared with Iran, Azerbaijan, Russia, and Kazakhstan) - 374,000 sq km
Major rivers (by length in km): Amu Darya (shared with Tajikistan [s], Afghanistan, and Uzbekistan [m]) - 2,620 km
note – [s] after country name indicates river source; [m] after country name indicates river mouth
Major watersheds (area sq km): Internal (endorheic basin) drainage: (Aral Sea basin) Amu Darya (534,739 sq km)
Population distribution: the most densely populated areas are the southern, eastern, and northeastern oases; approximately 50% of the population lives in and around the capital of Ashgabat
Natural hazards: earthquakes; mudslides; droughts; dust storms; floods
Geography - note: landlocked; the western and central low-lying desolate portions of the country make up the great Garagum (Kara-Kum) desert, which occupies over 80% of the country; eastern part is plateau
Map description: Turkmenistan map showing major population centers as well as parts of surrounding countries and the Caspian Sea.Turkmenistan map showing major population centers as well as parts of surrounding countries and the Caspian Sea.

Topic: People and Society
Population: 5,636,011 (2022 est.)

note: some sources suggest Turkmenistan's population could be as much as 1 to 2 million people lower than available estimates because of large-scale emigration during the last 10 years
Nationality: noun: Turkmenistani(s)

adjective: Turkmenistani
Ethnic groups: Turkmen 85%, Uzbek 5%, Russian 4%, other 6% (2003 est.)
Languages: Turkmen (official) 72%, Russian 12%, Uzbek 9%, other 7%

major-language sample(s):
Dünýä Facebooky, esasy maglumat üçin aýrylmaz bir çeşme dir. (Turkmen)

The World Factbook, the indispensable source for basic information.
Religions: Muslim 93%, Christian 6.4%, Buddhist <1%, folk religion <1%, Jewish <1%, other <1%, unspecified <1% (2020 est.)
Age structure: 0-14 years: 25.44% (male 713,441/female 693,042)

15-24 years: 16.48% (male 458,566/female 452,469)

25-54 years: 44.14% (male 1,214,581/female 1,226,027)

55-64 years: 8.56% (male 221,935/female 251,238)

65 years and over: 5.38% (2020 est.) (male 129,332/female 167,996)
Dependency ratios: total dependency ratio: 55.2

youth dependency ratio: 47.8

elderly dependency ratio: 7.4

potential support ratio: 13.5 (2020 est.)
Median age: total: 29.2 years

male: 28.7 years

female: 29.7 years (2020 est.)
Population growth rate: 0.99% (2022 est.)
Birth rate: 17.51 births/1,000 population (2022 est.)
Death rate: 5.95 deaths/1,000 population (2022 est.)
Net migration rate: -1.71 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2022 est.)
Population distribution: the most densely populated areas are the southern, eastern, and northeastern oases; approximately 50% of the population lives in and around the capital of Ashgabat
Urbanization: urban population: 53.5% of total population (2022)

rate of urbanization: 2.23% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.)
Major urban areas - population: 883,000 ASHGABAT (capital) (2022)
Sex ratio: at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female

0-14 years: 1.03 male(s)/female

15-24 years: 1.01 male(s)/female

25-54 years: 0.99 male(s)/female

55-64 years: 0.89 male(s)/female

65 years and over: 0.59 male(s)/female

total population: 0.98 male(s)/female (2022 est.)
Mother's mean age at first birth: 24.2 years (2019)
Maternal mortality ratio: 7 deaths/100,000 live births (2017 est.)
Infant mortality rate: total: 37.62 deaths/1,000 live births

male: 45.76 deaths/1,000 live births

female: 29.07 deaths/1,000 live births (2022 est.)
Life expectancy at birth: total population: 71.83 years

male: 68.8 years

female: 75 years (2022 est.)
Total fertility rate: 2.03 children born/woman (2022 est.)
Contraceptive prevalence rate: 49.7% (2019)
Drinking water source: improved: urban: 100% of population

rural: 100% of population

total: 100% of population

unimproved: urban: 0% of population

rural: 0% of population

total: 0% of population (2020 est.)
Current Health Expenditure: 6.6% (2019)
Physicians density: 2.23 physicians/1,000 population (2014)
Hospital bed density: 4 beds/1,000 population (2014)
Sanitation facility access: improved: urban: 99.8% of population

rural: 99.9% of population

total: 99.8% of population

unimproved: urban: 0.2% of population

rural: 0.1% of population

total: 0.2% of population (2020 est.)
HIV/AIDS - adult prevalence rate: NA
HIV/AIDS - people living with HIV/AIDS: NA
HIV/AIDS - deaths: NA
Obesity - adult prevalence rate: 18.6% (2016)
Tobacco use: total: 5.5% (2020 est.)

male: 10.6% (2020 est.)

female: 0.4% (2020 est.)
Children under the age of 5 years underweight: 3.1% (2019)
Child marriage: women married by age 15: 0.2%

women married by age 18: 6.1% (2019 est.)
Education expenditures: 3.1% of GDP (2019 est.)
Literacy: definition: age 15 and over can read and write

total population: 99.7%

male: 99.8%

female: 99.6% (2015)
School life expectancy (primary to tertiary education): total: 13 years

male: 13 years

female: 13 years (2020)

Topic: Environment
Environment - current issues: contamination of soil and groundwater with agricultural chemicals, pesticides; salination, water logging of soil due to poor irrigation methods; Caspian Sea pollution; diversion of a large share of the flow of the Amu Darya into irrigation contributes to that river's inability to replenish the Aral Sea; soil erosion; desertification
Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Climate Change-Paris Agreement, Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban, Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands

signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements
Air pollutants: particulate matter emissions: 19.02 micrograms per cubic meter (2016 est.)

carbon dioxide emissions: 70.63 megatons (2016 est.)

methane emissions: 52.09 megatons (2020 est.)
Climate: subtropical desert
Land use: agricultural land: 72% (2018 est.)

arable land: 4.1% (2018 est.)

permanent crops: 0.1% (2018 est.)

permanent pasture: 67.8% (2018 est.)

forest: 8.8% (2018 est.)

other: 19.2% (2018 est.)
Urbanization: urban population: 53.5% of total population (2022)

rate of urbanization: 2.23% annual rate of change (2020-25 est.)
Revenue from forest resources: forest revenues: 0% of GDP (2018 est.)
Revenue from coal: coal revenues: 0% of GDP (2018 est.)
Waste and recycling: municipal solid waste generated annually: 500,000 tons (2013 est.)
Major lakes (area sq km): Salt water lake(s): Caspian Sea (shared with Iran, Azerbaijan, Russia, and Kazakhstan) - 374,000 sq km
Major rivers (by length in km): Amu Darya (shared with Tajikistan [s], Afghanistan, and Uzbekistan [m]) - 2,620 km
note – [s] after country name indicates river source; [m] after country name indicates river mouth
Major watersheds (area sq km): Internal (endorheic basin) drainage: (Aral Sea basin) Amu Darya (534,739 sq km)
Total water withdrawal: municipal: 755 million cubic meters (2017 est.)

industrial: 839 million cubic meters (2017 est.)

agricultural: 26.36 billion cubic meters (2017 est.)
Total renewable water resources: 24.765 billion cubic meters (2017 est.)

Topic: Government
Country name: conventional long form: none

conventional short form: Turkmenistan

local long form: none

local short form: Turkmenistan

former: Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic

etymology: the suffix "-stan" means "place of" or "country," so Turkmenistan literally means the "Land of the Turkmen [people]"
Government type: presidential republic; authoritarian
Capital: name: Ashgabat (Ashkhabad)

geographic coordinates: 37 57 N, 58 23 E

time difference: UTC+5 (10 hours ahead of Washington, DC, during Standard Time)

etymology: derived from the Persian words "eshq" meaning "love" and "abad" meaning "inhabited place" or "city," and so loosely translates as "the city of love"
Administrative divisions: 5 provinces (welayatlar, singular - welayat) and 1 independent city*: Ahal Welayaty (Anew), Ashgabat*, Balkan Welayaty (Balkanabat), Dasoguz Welayaty, Lebap Welayaty (Turkmenabat), Mary Welayaty

note: administrative divisions have the same names as their administrative centers (exceptions have the administrative center name following in parentheses)
Independence: 27 October 1991 (from the Soviet Union)
National holiday: Independence Day, 27 October (1991)
Constitution: history: several previous; latest adopted 14 September 2016

amendments: proposed by the Mejlisi; passage requires two-thirds majority vote or absolute majority approval in a referendum; amended several times, last in 2020 (changed legislature to bicameral)
Legal system: civil law system with Islamic (sharia) law influences
International law organization participation: has not submitted an ICJ jurisdiction declaration; non-party state to the ICCt
Citizenship: citizenship by birth: no

citizenship by descent only: at least one parent must be a citizen of Turkmenistan

dual citizenship recognized: yes

residency requirement for naturalization: 7 years
Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal
Executive branch: chief of state: President Serdar BERDIMUHAMEDOW (since 19 March 2022); note - the president is both chief of state and head of government

head of government: President Serdar BERDIMUHAMEDOW (since 19 March 2022)

cabinet: Cabinet of Ministers appointed by the president

elections/appointments: president directly elected by absolute majority popular vote in 2 rounds if needed for a 7-year term (no term limits); election last held on 12 March 2022 (next to be held in 2029); note - on 11 February 2022, President Gurbanguly BERDIMUHAMEDOW announced his intent to retire setting up the early presidential election

election results: 2022: Serdar BERDIMUHAMEDOW elected president; percent of vote - Serdar BERDIMUHAMEDOW 73.0%,  Khydyr NUNNAYEV 11.1%, Agadzhan BEKMYRADOV 7.2%, other 8.7%; note - Serdar BERDIMUHAMEDOW is the son of previous president Gurbanguly BERDIMUHAMEDOW

2017: Gurbanguly BERDIMUHAMEDOW reelected president in the first round; percent of vote - Gurbanguly BERDIMUHAMEDOW (DPT) 97.7%, other 2.3%
Legislative branch: description: bicameral National Council or Milli Genesi consists of:
People's Council or Halk Maslahaty (56 seats; 48 members indirectly elected by provincial councils and 8 members appointed by the president)
Assembly or Mejlisi (125 seats; members directly elected in single-seat constituencies by absolute majority vote in 2 rounds if needed to serve 5-year terms)

note: in September 2020, the Turkmenistani legislature (Milli Genesi) adopted a constitutional amendment creating an upper chamber, making the legislature bicameral; the chairperson of the Halk Maslahaty is now designated as the constitutional successor to the presidency; as of March 2022, Gurbanguly BERDIMUHAMEDOW continues to serve in this position after stepping away from the presidency

elections: People's Council - first held on 28 March 2021 for 48 indirectly elected members (next to be held in 2026); first held on 14 April 2021 for 8 presidentially appointed members (next to be held NA)
Assembly - last held on 25 March 2018 (next to be held NA)

election results: People's Council - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - DPT 3, independent 45; composition - men 42, women 14, percent of women 32.3%
Assembly - percent of vote by party - NA; seats by party - DPT 55, APT 11, PIE 11, independent 48 (individuals nominated by citizen groups); composition (as of March 2018) - men 94, women 31, percent of women 24.8%; note - total percent of National Council percent of women 24.9%
Judicial branch: highest courts: Supreme Court of Turkmenistan (consists of the court president and 21 associate judges and organized into civil, criminal, and military chambers)

judge selection and term of office: judges appointed by the president for 5-year terms

subordinate courts: High Commercial Court; appellate courts; provincial, district, and city courts; military courts
Political parties and leaders: Agrarian Party of Turkmenistan or APT [Basim ANNAGURBANOW]
Democratic Party of Turkmenistan or DPT [Ata SERDAROW]
Party of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs or PIE [Saparmyrat OWGANOW]

note: all of these parties support President BERDIMUHAMEDOW; a law authorizing the registration of political parties went into effect in January 2012; unofficial, small opposition movements exist abroad
International organization participation: ADB, CIS (associate member, has not ratified the 1993 CIS charter although it participates in meetings and held the chairmanship of the CIS in 2012), EAPC, EBRD, ECO, FAO, G-77, IBRD, ICAO, ICRM, IDA, IDB, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, IOC, IOM (observer), ISO (correspondent), ITU, MIGA, NAM, OIC, OPCW, OSCE, PFP, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNHCR, UNIDO, UNWTO, UPU, WCO, WFTU (NGOs), WHO, WIPO, WMO
Diplomatic representation in the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Meret ORAZOV (since 14 February 2001)

chancery: 2207 Massachusetts Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20008

telephone: [1] (202) 588-1500

FAX: [1] (202) 588-1500

email address and website:
turkmenembassyus@verizon.net

https://usa.tmembassy.gov.tm/en
Diplomatic representation from the US: chief of mission: Ambassador Matthew S. KLIMOW (since 26 June 2019)

embassy: 9 1984 Street (formerly Pushkin Street), Ashgabat 744000

mailing address: 7070 Ashgabat Place, Washington, DC 20521-7070

telephone: [993] (12) 94-00-45

FAX: [993] (12) 94-26-14

email address and website:
ConsularAshgab@state.gov

https://tm.usembassy.gov/
Flag description: green field with a vertical red stripe near the hoist side, containing five tribal guls (designs used in producing carpets) stacked above two crossed olive branches; five white, five-pointed stars and a white crescent moon appear in the upper corner of the field just to the fly side of the red stripe; the green color and crescent moon represent Islam; the five stars symbolize the regions or welayats of Turkmenistan; the guls reflect the national identity of Turkmenistan where carpet-making has long been a part of traditional nomadic life

note: the flag of Turkmenistan is the most intricate of all national flags
National symbol(s): Akhal-Teke horse; national colors: green, white
National anthem: name: "Garassyz, Bitarap Turkmenistanyn" (Independent, Neutral, Turkmenistan State Anthem)

lyrics/music: collective/Veli MUKHATOV

note: adopted 1997, lyrics revised in 2008, to eliminate references to deceased President Saparmurat NYYAZOW
National heritage: total World Heritage Sites: 3 (all cultural)

selected World Heritage Site locales: Ancient Merv; Kunya-Urgench; Parthian Fortresses of Nisa

Topic: Economy
Economic overview: Turkmenistan is largely a desert country with intensive agriculture in irrigated oases and significant natural gas and oil resources. The two largest crops are cotton, most of which is produced for export, and wheat, which is domestically consumed. Although agriculture accounts for almost 8% of GDP, it continues to employ nearly half of the country's workforce. Hydrocarbon exports, the bulk of which is natural gas going to China, make up 25% of Turkmenistan’s GDP. Ashgabat has explored two initiatives to bring gas to new markets: a trans-Caspian pipeline that would carry gas to Europe and the Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India gas pipeline. Both face major financing, political, and security hurdles and are unlikely to be completed soon. Turkmenistan’s autocratic governments under presidents NIYAZOW (1991-2006) and BERDIMUHAMEDOW (since 2007) have made little progress improving the business climate, privatizing state-owned industries, combatting corruption, and limiting economic development outside the energy sector. High energy prices in the mid-2000s allowed the government to undertake extensive development and social spending, including providing heavy utility subsidies. Low energy prices since mid-2014 are hampering Turkmenistan’s economic growth and reducing government revenues. The government has cut subsidies in several areas, and wage arrears have increased. In January 2014, the Central Bank of Turkmenistan devalued the manat by 19%, and downward pressure on the currency continues. There is a widening spread between the official exchange rate (3.5 TMM per US dollar) and the black market exchange rate (approximately 14 TMM per US dollar). Currency depreciation and conversion restrictions, corruption, isolationist policies, and declining spending on public services have resulted in a stagnate economy that is nearing crisis. Turkmenistan claims substantial foreign currency reserves, but non-transparent data limit international institutions’ ability to verify this information.Turkmenistan is largely a desert country with intensive agriculture in irrigated oases and significant natural gas and oil resources. The two largest crops are cotton, most of which is produced for export, and wheat, which is domestically consumed. Although agriculture accounts for almost 8% of GDP, it continues to employ nearly half of the country's workforce. Hydrocarbon exports, the bulk of which is natural gas going to China, make up 25% of Turkmenistan’s GDP. Ashgabat has explored two initiatives to bring gas to new markets: a trans-Caspian pipeline that would carry gas to Europe and the Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India gas pipeline. Both face major financing, political, and security hurdles and are unlikely to be completed soon.Turkmenistan’s autocratic governments under presidents NIYAZOW (1991-2006) and BERDIMUHAMEDOW (since 2007) have made little progress improving the business climate, privatizing state-owned industries, combatting corruption, and limiting economic development outside the energy sector. High energy prices in the mid-2000s allowed the government to undertake extensive development and social spending, including providing heavy utility subsidies.Low energy prices since mid-2014 are hampering Turkmenistan’s economic growth and reducing government revenues. The government has cut subsidies in several areas, and wage arrears have increased. In January 2014, the Central Bank of Turkmenistan devalued the manat by 19%, and downward pressure on the currency continues. There is a widening spread between the official exchange rate (3.5 TMM per US dollar) and the black market exchange rate (approximately 14 TMM per US dollar). Currency depreciation and conversion restrictions, corruption, isolationist policies, and declining spending on public services have resulted in a stagnate economy that is nearing crisis. Turkmenistan claims substantial foreign currency reserves, but non-transparent data limit international institutions’ ability to verify this information.
Real GDP (purchasing power parity): $92.33 billion (2019 est.)

$86.86 billion (2018 est.)

$81.787 billion (2017 est.)

note: data are in 2017 dollars
Real GDP growth rate: 6.5% (2017 est.)

6.2% (2016 est.)

6.5% (2015 est.)
Real GDP per capita: $15,500 (2019 est.) note: data are in 2017 dollars

$14,800 (2018 est.) note: data are in 2017 dollars

$14,205 (2017 est.)
GDP (official exchange rate): $40.819 billion (2018 est.)
Inflation rate (consumer prices): 8% (2017 est.)

3.6% (2016 est.)
GDP - composition, by sector of origin: agriculture: 7.5% (2017 est.)

industry: 44.9% (2017 est.)

services: 47.7% (2017 est.)
GDP - composition, by end use: household consumption: 50% (2017 est.)

government consumption: 10% (2017 est.)

investment in fixed capital: 28.2% (2017 est.)

investment in inventories: 0% (2017 est.)

exports of goods and services: 26.2% (2017 est.)

imports of goods and services: -14.3% (2017 est.)
Agricultural products: milk, wheat, cotton, tomatoes, potatoes, watermelons, grapes, sugar beet, beef, rice
Industries: natural gas, oil, petroleum products, textiles, food processing
Industrial production growth rate: 1% (2017 est.)
Labor force: 2.305 million (2013 est.)
Labor force - by occupation: agriculture: 48.2%

industry: 14%

services: 37.8% (2004 est.)
Unemployment rate: 11% (2014 est.)

10.6% (2013)
Population below poverty line: 0.2% (2012 est.)
Gini Index coefficient - distribution of family income: 40.8 (1998)
Household income or consumption by percentage share: lowest 10%: 2.6%

highest 10%: 31.7% (1998)
Budget: revenues: 5.657 billion (2017 est.)

expenditures: 6.714 billion (2017 est.)
Budget surplus (+) or deficit (-): -2.8% (of GDP) (2017 est.)
Public debt: 28.8% of GDP (2017 est.)

24.1% of GDP (2016 est.)
Taxes and other revenues: 14.9% (of GDP) (2017 est.)
Fiscal year: calendar year
Current account balance: -$4.359 billion (2017 est.)

-$7.207 billion (2016 est.)
Exports: $7.458 billion (2017 est.)

$6.987 billion (2016 est.)
Exports - partners: China 82% (2019)
Exports - commodities: natural gas, refined petroleum, crude petroleum, cotton fibers, fertilizers (2019)
Imports: $4.571 billion (2017 est.)

$5.215 billion (2016 est.)
Imports - partners: Turkey 25%, Russia 18%, China 14%, Germany 6% (2019)
Imports - commodities: iron products, harvesting machinery, packaged medicines, broadcasting equipment, tractors (2019)
Reserves of foreign exchange and gold: $24.91 billion (31 December 2017 est.)

$25.05 billion (31 December 2016 est.)
Debt - external: $539.4 million (31 December 2017 est.)

$425.3 million (31 December 2016 est.)
Exchange rates: Turkmenistani manat (TMM) per US dollar -

4.125 (2017 est.)

3.5 (2016 est.)

3.5 (2015 est.)

3.5 (2014 est.)

2.85 (2013 est.)

Topic: Energy
Electricity access: electrification - total population: 100% (2020)
Electricity: installed generating capacity: 5.205 million kW (2020 est.)

consumption: 15,090,300,000 kWh (2019 est.)

exports: 3.2 billion kWh (2019 est.)

imports: 0 kWh (2019 est.)

transmission/distribution losses: 2.892 billion kWh (2019 est.)
Electricity generation sources: fossil fuels: 100% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)

nuclear: 0% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)

solar: 0% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)

wind: 0% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)

hydroelectricity: 0% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)

tide and wave: 0% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)

geothermal: 0% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)

biomass and waste: 0% of total installed capacity (2020 est.)
Coal: production: 0 metric tons (2020 est.)

consumption: 0 metric tons (2020 est.)

exports: 0 metric tons (2020 est.)

imports: 0 metric tons (2020 est.)

proven reserves: 0 metric tons (2019 est.)
Petroleum: total petroleum production: 235,300 bbl/day (2021 est.)

refined petroleum consumption: 153,400 bbl/day (2019 est.)

crude oil and lease condensate exports: 59,900 barrels/day (2018 est.)

crude oil and lease condensate imports: 0 barrels/day (2018 est.)

crude oil estimated reserves: 600 million barrels (2021 est.)
Refined petroleum products - production: 191,100 bbl/day (2015 est.)
Refined petroleum products - exports: 53,780 bbl/day (2015 est.)
Refined petroleum products - imports: 0 bbl/day (2015 est.)
Natural gas: production: 83,622,908,000 cubic meters (2019 est.)

consumption: 45,398,541,000 cubic meters (2019 est.)

exports: 38,224,367,000 cubic meters (2019 est.)

imports: 0 cubic meters (2021 est.)

proven reserves: 11,326,720,000,000 cubic meters (2021 est.)
Carbon dioxide emissions: 109.037 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)

from coal and metallurgical coke: 0 metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)

from petroleum and other liquids: 19.977 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)

from consumed natural gas: 89.06 million metric tonnes of CO2 (2019 est.)
Energy consumption per capita: 330.507 million Btu/person (2019 est.)

Topic: Communications
Telephones - fixed lines: total subscriptions: 717,000 (2020 est.)

subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 12 (2020 est.)
Telephones - mobile cellular: total subscriptions: 9.377 million (2018)

subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 162.86 (2019)
Telecommunication systems: general assessment: the nation of Turkmenistan, which rivals only North Korea for its isolationism, continues to keep its telecom sector along with the broader populace under tight control; the country inched up just one point off the bottom of the world rankings for press and internet freedom in the most recent report from Reporters Without Borders; most social networks in the country are blocked, although locals do have access to the government-developed Biz Byarde (We Are Here) platform released in 2019; all internet users, however, need to identify themselves before logging on, and strict censorship over what can be viewed is in force; the end result is that Turkmenistan has one of the lowest penetration rates for internet access in the world. (2022)

domestic: fixed-line nearly 12 per 100 and mobile-cellular teledensity is about 163 per 100 persons; first telecommunication satellite was launched in 2015 (2019)

international: country code - 993; linked by fiber-optic cable and microwave radio relay to other CIS republics and to other countries by leased connections to the Moscow international gateway switch; an exchange in Ashgabat switches international traffic through Turkey via Intelsat; satellite earth stations - 1 Orbita and 1 Intelsat (2018)

note: the COVID-19 pandemic continues to have a significant impact on production and supply chains globally; since 2020, some aspects of the telecom sector have experienced a downturn, particularly in mobile device production; progress towards 5G implementation has resumed, as well as upgrades to infrastructure; consumer spending on telecom services has increased due to the surge in demand for capacity and bandwidth; the crucial nature of telecom services as a tool for work and school from home is still evident, and the spike in this area has seen growth opportunities for development of new tools and increased services
Broadcast media: broadcast media is government controlled and censored; 7 state-owned TV and 4 state-owned radio networks; satellite dishes and programming provide an alternative to the state-run media; officials sometimes limit access to satellite TV by removing satellite dishes
Internet country code: .tm
Internet users: total: 1,247,940 (2019 est.)

percent of population: 21% (2019 est.)
Broadband - fixed subscriptions: total: 10,000 (2020 est.)

subscriptions per 100 inhabitants: 0.2 (2020 est.)

Topic: Transportation
National air transport system: number of registered air carriers: 1 (2020)

inventory of registered aircraft operated by air carriers: 27

annual passenger traffic on registered air carriers: 2,457,474 (2018)

annual freight traffic on registered air carriers: 16.92 million (2018) mt-km
Civil aircraft registration country code prefix: EZ
Airports: total: 26 (2021)
Airports - with paved runways: total: 21

over 3,047 m: 1

2,438 to 3,047 m: 9

1,524 to 2,437 m: 9

914 to 1,523 m: 2 (2021)
Airports - with unpaved runways: total: 5

1,524 to 2,437 m: 1

under 914 m: 4 (2021)
Heliports: 1 (2021)
Pipelines: 7,500 km gas, 1501 km oil (2013)
Railways: total: 5,113 km (2017)

broad gauge: 5,113 km (2017) 1.520-m gauge
Roadways: total: 58,592 km (2002)

paved: 47,577 km (2002)

unpaved: 11,015 km (2002)
Waterways: 1,300 km (2011) (Amu Darya River and Kara Kum Canal are important inland waterways)
Merchant marine: total: 73

by type: general cargo 6, oil tanker 8, other 59 (2021)
Ports and terminals: major seaport(s): Caspian Sea - Turkmenbasy

Topic: Military and Security
Military and security forces: Armed Forces of Turkmenistan: Land Forces, Navy, Air and Air Defense Forces; Federal Border Guard Service; Ministry of Internal Affairs: Internal Troops (2022)
Military expenditures: 1.9% of GDP (2019 est.) (approximately $1.54 billion)

1.8% of GDP (2018 est.) (approximately $1.45 billion)

1.8% of GDP (2017 est.) (approximately $1.32 billion)

1.8% of GDP (2016 est.) (approximately $1.3 billion)

1.5% of GDP (2015 est.) (approximately $1.1 billion)
Military and security service personnel strengths: information varies; estimated 30,000 active duty troops (25,000 National Army; 1,000 Navy; 4,000 Air and Air Defense Forces) (2022)
Military equipment inventories and acquisitions: the inventory for Turkmenistan's military is comprised largely of older Russian and Soviet-era weapons systems; since 2010, however, it has attempted to diversify and purchased equipment from more than a dozen countries, with Turkey as the top supplier (2022)
Military service age and obligation: 18-30 years of age for compulsory male military service; 2-year conscript service obligation (2.5 years for the Navy); 20 years of age for voluntary service (including females); males may enroll in military schools from age 15 (2022)
Military - note: as of 2022, Turkmenistan continued to pursue a nationalist and isolationist security policy and has declined to participate in post-Soviet military groupings such as the Collective Security Treaty Organization military alliance (CSTO) and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO); however, in September 2020, it participated in a Russian-led multinational military exercise held in southern Russia’s Astrakhan region alongside Russian, Chinese, Pakistani, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Tajik, Uzbek, Mongolian, Syrian, Iranian, Egyptian, Belarusian, Turkish, Armenian, and Azerbaijani contingents as of 2022, Turkmenistan continued efforts to improve its naval capabilities on the Caspian Sea, including expanding ship building capabilities and adding larger vessels to the Navy’s inventory; in 2018, it opened its first naval shipyard and in August 2021, the Navy commissioned its largest warship, a corvette that was jointly constructed with Turkeyas of 2022, Turkmenistan continued to pursue a nationalist and isolationist security policy and has declined to participate in post-Soviet military groupings such as the Collective Security Treaty Organization military alliance (CSTO) and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO); however, in September 2020, it participated in a Russian-led multinational military exercise held in southern Russia’s Astrakhan region alongside Russian, Chinese, Pakistani, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Tajik, Uzbek, Mongolian, Syrian, Iranian, Egyptian, Belarusian, Turkish, Armenian, and Azerbaijani contingentsas of 2022, Turkmenistan continued efforts to improve its naval capabilities on the Caspian Sea, including expanding ship building capabilities and adding larger vessels to the Navy’s inventory; in 2018, it opened its first naval shipyard and in August 2021, the Navy commissioned its largest warship, a corvette that was jointly constructed with Turkey

Topic: Transnational Issues
Disputes - international: Turkmenistan-Azerbaijan: in January 2021, the two countries reached a preliminary agreement on the joint exploration of an undersea hydrocarbon field containing oil and natural gas in the Caspian Sea Turkmenistan-Iran: none identified Turkmenistan-Kazakhstan: Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan signed a treaty on the delimitation and demarcation process in 2001; field demarcation of the boundaries with Kazakhstan commenced in 2005; Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan agreed to their border in the Caspian Sea in 2014 Turkmenistan-Kazakhstan-Uzbekistan: in 2017, the three countries signed an agreement of the junction of their borders Turkmenistan-Uzbekistan: cotton monoculture in Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan creates water-sharing difficulties for Amu Darya river states; in 2021, the two countries reached an agreement to create a joint intergovernmental commission to oversee water managementTurkmenistan-Azerbaijan: in January 2021, the two countries reached a preliminary agreement on the joint exploration of an undersea hydrocarbon field containing oil and natural gas in the Caspian SeaTurkmenistan-Iran: none identifiedTurkmenistan-Kazakhstan: Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan signed a treaty on the delimitation and demarcation process in 2001; field demarcation of the boundaries with Kazakhstan commenced in 2005; Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan agreed to their border in the Caspian Sea in 2014Turkmenistan-Kazakhstan-Uzbekistan: in 2017, the three countries signed an agreement of the junction of their bordersTurkmenistan-Uzbekistan: cotton monoculture in Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan creates water-sharing difficulties for Amu Darya river states; in 2021, the two countries reached an agreement to create a joint intergovernmental commission to oversee water management
Refugees and internally displaced persons: stateless persons: 4,107 (mid-year 2021)
Trafficking in persons: current situation: Turkmenistan is a source, and to a much lesser degree, destination country for men, women, and children who are subjected to forced labor and sex trafficking; Turkmen in search of work in other countries are forced to work in textile sweatshops, construction, and domestic service; some Turkmen women and girls are sex trafficked abroad; Turkey is the primary trafficking destination, followed by Russia, India, and other countries in the Middle East, South and Central Asia, and Europe; labor trafficking occurs within Turkmenistan, particularly in the construction industry; government officials require employees in private sector institutions, soldiers, and public sector workers to pick cotton without payment under the threat of penalty, such as dismissal, reduced work hours, or salary deductions to meet government-imposed quotas for the cotton harvest

tier rating: Tier 3 — Turkmenistan does not fully meet the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking and is not making significant efforts to do so; the government approved the 2020-2022 national action plan, continued anti-trafficking awareness campaigns, worked with international organizations on combating trafficking, provided training to its diplomatic corps on human trafficking, and identified potential trafficking victims at the international airport; however, the  government used forced labor in the cotton harvest and public works projects; no officials were held accountable for their role in trafficking crimes; authorities did not prosecute or convict any traffickers; no victims were identified and offered protection or assistance programs (2020)
Illicit drugs: transit country for Afghan opiates to Turkish, Russian, and European markets, either directly from Afghanistan or through Iran; not a major producer or source country for illegal drugs or precursor chemicals  transit country for Afghan opiates to Turkish, Russian, and European markets, either directly from Afghanistan or through Iran; not a major producer or source country for illegal drugs or precursor chemicals