## CULTURE AND HISTORY Nr. 04 Juni 2021

## Racial depictions in visual culture during World War One

A transnational comparative study

Af: Christian Kofoed Hansen og Gustav Simonsen Historie

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ABSTRACT: How can we understand British depictions of the German 'race', if they are understood as belonging to the same racial category? We argue that an analysis of racial depictions must be based on historical  and  cultural  understandings.  We  present  'race'  as  an  all-encompassing,  flexible  historical phenomenon, that includes cultural racism. We found that cultural and biological racism overlapped, working in tandem to create a single depiction within a spectrum of culturally or biologically based racial stereotypes.  We  argue  that  racialized  stereotypes  were  deployed  in  both  intra-white  and  non-white 1 depictions  depending  on  the  desired  function  of  the  propaganda  resulting  in  both  positive  or/and negative portrayals that worked mainly in consolidating the Self and Othering the enemy - with the exception of white depictions of non-white soldiers often showcasing Othering exotic elements.

NØGLEORD: racism, stereotypes, propaganda, World War One, visual culture.

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## CULTURE AND HISTORY Nr. 04 Juni 2021

## Introduction

In this article, we argue that notions of 'race' were used in flexible ways in creating the Self and Other in propagandistic messages during World War I (WWI). This strategy was deployed in both intra-white and non-white depictions depending on the desired function of the propaganda resulting in both positive or/and negative portrayals. Cultural and biological racism was merged seamlessly in creating the desired stereotypical depictions. 'Race' was thus a crucial tool in alienating an enemy or  consolidating  bonds  between  brothers  in  arms.  Central  for  this  paper  is  the  notion,  that examining the stereotypical racializing that took place between and within members of similar and different  race  categories  (intra-whites  and  non-white)  requires  a  broad  definition  of  race  which includes both biological and cultural racism.

Conceptions of 'race' played an essential role in contemporary Europe's consciousness. However, the conceptual understanding and definition of 'race' as such was characterized by interchangeability and flexibility. 'Race' could imply numerous different meanings and was thus notoriously difficult to  define.  It  was  not  exclusively  associated  with  skin  color  but  could  also  be  found  in  terms  of physical characteristics, environment, languages, behavior, and even ethnicity, nationality, and social classes. 2

Racial  depictions  flourished  in  posters,  magazine  front  pages,  caricatures,  and  postcards  during WWI and partook in the shaping and creation of a racialized world.  In recent decades, WWI posters have  moved  from  the  periphery  to  the  center  of  contemporary  scholarly  inquiry.  They  now constitute a field of cultural discursive research with a contextualizing and interpreting gaze (James 2009: 374-75). This coincided with an 'interdisciplinary turn' in the historiography of WWI making it  a  more  challenging  and  rewarding  field  of  study  than  it  once  was.  Especially  attention  to traditionally  overlooked  source  material  such  as  mass  cultural  war  posters  has  led  to  a  renewed interest in WWI (James 2009: 14). Also, the increased emphasis in the humanities on the 'visual turn' has gained increasing prominence since the 1990s.

2 For a wider discussion of 'race' see leading scholars: Santanu Das, Race, Empire and First World War Writing (Cambridge, 2011); Richard Fogarty, Race and War in France: Colonial Subjects in the French Army, 1914-1918 (Baltimore, MD, 2008); Glenford Howe, Race, War and Nationalism: A Social History of West Indians in the First World War (Kingston, 2002); Joe Lunn, Memoirs of the Maelstrom: A Senegalese Oral History of the First World War (Portsmouth, NH, 1999); David Omissi, The Sepoy and the Raj: The Indian Army 1860-1940 (London, 1994); David Omissi, Indian Voices of the Great War: Soldiers' Letters, 1914-18 (New York, 1999); Richard Smith, Jamaican Volunteers in the First World War: Race, Masculinity and the Development of National Consciousness (Manchester, 2004); Timothy Winegard, Indigenous Peoples of the British Dominions and the First World War (Cambridge, 2012).

## CULTURE AND HISTORY Nr. 04 Juni 2021

The publication of Maurice Rickard's now-classic Posters of the First World War (1968) 3 marked the starting signal of the inquiry of the WWI posters. In the wake of Rickard's 1968 study, several works have been occupied with WWI posters (James 2009: 3). Today, the inquiry of the posters constitutes a large field of research. 4 However, many studies rely solely on a national narrative, that is, an exclusive focus on a single nation's poster culture as a source basis. Also, quite a few studies are  repetitive  and  selective  in  their  sources  of  posters  only  analyzing  the  same  handful  thereby creating a somewhat distorted and repetitive consensus not making use of the seemingly endless supply  of  now  available  posters.  Obviously,  different  studies  have  different  thematic  scholarly interests leaving 'race' as one of many. However, to our knowledge, there has not been a systematic, (multi) transnational, and comparative study of 'race' depicted in visual culture.

The early biological mode of thought, or naturalism, was developed in the 17 th and 18 th centuries. Although initially being almost purely somatic, later theorists added psychological characteristics to the categorizations. In the 19 th century, with the rise of nationalism, 'race' as a concept was used to describe  the  groups  of  peoples  belonging  to  nations,  so-called  national  racism.  This  mode  of thought focused on what was seen as the innate and fixed physical and intellectual make-up of peoples 'belonging' to a nation. Within this system of race-thought, and especially during WWI, the 'national races' within the 'Caucasian race' were ranked in terms of moral character and capability creating  a  race  hierarchy  which  coexisted  with  the  naturalist/biological  race  hierarchy  (Blum 2020:5). Overall, this type of national racism worked well in tandem with biological/naturalist racethinking, with regards to rationalizing subjugation, colonization and stereotyping - as will be shown in  the  analysis  of  the  propaganda posters. Even though racial thinking did move toward a more biological understanding by the early 20th century emphasizing physical features, the 19 th century conceptions of 'race' in terms of national and ethnic differences had not disappeared during WWI. 5

3 Maurice Rickards (1968).

4 For major works in this field see also: Joseph Darracott, The First World War in Posters from the Imperial War Museum, London (New York: Dover, 1974); Peter Paret, Beth Irwin Lewis, and Paul Paret, eds., Persuasive Images: Posters of the War and Revolution from the Hoover Institution Archives (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992); Peter Stanley, ed., What Did You Do in the War, Daddy? A Visual History of Propaganda Posters (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983); Libby Chenault, Battlelines: World War I Posters from the Bowman Gray Collection (Chapel Hill nc: University of North Carolina, 1988); Rémy Paillard, Affiches 14-18 (Paris: Rémy Paillard, 1986); Walton H. Rawls, Wake Up, America! World War I and the American Poster (New York: Abbeville Press, 1988); James Aulich, War Posters: Weapons of Mass Communication (New York: Thames and Hudson, 2007); and James Aulich and John Hewitt, Seduction or Instruction? First World War Posters in Britain and Europe (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2007); Pearl James, ed., Picture This: World War I Posters and Visual Culture, Studies in War, Society, and the Military (Lincoln; London: University of Nebraska Press, 2009); Celia M. Kingsbury, For Home and Country: World War I Propaganda on the Home Front. (Lincoln: UNP - Nebraska, 2010). For specifically American visual sources see:  David M. Lubin, Grand Illusions : American Art and the First World War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016).

5 Richard Standish Fogarty (2008).

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## Juni 2021

In  fact,  intra-European  racism  increased.  The  Germans,  for  example,  were  often  portrayed  as racially non-European (Das 2011: 10-12).

We see the term and concept 'race' as a social construct, which entails that it is historically and culturally founded. Within culturalism (cultural racism), negative race-characteristics are understood as a result of the culture of those belonging to a traditional race group. The culture from which the alleged issues stem is seen as immutable and inherited by the next generation.  In the 19th century, with the rise of nationalism, 'race' as a concept was used to describe the groups of peoples belonging to nations, so-called national racism. This mode of thought was more focused on what was seen as the innate and fixed physical and intellectual make-up of peoples 'belonging' to a nation. Within this system of race-thought, and especially during WWI, the 'Caucasian races' were internally ranked in terms of moral character and capability which can be viewed as cultural racism (Blum 2020: 5). The terms and concepts of biological and cultural racism will serve to qualify the different types of racial stereotypes found in the visual culture and explains the connection between race and cultural stereotypes where overlapping race-thoughts will be shown as prevalent.

How does one 'read' visual culture, what is culture, and what is propaganda? Firstly, we categorize propaganda as a specific type of communication:

'Propaganda is the deliberate, systematic attempt to shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct behavior to achieve a response that furthers the desired intent of the propagandist.' (Jowett & O'Donnell 2012: 7)

This definition contains a special emphasis on three key elements of propaganda, the first is the nature of the 'attempt' - since this means communication can qualify as propaganda even if it fails in achieving the desired effects. The second element is the deliberate element of propaganda, the message is carefully planned. This insight indicates that official propaganda depictions that promote a  well-thought-out concept of race and culture contain certain intentions of the state. The third relates  further  to  the  deliberation  of  the  message  and  is  the  systematic  aspect,  which  entails  an organized  regularity  of  the  message(s)  (Jowett  &  O'Donnell  2012:  6-8).  If  similar  themes  and depictions are commonly spread in propaganda, this signals that greater propaganda campaigns are at play. Culture is essential to understanding the creation and communication of meaning. Meaning is created by the sender and created in the interpretation by the receiver (Hall 1997: 2). Semiotics as a theory examines the way we create meaning, and how we communicate it. Within the field of semiotics, signs are understood as '[…] anything that can be used to stand for something else, whether that something else actually exists or not.' (Berger 2016: 52). A semiotic theoretical framework is therefore concerned  with  looking  at  signs  with  regards  to  the  relationship  between  denotations  (what  is DESTROY

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described) and connotations (what the described means) (Baines & O'Shaughnessy 2014: 170). In communication when a message gets produced, circulated, and interpreted, the message is encoded in  the  production,  and  reproduced  in  the  interpretation  via  decoding  (Hall  et  al.  1980:  118).

This  paper  is  based  on  79  visual  sources  (posters,  postcards,  cartoons  and  magazine  covers) depicting race, that sadly cannot be reproduced in their full length. However, we employ a 'tip-ofthe-iceberg-principle' showcasing a tiny albeit representative selection of posters that is part of a larger phenomenon. Our analysis is based on sources created by the major powers: Britain, France, Russia as well as Germany. 6

## Racial depictions

Firstly, we look at sources from the USA, Britain, Russia, and France, depicting negative stereotypes of the Germans or the Austro-Hungarians  seeing  how  the  depiction  can  be  plotted into  a  spectrum  ranging  from  primarily  biological  racism  to cultural racism. This is especially the case with Allied depictions of the German 'race'.

Our first example, a 1917 American recruitment poster titled 'Destroy This Mad Brute - Enlist' (fig. 1), 7 depicts a German invader. A denotative reading reveals a roaring mustached ape wearing  a  Pickelhaube  stating  'Militarism'  who  is  walking straight towards the spectator, setting foot on American soil. In  his  right  hand  he  is  carrying  a  blooded  club  engraved 'Kultur', in his left arm

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## CULTURE AND HISTORY Nr. 04 Juni 2021

a young, bare-breasted woman. The background of the eerie greenish scenery reveals the ruin of a cathedral  in  a  wasted  landscape  across  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  more  interesting  connotative meanings shall now be explored. If we look at the movement of the main subject, the 'German ape' we see that he has just emerged from his trans-Atlantic journey from Europe which he has laid in ruins. The monkey-like creature itself symbolizes the biological backwardness indicating that the German 'race' as a whole is an unevolved human ancestor. The revealed fangs and bloodied fists show  the  ferocity  and  beast-like  nature  of  the  Germans.  In  this  case,  the  iconic  Pickelhaube figuratively (and literally) carries the connotations of the Prussian archaic militarism. The bloodied club  of  'Kultur'  further  carries  meanings  of  the  uncivilized  and  decadent  German  culture;  so primitive that it is best represented by a caveman-like club, which has been used to brutally kill American allies. The innocent young American woman firmly grasped in the monkey's hands is an expression of German deviant sexuality. The defenselessness and purity of the virgin-like blonde is about to be defiled, breaking with Christian civilized sexual morals. The immoral sexuality of the German raping beast conveys the pathologizing nature of the German culture.

The  themes  of  ogre-like  apes  wielding  primitive  clubs  and swords are contrasted by, for example, a British cartoon (fig. 2). 8 The cartoon shows two Pickelhaube-wearing chimpanzees, flying a bomber aircraft over a major European city,  one  of  them  about  to  drop  several  bombs  on  the defenseless  civilian  target.  Showing  the  dangers  of  mere German  apes  wielding  the  destructive  technology  of  the civilized world - from which they are excluded. Still naked, the monkeys are only wearing helmets, the cartoon plays into the animalistic and bestial Other of the German race. A French postcard (fig.  3) 9 somewhat  humanizes  the  German-ape by showing a laughing stereotypical ape-like German wearing a

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uniform and wielding a rifle - i.e., being dressed and armed like an ordinary soldier. This poster, therefore, shows the melding of cultural and biologically based stereotypes, by merging the civilized style of a military uniform with the 'apelike nature of the German race'.

8 Fig. 2, W. Dyson, 'Wonders of science', in the Daily Mail January 1, 1915. Place made: London, England. From: http://fulltable.dyndns.org/VTS/aoi/d/dyson/5.jpeg

9 Fig. 3. Wada, 'La bête féroce sent venir la faim', postcard, 1915, Place made: Paris, France From: https://www.historyhit.com/app/uploads/2020/07/belgian-ant-german-poster-1.jpg

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However,  ape-like  depictions  of  the  Germans  were  not  the only  way  of  alienating  the  German  race  from  a  European biological belonging. Some posters claimed that the Germans were  'Huns'  indicating  that  the  race  was  inferior,  nonEuropean, and of Asiatic origin.  An American poster (fig. 4) 10 reading 'Beat Back the Hun' displays a giant German soldier staring like a predator at his next victim with sickly, luminouslooking green eyes across the Atlantic. His macabre bayonet and hand are covered in fresh blood wetting the remains of a smoldering cathedral which he has just laid in ruins. 11

Although many Allied depictions of the German race took the form  of  primitive  animals,  some  posters  portrayed  them  as

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more  human-looking,  albeit  still  very  raw  and  uncivilized.  Correspondingly,  the  type  of  racism against the Germans increasingly turned away from biological racism into culturalism concurrently with their increasingly human appearance. Both the British poster fig. 5 12 and the French poster fig. 6 13 show  the  transition  of  a  German  soldier  into  a  German  businessman.  They  underline  the atrocities  that  he  commits  during  service,  such  as  destroying  cultural  landmarks,  child-killing, molestation of women, and the torture of a POW. The clear message of not commencing business with the Germans in the future, here clearly relies on conveying that the German race as a whole is militaristic and evil. In the recruitment Australian poster fig. 7 14 the racial stereotype of the Germans functions as a means to alienate and Other the German enemy, whilst at the same time underlining the immediate threat. The official recruitment poster depicts a German invasion of Australia. We see a German squadron that is in the midst of executing civilians and pillaging an Australian village.

10 Fig. 4, F. Strothmann, 'Beat Back the Hun with Liberty Bonds', 1918, Poster, Place made: USA. From: https://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/25800

11 The 1914 destruction of the cathedral in Rheims, France cemented the link between the Germans and the 'Huns'. For more details on the German 'Hun' see: Nicoletta F. Gullace, 'Barbaric Anti-Modernism: Representations of the 'Hun' in Britain, North America, Australia, and Beyond', in Pearl James ( 2009).

12

Fig. 5. D. Wilson, 'Once a German - always a German!', 1918, Poster, Place made: Sponsor: British Empire Union,

Printer:The Globe Printing Co Ltd., London, England. From:https://www.warmuseum.ca/collections/artifact/1026818/

13 Fig. 6. F. L. Gottlob, 'REMEMBER!', unknown date, Poster, Place made, Author: La Ligue Souvenez-Vous, printer: Atelier F Gottlob, Paris, France. From: https://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/11163

14 Fig. 7.  N.A.W. Lindsay, 'Will you fight now or wait for This', 1918, Poster, place made, Author: Commonwealth Government of Australia, Printer: W E Smith Ltd., New South Wales, Sydney, Australia. From: https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/ARTV00079/

ing away an Australian

le Germans in this

ent from the white

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Further, two German soldiers are dragging away an Australian woman, employing molestation. The Germans in this depiction are not biologically different from the white Australians, but they are shown as barbaric and Other through their actions. Dollars Dollars

Solang Dollars

The Central Powers used racism as means of alienating the enemy,  in  a  fundamentally  different  way  than  the  Entente. Instead of primarily using biological racism by depicting white foes as biologically backward the Germans generally employed culturalism against the enemy states as such or its leaders. For this  purpose,  Central  Powers  drew  mainly  on  allegories  and myths. Fig. 8 15 is a perfect example of this type of depiction. In  this  German  war  bond  poster,  US  President  Woodrow Wilson is about to be penetrated by a spear-wielding German soldier.  The  round-framed  granny  glasses,  pointy  nose,  and water-combed  hair  indicate  that  the  venom-spewing  mouth belongs  to  the  American  president.  Wilson's  red  skin  and angel-wings imply that he is like Satan. At the same time, he guards  sacks  of  dollars  with  his  dragon-foot,  playing  to  the mythological tale of the dragon guarding a treasure. The visual component  of  the  poster  is  further  supported  by  a  rhyme, squarely  focused  on  President  Wilson's  scoundrel-like  acts. This poster, as opposed to the Allied posters of the German race as a whole, depicts just President Wilson and demonizes Дит Brüde! ofiner gand TURQVIE

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him as a person or leader rather than referring to the American people. Another interesting set of cases are the German magazine front page fig. 9 16 and the poster and postcard fig. 10 17 where the British Empire is embodied by a giant spider spinning its web over much of Europe and the entire

15 Fig. 8.  B. Clauss, '3. Armee', 1917, Poster, Printer: Mainzer Verlagsanstalt, Place made: Mainz, Germany. From: https://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/5156

16 Fig. 9. E. von Baumgarten, 'L'Entente Cordiale', 1915, poster and postcard. Place made: Unknown. From: https://digital.library.cornell.edu/catalog/ss:19343435

17 Fig. 10, J. Loewenstein, Trans: 'The Great Cleansing Process', 1914, Magazine frontpage, publisher: Der Brummer, Berlin. From: http://barronmaps.com/products/der-brummer-lustige-kriegs-blatter-nr-4-1914/

3. ARMEE.

Wir

Barbaren!"

Analphabeten

(1913)

Ausgaben

Crhulweien

yur

(1913)

Bücher

(1912)

Ergeugung

Sabri.

Leiftungen

Cozial-

Verficherung

100

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320

globe.  In  the  former  poster  and  postcard,  the  Germans reinforce the propaganda message of Imperial Britain's aggressive territorial ambitions highlighting that they were warcausing. Each  of the spider's legs holds on to British possessions of Gibraltar, Malta, and Egypt while a fourth leg is  being  spiked  by  the  Islamic  half-moon  on  an  Istanbul mosque. Next to the wounded leg in the Dardanelles Street is a British shipwreck symbolizing the failed Gallipoli campaign of 1915. A webbed Uncle Sam representing America is being forcibly  dragged  into  the  conflict  by  the  spider's  leg  among other  dominion  and  colonial  troops  connoting  the  racially inherent British warmongering.

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However, a few Central Power depictions of the enemy took the shape of human soldiers. A German postcard fig. 11 18 shows two homeless-looking Russian border-soldiers in torn uniforms. They  have  just  woken  up,  probably  after  a  heavy  night  of  drinking,  on  a  grass  field.  Yet,  their incompetence is more a result of the Russian alcohol culture rather than race. The last Germanmade poster, depicting 'whites' is fig. 12. 19 In  this  poster  we  see  the  statistical  representation  of illiterates among the recruits of Germany, England, and France. The size of the cartoon representing the recruits of the nation corresponds to the amount of illiterates. The French recruits are depicted both as a white-Frenchmen and a dark colonial troop who are both having great issues reading. This type of racial depiction builds on a type of 'scientific' racism, where statistical information is used to form the portrayals of races. The said 'races' are both culturally based (the peoples of the white nations are seen as different races) and biologically based (deformities and skin color is emphasized).

Germany's national propaganda campaign was to some extent a defensive attempt to ward off Allied biological and cultural racist accusations of them being backward barbarians and bloodthirsty Huns and uncivilized in their culture. 20 This was reflected in the portrayal of themselves as attempting to underscore the diametrical opposite of their racial qualities. An excellent example countering these

18 Fig. 11, W. Trier, 'Russiche Grenzsoldaten', 1914, postcard, Place made: Germany. From: https://www.dhm.de/lemo/bestand/objekt/96003685

19 Fig. 12, Unknown, 'Analphabeten', Unknown year, poster, Place made: Germany. From: https://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/29047

20 For a similar conclusion see: Jakub Kazecki og Jason Lieblang, 'Regression versus Progression: Fundamental Differences in German and American Posters of the First World War', in Pearl James (2009).

2. Seit.

reiß 10 jennig.

Feinde ringsum!

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Allied accusations is seen in the German poster with the title 'Wir Barbaren!' (fig. 13) 21 in ironic quotation marks which was a part of a design-series of which fig. 12 also belongs. This pronouncedly schematic and informative poster reveals a diagram statistically comparing literacy rates, education spendings, book production, social care spendings, and scientific Nobel prizes between Germany, Britain, and France. At the bottom of the poster, famous German figures are shown. These selected parameters show that Germany is taking an enormous lead in every positive aspect. Another similar attempt building directly on the same narrative - parrying Allied 'barbaric' accusations - is seen in fig.  14 22 once  again  quoting  'Deutsche  'Barbaren''  -  an  obvious  ironic  quotation.  Two  lifeless French soldiers lying where they fell on the ground indicates that a battle has just taken place in the twilight. A fatherly German soldier is helping a wounded, limping French soldier by letting him rest his  weakened  body  up  against  his  shoulder  while  they  are  walking  away  from  the  scene.  The connotations of these posters are clear: The Germans are proved not to be barbaric and uncivilized

Huns - quite contrary they are the leading people of Europe spearheading progress, knowledge, and civilization drawing on a long and proud history of cultural achievements and leading historical personalities.

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In his Chicago-studio E.G. Renesch has produced a fascinating design series telling an interesting connected story. In the poster titled 'Duty Calls' (fig. 15 23 ), a white American soldier is farewelling his wife or fiancé in the front garden of their suburban house. In Renesch's fig. 16 24 poster the same American soldiers have been dropped off in France and are fearlessly marching towards a distant frontline engulfed in a flaming hell. French regiments of soldiers stand by saluting the by-marching Americans accompanied by General Pershing and Uncle Sam. In fig. 17 25 the American regiment is storming the German lines under the title 'Over the Top' with heads held high alongside their British and French allies. In fig. 18 26 the brave American soldier has made his way back to his wife and child sitting in a rocking chair in front of a fireplace in a middle-class home completing the narrative of the hero's journey. The connotations of this interconnected story reflect the civilized values  encoded  in  the  depiction  of  the  racially  white  American  soldier.  While  being  the  caring paternalistic pillar of a nuclear family he also carries the same gentleman-values and he is a noble warrior - a national hero, too. The national hero narrative comes to life through strong connotative symbolism in Renesch's posters. Besides the mentioned color symbolism in fig. 15 referring to the American flag embodying the scene as America itself, Uncle Sam is inspecting the troops in fig. 16 once  again  underscoring  the  national  embodiment.  The  framed  picture  of  George  Washington, curtained with American flags hanging above the fireplace in fig. 18 is yet another example that showcases the almost religious symbolism regarding the founding fathers. Interestingly enough, the

23 Fig. 15, E.G. Renesch, 'Duty Calls' 1917, poster, Place made: Chicago, USA. From: https://libwww.freelibrary.org/digital/item/51012

24 Fig. 16, E.G. Renesch, 'Pershing in France', 1917, poster, Place made: Chicago, USA. From:

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pershing\_in\_France,\_by\_E.G.\_Renesch.jpg

25 Fig. 17, E.G. Renesch, 'Over the Top', 1918, poster, Place made: Chicago, USA. From:

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Over\_the\_Top\_(1918),\_by\_E.G.\_Renesch.jpg

26 Fig. 18, E.G. Renesch, 'Soldier's Return', 1918, poster, Place made: Chicago, USA. From: https://postermuseum.com/products/soldiers-return-666

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A. Limel

marching American soldiers are portrayed with their fellow racially white British and French allies - not a single non-white is to be seen - playing well into the deeply segregated society of America. This highlights the racial brotherhood and equality between them in a perfectly white entity all as one.

Renesch created a pendant series to the aforementioned fig. 14, fig. 18, and fig. 17. While only minor  variation  in  the  mise  en  scène  changed,  Renesch  carried  out  a  racial  replacement  of  the subjects portrayed indeed highlighting the flexible function of 'race'. The exact same narrative of the hero's journey now featured a black American soldier. JE SONS OF FREEDOM

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In  fig.  19 27 titled  'Colored  Man  is  No  Slacker'  (replacing  the  'Duty  Calls'  on  fig.  15),  a  black American soldier is parting with his wife once again in a suburban front yard. His regiment made up entirely of black soldiers is marching by the parting scene. In the next chapter (fig. 20) 28,29 of the hero's journey, a regiment  consisting  entirely of black American  soldiers  are  successfully overwhelming  the  German  front  line.  Renesch  baptized  this  poster  'True  Sons  of  Freedom'' replacing the 'Over the Top' title on fig. 17. However, Renesch also added further text in addition to the title: 'Colored Men. The First Americans Who Planted Our Flag on the Firing Line' is written next  to  three  black  soldiers  forcing  two  greying  and  retirement-ready  looking  Germans  with unmistakable Pickelhauben to surrender. In the top right corner the quote 'Liberty and Freedom

27 Fig. 19, E.G. Renesch, 'Colored Man is no Slacker', 1918, poster, Place made: Chicago, USA. From: https://libwww.freelibrary.org/digital/item/50464

28 Fig. 20, C. Gustrine, 'True Sons of Freedom', 1918, poster, Place made: Chicago, USA.

From:https://www.loc.gov/resource/ppmsca.18640/

29 Although fig. 20 is made by another artist the style and motif match with fig. 17. In addition, its Chicago-origin supports our strong suspicion that this was made in collaboration with Renesch.

## CULTURE AND HISTORY Nr. 04 Juni 2021

Shall Not Perish' signed 'A. Lincoln'' is written on a giant God-like figure of Abraham Lincoln watching over the soldiers. In fig. 21, 30 very much resembling fig. 18, a black mother and her three children are gazing at a portrait of their uniformed husband and father hanging above the fireplace. The  family's awarded  Service  Flag is hanging  in the window  underscoring  their  military commitment. Next to the portrait, two minor portraits reveal the faces of George Washington and President  Wilson.  Above  right,  a  large  portrait  of  Lincoln  is  dwarfing  the  other  pictures.  The absence of the black soldier himself indicates that the scenery is not a 'Soldier's Return' as in fig. 18. Although his absence could be explained by him serving on the front, more likely he died in battle. The black soldier has made his ultimate sacrifice to the service of his country by dedicating his life, making him a 'True Blue'. The strong connotations of these posters are unmistakable: The black American soldiers were indeed at least, if not even more, as good soldiers as a white soldier. The repeated use of the American flag alongside its colors symbolically represented in clothing and flowers  make  the  black  soldier  the  incarnation  of  the  USA;  the  national  hero.  In  this  aspect, Renesch's black soldier is astonishingly racially equal, and yet very segregated, to his peer white American soldier: They are both national heroes undergoing the exact same struggles and sufferings for their country. 31

In some respects, the black soldier is even surpassing his white American peer in bravery making him racially even more suited for battle. This is especially spelled out in fig. 20 reading 'Colored Men. The First Americans Who Planted Our Flag on the Firing Line'. In fig. 20, the black soldiers are  also  closer  to  disarming  their  German  foes,  while  the  white  soldiers  are  still  storming  the Germans in the fig. 17 pendant, making the venture of the black soldiers look more successful. Also, the Pickelhaube hanging above the fireplace in fig. 21 is taken from an enemy he has slain in battle; a feature not present in the white fig. 18 counterpart. In addition, the fallen black soldier who has not returned in fig. 21, unlike his white counterpart in fig. 18, once more emphasizes the militant bravery of blacks Renesch's posters present the idea that black soldiers' have exceptional combat skills and portrays them as a warrior race. 32 They are some of the best warriors of the USA due  to  their  racial  qualities.    However,  despite  being  a  pendant  series,  minor  details  in  the scenography and the choice of titles keeps Renesch's black soldiers very segregated from his white

30 Fig. 21, E.G. Renesch, 'True Blue', 1919, poster, Place made: Chicago, USA. From:

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:True\_Blue\_(1919),\_by\_E.G.\_Renesch.jpg

31 Contrasting the heroic depictions of colored Americans is the fact that several race related lynchings of colored people took place in 1919, including several victims wearing military uniforms. See: David M. Lubin (2016) p. 254-263 for an analysis of the tragic contrast.

32 An ideology of recruiting based on the perceived combat qualifications of certain 'races' making some more suited for battle than others. The British designation for this policy and theory was 'martial race', whereas the French was 'Les Races Guerrières':  Joe Lunn (1999), 517-36.

## CULTURE AND HISTORY Nr. 04 Juni 2021

brother in arms despite going through the same hero's journey. The black soldiers are segregated at the front. Whereas his white American brother in arms fights along with British and French forces in fig. 17, the blacks are left to their own fate in the fig. 20 pendant. However, even though the black soldiers are physically separated from their white fellow countrymen, they are inseparably tied in  spirit.  The  imagery  of  Lincoln  in  fig.  20  and  fig.  21.  alludes  to  the  abolition  of  slavery  and represents  rights  for  minorities,  freedom,  and  liberty.  In  fig.  20,  the  black  soldiers  are  even embodying the spirit of Lincoln appearing as their guardian angel; they are indeed 'True Sons of Freedom'. 33 In fig. 21, the presidential row of pearls composed of Washington, Lincoln, and Wilson display the backbone of America whom the blacks champion: A fight for freedom and liberty and thus the soul of the USA. 34 LE CONFLIT EUROPEEN EN 1914

The depiction of the black soldier as being a warrior race was also  a  common theme in French propaganda. In the fig. 22 35 postcard,  a  black  French  colonial  soldier  is  retaining  Kaiser Wilhelm  and  Franz  Joseph  securely  under  his  arms  while  a confident  and  laughing  expression  on  his  face  suggests  the easiness of this imprisonment. The black soldier is portrayed in a civilized manner  with  his fancy colonial uniform. His impressive height and well-proportioned body underscore that he is an excellent soldier in great contrast to the weak and fragile trapped  emperors.  The  French  also  portrayed  their  North African colonial subjects in a racially positive fashion although differently  than  their  black  subjects.  fig.  23 36 displays  two Moroccans decorating beautiful pottery. Their power of

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concentration and calm temper resulting in beautiful pottery reveals their civilized character traits.

33 See also C.4 where the tie between black soldiers and Lincoln and the Emancipation Proclamation plays a part in furthering the promotion of the civil rights of black people.

34 For an excellent study of colored Americans and propaganda posters see: James D. Keene, 'Images of Racial Pride: African American Propaganda Poster in the First World War', in Pearl James (2009). For colored American soldiers in a wider context see: Stephen L. Harris, Harlem's Hellfighters: The African-American

369th Infantry in World War I (Dulles va: Brassey's, 2003); Arthur E. Barbeau and Florette Henri, The Unknown Soldiers: African-American Troops in World War I (New York: Da Capo Press, 1996).

35 Fig. 22, F. Régamey. 'Le conflit européen en 1914 : les voilà, les deux qui voulaient dévorer l'Europe', Trans: The European conflict in 1914 / Here they are, the two who wanted to devour Europe

Ca. 1914-1918, Postcard, Ernest Le Deley, Albin Michel, ELD brand, Paris, France.

From: https://archives.haute-garonne.fr/ark:/44805/vtad13b9572911551cb

36 Fig. 23, J. de la Néziere, 'Exposition d'art Marocain', 1917, poster, Place made: Paris, France. From: https://www.loc.gov/resource/cph.3f04077/

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The Terror by Night: Our Gurkhas at Work

## CULTURE AND HISTORY Nr. 04 Juni 2021

fig. 24 37 shows a French Algerian colonial troop departing his wife and child. He looks decent in his uniform and possesses loving character traits shown in the caring hug of his wife. The French non-white depictions of their colonial subjects' combatsuitability were thus evaluated after warrior race ideals. While the black soldier was characterized by his impressive combatskills  (fig.  22),  the  North  African  Algerians  and  Moroccans were more like their French countrymen seen in their cultural and  civilized  nature  less  wild  and  martial.  Blacks  were  thus better suited for battle than their North African counterparts and  tied  closer  biologically  and  culturally  to  Europe.  The British also depicted their own  Indian colonial soldiers (Gurkhas and Sikhs) in accordance with warrior race ideals. 38 In fig. 25, 39 an Indian soldier stealthily prepares his ambush on a German soldier with 'cat-like noiselessness' emphasizing his innate  animal-like  skills.  Simultaneously,  the  brutality  of  the Indian soldier is stressed by his weapon of choice: the Kukri knife.  The  Central  Powers  also  depicted  their  non-white brothers in arms positively. The Germans displayed an Askarisoldier  from  German  East  Africa  in  postcard  fig.  26. 40 The square-jawed and well-built black soldier bears a standard with the German imperial flag and his rifle. With head held high and a confident expression on his face together with his patriotic pose with the flag wavering makes him look like a national hero

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fighting for Imperial Germany. However, the stick to which the flag is attached to is made out of bamboo elevating the exoticness of the soldier. Fig. 27 41 is a German satirical magazine cover from

37 Fig. 24, L. Jonas, 'Compagnie Algérienne' #1, 1917, poster, Place made: Paris, France. From:

https://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/14408

38 Heather Streets (2017).

39 Fig. 25, Unknown, 'The Terror by Night: Our Gurkhas at Work', 7 November 1914, in The War Illustrated, place made: Britain. From: https://archive.org/details/TWI1914/page/n327/mode/2up

40 Fig. 26, F. Bruckmann, 'Askari aus Deutsch-Ostafrika', 1915, postcard, Sponsor: Verlag des Kolonialkriegerdank, Place made: Munich, Germany. From:

https://www.europeana.eu/da/item/2048043/ProvidedCHO\_Universit\_t\_Osnabr\_ck\_\_\_Historische\_Bildpostkarten\_979 3

41 Fig. 27, A. Johnson, 'Die Zivilisierung Europas', 1916, magazine cover in Kladderadatsch, Place made: Berlin, Germany. From: https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-

## CULTURE AND HISTORY Nr. 04 Juni 2021

Kladderadatsch. It depicts an Allied charge on the front. The foreground is dominated by a French colonial soldier, depicted in a racialized stereotypical way. The soldier is depicted as long-limbed and skinny while his bare-breasted upper-body reveals a chubby stomach. His body is awkwardly posed and his face is twisted making him look grotesque. His lips are unrealistically huge and red, and he's only wearing pants and a hat. He is wearing several tribal-looking accessories, such as a skull-purse, a tooth-necklace, a big nose ring, and several armbands. The skull-purse hints that the soldier has decapitated an enemy, as part of a barbarous behavior. A bullet is approaching his head coming from his own direction of attack, indicating friendly fire, underscoring the inappropriateness and 'stupidity' of exposing oneself in a friendly line of fire. This action portrays the black French soldier  as  stupid  and  as  being  incompatible  with  industrial  warfare.  'Die  Zivilisierung  Europas' ironically underscores the perceived double standards of the Allies calling the Germans uncivilized barbarians  (as  also  shown  in  the  analysis  of  the  Allied  campaign),  whilst  the  Allies  themselves deployed 'underdeveloped' and uncivilized peoples on the European battlefield (as opposed to using these troops in the colonial theater of war). This depiction uses both culturally and biologically based forms of racists stereotyping - the biological forms seem to be the most prominent, overemphasizing  the  physical  features,  and  unintelligent  behavior  of  the  black  soldier.  The  cultural stereotyping  focuses  more  on  the  uncivilized  acts  of  the  soldier  and  the  tribal  accessories. Kladderadatsch also brought another strong biologically racialized stereotype after the war, in 1920. Fig. 28 42 shows a gorilla-like figure who is dragging an unconscious woman away. The style of the soft cap and marching kit attached to the gorilla and the accompanying picture description, 'Der schwarze Terror in deutschen Landen,' 43 confirms that the gorilla represents a black French colonial soldier.  The  connotations  of  this  scenery  refer  to  the  purity  of  the  German  nation  and  'race', incarnated  by  the  vulnerable  woman,  being  defiled  by  black  occupation  troops.  Similarly,  the biological  racist  element  is  most  prominent  here,  expressing  that  black  soldiers  are  biologically backward and closely related to apes, if not physically almost inseparable. However, while the apedepictions of Germans, often referred to their militaristic savageness, this fig. 28 depiction refers almost solely to the biological and sexual danger stemming from the black races.

online.net/smw/images/thumb/4/46/Kladderadatsch\_zivilisierung\_IMG.png/200px-Kladderadatsch\_zivilisierung\_IMG.png

42 Fig. 28, Unknown, 'Der schwarze Terror in deutschen Landen', 1920, magazine cover, Place made: Berlin, Germany. From: https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/kla1920/0317

43 Referring to the phenomenon called 'Black Horror on the Rhine'. Allied powers occupied Germany up to the left bank of the Rhine comprised of 30.000-40.000 African colonial soldiers igniting wide-spread protests in Germany:  Andrew Jarboe (2014), p. 193-95.

La Moisson de Boudou-Badabou

## CULTURE AND HISTORY Nr. 04

## Juni 2021

In some cases, French racial stereotyping also opposed  blacks'  involvement  in  the  French  army, which  reflected  a  split  in  the  public  opinion  on enlisting  colonial  soldiers.  This  is  the  case  in  the unofficial  fig.  29, 44 where  a  black  French  colonial soldier is depicted on a postcard. He carries dum dum bullets  and  five  saw-toothed  bayonets  which  were frowned  upon.  The  decapitated  head  confirms  that 'Boudou-Badabou' (the nickname of the black soldier) is harvesting heads of the German soldiers as the title reads in French. The bayonet which he used for this procedure fixed between his teeth still bloody from his victim. In fig. 30 45 a black soldier is portrayed with a foolishly happy face enjoying a festive dinner on  a  bench  in  the  field.  Besides  his  blood-red  lips,

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being the only prominent element of biological racism, this imagery connotes cultural racism: The simple and childlike bodily needs are easily fulfilled with a feast and entertaining 'fireworks'. This is  also  reflected  in  his  childlike  bodily  proportions.  In  the  background,  two  of  his  fellow  black soldiers are chasing away a German soldier, one of them raising his rifle above his head like a spear, connoting that black colonial soldiers are not able to comprehend the correct use of weapons from a 'civilized' world. The message conveyed in these two postcards are clear: Black soldiers are too uncivilized  for  French  service.  While  only  his  big  exaggerated  red  lips  and  child-looking  body indicates biological racism, his unfitness for military service roots mainly in cultural racism because of his uncivilized and barbaric, mutilating behavior in battle. 46

44 Fig. 29, Unknown, 'La Moisson de Boudou-Badabou', 1914-1915, postcard, Place made: France. From: https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/propaganda\_in\_the\_colonies\_africa

45 Fig. 30, P. Dufresne, 'Le dos au feu, le ventre à table' ('Back to the fire, belly at the table'), 1914, poster or postcard, Place made: France. From: https://histoire-image.org/fr/etudes/tirailleurs-senegalais-grande-guerre

46 For more French posters see: Richard Fogarty, 'Race and Empire in French Posters of the Great War', in Pearl James (2009).

VVV

БЕСЬДА ПОДЬ ЦАРЫГРАДОМЬ,

## CULTURE AND HISTORY Nr. 04 Juni 2021

Russian  posters  depicting  non-whites  are  hard  to  find, however,  fig.  31 47 and  fig.  32 48 are  both  examples  of depictions  of  the  Ottomans.  The  first,  example  fig.  31, shows the cowardice of the Turkish, fleeing from a Russian cavalry-rider. The Turk is wearing a fez, traditional clothes and has a fearful, twisted face with bushy eyebrows and a huge  nose.  Fig.  32  is  ironically  titled  'Conversation  near Constantinople' and shows a Russian soldier, laughing at a

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gnome-like Ottoman Sultan, who is angrily stamping the ground. In this depiction, the tiny Sultan also has bushy eyebrows and a thick beard, and a large, curved nose. Both of these depictions show the Other, the Turks, as being insignificant cowards, while depicting the Self, the Russian soldier, as noble and well proportioned. These depictions use mainly somatic biological racism to stereotype the Ottomans, the cultural aspect is almost wholly left out.

## Conclusion

When  creating  propagandistic  posters,  'race'  was  a  flexible  tool  in  alienating  an  enemy  or consolidating bonds within the nation and between brothers in arms. Cultural and biological racism were shown as overlapping, working in tandem to create a single depiction within a spectrum of racial stereotypes, from the mainly biological to the mainly cultural racist stereotypes. The racialized stereotypes were deployed in both intra-white and non-white depictions depending on the desired function of the propaganda resulting in both positive or/and negative portrayals.

The positive stereotypes had the function of creating the white-Self, portraying their actions as justified, and the negative stereotypes had the function of Othering the white enemy, portraying their actions as unjust, and often their race as inferior. The Allied propaganda campaign focused heavily on Othering the Central Powers, by especially utilizing monster-type depictions linked to evolutionistic-biological  racism.  In  comparison,  the  stereotypes  that  were  culturally  based  often depicted the acts and primitiveness of the Germans as a result of them being a culturally backward race.  In contrast, the Central Powers' depictions focused on creating the Self as a response to Allied

47 Fig. 31, Unknown, 'Turkish Cowardice and Valiant Prowess', 1914, Poster, Place made: Moscow, Russia. From: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Russian\_poster.JPG

48 Fig. 32, Unknown artist, 'Беседа под Царьградом' Translated 'Conversation near Constantinople' No. 5. 1914, poster, Printer: A.V. Krylov and Co., Moscow, Russia. From:

https://ru.bidspirit.com/ui/lotPage/source/catalog/auction/1102/lot/40993/%D0%9B%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BE% D0%BA-%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0-%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4?lang=en

## CULTURE AND HISTORY Nr. 04 Juni 2021

accusations. Contrasting Allied depictions, they often depicted the enemy based on either cultural stereotyping of the entire nation rather than a single 'race', or on the Othering of a single political leader; the Germans rarely depicted the white enemies as biological Others.

In contrast to the intra-white depictions, white depictions of non-whites often held both Othering and Self-creating functions at the same time.  In some cases these functions combined in creating a racial duality in the image of the 'exotic' soldier, being both a part of the Self but also inherently Other.  French  depictions  were  the  best  example  of  this  and  played  into  the  creation  and enforcement of the racial duality of the black soldiers. Most prominently, was the idea of non-white soldiers being a biologically well-suited warrior race. This idea manifested itself in both positive and negative stereotypes depending on its function. When depicting the non-white enemy, they turned to biologically based negative stereotypes, emphasizing  somatic  differences and  indicating intellectual3 inferiority.  France was therefore notably the only nation that Othered their own troops to such an extent. On the other hand, the German depictions of enemy black soldiers and noncombatants  were  very  biologically  racist  and  created  and  sustained  racial  stereotypes  of  underdevelopment both culturally and biologically.

Finally,  examining  the  stereotypical  racializing  that  took  place  between  and  within  members  of similar and different race categories (intra-whites and non-white) calls for using a broader definition of race which includes both biological and cultural racism.

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## CULTURE AND HISTORY Nr. 04 Juni 2021

## Literature:

- Baines, Paul R., and Nicholas J. O'Shaughnessy. 'Al-Qaeda Messaging Evolution and Positioning, 1998-2008: Propaganda Analysis Revisited'. Public Relations Inquiry 3, no. 2 (May 2014).
- Blum, Lawrence. ''Cultural Racism': Biology and Culture in Racist Thought', Journal of Social Philosophy, 29 August 2020.
- Berger, Arthur Asa. Applied Discourse Analysis: Popular Culture, Media, and Everyday Life . Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2016.
- Das, Santanu. Race, Empire and First World War Writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011.
- Fogarty, Richard Standish. Race and War in France: Colonial Subjects in the French Army, 1914-1918 . War/Society/Culture. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008.
- Hall, Stuart, Dorothy Hobson, Andrew Lowe, and Paul Willis, eds. Culture, Media, Language. Working Papers in Cultural Studies, 1972-79 . London; New York: Routledge, 1980.
- James, Pearl, ed. Picture This: World War I Posters and Visual Culture . Studies in War, Society, and the Military. Lincoln; London: University of Nebraska Press, 2009.
- Jarboe, Andrew, 'Indian and African Soldiers in British, French and German Propaganda during the First World War, in: Troy Paddock (ed.), World War I and Propaganda . Leiden: Brill, 2014.
- Jowett, Garth, and Victoria O'Donnell. Propaganda & Persuasion . Los Angeles; London; New Delhi; Singapore; Washington DC: SAGE, 2012.
- Lubin, David M. Grand Illusions : American Art and the First World Wa r. New York: Oxford University Press, 2016.
- Lunn, Joe. "'Les Races Guerrières': Racial Preconceptions in the French Military about West African Soldiers during the First World War." Journal of Contemporary History 34, no. 4 (1999).
- Rickards, Maurice. Posters of the First World War . London: Evelyn, Adams & Mackay, 1968.
- Streets, Heather. Martial races: the military, race and masculinity in British imperial culture, 1857-1914 . Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2017.

## Primary sources:

- Fig. 1, H. R. Hopps, 'Destroy This Mad Brute Enlist - U.S. Army', 1917, poster. Printer: San Francisco Army Recruiting District, USA, San Francisco.
- From: https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2010652057/ (Visited 24/2/21)
- Fig. 2, W. Dyson, 'Wonders of science', in the Daily Mail January 1, 1915. Place made: London, England.
- From: http://fulltable.dyndns.org/VTS/aoi/d/dyson/5.jpeg (Visited 24/2/21)
- Fig. 3. Wada, 'La bête féroce sent venir la faim', postcard, 1915, Place made: Paris, France From: https://www.historyhit.com/app/uploads/2020/07/belgian-ant-german-poster-1.jpg (Visited 24/2/21)
- Fig. 4, F. Strothmann, 'Beat Back the Hun with Liberty Bonds', 1918, Poster, Place made: USA. From: https://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/25800(Visited 24/2/21)
- Fig. 5. D. Wilson, 'Once a German - always a German!', 1918, Poster, Place made: Sponsor: British Empire Union, Printer:The Globe Printing Co Ltd., London, England. From:https://www.warmuseum.ca/collections/artifact/1026818/ (Visited 24/2/21)

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## Juni 2021

- Fig. 6. F. L. Gottlob, 'REMEMBER!', unknown date, Poster, Place made, Author: La Ligue Souvenez-Vous, printer: Atelier F Gottlob, Paris, France. From: https://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/11163 (Visited 24/2/21)
- Fig. 7.  N.A.W. Lindsay, 'Will you fight now or wait for This', 1918, Poster, place made, Author: Commonwealth Government of Australia, Printer: W E Smith Ltd., New South Wales, Sydney, Australia. From: https://www.awm.gov.au/collection/ARTV00079/ (Visited 24/2/21)
- Fig. 8.  B. Clauss, '3. Armee', 1917, Poster, Printer: Mainzer Verlagsanstalt, Place made: Mainz, Germany. From: https://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/5156 (Visited 24/2/21)
- Fig. 9. E. von Baumgarten, 'L'Entente Cordiale', 1915, poster and postcard. Place made: Unknown. From: https://digital.library.cornell.edu/catalog/ss:19343435 (Visited 24/2/21)
- Fig. 10, J. Loewenstein, Trans:'The Great CLeansing Process', 1914, Magazine frontpage, publisher: Der Brummer, Berlin. From: http://barronmaps.com/products/der-brummerlustige-kriegs-blatter-nr-4-1914/ (Visited 24/2/21)
- Fig. 11, W. Trier, 'Russiche Grenzsoldaten', 1914, postcard, Place made: Germany. From:https://www.dhm.de/lemo/bestand/objekt/96003685 (Visited 24/2/21)
- Fig. 12, Unknown, 'Analphabeten' Unknown year, poster, Place made: Germany. From: https://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/29047 (Visited 24/2/21)
- Fig. 13, L. Oppenheim, 'Wir Barbaren!', 1915, poster, Place made: Germany. From: https://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/20677 (Visited 24/2/21)
- ·
- Fig. 14, Unknown, 'Deutsche 'Barbaren'.' in Feinde Ringsum! 1915, poster, Place made: Germany.
- From: https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/propaganda\_at\_home\_germany (Visited 24/2/21)
- Fig. 15, E.G. Renesch, 'Duty Calls' 1917, poster, Place made: Chicago, USA. From: https://libwww.freelibrary.org/digital/item/51012 (Visited 24/2/21)
- Fig. 16, E.G. Renesch, 'Pershing in France', 1917, poster, Place made: Chicago, USA. From: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Pershing\_in\_France,\_by\_E.G.\_Renesch.jpg (Visited 24/2/21)
- Fig. 17, E.G. Renesch, 'Over the Top', 1918, poster, Place made: Chicago, USA. From: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Over\_the\_Top\_(1918),\_by\_E.G.\_Renesch.jpg (Visited 24/2/21)
- Fig. 18, E.G. Renesch, 'Soldier's Return', 1918, poster, Place made: Chicago, USA. From: https://postermuseum.com/products/soldiers-return-666 (Visited 24/2/21)
- Fig. 19, E.G. Renesch, 'Colored Man is no Slacker', 1918, poster, Place made: Chicago, USA. From: https://libwww.freelibrary.org/digital/item/50464 (Visited 24/2/21)
- Fig. 20, C. Gustrine, 'True Sons of Freedom', 1918, poster, Place made: Chicago, USA. From: https://www.loc.gov/resource/ppmsca.18640/ (Visited 24/2/21)
- Fig. 21, E.G. Renesch, 'True Blue', 1919, poster, Place made: Chicago, USA. From: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:True\_Blue\_(1919),\_by\_E.G.\_Renesch.jpg (Visited 24/2/21)
- Fig. 22, F. Régamey. 'Le conflit européen en 1914 : les voilà, les deux qui voulaient dévorer l'Europe' Trans: The European conflict in 1914 / Here they are, the two who wanted to devour Europe. Ca. 1914-1918, Postcard, Ernest Le Deley, Albin Michel, ELD brand, Paris, France. From: https://archives.haute-garonne.fr/ark:/44805/vtad13b9572911551cb (Visited 24/2/21)
- Fig. 23, J. de la Néziere, 'Exposition d'art Marocain', 1917, poster, Place made: Paris, France. From: https://www.loc.gov/resource/cph.3f04077/ (Visited 24/2/21)
- Fig. 24, L. Jonas, 'Compagnie Algérienne'#1, 1917, poster, Place made: Paris, France. From: https://www.iwm.org.uk/collections/item/object/14408 (Visited 24/2/21)

## CULTURE AND HISTORY Nr. 04

## Juni 2021

- Fig. 25, Unknown, 'The Terror by Night: Our Gurkhas at Work', 7 November 1914, in The War Illustrated, place made: Britain. From:

https://archive.org/details/TWI1914/page/n327/mode/2up (Visited 24/2/21)

- Fig. 26, F. Bruckmann, 'Askari aus Deutsch-Ostafrika', 1915, postcard, Sponsor: Verlag des Kolonialkriegerdank, Place made: Munich, Germany. From: https://www.europeana.eu/da/item/2048043/ProvidedCHO\_Universit\_t\_Osnabr\_ck\_\_\_Hist orische\_Bildpostkarten\_9793 (Visited 24/2/21)
- Fig. 27, A. Johnson, 'Die Zivilisierung Europas', 1916, magazine cover in Kladderadatsch, Place made: Berlin, Germany. From: https://encyclopedia.1914-1918online.net/smw/images/thumb/4/46/Kladderadatsch\_zivilisierung\_IMG.png/200px-Kladderadatsch\_zivilisierung\_IMG.png (Visited 24/2/21)
- Fig. 28, Unknown, 'Der schwarze Terror in deutschen Landen', 1920, magazine cover, Place made: Berlin, Germany. From: https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/kla1920/0317 (Visited 24/2/21)
- Fig. 29, Unknown, 'La Moisson de Boudou-Badabou', 1914-1915, postcard, Place made: France. From: https://encyclopedia.1914-1918online.net/article/propaganda\_in\_the\_colonies\_africa (Visited 24/2/21)
- Fig. 30, P. Dufresne, 'Le dos au feu, le ventre à table' ('Back to the fire, belly at the table'), 1914, poster or postcard, Place made: France. From: https://histoireimage.org/fr/etudes/tirailleurs-senegalais-grande-guerre (Visited 24/2/21)
- Fig. 31, Unknown, 'Turkish Cowardice and Valiant Prowess', 1914, Poster, Place made: Moscow, Russia. From: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Russian\_poster.JPG (Visited 24/2/21)
- Fig. 32, Unknown artist, 'Беседа под Царьградом' Translated 'Conversation near Constantinople' No. 5. 1914, poster, Printer: A.V. Krylov and Co., Moscow, Russia. From:https://ru.bidspirit.com/ui/lotPage/source/catalog/auction/1102/lot/40993/%D0%9B
- %D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%91%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4?lang=en (Visited 24/2/21)