## Dialing in with participants

## Journalistica: The Methods Section

In this section, Journalistica puts a spotlight on research methods used in journalism studies and/or journalism practice.

## PETER BUSCH NICOLAISEN

University of Southern Denmark

## KEYWORDS

recruitment, focus groups, cold calling, qualitative research, climate communication

## 1. Description of the method

Cold	calling	denotes	the	act	of	contacting	people	without	a	prior	agreement	to	offer	them	something	that	they	have	not	asked	for	(MerriamWebster,	2025).	Although	cold	calling	is	traditionally	associated	with sales	and	marketing,	I	argue	that	it	is	a	viable	way	of	recruiting	participants	for	qualitative	scholars	within	journalism	studies.	It	is	mainly	relevant	to	 qualitative	 researchers	 as	 they	 may	 have	 something	 to	 gain from	forming	a	connection	with	potential	participants.	In	addition,	they tend	to	operate	with	modest	sample	sizes,	which	makes	it	manageable to	reach	out	to	all	study	candidates	by	phone.	Cold	calling	is	an	alternative	to	other	means	of	enrollment	which	involve	either	outsourcing	the process	 to	 professional	 recruitment	 agencies,	 encouraging	 potential participants	to	contact	the	researcher	via	physical	posters	or	social	media	posts,	or	writing	letters	or	emails	to	eligible	individuals	directly.	It	is important	to	note	that	cold	calling	cannot	stand	alone.	The	phone	calls must	be	supplemented	by	written	material	such	as	a	project	description and	a	consent	form	to	guarantee	the	uniformity	of	information	and	to enable	the	participants	to	better	comprehend	the	complexities	involved.

## 2. Example of use

I	used	cold	calling	when	recruiting	participants	for	a	large-scale	focus group	study	with	Danish	climate	journalists,	climate	scientists,	and	citizens,	which	centered	on	how	they	perceived	their	own	and	each	other's roles	in	the	public	climate	debate	(Busch	Nicolaisen,	2022;	Nicolaisen,

2024).	Being	a	trained	journalist,	I	was	comfortable	talking	to	strangers on	the	phone.	Besides,	my	schedule	was	extremely	tight	since	pandemicinduced	restrictions	had	postponed	the	data	collection,	and	I	believed that	cold	calls	would	be	the	most	time-efficient	way	of	recruiting	participants.	Using	this	method,	I	managed	to	recruit	76	participants	in	less than	two	months.	The	climate	journalists	were	pinpointed	with	the	aid of	the	chairs	of	the	Danish	Science	Journalists	Association	(Danske	Videnskabsjournalister)	and	the	Association	of	Energy	and	Environmental	Journalists	(Foreningen	af	Energi-	og	Miljøjournalister).	For	the	climate	scientists,	potential	participants	were	identified	by	examining	the websites	of	the	Danish	universities	working	on	climate	science.	The	participants	from	the	citizen	segment	were	located	via	two	channels:	Facebook	groups	and	my	network.

## 3. Main advantages and challenges of using the method

One	of	the	key	advantages	of	using	cold	calling	in	a	research	context	is the	establishment	of	personal	contact.	The	phone	calls	provide	a	way	to mitigate	the	alienation	that	some	people	may	feel	towards	science	and to	 immediately	tackle	any	insecurities	related	to	participating.	In	my case,	they	enabled	me	to	build	rapport	with	the	climate	journalists	by emphasizing	 my	 journalistic	 background	 and	 engaging	 in	 disciplinespecific	 discourse.	 Furthermore,	they	allowed	me	to	demonstrate	my thorough	preparation	to	the	climate	scientists	as	I	had	tried	to	familiarize	myself	with	their	research.

Cold	calling	can	also	speed	up	the	recruitment	process	as	it	is	possible to	receive	an	immediate	indication	of	whether	people	want	to	participate.	If	potential	participants	are	contacted	via	email,	for	instance,	a	significantly	longer	response	time	is	to	be	expected.

While	cold	calling	can	be	used	for	enrollment	in	a	variety	of	qualitative	studies,	including	interviews	and	ethnography,	it	has	certain	merits when	 it	 comes	 to	 recruitment	 to	 focus	 group	 research.	 The	 insights gained	 from	 talking	 with	 the	 participants	 can	 help	 inform	 decisions about	the	composition	and	optimal	size	of	the	focus	groups.	When	hanging	up,	the	researcher	will	likely	have	a	well-formed	impression	of	the communicative	dispositions	(Daly,	2011,	pp.	144-147)	of	the	person	on the	other	end	of	the	line	as	well	as	of	their	commitment	to	the	subject	in question.	Typically,	it	does	not	take	long	to	tell	whether	an	individual	is talkative,	reticent	or	something	in	between.	These	observations	can	feed into	the	deliberations	regarding	how	to	organize	the	groups.	Social	dynamics	are	an	integral	part	of	focus	group	research	(Belzile	&	Öberg, 2012;	Halkier,	2010,	p.	74;	Peek	&	Fothergill,	2009,	p.	33),	so	the	interaction	effect	of	the	participants'	personalities	can	have	a	vast	bearing	on the	 focus	 group	 discussions	 (Vicsek,	 2007,	 pp.	 26-27).	 It	 thus	 seems essential	to	be	aware	of	the	participants'	personality	types	when	composing	focus	groups.

The	main	challenge	inherent	in	cold	calling	is	that	not	all	inquiries	result	in	an	expression	of	interest	in	participating.	Kristensen	and	Ravn assert	that	'the	recruitment	process	is	emotional	work'	and	routinely entails	 plenty	 of	 embarrassment	 (2015:	 725;	 see	 also	 Thomas	 et	 al., 2007:	435-436).	My	own	experience	confirms	this	observation.	Getting five	rejections	in	a	row	is	undoubtedly	psychologically	taxing,	not	least when	they	are	delivered	straight	into	your	ear	instead	of	less	directly through	email.	Calling	participants	without	any	prior	notice	is	therefore situated	at	the	far	end	of	what	Scott	et	al.	term	the	'cringe	spectrum', which	categorizes	different	research	activities	on	a	continuum	according	to	the	shame	they	may	evoke	and	the	associated	risk	of	losing	face (2012,	pp.	721-722).	Hence,	it	is	worth	noting	that	this	modus	operandi may	be	reserved	for	so-called	'non-shy	researchers',	who	are	comfortable	with	spontaneous	interaction	with	strangers	(Scott	et	al.,	2012,	p. 726).

Another	concern	related	to	this	recruitment	method	is	that	researchers	may	place	too	much	weight	on	the	first	impression	formed	during the	phone	call.	This	can	influence	how	you	moderate	the	focus	group and	potentially	disrupt	the	natural	flow	of	social	interaction.	For	example,	 you	may	have	formed	a	preconceived	notion	that	certain	participants	are	dominant	or	shy,	which	may	affect	how	you	engage	with	them during	the	session.

## 3. Relevance to journalism studies

Blanchett	et	al.	(2023)	hold	that	journalists	are	commonly	unwilling	to take	part	in	research,	as	they	are	becoming	more	and	more	pressed	for time.	 Moreover,	 Ray	 (Ray,	 2017,	 p.	 17)	 contends	 that	 there	 is	 a	 pronounced	gulf	between	journalism	and	academia,	as	'journalists	are	at best	dismissive	of	academics	and,	at	worst,	antagonistic.'	To	counter this	perceived	distance,	scholars	may	benefit	from	a	more	personalized approach.	In	their	acclaimed	work	on	qualitative	researchers'	membership	roles	in	the	populations	they	investigate,	Dwyer	and	Buckle	(Dwyer &	Buckle,	2009,	p.	58)	describe	how	researchers'	insider	status	can	promote	feelings	of	acceptance	and	trust	among	the	participants	that	would not	otherwise	be	present.	When	calling	the	climate	journalists,	I	sought to	leverage	this	insight	by	highlighting	my	journalism	degree	and	my	experience	 as	 a	 freelance	 writer	 for	 several	 media	 outlets.	 The	 tactic seemed	to	work.	Once	it	became	clear	that	I	was	'one	of	them',	the	conversations	commonly	went	on	to	touch	on	stories	they	were	currently working	on	or	new	developments	in	the	Danish	media	landscape.	Another	factor	that	supports	the	use	of	cold	calling	in	research	involving journalists	 is	 that	 they	 are	 accustomed	 to	 initiating	 contact	 with strangers,	which	may	make	them	more	open	to	receiving	unsolicited calls	themselves.

## 5. Ethical considerations

The	main	ethical	concern	connected	to	cold	calling	is	that	the	people who	are	contacted	might	be	caught	off	guard	by	the	request	and	either feel	pressured	to	participate	or	perceive	it	as	an	invasion	of	their	privacy.	According	to	Bredal	et	al.,	such	foregrounding	of	the	potential	negative	aspects	of	research	participation	is	common	in	the	modern	era	of qualitative	inquiry,	a	spillover	effect	from	the	increasing	regulation	by ethical	committees	(2022,	p.	3;	Traianou,	2020).	They	adopt	a	critical stance	towards	this	trend,	as	it	does	not	align	with	their	field	experiences,	which	attest	to	'research	participants'	willingness	and	even	eagerness	to	participate'	(Bredal	et	al.,	2022,	p.	2).	My	attitude	to	recruitment	was	characterized	by	a	similar	emphasis	on	the	upsides	of	enrollment.	When	I	decided	to	initiate	contact	through	phone	calls,	I	essentially	performed	an	act	of	phronesis,	a	judgment	on	the	best	course	of action	in	a	complex	situation	without	clear-cut	rules	to	follow	(Traianou, 2018,	pp.	166-167).	Under	such	circumstances,	one	must	weigh	'what is	 likely	 to	 lead	 to	 success"	 against	 the	 probable	 benefits,	 risks,	 and harms	(Traianou,	2018,	p.	167).	I	thus	deemed	that	the	potential	risks and	harms	were	marginal	compared	to	the	benefits.	In	addition	to	the participants' contribution to the production of new scientific knowledge,	I	was	confident	that	they	would	also	gain	something	from their	involvement.	This	reward	can	come	in	different	forms,	whether through	exploring	a	subject	of	personal	interest,	satisfying	their	curiosity	about	academic	work,	engaging	in	social	comparison,	or	enjoying	the process	in	itself,	according	to	the	assortment	of	motivations	for	participating	in	qualitative	research	proposed	by	Clark	(2010,	pp.	404-407).

## REFERENCES

- Belzile,	J.	A.,	&	Öberg,	G.	(2012).	Where	to	begin?	Grappling	with	how to	use	participant	interaction	in	focus	group	design. Qualitative	Research , 12 (4),	459-472.

https://doi.org/10.1177/1468794111433089

- Blanchett,	N.,	Mellado,	C.,	Brin,	C.,	Nemat	Allah,	S.,	&	Vallender,	C. (2023).	Is	It	Us	or	Them?	The	Challenge	of	Getting	Journalists	to Participate	in	Academic	Research. Journalism	Studies ,	1-19. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461670X.2023.2216796
- Bredal,	A.,	Stefansen,	K.,	&	Bjørnholt,	M.	(2022).	Why	do	people	participate	in	research	interviews?	Participant	orientations	and	ethical

- contracts	in	interviews	with	victims	of	interpersonal	violence. Qualitative	Research , 0 (0),	1-18. https://doi.org/10.1177/14687941221138409
- Busch	Nicolaisen,	P.	(2022).	A	State	of	Emergency	or	Business	as	Usual in	Climate	Science	Communication?	A	Three-Dimensional	Perspective	on	the	Role	Perceptions	of	Climate	Scientists,	Climate	Journalists,	and	Citizens. Science	Communication , 44 (6),	667-692. https://doi.org/10.1177/10755470221136220
- Clark,	T.	(2010).	On	'being	researched':	why	do	people	engage	with qualitative	research? Qualitative	Research , 10 (4),	399-419. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468794110366796
- Daly,	J.	A.	(2011).	Personality	and	Interpersonal	Communication.	In	M. L.	Knapp	&	J.	A.	Daly	(Eds.), The	SAGE	Handbook	of	Interpersonal Communication (Fourth	Edition,	pp.	131-167).	SAGE	Publications Inc.
- Dwyer,	S.	C.,	&	Buckle,	J.	L.	(2009).	The	Space	Between:	On	Being	an	Insider-Outsider	in	Qualitative	Research. International	Journal	of Qualitative	Methods , 8 (1),	54-63.

https://doi.org/10.1177/160940690900800105

- Halkier,	B.	(2010).	Focus	groups	as	social	enactments:	integrating	interaction	and	content	in	the	analysis	of	focus	group	data. Qualitative	Research , 10 (1),	71-89.
- https://doi.org/10.1177/1468794109348683
- James,	D.	C.	S.,	Harville,	C.,	Efunbumi,	O.,	Babazadeh,	I.,	&	Ali,	S.	(2017). 'You	Have	to	Approach	Us	Right':	A	Qualitative	Framework	Analysis	for	Recruiting	African	Americans	Into	mHealth	Research. Health Education	&	Behavior , 44 (5),	781-790. https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198117727324
- Kristensen,	G.	K.,	&	Ravn,	M.	N.	(2015).	The	voices	heard	and	the	voices silenced:	recruitment	processes	in	qualitative	interview	studies. Qualitative	Research , 15 (6),	722-737. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468794114567496
- Losi,	L.	(2023).	Who	engages	with	science,	and	how?	An	empirical	typology	of	Europeans'	science	engagement. Public	Understanding	of Science , 32 (6),	798-814. https://doi.org/10.1177/09636625231164340
- Merriam-Webster.	(2025,	May	17). Cold	call .	Merriam-Webster.Com. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cold%20call
- Nicolaisen,	P.	B.	(2024).	Orchestrating	the	climate	choir:	the	boundaries	of	scientists'	expertise,	the	relevance	of	experiential knowledge,	and	quality	assurance	in	the	public	climate	debate. Climatic	Change , 177 (3),	1-28.	https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-02403697-3

- Peek,	L.,	&	Fothergill,	A.	(2009).	Using	focus	groups:	lessons	from	studying	daycare	centers,	9/11,	and	Hurricane	Katrina. Qualitative	Research , 9 (1),	31-59.	https://doi.org/10.1177/1468794108098029
- Ray,	V.	(2017).	Journalists	and	Scholars:	A	Short	Manifesto.	In	L.	Barkho	(Ed.), Towards	a	Praxis-based	Media	and	Journalism	Research (1st	edition,	pp.	15-22).	Intellect	Books. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv36xvz8k.4
- Scott,	S.,	Hinton-Smith,	T.,	Härmä,	V.,	&	Broome,	K.	(2012).	The	reluctant	researcher:	shyness	in	the	field. Qualitative	Research , 12 (6), 715-734.	https://doi.org/10.1177/1468794112439015
- Thomas,	M.,	Bloor,	M.,	&	Frankland,	J.	(2007).	The	process	of	sample	recruitment:	an	ethnostatistical	perspective. Qualitative	Research , 7 (4),	429-446.	https://doi.org/10.1177/1468794107082300
- Traianou,	A.	(2018).	Ethical	Regulation	of	Social	Research	Versus	The Cultivation	of	Phrónēsis.	In	N.	Emmerich	(Ed.), Virtue	Ethics	in	the Conduct	and	Governance	of	Social	Science	Research (Vol.	3,	pp.	163177).	Emerald	Publishing	Limited.	https://doi.org/10.1108/S2398601820180000003010
- Traianou,	A.	(2020).	The	Centrality	of	Ethics	in	Qualitative	Practice.	In P.	Leavy	(Ed.), The	Oxford	Handbook	of	Qualitative	Research (2nd edition,	pp.	86-110).	Oxford	University	Press.
- https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190847388.013.12 Vicsek,	L.	(2007).	A	Scheme	for	Analyzing	the	Results	of	Focus	Groups.
- International	Journal	of	Qualitative	Methods , 6 (4),	20-34. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940690700600402

## PETER BUSCH NICOLAISEN

Postdoc University of Southern Denmark

Department of Political Science and Public Management pbni@journalism.sdu.dk