## Cay Dollerup*

## The Vanishing Original

## Abstract

This article  addresses  the  fundamental  changes  that  are  taking  place  today  in  many practical translation contexts and processes, namely the changed relationship between the  so-called  'original'  and  its  translations.  This  relationship  has  always  been  more problematic than translation theory has been willing to accept, but today there are so many instances in which there is no 'original' in the traditional sense and, even when there  is  one,  its  claim  to  being  the  'original'  is  often  elusive  and  doubtful.  This  is exemplifi  ed in numerous modern texts, possibly the majority of those read in the West in everyday life. They span linguistic transfers between one language pair to transfers involving numerous languages. They range from labels on food and other goods in shops  and  modest  tourist  brochures  to  important  legal  documents  in  the  European Union.

## 'Simple' vs 'complex' scenarios for translation

In the present discussion, the overall movement will be from what I elsewhere  termed  'simple'  to  'complex'  cases  (Dollerup  2001:  284285), as there is some correlation between increasing complexity and problems  with  'originals'  and  'translations'  in  traditional  translation the  ory. 'Simple' cases are characterised by being fairly easy to describe and by having relatively few parameters which affect the translation perceptibly.  A  typical  'simple'  case  will  be  that  of  delegates  at  an international conference who speak in their own language and whose speeches are then interpreted simultaneously into the target language(s) for  the  benefi  t  of  those  who  do  not  understand  the  original.  In  this 'simple' case there are (a) senders, (b) source-language messages, (c) interpreters, (d) messages in the target language and (e) target-language audiences.

* Cay Dollerup Centre for Translation Studies University of Copenhagen Engelsk institut, Njalsgade 80 DK-2300  København S. cay@hum.ku.dk

185

In a 'complex' case, numerous features and parameters interact and there are more participants than one would assume at fi  rst glance. We might, for instance, consider the case of the immensely popular Harry Potter books, the fi  fth of which was published in English in June 2003. 1 In early 2003, the author, J. K. Rowling handed in the manuscript to the publisher, now a multinational American publishing house (Scholastic Press) which is part of Warner Bros. The manuscript is scrutinised by the publisher's in-house editors who suggest changes in phrasing and the like - a practice which is increasing worldwide and regardless of an author's status, to ensure maximum fl  uency. These in-house editors are not the same in the UK and the US and especially the  American ones may adjust the text to American audience expectations and political realities: apart from the differences in spelling dictated by national orthography, the  British  editions  have  a  uniform  no-nonsense  typography  and  no illustrations,  whereas  the American  ones  have  small  vignettes  at  the beginning of each chapter, all missives between the characters are set as if they are hand-written, and the main text is typeset with larger letters than  the  British  version,  thus  targeting  the  book  towards  a  narrower American audience than the one which I believe the author had in mind in Britain. In the very fi  rst book, the American edition also introduces a 'black boy' as one of the new arrivals at Hogwarts school, thus upholding the principle that there must be no discrimination on the basis of race.

Once released, the book is then translated from the English source language  into  numerous  other  languages.  In  that  process,  translators will be amused to fi  nd that virtually all names in the English original are delightful puns or carry connotations, such as 'Weasly', 'Malfoy', 'Slytherin',  and  'Professor  Sprout.'  One  would  expect  this  to  call for  creativity  in  translation.  But  this  is  not  so  with  the  names  of all  characters,  for  Warner  Bros  also  has  merchandise  that  must  sell

1 The Harry Potter books attracted my attention when (in spring 2001) Ms Bertie Kaal  told  me  that  she  had  read  the  fi  rst  books  in  English,  and  that  she  had  then acquired an American version of a subsequent one. During the reading, she and her daughter had found many deviations. Much information on the Harry Potter books in this article derives from a fi  ne study by Katrine Brønsted (2003) of Danish translation and American adaptation of the books. To this, I have added information about the marketing and working practices in the socio-literary system.

(videogames  and  fi  lms).  Katrine  Brønsted  (2003)  mentions  that  the Swe  dish translator had to sign a contract that she must not change some names. However, in her discussion of the names in translation into a variety of languages, Eirlys Davies (2003: 75; 85-86) cites a number of names which are, respectively, retained and changed in various languages. There  is  no  consistent  pattern  which,  I  believe,  implies  that Warner Bros do not market the merchandise in all countries in which the books are published. The matter may be more complicated, but this suffi  ces to show that the translation scholar who would dare to discuss translations  of  the  Harry  Potter  books  according  to  a  simple  model would be disregarding many factors that have considerable impact on the British 'original' and all derivative texts.

The differences between the British and American editions are relevant  because  there  are  countries,  e.g.  the  Philipines  (as  a  former  US col  ony)  which are more likely to translate the Potter books from the American rather than British editions.

## The changing target text: the tourist brochure about 'Ærø'

In our exploration of the relationship between the 'original' and a translation, we shall fi  rst look at a case with, it seems, one author and an iden  tifi  able source and target language.

In Denmark, there are c. eighty inhabited islands. In order to attract tourism they publish brochures in Danish and these may be translated into one or two foreign languages and distributed free of charge. One such informative brochure, published in 2001 for the island of 'Ærø' south of Funen, describes the tourists' arrival to the island in Danish:

'Kommer man om sommeren, vil man møde et broget og mangeartet liv på øens havne, i byerne og på de snoede veje og cykelruter samt på strandene. Kommer man i det sprudlende forår, det eftertænksomme efterår eller vælger man at komme ved vintertide , ja så er der mulighed for at få en snak med øboen, der af natur er interesseret i andres gøren og laden .'

The English translation is printed immediately after this and runs as follows:

'Should you arrive in the summer you will be met with the varied, multifarious life at the qauside , in the towns, along the winding roads, and of course on the beaches. Do you arrive in the sparkling spring, the thoughtful autumn or choose the winter month for a visit, you have the chance of talking to one of the locals, who by nature is interested in other people's 'toing and froing' .'

Later we are given some statistics. This includes the information that the island is 9 kilometres wide and has 7,532 inhabitants. In the 2002 Danish edition , these fi  gures have changed - in all likelihood because there has been a census and a geographical correction. The island is now 8 kilometres wide and it has 7,315 inhabitants. The English translation of 2002 updates the statistical fi  gures and, accordingly, it cites those of the Danish brochure of 2002.

The only stylistic change in the Danish text in 2002 is that tourists may arrive in the 'blomstrende forår' instead of the 'sprudlende forår'. This is rendered as 'the bloom of spring.' But in the English text this is  not  the  only  new  feature.  There  are  other  words  and  phrases  that have been changed, 'you will be met with the varied, multifarious life' is replaced by 'you will be met by the varied and exiting life ...' The autumn is no longer 'thoughtful' but 'golden', and we are told of 'one of the locals, whom by nature is interested in other people' - not in their 'toing and and froing.' Two misspellings in English are corrected, so we get 'quayside' and 'winter months', and, in order to make up for these improvements, two new errors are introduced, namely 'exiting' (rather than 'exciting') and 'one of the locals, whom …' instead of 'one of the locals, who …'

'The bloom of spring' may be inspired by the revision in the Danish version.  The  other  changes  are  not  and  they  do  not,  overall,  represent  an  improvement.  They  do,  however,  convincingly  show  that  the English  text  is  breaking  loose  from  the  Danish  original.  We  cannot argue  that  this  is  a  traditional  'original'-'translation'  relationship  as the 'translation' is embarking on a life of its own, independent of the wording of the 'original'.

## The changing original: same author and source language

Above, the Harry Potter books were cited as examples of 'complex' translational contexts. There are other cases which seem to be simpler in so far as they are literary works and it is probably because they are lite  rary  works  with  some  visibility  that  they  have  been  noted  at  all. They seem to be 'simple' cases in so far as they seem to have involved only few people.

The British writer Anthony Burgess' A Clockwork Orange (1962) is the story of an adolescent who enjoys infl  icting physical harm and who is cured by being conditioned to feel nauseous when seeing violence. The fi  nal  chapter  of  the  British  edition  shows  him  a  few  years  later, hinting that he has reached maturity and may settle down. This chapter was omitted from American editions until 1988 at, it seems, the express wish of the American publisher but with the author's acceptance  (for more details, see Morrison 1996: xvii).

My colleague Mr Jørgen Sevaldsen drew my attention to another case. The former British politician Mr Jeffrey Archer wrote a novel, First Among Equals (1984), about political intrigue in British politics which involved  the  Social  Democrats  in  addition  to  Labour  and  the Conservatives. When the book was sold to the US, and the author was advised  of  intended  changes,  he  himself  rewrote  the  book  so  as  to conform to the two-party American political landscape: Andrew Fraser, the leader of the Social Democratic Party is left out entirely.

The point I wish to make is that although one would normally expect books, indeed any text, to be the same when it appears on both sides of the Atlantic (and in any two or more countries speaking the 'same' language) - there may be differences which are quite substantial and which may even be introduced by the copyright holder. In some cases, the 'original' is not the same in all realisations in the source language. In a translation context, the point to note is that the 'original' may also fl  uctuate. We are namely not dealing with Roman Jakobson's 'intra  lingual translation' which is 'an interpretation of verbal signs by other verbal signs in the same language' (Jakobson 1959: 233) which thus concerns what I have termed the 'linguistic side' (Dollerup 1999: 4748; 202-213). In both the above cases, we are concerned with what I have termed the 'intentional' and 'content' layers (1999: 47, 48-50).

## The fl  uctuating source languages: an installation manual

We may consider an original in the technical fi  eld and pick up an installation manual for 'Heizungsumwälzpumpen' made by the German fi  rm Bosch. In the installation manual seven different languages are represented.

In this case we would expect the original text to be German as is the pump. German is also given prominence by being the fi  rst language in the installation manual. But on the inside of the  front cover there is  a  'Declaration  of  conformity'  in  all  seven  languages. The  English version of this declaration is signed by a Dane and dated '1 st  December Bjerringbro ... Technical manager'. So, in this manual there are at least two source languages, namely German for the technical text and either Danish  or  English  for  the  'Declaration'.  However,  the  declaration refers to numerous EU norms and is in itself highly standardised. This means that many features in it, if not the entire declaration, must have had  many  near-identical  precursors  in  terms  of  words,  phrases  and formatting, which facts thwart or at least pose formidable barriers to our  quest  for  an  unambiguous  'original'  language  of  this  brief  text. I  also  suggest  that  this  declaration  is  a  document  in  which  various European Union languages have affected one another in the process of its creation - in the same way, albeit not on the same scale as the Manifesto for European Socialists from 1993 discussed by Christina Schäffner (1997).

What  we  see  in  the  manual  and  in  the  Manifesto  discussed  by Schäffner  are  a  fusion  of  languages  that  is,  in  all  likelihood,  widespread.  Information  from  fi  rms  also  reveal  that  labels,  instructions and  manuals  in  several  languages  are  not  necessarily  made  by  the manufacturers  themselves  but  may  be  outsourced  to  translation  (or distribution) agencies operating internationally with their own network of translators.

## The de-culturalised original: localisation

Today we meet with 'controlled texts' that is texts that are easy to read and  translate  by  means  of  e.g.  consistent  terminology  and  relatively simple syntax.

Sometimes 'controlled texts' are combined with texts written with a view to localisation. I quote from Bert Esselink's checklist for writers of texts for localisation:

'Do not use culturally-specifi  c text or jargon, e.g. humour, political references, slang, references to TV shows, national monuments' etc. and 'Avoid references to seasons, time zones, weather, or holidays, such as Christmas trees or Halloween pumpkins.' (2000: 28)

In themselves, texts meant for localisation are, of course, normal texts, except that 'cultural features' in the source texts are deliberately toned Culture A

+ localised information

Product

localised

in culture A

Internationalised

text

Culture B

+ localised information

Product

localised Culture C

+ localised information

Product

localised

down or done away with by authors, technical writers, and technical support staff.

The localisation process which affects the target text seems to be less of  a  problem since Esselink refers to fairly obvious examples, when he stresses that in proofreading it must be checked that 'translations con  tain  no  spelling  or  grammar  mistakes',  that  'Company  names, street addresses, zip codes ... have been adjusted according to instructions', and 'Metric or currency conversions are consistent and correct' (Esselink:  316-318),  with  the  overall  caution  that  '[translators  and p]roofreaders need to read translated documents from an end-user perspective.'

This can be illustrated as follows:

Illustration 1: An illustration of 'localisation'

<!-- image -->

Although the tone of the literature in the fi  eld is generally optimistic, it must be stressed that, so far, 'localisation' seems only to have been successful with Indo-European languages. In addition, it is a procedure which is suited for 'impersonal' texts concerned with tangible and physical  objects,  such  as  manuals,  instructions  for  electrical  appliances, software, and the like.

I call attention to the deliberate avoidance or at least minimization of culture-bound features in the source texts. This feature sets localisation aside from the kind of approach implied in the studies of Jutta HoltzMänttäri (e.g. 1984), Hans Vermeer (e.g. 1983), and Christiane Nord (e.g. 1991) who, I feel, all somehow take it for granted that there is an original which is (also) targeted towards an audience in the source culture. It is not that their theories are invalid: on the contrary, they are the ones that stand up best to analytical scrutiny in descriptive translation study (including of literature - although it falls beyond the scope of this article to explore this further (but see Dollerup 1999: 323)).

## The absent original: the multilingual targeted texts

It  is  hard  in  this  day  and  age  to  know  precisely what the long-range implications of localisation will be for translation outside the fi  eld 'localisation' has defi  ned for itself - and which is, furthermore, changing rapidly all the time. 2  On the other hand, it would be unwise to disregard it. This is best illustrated by a study undertaken by Tine Kristensen of brochures issued by the national Danish tourist board in six languages (Kristensen 2002).

Kristensen's model is useful for an overview of the process.

2 Private information from Bert Esselink (2003).

rewerurlwlluwvlurt

Culture A

+ localised information

Product localised

in culture A:

the Spanish

version

Culture D

+ localised

Product

localised

in culture D:

the Finnish

version witw Wul'

Internationalised text

localised English

(which is also the

version)

Culture B

+ localised information Culture C

+ localised information

## Internationalisation and localisation of the tourist brochures

in culture B:

the Italian

version

Culture E

+ localised information

Product localised

in culture E: the

English version =

also possibly the

de-culturalised

"original"

in culture C:

<!-- image -->

(Kristensen 2002: 197. Modifi  ed from Dollerup 2002: 19)

Kristensen's interviews with the people responsible for the brochures yielded no information about the language of the original, but her analysis  of  the  contents  seemed  to  indicate  that  the  original  might  have been composed in English and that the English text might thus, at least in part, also have functioned as an internationalised text. The texts differ  ed in terms of the information proffered and even in terms of some of the photos in the brochures: they had been localised.

Kristensen's investigation brought to light another interesting fea  ture.  The  brochures  had  been  inspired  by  six  'branding  values' ra  ther  than  the  hard-to-identify  original. These  branding  values  were expressed with some slight differences in the six languages. In English, they were

```
'cosy' and 'unceremonius' 'oasis' and 'free', and 'design' and 'intelligent'.
```

No matter whether there was an 'original' or not, we see a transition from  a  stable  linguistic  entity,  which  traditional  Translation  Studies schol  ars would term 'the original', to a cluster of fl  uid concepts which are realised and given expression as different 'real texts' in different tar  get languages. This is defi  nitely a far cry from the 'original'-'translation' relationship.

## Recycling: Translation Memories and repeated texts

It will be understood that, so far, I have been discussing whole texts.

When we turn to fragments or strings of texts, notably those used in some kind of recycling process as we fi  nd it in Translation Memories, which provide translators  instantly  with  the  target-language  versions of sentences and passages that they have translated before, we are on even shakier ground. When we buy some product, such as a hair dryer, there is an instruction manual. The manual will be changed every time a new feature is added to the product or a new model is introduced. But it stands to reason that, although a translator, a technical writer or a translation agency may subject the parts of the manual which need no change to a linguistic check or revision, it will only be the new and changed information that is actually translated in the traditional sense of the word, namely rendered by reference to the source-language text.

In such translations, many source texts are made up of segments and passages already found in preceding manuals in the source language. The  fi  rst  manual  which  appeared  with  the  fi  rst  version  of  the  new product was translated into one or more target languages. But this is not the case with subsequent manuals in the language of origin which are  changed  only  as  far  as  there  may  be  a  description  of  some  new feature in the product. It will only be a few sentences or paragraphs that are new and need to be translated into the target-language(s) and immersed  in  previous  translation.  Therefore,  it  cannot  be  claimed that every new edition of a text dealing with much the same topic or object in the source language is a 'real original' and we cannot point to one unambiguous source text. It is true that there have been sourcelanguage texts, there has been translation, and there are target texts. But since segments and passages from translations are stored electronically against later retrieval when something similar must be translated, they reappear when this happens and may then be recycled. Today, it is not all components of a given target text that have been translated at more or less the same point in time and space. In brief, there is no one sourcetext which we can term a real, let alone 'sacrosanct', original. This, I posit, is the case with a considerable amount of translation in today's world.

In most cases, however, there will be one staple: namely that, as was the case with the installation manual discussed above, a large part of a specifi  c text that was originally written in only one source language - in the Bosch case in German.

## The originals and translations which are equally authoritative: EU translations

The process of recycling is not only found in Translation Memories in translation  agencies  but  also  in  European  Union  texts,  notably  those which are based on previous work. 3  A directive at the EU is typically made up of the following stages:

1. There is a decision (at the Commission) to develop a directive on, for instance, methods of transport for toxic fl  uids.
2. This leads to preparatory studies in the Commission (experts, Commission)
3. which conclude with a green or a white paper used for discussions etc. with the member states (translation).
4. There are follow-up discussions in the member states (in government bodies, etc.).

3 For an in-depth discussion of the language work at the European Union institutions, readers are referred to Language Work and the European Union (guest editor Christina Schäffner). Special issue of Perspectives: Studies in Translatogy 2001 # 4, as well as three follow-up articles in the 2002 # 1 issue. The problem with much discussion of EU translation work is that it is fairly uncritical and conducted by insiders.

5. Subsequently, national delegates attend expert meetings, usually at the Commission (interpreting).
6. There are meetings to make the decisions by the Council of Ministers and the Parliament (translation into all languages).
7. They  include  debates  (interpreting)  that  lead  to  fi  nal  decisions which allow for
8. the  publication  of  the  directive  (translation  into  all  languages). Final  ly there are
9. reports on its implementation (translation).
10.  New initiatives incorporating this directive. 4

In order not to complicate matters unnecessarily, I shall concentrate on stages 1, 3, 4, 5, and 8.

The fi  rst stage does not come out of the blue. It is based on a number of  previous directives in the same fi  eld. All passages that have been used in previous legally binding translations concerning the fi  eld must be repeated verbatim in subsequent translations - and since legal texts make up c. 40% of the language work at the EU institutions, this means that most texts are affected. In other words, even the fi  rst draft of a new initiative of a directive will already incorporate recycled texts.

In stage 3, the translators at the EU institution in question will - on their computers - install relevant documentation, including all previous translations, before they begin their work. This means that, once they reach  passages  previously  translated  and  which  are  legally  binding, they fi  nd a ready-made translation from which they cannot deviate. The question we may pose now is: is the initiative of the directive real  ly an 'original'? The segments previously translated have been seen numer  ous times. At the EU institutions, they have been analysed by legal linguistic experts, and they have been accepted by experts in all EU countries.

These translations make it to member states and are here discuss  ed in the national languages. Minutes from the meetings in the members states are, of course, in the national languages. It may be that in order Process Result:

4  The table is modifi  ed from  europa.eu.int/comm/translation/en/eyl/en

Primarily conducted by means of core or tool languages:

Translation, interpreting, use of terminology, use of Translation Memories,

Negotiations,

etc.

Political decisions El NI

Pt Fi Se

to  promote  national  views,  small  member  states  have  translations  of their national discussions done into English or French. However, the main point is that, whatever the means of conveying national points of view, they will sometimes introduce examples of minor linguistic interference - a feature also noted by Schäffner (1997). When, in stage 5, delegates go to the EU institutions, such subtle vestiges may or may not remain. In such cases it is obvious that even the central texts in French, English, or German are not necessarily pure examples of one sourcelanguage usage only.

Most day-to-day translation work at the European Union institutions then takes place in English and French. These two languages function as  the  supranational core or tool languages, but I suggest that in the process of development, the core or tool texts also become repositories of the discussion of the member states at the 'linguistic'  and 'thematic' level, in addition to the 'intentional'  level which is, after all, the reason why they have come into existence at all. In this way, there is no one target text which has an unambiguous relation to one specifi  c 'original'. The source text is a fl  uid and changeable mass of text, composed of recycled translation, new linguistic material from both the core or tool languages as well as national languages incorporated in the core languages.

The last stages of the making of an EU initiative are particularly interesting. They can be illustrated as follows:

Illustration: the core or tool language(s) and legally binding texts in the EU-languages:

<!-- image -->

Important  reports  and  laws  are  released  at  the  same  time  in  all  EU languages  (at  the  time  of  writing  (2003)  eleven  for  fi  fteen  member states). The one or two in-house versions of a document (in English and French) serve as the immediate source texts for these documents. As mentioned, they are fl  exible and can be changed in each round of negotiations  by  suggested  emendations  and  compromises.  However, when the fi  nal debates have taken place in the decision-making bodies, these tool texts acquire another status: fi  rst they serve as a source text for target texts in all the other EU languages. The target texts are then subject  to  scrutiny  by  legal  translators  to  ensure  that  they  are  'the same'.

But once all the texts have been published their status changes: All the  texts  are  now  equally  valid  and  authoritative.  As  also  noted  by Schäffner (1997), the text in the core or tool language which served as the 'original' for the translation work in the fi  nal stage loses its status as an 'original' in the act of being translated and in the fi  nal approval of all the EU texts. Unlike other 'originals', it cannot be re-translated with alternative phrasings and in other words. All the EU texts have the same status: the moment it is argued that the English or French text is superior to the others, there will be a major political problem.

## Conclusion

This is perhaps the best example of what I term the 'vanishing original'. Yet it is my contention that it is not a new phenomenon in translation: There is, for instance, not one Christian denomination which willingly accepts that a translation of the Bible into another language is more authoritative  than  its  own.  However,  the  existence  of  the  concept  of the 'vanishing original' is brought forcefully to our attention because developments in the modern world bring translation closer to sourcetext production. This makes the phenomenon so eminently obvious and it  also  means that we have to rethink central concepts in Translation Studies. 5

5 I am indebted to Ms Helle V. Dam for useful criticism of an earlier version of this article.

## References

- Brønsted, Katrine 2003: Around the World on a Nimbus 2000 - a study of J. K. Rowling's Harry  Potter  and  the  Philosopher's  Stone in  Translation  and  Adaptation . [unpublished thesis, University of Copenhagen].
- Davies, Eirlys E. 2003: A Goblin or a Dirty Nose? The treatment of culture-specifi  c references in translations of the Harry Potter books: In The Translator. Studies in Intercultural Communication 9, 65-100.
- Dollerup, Cay 1999: Tales and Translation: The Grimm Tales from Pan-Germanic narratives to shared international fairytales. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: Benjamins.
- Dollerup, Cay 2001: Complexities of EU language work. In Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 9, 271-292.
- Dollerup, Cay 2002: The pained original. In Chinese Translators Journal 23 # 2, 1823.
- Esselink, Bert 2000: A Practical Guide to Localization . Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
- Holz-Mänttäri,  Jutta  1984: Theoretisches  Handeln,  Theorie  und  Methode .  Helsinki: Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia.
- Jakobson, Roman 1966 (originally 1959): On linguistic aspects of translation. In Brower, Reuben A. (ed.): On Translation. New York: Oxford University Press, 232-239.
- Kristensen, Tine 2002: Localisation and tourist brochures. In Perspectives: Studies in Translatology 10, 193-205.
- Morrison, Blake 1996: Introduction. In Burgess, Anthony 1996 (originally 1962). A Clockwork Orange . London: Penguin.
- Nord, Christiane 1991: Text Analysis in Translation. Theory, Methodology, and Didactic Application of a Model for Translation-Oriented Text Analysis . Amsterdam & Atlanta: Rodopi.
- Schäffner, Christina 1997: Where is the source text? In Wotjak, Gerd & Heide Schmidt (eds.): Modelle der Translation = Models of Translation. Festschrift für Albrecht Neubert . Frankfurt am Main: Vervuert, 193-211.
- Vermeer, Hans 1983: Aufsätze zur Translationstheorie . Heidelberg: Selbstverlag.

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