## Petra Storjohann*

## elexiko : A Corpus-Based Monolingual German Dictionary

## Abstract

This article provides an introduction to elexiko , the fi  rst German hypertext dictionary to be compiled on a corpus basis, which is currently being developed at the Institut für Deutsche Sprache Mannheim (IDS). First, a brief account of the design is given, followed  by  a  demonstration  of  the  methods  and  tools  that  are  being  employed  to compile it. elexiko will provide not only an improved quantity of lexical information, but also a new quality of information which will be explained and illustrated at different levels of the microstructure of the dictionary. The description of word meaning and use in elexiko will be presented in detail, with a particular focus on the treatment of collocations, ambiguity, vagueness, and the presentation of senses. The development of a theoretically grounded procedure for lexicographic disambiguation is also described. This  is  then  followed  by  a  brief  account  of  the  treatment  of  grammatical  details. Finally, issues of usability, the progress of the project and its future perspectives will be considered.

## 1. Introduction

The project elexiko , based at the Institut für Deutsche Sprache Mannheim (IDS), is currently developing a new dictionary of German and its present-day usage (cf. Haß-Zumkehr 2004). 1  The aim of the project is to explain and document contemporary German over the last 50 years, approximate  ly the time span of two generations of speakers.

The research team combines corpus-based approaches with traditional lexicographic procedures and an awareness of current linguistic theo-

1 For a brief description of the project see also: http://www.elexiko.de.

* Petra Storjohann Institut für Deutsche Sprache Mannheim R5, 6-13 D-68161  Mannheim storjohann@ids-mannheim.de

55

ries. The language data used for lexicographic interpretation is retrieved exclusively from an extensive German corpus and presented in a hypertext structure  which  will  be  available  publicly  via  the  Internet. As  well  as  being  an  'electronic  dictionary'  through  which  a  diverse spectrum of users can explore the German lexicon, elexiko will  also be a linguistic data resource where linguists can extract data necessary for their research. However, elexiko must not be compared simply with digi  tised, machine-readable versions of printed dictionaries. Rather its hypertextuality and its underlying content-oriented lexicographic database facilitate a break with existing lexicographic conventions and open up a number of other ways of presenting data. 2

With the help of a hypertext structure we will create an extensive link  ing  system  for  illustrating  various  types  of  language  structures. Semantically, morphologically or syntactically related lexemes will be link  ed up, pointing the reader to the main entry, sense or sub-sense of the related item. Hence, conventional signpost cross-referencing becomes redundant.  Similarly,  clicking  on  any  paradigmatic  or  syntagmatic part  ner,  on  morphologically  derived  forms  or  on  idiomatic  phrasal expressions of a lexeme will take the user straight to the corresponding entry or to the corresponding occurrence within the entry.

In the underlying structure, each piece of lexicographic information is  individually marked up (tagged). This has the benefi  t that specifi  c linguistic details can be searched for selectively via a search and navigation system. At the same time, the systematic search for various types of information will realise a combination of semasiological and onomasiolo  gical  presentations.  Apart  from  conventional  information  such  as mean  ing defi  nition, syntax, examples of usage etc, the reader will always be merely a click away from answers to such questions as: In which contexts is this word used? What are typical dative complements of this verb? How many senses does this word have and how do they relate? Is this word bound to a specifi  c type of text? Which words have negative semantic prosodies? Which idiomatic phrases describe the notion  of  'dying'?  How  many words contain the suffi  x -tät ? What are typ  ical compounds with Haus ? Which words are specifi  cally Austrian lexemes? How many words have alternating gender forms and more than one plural?

2    For more details on the advantages of hypertextuality in lexicography see Haß-Zumkehr 2001, and Storrer 1998 and 2001.

These questions are just illustrative examples to show what kind of linguistic information the user will be able to extract.  A further advantage of  using  a  hypertext  structure  is  the  possibility  of  embedding  fi  lm, sound and picture documents (e.g. for illustration of meaning, function or  for  audible  pronunciation).  Furthermore,  within  a  hypertextually struc  tur  ed dictionary any changes (e.g. newly conventionalised senses or contextual realisations) can be easily implemented without waiting for the next edition to be published. As such, continuous changes are possible which will result in accurately revised entries for new versions of the dictionary.

Overall,  these  benefi  ts  presuppose  a  lexicographic  practice  which rests on a number of key elements: an extensive corpus serving as an empirical basis; computerised tools that assist the search of the corpus; the modelling of a complex Document Type Defi  nition; a complex data base that stores dictionary entries in a mark-up language (i.e. as XMLdocuments); and the development of a comprehensive navigation and search system.

## 2. Foundation and Methods

## 2.1.  Corpus

While in English lexicography the compilation of a dictionary based on electronic corpora has a longer tradition (e.g. Cobuild project), in German  lexicography  corpus-driven  approaches  are  a  fairly  recent develop  ment. elexiko will compile its data exclusively from a monitor corpus  which  was  constructed  for  this  purpose.  The  IDS  Mannheim current  ly  holds  the  largest  collection  of  German corpora with a total volume of about 2000 million words. 3  It was using this foundation that an elexiko -corpus  was  built,  which  currently  comprises  about  1300 million words and is entirely based on written German. This volume re  presents  the  most  comprehensive  data  used  to  date  for  German lexico  graphic  purposes.  The  corpus  will  grow  and  will  be  updated con  tinuously thereby adapting to many different types of analysis and captur  ing instances of language change.

3    A complete list of the German corpora at the IDS Mannheim can be obtained from http://www.ids-mannheim.de/kt/projekte/korpora/.

As far as the lexicographic process of describing lexemes and their uses is concerned, the corpus in elexiko is  being  used  exploratorily. 4 Instances of natural language are studied in order to identify rules and patterns,  and  linguistic  proto-typicalities  which  are  then  interpreted, eval  uated  and  classifi  ed.  Finding  copious  illustrative  text  samples  is only  a  by-product  of  corpus-guided  analysis. elexiko will  monitor and document written German language use as depicted in the corpus. Some contrastive examinations have shown that corpus evidence often de  viates from the information given in other dictionaries. These deviations  consist  primarily  in  a  greater  variety  of  semantic  and  syntactic pat  terns  and  in  the  non-normative  alternatives  which  manifest  themselves in actual language use. As linguists of a descriptive dictionary, it is our objective to supply descriptions of the diversity and complexity of lexical phenomena as they are evident in the corpus. We will account for different lexical forms and provide information on standard usage, as well as standardised variation and non-standardised occurrences in the corpus. Each item of information is accompanied by lexicographic inter  pretations, such as the proportion of individual variations that are stan  dardised uses and commentary on forms of non-standardised use (e.g. old spelling conventions).

## 2.2.  Corpus Processing

Words that are not very frequent in our corpus are easy to analyse without any further computer assistance. However, words that have a high fre  quency  cannot  be  managed  manually  by  any  lexicographer.  With the availability of mass data it is important to systematise that data, to arrange extracted results according to criteria in order to be able to di- stinguish signifi  cant from insignifi  cant data and to separate typical structures from atypical patterns. Computer technology facilitates this exploration of mass data and the compilation of an empirical foundation, from which information of a new quantitative and qualitative kind can be extracted. In our project, this role is performed by the corpus processing tool COSMAS, which was developed at the IDS and which works on the basis of mathematical statistical methods. 5  Apart from being a fl  exible search system, it is also a complex analytical tool yielding results which constitute indicative and measurable evidence which is then interpreted by the lexicographer who decides how to select irrelevant from relevant information. Although  linguistic  evidence  is  supplied  by  the  corpus, most dictionary information has to be produced manually.

4    As Sinclair (1991: 36) emphasises: 'it is the possibility of new approaches, new kinds of evidence, and new kinds of description. Here, the objectivity and surface validity of computer techniques become an asset rather than a liability. Without relinquishing our intuition, of course, we try to fi  nd explanations that fi  t the evidence, rather than adjusting the evidence to fi  t the pre-set explanation'.

Of  particular  benefi  t  in  this  regard  is  the  concordancing  software package Statistische Kollokationsanalyse und Clustering, developed at the IDS, which effi  ciently systematises data. 6  It performs large empirical explorations of data and detects linguistic structures by calcul  ating the degree of lexical cohesion in the semantic and syntactic neighbourhoods of a word. It is possible to sort collocations and concordances accord  ing to different principles such as the degree of lexical cohesion, chronologic  ally or by text source. The result is a retrieved list of cooccur  rences which provide systematic access to corpus evidence. However, in some cases the examination of a word needs to go beyond the analysis  of  concordances.  In  such  cases,  the  lexicographer  needs  to consult  larger  stretches  of  context.  Using  a  collocation  analysis  and consulting concordances for lexicographic purposes signifi  cantly improves, simplifi  es and systematises the lexicographer's work.

5    COSMAS (Corpus Search, Management and Analysis System) was developed at the IDS by Cyril Belica (1995-2000) and is publicly accessible via the Internet: http://www.ids-mannheim.de/cosmas2/.

6    See: http://www.ids-mannheim.de/kt/projekte/methoden/ka.html.

## 3. Compiling the dictionary

## 3.1.  Headword List

Headwords  for  this  dictionary  were  compiled  on  the  basis  of  the underlying elexiko -corpus. For this purpose, lemmatising software was employed,  which  sorts  all  occurring  word  forms  and  grouped  them according to the lexeme from which they were derived. 7  Through this method we were able to document all existing words that occur in our corpus.  The  main  criterion  for  including  the  retrieved  headwords  in elexiko was a specifi  c corpus frequency which guarantees a suffi  cient number of records for the lexicographic analysis of each word.

As  the  list  generated  proved  only  partially  accurate  and  showed inadequate  lemmatisation  in  a  number  of  cases,  all  headwords  were manually analysed. In this manner, non-German words, typographical errors,  initials,  numerals  and  other  forms  falsely  lemmatised  by  the software were manually detected and, if necessary, deleted from the list or included in the list after correction. Since the German spelling system recently introduced new spelling regulations, spellcheck software was also applied. The conversion from old to new spelling was conducted with the help of two software programmes ( Duden Korrektor Plus and Corrigo ) 8 ,  the output also undergoing an additional editorial process. This  procedure  enabled  us  to  proceed  with  a  list  of  around  300,000 potential  headwords  for elexiko which  will  be  further  expanded  at  a later stage by the inclusion of other lexical items such as multi-word units  and  morphological  elements.  With  this  number  of  headwords the dictionary surpasses Duden-GWDS (1999) which contains around 200,000 headwords.

## 3.2.  Principle of Modularity

elexiko will be compiled by adopting the principle of modularity, meaning  that  the  lexicon  will  be  analysed  systematically  in  batches,  socalled  modules,  which  are  defi  ned  by  specifi  c  semantic,  syntactic  or mor  phological criteria. The principle of modularity has a number of advantages. Specifi  c lexicographic analyses can be distributed to lin  guists with specifi  c expertise. Furthermore, a modular compilation can systemat  ically and consistently describe words that are interrelated in any way and the result be presented simultaneously. Another great benefi  t of this method of working is the immediate inclusion of cross-refer  ences and the systematic linking to related words in order to illustrate lexical structures within a specifi  c part of the lexicon.

7    See: http://www.ids-mannheim.de/kt/projekte/methoden/gl.html.

8 For details on Corrigo see: http://www.clt-st.de/produkte/corrigo.html.; for information on Duden Korrektor Plus see:

http://www.duden.de/index2.html?produkte/elektronisch/korrektor/korrektor.html.

Using this approach, semantic fi  elds, entire word families, or a complete word class will be described systematically and separately. Other mo  dules, however, might be defi  ned for the inclusion of information for the entire lexicon, particularly information which can be extracted automat  ically for each headword.

In an initial step, the dictionary is fi  lled horizontally, thus fi  lling each entry with information generated automatically or semi-automatically from  the  corpus.  This  includes  details  on  syllabication  and  spelling alter  n  atives.  A  second  module  deals  with  the  detailed  description  of the  fi  rst  250  headwords  which  are  defi  ned  as  the  demonstration  module ( Demonstra  tionswortschatz ). The Demonstrationswortschatz contains  lexemes  which  construct  a  semantic  fi  eld  with  the  core  headword Mobilität . In addition, headwords were added according to various criteria. For example, lexemes that are morphologically relat  ed to Mobilität (e.g. hoch  mobil, immobilisieren, mobilisierbar, Mobi  litäts  verhalten, Mobili  täts  zentrum ) and lexemes which are prag  ma  tic  ally stigma  tised (e.g. global, kreativ, modern, Reform, Stau ) were includ  ed. Further  more, the number of lexemes from word classes which were dispro  portion  at  e  ly underrepresented was increased accordingly. The purpose of the Demons  trations  wortschatz is  to  demon  strate the depth of semantic, pragmatic and syntactic information of an entry, to indicate the extent of the linking system and to offer initial insights into possible search options. At the same time, multi-word items containing some of the 250 words of the demonstration module are being compiled and de  scribed, and another module containing German neologisms of the 1990s is also being incorporated into elexiko .

## 3.3.  Microstructure

One chief task during the conceptual phase of this project was to develop a notion of the kind of lexical information to be included and the extent or depth of descriptions to be integrated. Essentially, each entry is divid  ed  into  two  main  parts.  First,  sense-independent  information  of  a lexeme is given, and secondly, information which is bound to a specifi  c sense of the search item is provided. Examples that illustrate the use of a word in a specifi  c way are taken exclusively from the constructed corpus and are attached to most important elements of an entry (see button la  belled Beleg(e) on some following screenshots).

## 3.3.1.  Sense Independent Information

Details that concern the lexeme itself will be presented sense-independently in the separate headword section. This focuses exclusive  ly on infor  mation that applies to the entire entry and not to a specifi  c sense and  contains  details  on  spelling,  spelling  variants  and  syllabication, mor  phological information, a link to canoo 9 for some grammatical details, diachronic information (not yet incorporated in the demonstra  tion module), regional  variation  (if  it  applies  for  the  lexemes  them  selves and not for a specifi  c sense), a list of senses/sub-senses and their seman  tic interrelation. The following two illustrations (example 1 and 2), Mobilität and aneinander reiben , serve to demonstrate the presen  ta  tion of sense-independent details in elexiko .

9    For further information on canoo see www.canoo.net.

a elexiko Artikelansicht: Mobilit at - Microsoft Internet Explorer

Mobilität

Lesartenübergreifende Angaben

Orthografie Info

Normgerechte Schreibung:

Worttrennung

Wortbildung Info

Wortbildungsart/-typ

Basis:

Suffix:

Mobilitat

Molb (iltat

explizite Derivation

mobil

-tat

Weitere grammatische Informationen (z. B. Angabe der Wortart, Flexionstabellen) können Sie hier abrufen: canoo net

Lesartenbezogene Angaben

Das Stichwort verfügt Ober 5 Lesart(en).

Lesar Motorisierheit

Lesart berufliche Deweglichkeit"

Lesart Erreichbarkeit

Lesart körperliche Beweglichkeit

Lesan geistige Beweglchken

Konzeptfamilie und Homonymie

Die Lesarten 'geistige Beweglichkeit. berufiche Beesglichket' und Emeichbarket sind Metaphorisierungen der Lesart Körperliche Beeeglichkeit: Die Lesart

Motorisiertheit' ist eine Spezialisierung der Lesart körperliche Beweglichkeit

63

Hinweis:

Klicken Sie auf eine Lesart bzw. Spezifizierung, um zu weiteren Angaben zu kommen.

Example 1

<!-- image -->

Wortart: Adjektv Benutzerhinweise Ha x a elexiko Artikelansicht: aneinander reiben - Microsoft Internet Explorer aneinander reiben Lesartenübergreifende Angaben Orthografie Normgerechte Schreibung:

aneinander reiben

Worttrennung:

anleinlan|der reiben

Variante in alter Rechtschreibung: aneinanderreiben

Wortbildung Info

Dieses Wort ist ein Simplex, d.h. es ist nicht zusammengesetzt, abgeleitet oder gekürzt.

Nationale Verteilung Info

Dieses Stichwort ist in Texten des folgenden Sprachraumes belegt:

BRD, DDR, Osterreich, Schweiz

Weitere grammatische Informationen (z.B. Angabe der Wortart, Flexionstabellen) können Sie hier abrufen: canoo.net

Lesartenbezogene Angaben

Das Stichwort verfügt über 2 Lesart(en).

Lesart 'gerieben werden' verfügt über 1 Spezifizierung(en).

Lesart reiben'

Lesart 'gerieben werden'

Spezizierung 'aufreiben'

Hinweis:

Klicken Sie auf eine Lesart bzw. Spezifizierung, um zu weiteren Angaben zu kommen.

Example 2

<!-- image -->

## (1) Spelling and spelling variety

With elexiko covering around 300,000 words, it offers readers a comprehen  sive  lexicographic  volume,  containing  more  words  than  any  other  contem  porary German dictionary ( Duden-GWDS contains about 200,000 head words). Although old spelling conventions are statistically more com  mon, each word will appear in its new spelling. 10  At the same time spelling  variants  which  occur  in  the  corpus  and  are  rule  conforming (e.g. geografi  sch vs . geographisch , potentiell vs . potenziell , Smalltalk vs .  Small Talk ),  misspellings, if they show a regular occurrence (e.g. Aqui  si  tion vs. Akquisition ), and old spelling conventions (see example aneinander  reiben vs. aneinander reiben ) are supplied.

10   German underwent new spelling regulations to be statutory since August 1998. As the corpus covers language data since 1946, older spelling variations are statistically more common.

Benutzerhinweise

## (2) Word formation and variant forms

Information  on  word  formation  is  not  only  a  good  source  to  extend one's vocabulary but also an opportunity to illustrate a network of morpho  logically related words. In elexiko , the user will, for example, fi  nd the corresponding source of derivational forms. Variant forms of a word ( andernfalls vs. anderenfalls, mickrig vs. mickerig ) and morphological constituents of compounds and derivations are described systematically. At  a  later  stage,  information  on  the  productivity  of  word  formation (i.e.  any morphologically related form of a lemma) will be included. Provided that corresponding related forms are present in the corpus, entire morphological families can be traced and documented, so that the entry for the adjective mobil, for example, lists any derived form (e.g. immobil, immobilisieren, mobilisierbar, mobilisieren ) and compounds (e.g. mobilbehindert, mobiltelefonisch ).  In  contrast,  print  dictionaries are  restricted  in  their  illustration  of  the  extent  of  word  families  by the paucity of space. Each documented form itself will be a separate entry and further details of morphologically related words will then be obtained by choosing the link provided. 11

## (3) Diachrony

Although elexiko is a synchronic dictionary focussing on contemporary German, it  will  also  provide  diachronic  information.  The  diachronic part is divided into three sections: a diachrony from Old High Ger  man to  1700;  a  diachrony  from  1700  to  1945;  and  a  so-called  Microdiachrony covering the time span between 1946 to present day. Each part will  contain  different  types  of  information.  The  fi  rst  part  (from  Old High German to 1700) will mainly provide etymological information by referring to well-known reference works. For the diachrony between 1700  and  1945  some  particular  key  words  will  be  semantically  described  by  consulting  historical  IDS-corpora. 12   For  the  description of lexemes in the microdiachronic part, contrastive analyses between his  tor  ical  and  contemporary  use  will  be  conducted.  As  records  can be sorted chronologically with the help of COSMAS, we are able to look at decades individually in order to trace and document language change within a short period of time. This mainly concerns changes of a semantic, discursive, contextual or pragmatic nature, or changes in the frequency of occurrence. Our attention focuses on differences in the be  haviour of the search item at a particular point in time and inter  pre  tations will mainly be presented in a narrative style. 13

11   The outlined plan for the description of word formation is not yet fully incorporated in elexiko and will not be realised before summer 2005.

12   See: http://www.ids-mannheim.de/lexik/HistorischesKorpus/.

## (4) Regional variety

Sense-independent information concerning regional varieties, by which we  mean  varieties  of  standard  between Austrian  and  Swiss  German com  pared to German as present in Germany, is also documented by the in  clusion of an appropriate inventory of about 20% Austrian texts and 10% Swiss texts within the corpus. These proportions correspond to the respective percentages of people in German-speaking areas. Individual dialectal  information,  however,  will  not  be  supplied.  An  additional regional variety will be documented; namely the lexical characteristics of  the  language of former East Germany. As can be seen in the two examples, regional variety is either documented sense-independently (com  pare  information  'Nationale  Verteilung'  in  example aneinander reiben ) or sense-dependently (see Mobilität in section 3.3.2).

## (5) Conceptual Sense Relations

As  the  lexicon  contains  many  ambiguous  words,  the  interrelation between individual senses of such items will need to be determined. Different types of semantic relatedness between senses (e.g. metaphorisa  tion, metonymy, irony, specifi  cation, generalisation etc.) will be elucidat  ed to pinpoint conceptual families (see example Mobilität headline 'Kon  zeptfamilie und Homonymie').

## 3.3.2.  Sense-Related Details

The main focus of sense-related lexicographic information will be on meaning, use and grammar. However, pronunciation (not yet incorpor  ated), encyclopaedic details and regional restrictions can also be context-

13   Information on diachrony is not yet incorporated into the Demonstrationswortschatz and will be added at a later stage.

2 elexiko Lesartenansicht: Mobilität - Microsoft Internet Explorer

Mobilität Lesart 'körperliche Beweglichkeit

Lesalec ergreifende Angaben

Lesa Peniche lewesestent

Lesal Freichbeiet

Lesert 'körperliche Beweglichkeit"

Lesart lacistian Bewealchiet

Bedeutungs.

Semantische Umgebung u.

erlauterung lexikalische Mitspieler

Bedeutungserläuterung

Mt Mobilität wird der Zustand bezeichnet, in dem sich körperlich bewegliche Personen befinden.

Nationale Verteilung:

Diese Lesart ist in Texten des folgenden Sprachraumes belegt:

BRD, Osterreich, Schweiz

Typische Verwendungen Sinnverwandte Wörter Besonderheiten des Gebrauchs

info Wortklasse:

Zustandsprädikator Grammatik Belegie)

Altere und behinderte Menschen, die in ihrer Mobilitat eingeschrankt sind, können mit einem nur

16 Gramm schweren Notrufsender jederzeit Hilfe herbeiholen. Der "Lebensretter auf Knopfdruck"

(Neue Kronen Zeitung, 12.07. 1995, Rasche Hilfe durch neuen Notrufsender.)

kann in ganz Kämten betrieben werden.

dependent and are thus presented as sense-bound details. The following illustration (example 3) serves as a demonstration for sense-dependent de  tails for the lexeme Mobilität in its sense of 'physical mobility' ('körper  liche Beweglichkeit').

Example 3

<!-- image -->

- (1) Meaning and Use
2. (1a) Presentation of Senses

In elexiko , words are accessed via their orthographic form; a distinction between homonymy and polysemy is not made; both phenomena are considered forms of lexical ambiguity. As a synchronic dictionary we cannot account for the etymologies of 300,000 lexemes, the origins of most of which remain obscure. Other criteria, such as semantic relatedness or a change in syntax have proven adequate for a clear cut of senses of some polysemous or homonymic words. However, they cannot be applied  as  formal  criteria  for  the  entire  lexicon,  as  there  are  numerous cases where they fail to account for a distinction. Words, whether they are  polysemous  or  homonymic,  are  thus  considered  ambiguous  and treat  ed as single entries.

Dictionaries not only show little agreement as to the question of how many senses and sub-senses a lexeme has, but also use different criteria to arrange word senses according to a sense enumeration system (Ravin and Leacock 2000: 1). 14  However, such a presentation proposes a sense hie  rarchy, a kind of fi  niteness and completeness of senses. In elexiko , senses are not arranged according to an enumeration system, as such a system is inadequate in its demonstration of semantic overlap between senses or contextual sense specifi  cations, as they defi  ne their senses in an atomistic way. As can be seen from the illustration above, senses or sense specifi  cations (sub-senses) of a word will be offered in the form of guide words which signal to the user the conceptual-referential domain of each sense.

e.g. Mobilität :

```
Lesart: 'Motorisiertheit' Lesart: 'berufl  iche Beweglichkeit' Lesart: 'Erreichbarkeit' Lesart: 'körperliche Beweglichkeit' Lesart: 'geistige Beweglichkeit'
```

Guide words have so far not been used in any German monolingual dic  tionary, but they function as 'signposts' in a number of English dictionaries, particularly in EFL-dictionaries such as the Cambridge International Dictionary of English (CIDE), Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (LDCE) and Oxford Advanced Learner's Dic  tionary (OALD).

## (1b) Operational criteria for word sense distinction

One of the most important and diffi  cult tasks of a lexicographer is to re  solve lexical ambiguity. Lexicographers disambiguate the senses of a word by comparing linguistic patterns such as paradigmatic and syntag  m  atic  structures  (Reichmann 1989: 111-114) and by using a good pro  portion of their own intuition. We believe that with the accessibility of comprehensive data and computational tools, lexical disambiguation needs to be addressed from a different perspective. 15  What German lexicography has lacked so far is a theoretical basis upon which the different use of a word can be identifi  ed. We follow Moon (1987: 90) that 'no single method or criterion suffi  ces: words vary too much in kind'. In the con  cept  ual phase of our project, we have developed a disambiguation theory that consists of a multi-dimensional linguistic model (Storjohann 2003).  We  believe  that  only  the  interaction  of  different  criteria  will enable the classifi  cation of different lexical patterns and thus suffi  cient dis  am  biguation of an ambiguous word.

14   Senses are arranged hierarchically following different aspects such as: core vs. peripheral senses; most common vs. uncommon senses; according to corpus frequency or degree of prototypicality etc.

Our disambiguation model contains different linguistic classifi  cations that are interconnected. It primarily focuses on the sentential-functional behaviour of lexical items and thus illustrates the propositional differences  that  words  can  carry  semantically. 16  As  the  use  of  a  word  is closely connected with its function within a proposition, the sentential con  text of a search item receives most attention. Whereas autosemantic words are grouped into sentential-semantic classes, which mainly consist of predicators 17  (v. Polenz 1988: 159-167), function words are disambiguated by their different syntactic functions in a phrase or sen  tence (following Zifonun et al. 1997). When a word portrays dif  ferent functions in different contexts, and hence exhibits different lin  guistic cate  gories within the linguistic model, different word senses are dif  fe  ren  tiated as demonstrated below:

## e.g. Einschränkung :

- -action-denoting predicator (Handlungsprädikator): sense 'das Begrenzen/das Vermindern' (e.g. die Einschränkung des Angebots )

15   Disambiguation is understood in terms of the lexicographic procedure of identifying and distinguishing the senses of a word for further semantic/syntactic description in a dictionary entry.

16   As Pustejovsky (1995: 62) emphasises: 'by defi  ning the functional behaviour of lexical items at different levels of representation we hope to arrive at a characterization of the lexicon as an active and integral component in the composition of sentence meanings'.

17 In elexiko a predicate is defi  ned in terms of Propositional Logic and Predicate Logic. It designates a property or a relation and can be ascribed to different objects (cf. Seiffert 1969: 23).

- -state-denoting predicator (Zustandsprädikator): sense 'Bedingung' (e.g. eine bestimmte Einschränkung auferlegen )
- -quality-denoting predicator (Eigenschaftsprädikator): sense 'Behinde  rung' (e.g. mit einer körperlichen Einschränkung leben )

## e.g. beranken :

- -action-denoting  predicator  (Handlungsprädikator):  sense  'etwas anp  fl  an  zen' (e.g. jemand berankt die Wand mit Efeu )
- -event-denoting predicator (Vorgangsprädikator): sense 'bewachsen' (e.g. Efeu berankt die Wand ).

## e.g. während:

- -preposition (Präposition): sense 'im Verlauf von' (e.g. während der Demonstration passierte nicht viel )
- -conjunction adversative (Konjunktion adversativ): sense 'wohingegen' ( während die einen lachten, weinten die anderen )
- -conjunction temporal (Konjunktion temporal): sense 'als' ( während sie verreist waren, […] )

The advantage of describing a lexeme according to functional classes lies in the illustration of the connection between the semantic/syntactic form and the propositional potential of a communicative unit (Strauß 1989: 788-796). Furthermore, the disambiguation model contains other systems with elements of a different sense-discriminating na  ture: re  ferential-denotational  information;  and  semantic  or  syntactic  spe  ci  fi    cations. 18  In this way, lexicographic sense distinction has been elevat  ed from  a  procedure  conducted  by  introspection  to  a  model-based  task which linguistically justifi  es meaning discrimination.

## (1c) Lexical Vagueness

Difference of meaning depending on the situational context is a practical prob  lem in lexicography. It is usually not easy to defi  ne clear criteria to  distinguish  between  a  sense  with  invariant  semantic  properties and  sub-senses  with  contextually  determined  information  (Cuyckens & Zawada 1997: XV; Brisard et al. 2001: 262). Crucially, the study of  corpus  data  reveals  that  the  information  derived  from  a  corpus  is much more differentiated with respect to the lexical vagueness of some words. Senses can be further determined semantically in their specifi  c con  text  ual use. Therefore, a sense is considered a general undetermined ins  tance,  whereas in contexts the word acquires its specifi  c semantic mani  fes  ta  tion  and  is  then  able  to  exhibit  specifi  c  sub-senses.  Such  a no  tion of determinacy and indeterminacy is found in various semantic ap  proaches (cf. Cruse 1986; Pustejovsky 1995; Cuyckens & Zawada 1997).

18   Specifi  cations  are  understood  as  semantic  properties  which  are  identifi  ed  by complements/adjuncts  (e.g.  aspectual  features  (aktionsarten)  for  process-denoting predicators). Others, like quality-denoting predicators, can be subcategorised according to their specifi  cations into emphasising, classifying and modifying predicators. As far as function words are concerned, they often carry functional specifi  cations. Conjunctions for example function as connectors of clauses with specifi  cations such as 'conditional' or 'concessive'.

We believe  that  the  illustration  of  senses  and  contextual  sense  specifi  cations provides the user with a wider understanding of context, meaning and use. Therefore, semantic indeterminacy will be explored in terms of specifi  c contextualisation (called Spezifi  zierung ), and if discursive patterns occur in the actual contexts, they will be documented as specifi  c dis  cursive  sense  variations.  However,  they  will  only  be  presented  as con  textually determined sub-senses when they show a certain degree of habituality in the corpus. If the corpus provides suffi  cient evidence of  a  contextual  specifi  cation,  this  sense  variation  will  receive  a  full semantic-pragmatic and syntactic description in elexiko .

```
e.g. Arbeit Lesart: 'Tätigkeit' Spezifi  zierung: 'Erwerbstätigkeit' Spezifi  zierung: 'Training' Lesart: 'Mühe' Lesart: 'Werk' Spezifi  zierung: 'Kunstwerk' Spezifi  zierung: 'Klassenarbeit' Lesart: 'Arbeitsplatz'
```

## (1d) Collocations 19

Collocations often represent habitual syntagmatic or paradigmatic patterns of the search item. The extraction and investigation of collo  cations help us to identify the contextual environment and use of a word. As the use of a word is closely connected with its senses, the different syntagmatic  and  paradigmatic  patterns  are  presented  sense-bound. They are  included  to  demonstrate  semantic  and  syntactic  variations,  fl  ex  ibility and/or constraints, information which is of interest to many language learners.

19   Collocations are understood as the co-occurences (salient words) that co-occur with the search item in a specifi  c context. In this paper, collocation is not associated with grammatical choices but defi  nes lexical relationships.

Syntagmatic  patterns  will  be  sorted  primarily  with  respect  to  the semantic  argument  structure  of  a  word.  Typical  syntagmatic  lexical ele  ments  that  accompany  a  word  semantically  in  a  context,  and  for example function as agents of verbs or modifi  cations of nouns, are key infor  mation within the semantic description of a lexeme. With the help of question frames such as Who does X? Who is affected by X? How is X modifi  ed? How is X typically characterised? collocational partners are grouped according to syntactico-semantic functions and thematic fi  elds. They must, however, not be compared to the traditional syntactic no  tion of an argument structures; our focus is entirely on the semantic com  pany  of  a  specifi  c  word.  Especially  for  ambiguous  lexemes,  a sense-related presentation of the argument structure has the benefi  t that syntagmatic patterns of the different senses can be compared and differences in use can be more easily perceived. (For an overview see Mobi  lität sense 'Motorisiertheit' ['with means of transportation']).

a elexiko Lesartenansicht: Mobilität - Microsoft Internet Explorer

Bedeutungs- Semantische Umgebung u. lexikalische Mitspieler

erläuterung Typische Verwendungen Sinnverwandte Wörter

Die semantische Umgebung und ihre lexikalischen Mitspieler

Wie ist Mobilitat?

fehlend

grenzenios

indriduell

mangelnd

motorisiert

nachhaltig

persönlich

sant

stadtverträglich

umweltfreundlich

umweltgerecht

umweltschonend

umweltverträglich

uneingeschränkt

urban

wachsend

zunehmend

Was wird mit Mobilitat gemacht?

einschränken

erhöhen

ermöglichen

erreichen

gewährleisten

sichem

Sicherung Besonderheiten des Gebrauchs Grammatik More complex syntagmatic structures which are usual, and thus statisti  cal  ly signifi  cant, patterns will be presented in their full syntagmatic phrasal form (see heading Typische Verwendungen in illustration). However, they will not include idiomatic phrases, as these are described separ  ate  ly. The focus will be on typical structures that demonstrate preposi  tional complements, typical adjuncts or any typical complements and supplements of verbs.

Example 4

<!-- image -->

a elexiko Lesartenansicht: Mobilität - Microsoft Internet Explorer

Mobilität Lesart 'Motorisiertheit

Lessierterareitende Angsten

Lesart "Motorisiertheit"

Les tasche bewesent

Lesar Freichbaket

Leset Sörperiche Bewogichect

Lesot 'aciction Bewealchiet

Bedeutungs- Semantische Umgebung u.

erlauterung lexikalische Mitspieler

Typische Verwendungen

Drang nach Mobilitat

in Sachen Mobilitat

Mobilität ohne Auto

Recht auf Mobiltat

Symbol für Mobilitat

Zeitalter der Mobilitat

Anforderungen an die Mobilitat

die Einschränkung der Mobilität

Mobilität im 21. Jahrhundert

neue Wege der Mobilitat

ohne auf Mobilitat zu verzichten Nationale Verteilung:

Info

Diese Lesart ist in Texten des folgenden Sprachraumes belegt:

BRD, Osterreich, Schweiz

Typische Sinnverwandte Wörter

Verwendungen Besonderheiten des Gebrauchs Grammatik

Example 5

<!-- image -->

In analogy to syntagmatic patterns, paradigmatic structures vary from sense to sense (or even from one contextual specifi  cation to an  other), as  they  are  restricted  to  specifi  c  contexts. As  non-native  speak  ers  in particular will benefi  t from a sense-bound presentation of sense relations, it  is  all  the  more  surprising  that,  with  the  exception  of  including synonyms or antonyms in defi  nitions, so far only a few Ger  man dictionaries  have  provided  a  sense-related  presentation  of  para  digmatic  relations. elexiko will  also  present  a  differentiated  system  of paradigmatic  relations  including  various  subtypes  of  incompati  bility (cf. Cruse 1986, Lutzeier 1981) and vertical structures such as hyponymy and partonymy. Again, these are retrieved through the stu  dy of collo  cations  and  concordances.  In  some  cases,  however,  paradig  matic investigations  require  the  examination  of  a  larger  context. As  sense relations are context-dependent, their presentation is always illustrat  ed with accompanying examples from the corpus.

la x J elexiko Lesartenansicht: Mobilität - Microsoft Internet Explorer Bedeutungs- erlauterung Semantische Umgebung v.

lexikalische Mitspieler

Sinnverwandte Wörter

Synonym(e)

inkompatible(i) Partner.

inkompatible(i) Partner:

\_komplementäre(t) Partner.

Typische Verwendungen

Bewegungs fahigkeit

Ereiheit

Unabhangigkei

Indmidualitat

Selbstständigkeit

Sicherheit

Immobiltes

Info Sinnverwandte Wörter Besonderheiten des Gebrauchs Grammatik Beleg(e)

Die indiduelle Mobilitat stößt an ihre Grenzen. Schon jetzt begrenzt der

Stau die faktische Bewegungsfahigkeit - obwohl der mit Abstand größte

Investtionshaushat seit Jahrzehnten für den Straßenbau aufgewendet wird.

akzeptieren".)

(die tageszeitung, 30.05.2000, S. 3, "Das Bedürfnis nach Mobilitat

x Schielen

Belegte)

Beleg(e)

Example 6

<!-- image -->

The presentation of lexical structures is one of our central objectives so that the reader acquires a better perception of the interrelatedness of words within the lexicon. The linking to other elements of the lexicon is hence a central aspect of our lexicographic enterprise. For instance, entire paradigmatic fi  elds can be captured or all corresponding le  xemes  derived  from  one  specifi  c  lexeme  viewed.  Synonyms,  antonyms,  hyponyms,  etc,  which  themselves  obtain  a  separate  entry, are  con  nected  systematically.  A  complex  system  of  cross-references, which are actual hypertext links facilitates the visual presentation of lex  i  con  structures  and  provides  direct  access  to  related  items.  Links to  paradigmatic partners are provided to the  corresponding sense or sense  specifi  cation  of  the  related  lexeme. 20   The  lexeme Mobilität in the sense 'Motorisiertheit' has the complementary partner Immobilität .

20   Links are provided to the related word entry instead of the sense, as long as the related paradigmatic partner has not been fully described lexicographically.

-lax a elexiko Lesartenansicht: Mobilität - Microsoft Internet Explorer Mobilität Lesart 'Motorisiertheit Lesartecóbergreifende Angaben Lesart "Motorisiertheit"

Lesart Freichbaiet

Leset Sörperiche Bewogichect

Lesot 'aciction Bewealchiet

Bedeutungs- Semantische Umgebung u

erlauterung lexikalische Mitspieler

Besonderheiten des Gebrauchs

Einstellung des Sprechers:

fobilitat wird in den Texten des elexiko-Korpus häufig als etwas Positives bewertet und wird gemeinsam mit anderen

Schlüsselwörtern wie Freiheit, Individualitat und Urbanitat thematisier

Mobilitat wird im elexiko-Korpus vorwiegend in Kontexten thematisiert, die sich mit Verkehr und Transport auseinander setzen.

Belegie)

Nach einer Untersuchung des Deutschen Instituts für Wirtschaftsforschung

im Jahr 1969 insgesamt 5.413

Die

Kilometer zurück - zu Fuß, per Rad, Auto und offentlicher Nahverkehr.

This paradigmatic relationship is restricted to a common verbal aspect (cf. Lutzeier 1981) and hence the link provided will lead the user to the entry Immobilität in its sense 'Unmotorisiertheit'.

Schieden

(Vgl. Deleg).

Nationale Verteilung:

Diese Lesart ist in Texten des folgenden Sprachraumes belegt:

BRD, Osterreich, Schweiz

Typische Verwendungen Sinnverwandte Worter Besonderheiten des Gebrauchs

Sachgebiet(e)

(DIW) legte der durchschnittliche Berliner

## (2) Pragmatics

In elexiko the meaning, use and pragmatic force of a word are considered a close unit. Hence we follow a sense-related description of pragmatic fea  tures where pragmatic functions of a word are documented for a partic  ular  word sense. These mainly concern references to domain, context  ual  situations,  type  of  text  or  constellation  between  speaker  and hearer. Information on utterances which contain a specifi  c intention of the speaker or have a certain pragmatic effect on the discourse is also in  clud  ed (see example 7).

Example 7

<!-- image -->

## (3) Grammar

The illustration of a word and its various multiple syntactic forms is very re  stricted within a print dictionary. Overall, the presentation of gram-

Grammatik A eleviko Lesartenansicht: aneinander reiben - Microsoft Internet Explorer aneinander reiben Lesart 'reiben'

Lesartenübergreifende Anasben

Lesart 'reiben'

Letant erieten werden

Spezifierung matteien!

Bedeutungs- Semantische Umgebung u.

erlauterung

Grammatik

Wortart lexikalische Mitspieler Typische Verwendungen Verb (stark)

3. Pers. Sing. Ind. Prät. Aktiv.

Perfektbildung

Partizip Perfekt:

Passiv

Satzbaupläne:

Example 8

(er/sieles) rieb aneinander

mit haben

aneinander gerieben

bildbar Sinnverwandte Wörter Kommentar:

mar in German monolingual dictionaries does not show the deep interrela  tion between semantics and grammar, since grammatical infor  mation is often provided for the lexemes as a whole and not for individual senses of a word. elexiko is  primarily  concerned with the actual and cur  rent use of German which is considered to include its semantic and syn  tactic  patterns  and  functions  within  a  phrase  or  sentence.  This  is best illustrated by capturing syntactic structures in their corresponding se  mantic environment in order to illustrate necessary components that constitute the syntactical aspects of the use of the word. As semantics, gram  mar  and  lexical  functions  are  considered  intertwined  linguistic com  ponents of a lexeme, they are shown in a sense-related presentation (cf. Pustejovsky 1995).

Example 8

<!-- image -->

Grammatical categories, such as gender, typical verb patterns, gradabil  ity of adjectives etc, occur in most monolingual dictionaries and will also  be  included.  In  addition,  information  on  grammatical  variation (e.g. alternating gender or plurals, syntactic phrase structures) and its

Besonderheiten des

Gebrauchs Grammatik Kommentar(e)

relative corpus frequency is given to provide an insight into the proportio  nate relationship between different variations.

## Summary

The model entries shown as screenshot illustrations in this paper serve only as examples, all of which have their own specifi  c linguistic details. Other entries, for example, include specifi  c encyclopaedic information, information on other reference works that described the same lexeme or some entries include photographs. In other entries a number of lexicographic explanations and comments are attached to individual semantic or grammatical information. Diachronic details or complex details on word formation, as outlined in 3.3, are not yet included in the entries of the demonstration module. In addition, sound or video documents are not integrated into this module yet.

The  corpus-driven  approach  offers  a  vast  amount  of  material  for linguistic analysis. As a hypertext dictionary elexiko is not confronted with the space problems of print dictionaries. Hence, a lexeme can be described in more detail. Overall, elexiko's entries contain a depth of information that cannot be found in any other electronic German monolingual dictionary (compare the entry Mobilität with the same entry in the electronic version of Duden-GWDS [2000]):

Mo|bi|li|tät, die; - [lat. mobilitas, zu: mobilis, mobil]: 1. (bildungsspr.) [geistige]  Beweglichkeit: Die  M.  der  Vierziger  ist  drastisch  eingeschränkt  (Schreiber,  Krise  37);  seine  Argumentationen  zeugten  von hoher  M. 2. (Soziol.) Beweglichkeit  (in  Bezug  auf  den  Beruf,  die soziale Stellung, den Wohnsitz): die soziale, regionale M. der Arbeitnehmer; Bei der Arbeitssuche werden mehr M., geringere Lohn- und Gehaltsforderungen ...  empfohlen  (Saarbr.  Zeitung  2.10.  79,  4);  eine Gesellschaft mit hoher M. 3. (Milit. selten) mobiler Zustand, Kriegsbereitschaft: eine  Demonstration  der  hohen  M.  ...  der  sowjetischen Kriegsmarine (Bundestag 190, 1968, 10, 325).

## 4. Progress of the Project and Future Perspectives

Our dictionary and information system is a long term enterprise. The development of the information system follows roughly four phases, of which the fi  rst two have been completed.

In the conceptual phase, aims were defi  ned and linguistic methods that are compatible with corpus-based approaches were developed. Var- i  ous  linguistic  theories  concerning  the  problem  of  ambiguity,  vagueness and the arrangement of senses were examined. Furthermore, as a hypertext dictionary makes other forms of presentation possible, we eval  uated a number of ways of presenting data, such as collocations, ar  gu  ment  structure and paradigmatic structures, in order to move the pro  ject  forward  with  illustrations  of  lexico-semantic  structures  of  a quantity and quality that cannot be offered in a printed dictionary. During the process of developing the overall theoretical concept of elexiko , we were particularly concerned with fi  nding a consensus about the  oretical imperatives and lexicographic practice. Another central task was to  establish  effi  cient  lexicographic  procedures  for  the  evaluation  of mass data and, in particular, collocations.

During the second stage, the lexicographic data model (Document Type Defi  nition) and further technological implementations, as well as the design of a data infrastructure, were developed and tested.

Phase three was launched in 2003 which comprises the actual compil  ation  and  writing  of  the  dictionary. As a fi  rst  milestone, the entire head  word list, including fi  rst details such as variant spellings and syllab  ication  has  been  publicly  accessible  since  January  2004. 21  According  ly, search options are still very limited. In addition, the headword list can be viewed alphabetically in reverse mode. As elexiko is being compiled following a modular approach, a batch containing about 250 lexemes and illustrating a particular semantic fi  eld ( Demonstrationswort  schatz ) has been analysed and inserted into the database. By describ  ing a semantic fi  eld, we were able to present a part of the lexicon with different types of lexical structures. This module will serve to demonstrate the potential of elexiko and can be accessed online since July 2004. At the same time, separate modules which describe multi-word entries for the Demonstrationswortschatz and neologisms of the 1990s are being incorporated into the elexiko -database and will be presented in 2005.

Whereas in printed editions of a dictionary each part of the microstructure has its fi  xed position and the reader is used to a specifi  c order and linear arrangement of semantic and syntactic information, a hyper- text  dictionary  has  the  advantage  that  the  user  decides  what  kind  of infor  ma  tion s/he is interested in. Within elexiko it  is  not necessary to read the entire entry, but to extract and present the required information from an entry selectively. The depth of information can be navigated accord  ing to individual interests, for example, by refi  ning search options or suppressing portions of an entry. At the moment the search options are limited to searching for spelling variants and paradigmatic partners. The  dictionary  entries  of elexiko are  modelled  as  XML-instances, mean  ing  that  each  piece  of  lexicographic  information  is  marked  up individ  ually.  The  instances  are  stored  in  a  content-oriented  database with an underlying DTD that contains about 400 different tagging elements. In order to be able to extract specifi  c information and in order to have the user's question answered (as outlined in the introductory part), a refi  ned search and navigation system will be developed in the near  future  (phase  four).  So  far,  possible  enquiries  are  very  limited, but further query programming will allow us to go beyond the search op  tions  of  electronic  versions  of  other  German  dictionaries,  such  as Duden-GWDS (2000), Duden-Universalwörterbuch (2003)  or DWBOnline . Once a complex search tool has been developed, elexiko will also  serve  as  an  information  system  where  linguists  can  collect  data for their own research. This targeted access of information also means that a diverse spectrum of users can explore the dictionary, no matter whe  ther one's interest is professional, academic, or whether one is a foreign language learner or simply curious about the meaning or use of a particular German word.

21   See website of the project http://www.elexiko.de.

The  aforementioned  principle  of  modularity  can  also  be  applied with regard to other projects that want to be connected to elexiko . A com  patible hypertext structure is a prerequisite for becoming an integrated module. Initially, only internal IDS projects, such as the project 'neo  logisms of the 90s', 22  will be connected to elexiko . Such modules usual  ly comprise a specifi  c part of the German lexicon which might not be part of elexiko or which focuses on specifi  c questions that are not covered by elexiko .

Further cooperation with external projects is desirable. Depending on the nature of collaborating modules, such cooperation could range from  being  an  integral  part  of elexiko to  being  merely  a  link  to  an external project. This networking vision will hopefully grow with the development of other online projects.

22   See websites of the project: http://www.ids-mannheim.de/lexik/Neologie.

## Acknowledgements

I wish to thank all the reviewers for their valuable comments.

## 5. References

- Belica, Cyril. 1995-2002: Statistische Kollokationsanalyse und Clustering. COSMAS-Korpusanalysemodul. Mannheim: Institut für Deutsche Sprache. (http://corpora.ids-mannheim.de/cosmas).
- Brisard, Frank et al. 2001: Processing Polysemous, Homonymous, and Vague Adjectives. In  Hubert  Cuyckens, Britta Zawada (ed), Polysemy in cognitive linguistics . Amster  dam: Benjamins, 261-284.
- Cruse, Alan D. 1986: Lexical Semantics . Cambridge: CUP.
- Cuyckens, Hubert/Zawada, Britta 2001: Polysemy in Cognitive Linguistics .  Selected Pa  pers from the Fifth International Cognitive Linguistics Conference Amsterdam 1997. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: Benjamins.
- Haß-Zumkehr, Ulrike. 2001: Deutsche Wörterbücher . Berlin and New York: de Gruyter.
- Haß-Zumkehr, Ulrike. 2004: Das Projekt Wissen über Wörter des Instituts für Deutsche Sprache' in Jürgen Scharnhorst (ed), Sprachkultur und Lexikographie .  Frankfurt: Peter Lang.
- Lutzeier, Peter Rolf 1981: Wort und Feld. Wortsemantische Fragestellungen mit besonderer Berücksichtigung des Wortfeldbegriffes. Tübingen: Niemeyer.
- Moon, Rosamund. 1987: The Analysis of Meaning. In John Sinclair (ed), Looking Up: An Account of the COBUILD Project in Lexical Computing .  London: HarperCollins, 86-103.
- Polenz v., Peter. 1985: Deutsche Satzsemantik . Grundbegriffe des Zwischen-den-ZeilenLesens, (=Sammlung Göschen 2226). Berlin/New York: de Gruyter.
- Pustejovsky, James 1995: The Generative Lexicon . Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
- Ravin, Yael/Leacock Claudia (eds) 2000: Polysemy: Theoretical and Computational Approaches. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Reichmann, Oskar 1989: Einführung. In Robert R. Anderson, Ulrich Goebel and Oskar Reichmann (eds), Frühneuhochdeutsches Wörterbuch. Bd.1, a - äpfelkern . Berlin and New York: de Gruyter, 1-164.
- Seiffert, Helmut 1969: Einführung in die Wissenschaftstheorie . Vol 1: Sprachanalyse Deduk  tion - Induktion in Natur und Sozialwissenschaften. München: C. H. Beck.

- Sinclair,  John  1991: Corpus, Concordance, Collocation .  Oxford:  Oxford  University Press.
- Storjohann, Petra 2003: The Lexicographic Use of Corpora and Computational Tools for  Disambiguation.  In  Dawn  Archer,  Paul  Rayson,  Andrew  Wilson  and  Tony McEnery (eds), Proceedings of the Corpus Linguistics 2003 Conference . UCREL tech  nical paper number 16. UCREL, Lancaster University.
- Storrer, Angelika 1998: Hypermedia Wörterbücher: Perspektiven für eine neue Generation elektronischer Wörterbücher. In Herbert Ernst Wiegand (ed), Wörterbücher in der Diskussion III . Vorträge aus dem Heidelberger Lexikographischen Kolloquium. (Lexicographica. Series Maior 84.) Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 105-131.
- Storrer,  Angelika  2001:  Digitale  Wörterbücher  als  Hypertexte:  zur  Nutzung  des Hypertextkonzepts  in  der  Lexikographie.  In  Ingrid  Lemberg,  Bernhard  Schröder and Angelika Storrer (eds), Chancen und Perspektiven computergestützer Lexikogra  phie . Hypertext, Internet, und SGML/XML für die Produktion und Publikation digit  aler Wörterbücher. (Lexicographica. Series Maior 107.) Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 52-69.
- Strauß, Gerhard 1989: Angabe traditioneller Wortarten oder Beschreibung nach funktionalen Wortklassen  im  allgemeinsprachigen Wörterbuch? In Franz Josef Hausmann, Oskar Reichmann, Herbert Ernst Wiegand and Ladislav Zgusta (eds), Wörterbücher: ein internationales Handbuch zur Lexikographie . (Handbücher zur Sprachund  Kommunikationswissenschaft  Bd.  5.1).  Berlin/New  York:  de  Gruyter,  788796.
- Zifonun, Gisela/Hoffmann, Ludger/Strecker, Bruno (1997): Grammatik der deutschen Sprache . 3 Bände, (IDS-Grammatik). Berlin / New York: de Gruyter.

## Dictionaries

- CIDE 1995 = Cambridge International Dictionary of English . Cambridge: CUP.
- Duden-GWDS 1999 = Das große Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache . 10 Bände. Mannheim/Leipzig/Wien/Zürich: Dudenverlag.
- Duden-GWDS 2000 = Das große Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache .  10 Bände auf CD-Rom. Mannheim/Leipzig/Wien/Zürich: Dudenverlag.
- Duden-Universalwörterbuch  2003  =  Duden  -  Deutsches  Universalwörterbuch.  CDRom. Mannheim/Leipzig/Wien/Zürich: Dudenverlag.
- DWB 1854-1971/1984 = Deutsche Wörterbuch von Jacob Grimm und Wilhelm Grimm . 32 Bände - Online: http://www.dwb.uni-trier.de/index.html.
- LDCE 1995 = Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English . London: Longman.
- OALD 2000 = Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary . Oxford: OUP.