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Research Article                                                                                                                                        Open Access

## The Influence of Mental Health, Psychosocial Factors, and Educational Skills on the Educational Aspirations of Indigenous Sámi and Non-Indigenous Adolescents in the Arctic

Elisabeth Valmyr Bania 1 , Christian Eckhoff 2 , and Siv Kvernmo 1,2

1 Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Tromsoe; The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsoe, Norway 2 Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Division of Child and Adolescent Health, University Hospital North Norway, Tromsoe, Norway

*Corresponding author:

elisabeth.bania@uit.no

## Abstract

Background: Mental health and psychosocial factors seem to influence the educational aspirations of adolescents, which are also known to be related to educational skills and sociodemographic factors such as gender, ethnicity, religious affiliation, and socioeconomic status. Previously, the relationship between educational aspirations and mental health, psychosocial factors, and educational and sociocultural conditions has not been investigated in Arctic adolescents.

Objective: We aimed to investigate the influence of mental health, psychosocial factors, and educational skills on educational aspirations among multiethnic adolescents in an Arctic sociocultural context.

Method: The Norwegian Arctic Adolescent Health Study, which was conducted from 2003 to 2005, is a cross-sectional school-based survey. Individuals from the total population of 5877 tenth   graders between the ages of 15 and 16 years were invited to participate in the study. Of this group, 4881 participated (response rate, 83%), 50.1% were female, and 10% were indigenous Sámi.

Results: Educational skills as measured by higher average mark were associated with higher aspirations; lower average mark was  associated  with  lower  aspirations.  Weaker  peer  support  and  stronger  parental  involvement  influenced  aspirations  in individuals with both higher and lower aspirations. Adolescents with lower rates of hyperactivity and inattention problems reported higher aspirations, whereas adolescents with emotional problems showed a greater inclination toward intermediate aspirations. In addition, males and Sámi adolescents showed lower aspirations and were more likely to be located in more remote and northern areas.

Conclusions: This study confirmed earlier findings that educational skills have a strong influence on educational aspirations. However, mental health as well as social, familial, and residential contexts must be addressed to foster adolescents' educational aspirations. Negative peer support for master's and vocational degrees should be addressed by families and schools. Gender, ethnicity, and religious affiliation had limited effects on the educational aspirations of the students in this study.

Keywords: Educational aspirations; adolescence; mental health; Sámi; indigenous; religion

## Introduction

Employment is a key factor that underlies well-being (1,2), and living conditions as determined by socioeconomic  status,  health,  independence,  and social  inclusion  are  related  to  employment  and income (3). Moreover, adolescents' educational aspirations predict their educational and vocational attainment in adulthood (4) and thereby their opportunities for employment and good living conditions (5). Despite the  obvious  connection between educational aspirations and subsequent education  and  employment,  many  youths  have  no clear  aspirations,  or  they  may  be  indecisive  with regard  to  their  aspirations.  Educational  aspirations are shown to be strengthened by support from family and friends as well as by other psychosocial factors (6-8), and they are influenced by good mental health and educational skills (7-11).

Educational  skills  as  measured  by  average  mark and  student  self-reports  of  their  mastery  of  their schoolwork  have  been  shown  to  have  substantial effects  on  educational  aspirations  in  some  studies (10,12). Parents' or caretakers' socioeconomic status (SES) has also been found to strongly affect children's  educational  aspirations  (13-17).  Indeed, Garg and colleagues (4) suggested that family background  predicts  educational  aspirations  with respect to academic  self-concept  in that highly educated parents can serve as role models for their children.

Mental health has been found to influence educational aspirations and educational attainment in several  ways  (7,8,10).  For  example,  studies  have revealed that externalizing symptoms are related to poorer educational aspirations (9). Adolescents who have been diagnosed with attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder are more likely to drop out of high school, whereas the mental health of depressed adolescents does not appear to influence their likelihood of completing high school (9). Breslau and colleagues  explained  high  school  dropout  rates  by citing attention problems associated with attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder and learning disabilities (9). Females typically complete school despite experiencing internalized symptoms such as emotional  and  peer  problems  (9,11).  Furthermore, health  risk  behaviors  such  as  substance  use  are strongly associated with the failure to complete high school on time (9,11). Nevertheless, little is known about how  mental  health problems  other  than externalizing problems are associated with educational aspirations.

Educational aspirations among  adolescents in Arctic  Norway  are  found  to  differ  between  and within ethnic groups (18). Rates of higher education at the university and university college levels tend to be more than 10% lower in Arctic Norway than in other  parts  of  Norway  (19);  the  number  of  high school  dropouts  is  also  a  serious  concern  (20,21), because Arctic areas have higher dropout rates than other  areas  (22).  International  studies  have  noted how females' educational aspirations have evolved. In contrast to nowadays, and only a few decades ago, females had significantly lower educational aspirations than  males  (23). This  trend can  be observed in the indigenous Sámi population, which includes a high number of well-educated indigenous Sámi females, as is seen in the majority population (24,25). Historically, females in minority populations tend  to  have  low  educational  aspirations  (23),  but revitalization among indigenous groups has positively influenced females in this context (24,25).

The Arctic part of Norway is a sparsely populated and multiethnic area with a majority Norwegian and minority  Sámi  and  Kven  populations.  The  Kvens have  the  status  as  a  national  minority,  and  are descendants  of  Finnish  immigrants  from  the  1700 and 1800s. The Kvens are strongly assimilated into Norwegian culture today. By contrast, the approximately  100,000  indigenous  Sámi  live  in  the Arctic area of Scandinavia and the Russian Peninsula, where  they  have  their  own  culture  and  language. Most Sámi live in the rural and semi-rural areas in Norway. The historical trauma, forced assimilation, and  colonization  endured  by  the  indigenous  Sámi populations-which included boarding schools and forced language shifts in schools and public areasled to a loss of culture and ongoing oppression and discrimination (26,27). The assimilation process may have  influenced  the  Sámi  family  system's  view  of higher education, with negative experiences associated with the school systems and  forced language shifts. However, within the last few decades,  a  strong  revitalization  of  culture  and  a higher standard of living have emerged among the Sámi, thereby decreasing the social gap between the majority and minority populations and increasing the Sámi population's level of cultural pride (28,29).

Laestadianism, which has been a substantial religious movement  since  the  early 1800s, was initially strong among the Sámi in Norway, Sweden, and Finland. Today, however, it has crossed ethnic boundaries. Laestadianism  has traditionally  been considered a Sámi version of Lutheran Christianity, and it holds a strong religious and social position that involves conservatism and abstinence of many forms (30-32). The Laestadians still represent an essential social and cultural network in the Arctic area.

In recent decades, several studies have shown that the mental health of Sámi youths is as good as that of non-Sámi youths (27;33-36). Sámi youths report less substance abuse than their non-indigenous peers (27,32;34-36),  perhaps  because  of  the  influence  of Laestadianism on Sámi adolescents and the norm of abstinence among their families. No previous studies have explored whether this type of religious group membership  or  Sámi  ethnicity  is  associated  with educational  aspirations  among  Arctic  Norwegian adolescents.

Blocked opportunity theory, oppositional identity, and status attainment are key concepts for understanding the educational aspirations of minority  youths  (23).  The  term blocked  opportunity refers to a lack of social mobility and a self-fulfilling prophecy of maintaining one's social class and SES (23). Oppositional  identity can  be  understood  as  a minority  group's  rejection  of  a  majority  group's rational  choices  based  on  their  values  and  beliefs (37,38). Sámi males are more involved in traditional Sámi occupations such as reindeer herding, and, as Laestadians,  they  tend  to  uphold  the  traditional conservative  male  role.  Males  may  perceive  their educational  outcomes  as  blocked  opportunities  if they  maintain  their  traditional  ethnic  and  Christian values. Status attainment results from social mobility, which  is  facilitated  by  national  student  loans  for living  expenses  and  tuition-free  higher  education, which  is  available  to  everyone  in  Norway  (25,39). Therefore,  from  the  perspective  of  oppositional identity theory, one can observe a coping strategy in which  males  reject  the  values  and  norms  of  the majority,  whereas  females  are  more  receptive  to social attainment.

This  study  aims  to  investigate  the  influence  of mental health, psychosocial factors, and educational skills  on  educational  aspirations  among  indigenous and non-indigenous adolescents in an Arctic sociocultural  context.  We  expect  that  lower  SES, male gender, Sámi ethnicity, and Laestadian affiliation will have a negative effect on educational aspirations, whereas good educational skills as well as good  peer, class, and  teacher relationships will positively influence educational aspirations. We also hypothesize  that  mental  health  problems  such  as hyperactivity,  attention,  and  conduct  problems  will be associated with indecisiveness, whereas emotional problems will not be related to educational aspirations.

## Methods

Sample and Procedure

The Norwegian Arctic Adolescent Health Study was conducted from January 2003 until January 2005. All tenth-grade students in all junior high schools in the three northernmost Norwegian counties were invited to participate in this study. The participants included 4881 of 5877 total adolescents who were seniors in junior high school (i.e., tenth graders) and who were either 15 or 16 years old. The following response rates were observed for the total sample and for the populations of the three counties: total, 83%; Finnmark, 71%; Troms, 82%; and Nordland, 88%. The participating sample consisted of the total population of tenth graders that was present at school when the survey was conducted.

The questionnaires were administered during a 2hour period in a classroom setting that was monitored by project staff; non-attending students completed their questionnaires at a later time. The questionnaire was available in both the Sámi and Norwegian languages.

Of the respondents included in the sample, 50.1% were  female  and  49.9%  were  male.  Approximately 10%  were  indigenous  Sámi.  In  all,  6%  reported having a Laestadian affiliation in a three-generational perspective; specifically, 8% of the males and 5% of the females considered themselves to have Laestadian affiliation. In addition, more Sámi adolescents reported having a Laestadian affiliation and  a  primary  industry  background  (e.g.,  reindeer herding). A  total of 93 (20.7%) of the Sámi adolescents reported having a Laestadian affiliation.

## Measures

Educational aspiration was measured with the question 'What is the highest educational level you plan to complete?' The following response options were available:

- 1) 'A high-level university or college education' (e.g., lector, solicitor, civil engineer, dentist, doctor, psychologist, civil economist);
- 2) 'A mid-level university or college education' (i.e., a Norwegian university degree that takes 3.5 to 4.5 years to complete; e.g., teacher, social worker, nurse, police officer, engineer, journalist);
- 3) 'A high school diploma';
- 4) 'Vocational education at a high school level' (e.g., chef, hairdresser, builder, electrician, health assistant, social worker);
- 5) 'One year of high school';
- 6) 'Other' (with an open space to fill in alternatives); and
- 7) 'I have not decided.'

The options were recoded as multinomial variables within four categories: 1) higher; 2) intermediate; 3) lower; and 4) undecided.

The undecided group was considered the reference group.

For gender, male gender was used as the reference group.

Residency refers to the county in which the student lives . The  three  northernmost  counties  in  Norway were included: Nordland, Troms, and Finnmark. The northernmost county, Finnmark County, was used as the reference group.

Sámi ethnicity was measured by an assessment of Sámi parentage and Sámi language competency in the participants, their parents, and their grandparents as well  as  by  self-identification.  Participants  who  had one  or  more  of  these  affiliations  present  were classified  as  having  Sámi  ethnicity  (40,41).  Sámi ethnicity was used as the reference group.

Socioeconomic status was measured via the obtaining of information about the occupation of the participants' parents and then classifying it according to the International Standard Classification of Occupation (42). This information was subsequently reclassified  into  five  categories  for  each  type  of parent  (i.e.,  'SES-father'  and  'SES-mother')  with the  use  of  the  following  categories:  1)  'Higher administrative position'; 2) 'Intermediate position'; 3)  'Lower  administrative  position';  4)  'Primary industry'; and 5) 'Blue-collar worker.' Those whose positions were unknown were small in number and classified as missing. Option 5 ('Blue-collar worker') was used as the reference group.

Religious group membership by Laestadian affiliation was measured by answers that encompassed three levels of affiliation: 1) the youth's self-identified  affiliation;  2)  the  parents'  affiliation; and 3) the grandparents' affiliation. Participants with one or more of these affiliations  were  classified  as having Laestadian affiliation, and Laestadian affiliation was used as the reference group.

Peer  support (Cronbach's alpha =  0.84)  was measured with the use of a scale from the NorHealth statistics bank of the Norwegian Institute of Public Health (http://www.norgeshelsa.no), which was based  on  the  following  four  statements:  'I  feel closely attached to my friends,' 'My friends value my opinions,' 'I can help/support my friends,' and 'I can  count  on  my  friends  when  I  need  help.'  This study used a four-point Likert scale that ranged from 'Completely agree' [1] to 'Completely disagree' [4] and  that  was  operationalized  on  the  basis  of  the mean.

Parental  support  (Cronbach's  alpha  =  0.88)  was measured with the use of a scale from the NorHealth statistics bank of the Norwegian Institute of Public Health,  which  was  based  on  the  following  five statements:  'I  feel  attached  to  my  family,'  'My family  takes  me  seriously,'  'My  family  values  my opinions,' 'I mean a lot to my family,' and 'I can count on my family when I need help.' This measure used  a  four-point  Likert  scale  that  ranged  from 'Completely agree' [1] to 'Completely disagree' [4] and  that  was  operationalized  on  the  basis  of  the mean.

Parental involvement was measured with the use of a scale that was based on a four-item version of the Parental  Involvement  Scale  (Cronbach's  alpha  = 0.78)  used  by  Alsaker  and  colleagues  (43)  and  that contained  the  following  statements:  'My  parents know where I am at and what I do on the weekend,' 'My parents  know  where  I  am  and  what  I  do  on weekdays,'  'My  parents  know  who  I  spend  my leisure time with,' and 'My parents like the friends I spend time with.' This variable was measured with the use of a four-point Likert scale that ranged from 'Completely agree' [1] to 'Completely disagree' [4] and  that  was  operationalized  on  the  basis  of  the mean.

Class affiliation (Cronbach's alpha = 0.79), which assessed each student's social standing in and opinion of school, was measured with the use of a scale from the  NorHealth  statistics  bank  of  the  Norwegian Institute  of  Public  Health  and  was  based  on  the following  four  statements: 'I  like  it  at  school,'  'I have  much  in  common  with  my  fellow  school mates,' 'I feel attached to my school class,' and 'My class friends value my opinions.' This study used a four-point Likert scale that ranged from 'Completely agree' [0] to 'Completely disagree' [3] and that was operationalized on the basis of the mean.

Teacher affiliation (Cronbach's alpha = 0.80) was measured with the use of a scale from the NorHealth statistics bank of the Norwegian Institute of Public Health,  which  was  based  on  the  following  four statements: 'Teachers value my opinions,' 'Teachers appreciate me,' 'Teachers help me with school work when needed,' and 'Teachers help me with personal problems when needed.' This measure was based on a four-point Likert scale that ranged from 'Completely agree' [0] to 'Completely disagree'  [3]  and  that  was  operationalized  on  the basis of the mean.

The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) consists of five subscales, each of which contains five questions.  We  used  three  of  these  subscales  as measures  of psychosocial health: the  emotional symptom scale (SDQ-emotions; Cronbach's alpha = 0.70); the hyperactivity-inattention scale  (SDQhyper;  Cronbach's  alpha  =  0.64);  and  the  conduct problem  scale  (SDQ-conduct;  Cronbach's  alpha  = 0.47). The scores for these subscales ranged from 0 to  10,  with  the  lowest  score  indicating  the  least amount of difficulty. Each question was scored from 0 to 2, with 0 indicating no problems and 2 indicating great  worries  and  large  problems.  The  scales  were operationalized on the basis of the mean scores of the five questions.

The  average  mark  variable  was  based  on  the average of four central subjects: mathematics, Norwegian, English, and social science. Scores ranged from 1 to 6 (1 = poor, 6 = excellent). For this variable to be included, the participant had to report a mark for at least one of the four subjects.

School-related  stress (Cronbach's  alpha  =  0.66) was  measured  with  the  use  of  a  scale  from  the NorHealth statistics bank of the Norwegian Institute of Public Health, which was based on the following questions:  'Have  you  ever  experienced  any  of  the following: 'Considerable pressure to succeed at school?', 'Considerable pressure  from  others  to succeed/do well at school?', 'Difficulty concentrating in  class?',  or  'Difficulty  understanding  the  teacher when he/she is teaching?'' This measure was based on a three-point Likert scale that ranged from 'No' [1] to 'Yes, often' [3] and that was operationalized on the basis of the mean.

## Statistical Analysis

Chi-squared tests were applied to determine whether the independent variables of demographic characteristics  and  group  membership  were  related to educational aspirations.

One-way analyses of variance were used to compare the differences between various aspirational levels in relation to independent continuous variables on  the  basis  of  mental  health  and  psychosocial factors.  The Tukey honest significant different test was used for post hoc analysis.

Unadjusted logistic regression analysis was used to analyze  educational  aspirations  in  relation  to  each independent variable.

A fully adjusted block-wise regression analysis was performed  for  the  total  sample,  with  all  variables from  the  univariate  analysis  controlling  for  each other. We used a random-effects model followed by a multilevel multivariate logistic model (44).

Cronbach's alpha was employed as a measure of internal consistency reliability, with a value of 0.7 or more considered acceptable.

The sample under analysis is population based, and statistical  tests  have  proved  that  the  sample  has  a normal  distribution.  We  can  thus  ensure  that  the necessary assumptions surrounding normality exist.

The  significance  level  was  set  to p =  .05  for  all statistical  tests.  SPSS  software version 21 was used for all analyses.

## Results

The  distribution of the different categories of educational  aspiration  is  as  follows:  higher,  23.7%; intermediate,  18.9%;  lower,  32.9%;  and  undecided, 24.5% (Table 1).

Females showed a fairly equal distribution among the four aspiration levels, however, the distribution among males showed greater variation. As compared with  males,  females  had  significantly  higher  and intermediate educational aspirations; males' aspirations  for  lower  education  were  significantly higher.  Moreover,  we found no gender differences for the undecided group of adolescents. The results revealed a significant ethnic difference among indecisive adolescents, with Sámi adolescents exhibiting  greater  indecisiveness.  Adolescents from Nordland, Troms, and Finnmark Counties differed with regard to their levels of aspiration and indecisiveness. Specifically, adolescents from Finnmark County showed significantly lower aspirations  and significantly  more  indecisiveness  as compared  with  adolescents  from  Nordland  and Troms counties.

Non-Laestadian adolescents reported significantly higher  aspirations  than  Laestadian  adolescents,  but no  significant  differences  were  observed  for  the other three groups.

The  SES-mother  and  SES-father  variables  were significant predictors of higher and lower aspirations, respectively.  Adolescents  whose  fathers  worked  in medium administrative positions tended to aspire to higher levels of education, whereas adolescents whose  fathers  worked  in  the  primary  industries tended  to  aspire  to  lower  levels  of  education.  By contrast,  adolescents  whose  fathers  worked  in  the primary industries were more likely to report having lower  aspirations,  and  participants  whose  fathers worked in medium administrative positions were less likely to report having lower aspirations. Adolescents whose  mothers  worked  in  higher  and  medium administrative positions were more likely than adolescents  whose  mothers  worked  in  blue-collar occupations or in the primary industries to aspire to higher levels of education. Adolescents whose parents worked in the primary industries and bluecollar occupations showed  the  same  significant patterns of lower aspirations. Parental SES was not significantly associated with aspiring to an intermediate level of education or with being undecided about one's educational aspirations.

Table 2 illustrates the statistically significant differences  for  all  types  of  educational  aspirations related  to  mental  health  and  psychosocial  factors. The post hoc analysis showed the greatest difference between higher and lower aspirations on the basis of average mark and hyperactivity and attention problems.  Higher  aspirations  were  associated  with lower scores for hyperactivity and attention problems  (mean  deviation,  -1.21  [95%  confidence interval, -1.42 to -1.00; p ≤  .001]). Vocational aspirations were associated with lower average grades (mean  deviation,  -1.04  (95%  confidence  interval,  1.12  to  -1.00; p ≤  .001).  The  full  results  are  not shown.

Unadjusted  logistical  regression  analyses  of  the predictors  of  educational  aspirations  are  shown  in Table 3. The undecided group is the reference group.

Higher average mark, school-related stress, negative  peer  support,  and  a  stronger  class  and teacher affiliation were associated with higher aspirations.  Laestadian  affiliation  was  also  more significantly associated with higher aspirations than non-Laestadian affiliation. Analyses of the interactions  among  gender,  Laestadian  affiliation, and Sámi ethnicity showed no statistical significance for  any  interaction,  except  for  the  effect  of  the interaction between gender and Laestadian affiliation on  an  intermediate  level  (odds  ratio,  0.283  [range, 0.128 to 0.623; p = 0.002]) and a strong tendency for a lower level of educational aspirations (odds ratio, 0.512  [range,  0.257  to  1.020; p =  .057]).  Hence, Laestadian affiliation and male gender were found to be positively associated with intermediate and lower educational aspirations.

Residency in the southernmost counties of Nordland  and  Troms  was  significantly  associated with higher levels of educational aspirations as compared with residency in the northernmost county of Finnmark.

An analysis  of  the  interaction  between  residency and Sámi ethnicity, after adjustment for certain

TABLE 1 . Demographic Characteristics for Educational Aspirations by Gender, Ethnicity, Religious Group Membership in Laestadianism, Residency and Socioeconomic Status

|                               |      |                 | Educational Aspirations   | Educational Aspirations   |                  |
|-------------------------------|------|-----------------|---------------------------|---------------------------|------------------|
| Variables (%)                 | n    | Higher n=1078   | Intermediate n=857        | Lower n=1497              | Undecided n=1114 |
| Gender (%):                   |      |                 |                           |                           |                  |
| Female                        | 2413 | 24.5            | 22.2                      | 25.5                      | 23.7             |
| Male                          | 2388 | 20.4            | 13.5                      | 36.9                      | 22.7             |
| X2 p                          |      | 11.58 p =0.001  | 61.77 p =0.001            | 73.30 p =0.001            | 0.69 p =0.41     |
| Ethnicity (%):                |      |                 |                           |                           |                  |
| Sámi                          | 450  | 24.5            | 15.9                      | 26.6                      | 28.0             |
| Non-Sámi                      | 3999 | 22.8            | 18.1                      | 30.9                      | 22.8             |
| X2 p                          |      | 0.71 p =0.40    | 1.35 p =0.25              | 3.44p=0.06                | 5.90 p =0.02     |
| Religious group membership in |      |                 |                           |                           |                  |
| Laestadianism (%):            |      |                 |                           |                           |                  |
| Laestadian affiliation        | 304  | 14.8            | 17.2                      | 35.0                      | 25.9             |
| Non-Laestadian affiliation    | 4577 | 23.0            | 17.9                      | 30.9                      | 23.0             |
| X2 p                          |      | 10.61 p =0.001  | 0.10 p =0.75              | 2.17 p =0.14              | 1.32 p =0.25     |
| Residency (%):                |      |                 |                           |                           |                  |
| Nordland                      | 2657 | 22.3            | 17.9                      | 32.1                      | 22.0             |
| Troms                         | 1587 | 23.5            | 19.0                      | 28.6                      | 23.8             |
| Finnmark                      | 637  | 20.3            | 14.8                      | 33.6                      | 27.0             |
| X2 p                          |      | 2.73 p =0.26    | 5.40 p =0.07              | 7.43 p =0.02              | 7.58 p =0.02     |
| SES*-father (%):              |      |                 |                           |                           |                  |
| Higher adm. position          | 499  | 27.5            | 19.5                      | 20.3                      | 26.5             |
| Mediate adm. position         | 1092 | 33.9            | 19.7                      | 18.7                      | 23.8             |
| Lower adm. position           | 450  | 18.3            | 18.3                      | 35.3                      | 21.5             |
| Primary industry              | 385  | 11.5            | 17.6                      | 41.5                      | 22.3             |
| Blue-collar worker            | 1240 | 16.4            | 17.2                      | 38.7                      | 22.7             |
| X2 p                          |      | 142.77 p =0.001 | 3.01 p =0.56              | 161.63 p =0.001           | 4.26 p =0.37     |
| SES*-mother (%):              |      |                 |                           |                           |                  |
| Higher adm. position          | 173  | 32.4            | 17.3                      | 21.4                      | 23.1             |
| Mediate adm. position         | 1410 | 31.2            | 20.0                      | 20.8                      | 23.4             |
| Lower adm. position           | 1420 | 18.5            | 17.5                      | 34.3                      | 23.5             |
| Primary industry              | 79   | 12.7            | 21.5                      | 39.2                      | 22.8             |
| Blue-collar worker            | 454  | 14.1            | 17.2                      | 44.0                      | 20.1             |
| X2 p                          |      | 101.15 p =0.001 | 4.27 p =0.37              | 120.65 p =0.001           | 2.47 p =0.65     |

Note. SES* = Socioeconomic Status

TABLE 2. One-way ANOVA of Mental Health and Psychosocial Health Factors and Educational Skills by Educational Aspirations

|                              | Educational Aspirations   | Educational Aspirations   | Educational Aspirations   | Educational Aspirations   | Educational Aspirations   | Educational Aspirations   |
|------------------------------|---------------------------|---------------------------|---------------------------|---------------------------|---------------------------|---------------------------|
| Variables                    | n                         | Higher n=1078 M(SD)       | Intermediate n=857 M(SD)  | Lower n=1497 M(SD)        | Undecided n=1114 M(SD)    | F p                       |
| Psychosocial factors*        |                           |                           |                           |                           |                           |                           |
| Peer support (4-16)          | 4486                      | 5.46 (1.98)               | 5.40 (1.80)               | 5.73 (2.05)               | 5.75 (2.05)               | 8.87 p=0.001              |
| Parental support (5-20)      | 4477                      | 6.97 (2.66)               | 6.96 (2.72)               | 7.45 (2.88)               | 7.18 (2.86)               | 8.22 p=0.001              |
| Parental involvement (4-16)  | 4488                      | 6.24 (2.13)               | 6.13 (2.05)               | 6.74 (2.40)               | 6.39 (2.19)               | 17.34 p=0.001             |
| Class affiliation (0-12)     | 4487                      | 3.01 (2.50)               | 3.31 (2.46)               | 3.74 (2.72)               | 3.57 (2.67)               | 18.05 p=0.001             |
| Teacher affiliation (0-12)   | 4475                      | 3.93 (2.74)               | 4.19 (2.69)               | 4.72 (2.97)               | 4.44 (2.77)               | 17.28 p=0.001             |
| Mental health factors*       |                           |                           |                           |                           |                           |                           |
| SDQ**-emotions (0-10)        | 4511                      | 2.40 (2.15)               | 2.79 (2.20)               | 2.50 (2.21)               | 2.61 (2.23)               | 5.49 p=0.001              |
| SDQ**-hyper (0-10)           | 4513                      | 3.42 (2.11)               | 3.90 (2.09)               | 4.63 (2.05)               | 4.26 (2.06)               | 76.53 p=0.001             |
| SDQ**-conduct (0-10)         | 4511                      | 1.85 (1.42)               | 1.85 (1.34)               | 2.37 (1.62)               | 2.08 (1.49)               | 34.96 p=0.001             |
| Educational skills*          |                           |                           |                           |                           |                           |                           |
| Average mark (1-6)           | 4203                      | 4.48 (0.65)               | 4.11 (0.65)               | 3.44 (0.71)               | 3.93 (0.78)               | 446.80 p=0.001            |
| School-related stress (4-12) | 4517                      | 6.89 (1.90)               | 7.13 (1.91)               | 7.47 (2.00)               | 7.22 (1.95)               | 18.79 p=0.001             |

Note. * For all variables, lower scores indicate better outcomes, except for average mark, for which higher scores mean better marks

TABLE 3. Unadjusted Logistic Regression Analysis of Educational Aspirations

| Variables                                                 | Higher 1                | Educational Aspirations Intermediate 1 OR ; 95% CI   | Lower 1                 |
|-----------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------|------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------|
| Male gender                                               | 1.15(0.97-1.36) p=0.10  | 1.57(1.31-1-89) p=0.001                              | 0.66(0.57-0.77) p=0.001 |
| Sámi ethnicity                                            | 1.14(0.87-1.50) p=0.36  | 1.40(1.03-1.91) p=0.03                               | 1.42(1.09-1.86) p=0.01  |
| Laestadian affiliation                                    | 1.75(1.19-2.55) p=0.01  | 1.17(0.81-1.69) p=0.39                               | 1.00(0.73-1.35) p=0.97  |
| Nordland county 2                                         | 1.36(1.05-1.76) p=0.02  | 1.49(1.12-1.97) p=0.01                               | 1.18(0.93-1.48) p=0.17  |
| Troms county 2                                            | 1.32(1.00-1.73) p=0.05  | 1.46(1.09-1.97) p=0.01                               | 0.97(0.76-1.24) p=0.80  |
| Parental SES *3                                           | 1.94(1.36-2.77) p=0.001 | 1.09(0.76-1.56) p=0.64                               | 0.45(0.33-0.62) p=0.001 |
| Higher adm. position Parental SES *3 Medium adm. position | 2.23(1.62-3.05) p=0.001 | 1.27(0.93-1.73) p=0.13                               | 0.57(0.44-0.74) p=0.001 |
| Parental SES *3 Lower adm. position                       | 1.19(0.84-1.68) p=0.33  | 1.04(0.74-1.45) p=0.83                               | 0.96(0.74-1.26) p=0.78  |
| Parental SES *3 Primary industry                          | 0.83(0.46-1.48) p=0.52  | 1.01(0.60-1.71) p=0.98                               | 0.91(0.59-1.39) p=0.66  |
| Mental health factors:                                    |                         |                                                      |                         |
| SDQ**-emotions                                            | 0.96(0.92-1.00) p=0.029 | 1.04(1.00-1.08) p=0.075                              | 0.99(0.95-1.02) p=0.40  |
| SDQ**-hyperactivity                                       | 0.82(0.79-0.85) p=0.001 | 0.92(0.88-0.96) p=0.001                              | 1.09(1.05-1.13) p=0.001 |
| SDQ**-conduct                                             | 0.89(0.84-0.95) p=0.001 | 0.90(0.85-0.96) p=0.001                              | 1.13(1.07-1.18) p=0.001 |
| Psychosocial factors:                                     |                         |                                                      |                         |
| Peer support                                              | 0.93(0.89-0.97) p=0.001 | 0.91(0.87-0.96) p=0.001                              | 1.00(0.96-1.03) p=0.84  |
| Parental support                                          | 0.97(0.94-1.00) p=0.07  | 0.97(0.94-1.00) p=0.08                               | 1.03(1.01-1.06) p=0.02  |
| Parental involvement                                      | 0.97(0.93-1.01) p=0.11  | 0.95(0.91-0.99) p=0.008                              | 1.07(1.03-1.11) p=0.001 |
| Class affiliation                                         | 0.92(0.89-0.95) p=0.001 | 0.96(0.93-1.00) p=0.03                               | 1.02(0.99-1.05) p=0.11  |
| Teacher affiliation                                       | 0.94(0.91-0.97) p=0.001 | 0.97(0.94-1.00) p=0.05                               | 1.04(1.01-1.06) p=0.01  |
| Educational skills:                                       |                         |                                                      |                         |
| Average mark                                              | 3.30(2.87-3.80) p=0.001 | 1.42(1.24-1.62) p=0.001                              | 0.39(0.35-0.44) p=0.001 |
| School-related stress                                     | 0.91(0.87-0.95) p=0.001 | 0.98(0.93-1.02) p=0.30                               | 1.06(1.02-1.11) p=0.002 |

Note. SES* = Socioeconomic status, SDQ** = Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire

Reference group:  1  Undecided educational aspirations;  2  Finnmark County;  3  Blue-collar workers

TABLE 4. Fully Adjusted Blockwise Logistic Regression by Educational Aspirations

| Variables                        | Higher 1                | Educational Aspirations Intermediate 1 OR   | Lower 1                 |
|----------------------------------|-------------------------|---------------------------------------------|-------------------------|
| Male gender                      | 0.81(0.64-1.02) p=0.071 | 1.14(0.89-1.46) p=0.295                     | 0.63(0.50-0.79) p=0.001 |
| Sámi ethnicity                   | 0.78(0.54-1.11) p=0.167 | 1.14(0.77-1.68) p=0.527                     | 1.50(1.03-2.17) p=0.033 |
| Laestadian affiliation           | 1.47(0.72-3.01) p=0.296 | 0.99(0.50-1.95) p=0.969                     | 0.95(0.52-1.71) p=0.858 |
| Nordland county 2                | 1.57(1.12-2.18) p=0.008 | 1.41(1.00-1.99) p=0.052                     | 0.99(0.73-1.35) p=0.958 |
| Troms county 2                   | 1.37(0.97-1.93) p=0.070 | 1.23(0.86-1.76) p=0.259                     | 0.78(0.56-1.08) p=0.130 |
| Parental SES* 3                  | 1.19(0.79-1.78) p=0.411 | 0.92(0.61-1.38) p=0.679                     | 0.60(0.41-0.87) p=0.007 |
| Higher adm. Position             |                         |                                             |                         |
| Parental SES *3                  | 1.33(0.93-1.92) p=0.120 | 1.20(0.84-1.70) p=0.315                     | 0.71(0.52-0.97) p=0.029 |
| Parental SES *3                  | 1.06(0.71-1.56) p=0.789 | 1.06(0.73-1.54) p=0.773                     | 1.07(0.78-1.48) p=0.664 |
| Parental SES *3 primary industry | 0.98(0.50-1.92) p=0.950 | 1.04(0.54-2.00) p=0.919                     | 1.30(0.75-2.25) p=0.344 |
| SDQ**-emotions                   | 1.03(0.97-1.09) p=0.29  | 1.09(1.03-1.15) p=0.004                     | 1.03(0.97-1.09) p=0.332 |
| SDQ**-hyperactivity              | 0.88(0.83-0.94) p=0.001 | 0.96(0.90-1.02) p=0.199                     | 1.01(0.95-1.07) p=0.752 |
| SDQ**-conduct                    | 1.02(0.94-1.11) p=0.678 | 0.95(0.87-1.04) p=0.258                     | 1.02(0.94-1.10) p=0.701 |
| Peer support                     | 0.93(0.87-0.99) p=0.016 | 0.95(0.90-1.01) p=0.131                     | 0.94(0.89-0.99) p=0.026 |
| Parental support                 | 1.02(0.98-1.07) p=0.383 | 0.99(0.94-1.04) p=0.654                     | 0.99(0.94-1.03) p=0.523 |
| Parental involvement             | 1.07(1.01-1.14) p=0.014 | 1.00(0.94-1.06) p=0.978                     | 1.06(1.01-1.12) p=0.021 |
| Class affiliation                | 0.96(0.91-1.00) p=0.072 | 0.98(0.93-1.03) p=0.412                     | 0.99(0.95-1.04) p=0.675 |
| Teacher affiliation              | 0.99(0.95-1.04) p=0.691 | 1.00(0.96-1.05) p=0.937                     | 1.01(0.97-1.06) p=0.526 |
| Average mark                     | 2.98(2.50-3.56) p=0.001 | 1.21(1.02-1.43) p=0.027                     | 0.40(0.34-0.47) p=0.001 |
| School-related stress            | 1.06(0.99-1.13) p=0.084 | 1.00(0.93-1.07) p=0.984                     | 0.99(0.93-1.06) p=0.821 |

Note. SES* = Socioeconomic status, SDQ** = Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire

Reference group:  1  Undecided educational aspirations;  2  Finnmark County;  3  Blue-collar workers

variables, showed no statistical significance. Because the SES-mother and SES-father variables provided the  same  results  as  those  obtained  by  assessing demographic  characteristics  (see  Table  1),  the  two groups were recoded as parental SES. Parental SES associated  with  high  and  medium  administrative positions  was  significantly  associated  with  higher educational aspirations.

Female gender, residency in Nordland and Troms, and average mark was all significantly associated with intermediate  educational  aspirations  as  well  as  the absence of externalized symptoms (as represented by hyperactivity, attention, and conduct problems). Several psychosocial factors (e.g., peer support, parental  involvement,  class  and  teacher  affiliation)

were significantly associated with intermediate educational aspirations.

Lower educational aspirations were positively associated with both male gender and Sámi ethnicity; they  were  negatively  associated  with  parental  SES that reflected high and medium  administrative positions.  Vocational  school  aspirations  were  also significantly  associated  with  mental  health  factors, lower average mark, and psychosocial factors such as parental support, parental involvement, and teacher affiliation.  Adolescents  who  aspired  to  obtain  a vocational  degree  appeared  to  have  significantly more difficulty coping with schoolwork.

Table 4 shows the fully adjusted logistical regression  analysis  for  each  level  of  educational aspiration after controlling for all independent factors.  Higher  average  mark  was  associated  with higher educational aspirations, whereas lower average mark was significantly associated with lower aspirations.

Both negative peer support and positive parental involvement were statistically significantly associated with higher and lower aspirations, respectively.

Adolescents with fewer hyperactivity and inattentive symptoms had significantly higher aspirations, whereas adolescents with emotional symptoms reported having intermediate aspirations.

Parental  SES  for  those  in  higher  or  medium administrative  positions  was  negatively  associated with lower aspirations.

Adolescents  who  resided  in  the  southernmost county of Nordland had significantly higher educational  aspirations  than  adolescents  from  the northernmost county of Finnmark.

Male adolescents and adolescents with Sámi ethnicity  were  found  to  have  significantly  more vocational aspirations.

## Discussion

This  study  is  the  first  to  explore  the  influence  of mental health, psychosocial factors, and educational skills  on  educational  aspirations  among  indigenous and non-indigenous adolescents in Arctic Norway.

The most significant difference among aspiration levels  was  generally  observed  between  higher  and lower aspirations. In line with the results of earlier studies, the observed significant effects of educational  skills  (as  measured  by  average  mark) showed  inverse  outcomes  for  the  two  levels  of aspiration (10,12). These findings may indicate that adolescents with lower aspirations and lower average mark feel obliged to choose vocational occupations. By contrast, higher parental SES is associated with support for both higher and lower aspirations, which also confirms the findings of other studies.

Adolescents  from  the  southernmost  region  of Norway and from less remote areas had significantly higher academic aspirations as compared with adolescents  from  the  northernmost  region,  which has among the lowest educational levels and poorest living conditions in Norway. It also contains a remote population  with  more  workers  in  the  traditional primary  industries,  fewer  vocational  options,  and fewer highly educated role models as compared with the  rest  of  Norway.  The  current  study  shows  the influence  of  the  environmental  and  community contexts  on  the  educational  aspirations  of  young people.

The  fully  adjusted  analyses  showed  significant differences between Sámi and non-Sámi adolescents in  terms  of  lower  educational  aspirations  but  not intermediate  and  higher  aspirations.  Although  we expected Sámi adolescents to be more indecisive, our findings did not confirm this expectation: the level of higher  and  intermediate  aspirations  did  not  differ between Sámi adolescents and their non-indigenous peers.  This  result  may  be  evidence  of  the  attained socioeconomic equality of the Sámi population that has occurred during recent decades (27;33-36) and of their improved levels of academic competence.

The finding that males showed significantly greater vocational aspirations than females is supported by other  studies  and  by  blocked  opportunity  theory. This finding may  indicate  that  males  exhibit  lower aspirations across ethnic groups and religious affiliations. Indeed, our findings revealed that females  tend  to  have  greater  academic  aspirations regardless of ethnicity, as expected.

Mental health factors with respect to the significant association between lower levels of hyperactivity and inattention problems and higher aspirations support the  assumption  that  hyperkinetic  problems  can  be obstacles to school achievement. Hyperkinetic problems are characterized by the association between coping skills and learning abilities, hyperactivity, and inattention. The working memory performance of children with hyperkinetic problems is  predictive  of  their  academic  achievement  (9). Breslau and colleagues (9) suggested that inefficiency in learning can influence the aspirations of individuals and families given the potential benefits of continuing education versus pursuing alternative careers  that  do  not  require  formal  education.  The finding of a significant relationship between emotional symptoms and educational aspirations at the intermediate level may indicate the desire to seek security and stability via a shorter and less demanding undergraduate degree. Interestingly, emotional problems  did  not  appear  to affect adolescents' aspirational levels; thus, emotional problems do not appear  to  be  an  obstacle  to  the  choice  of  level  of educational aspiration.

Our findings show that psychosocial factors influence educational aspirations through peer support and parental involvement. One explanation for the negative influence of peer support could be the need for adolescents to feel average rather than exceptional among their peers. Both higher aspirations and blue-collar aspirations for vocational training can be negatively perceived by peers as nonaverage;  therefore,  adolescents  are  more  insecure about  aspiring  for  these  educational  levels.  The significance  of  parental  involvement  in  academic aspirations is well known, and this survey confirms this  significance,  with  vocational  aspirations  being based on the assumption that parents encourage their children to achieve on the level that is presumed to be manageable.

The heterogeneous undecided group is large and interesting, and it represents 24.5% of all adolescents in this study. According to Erikson (45) and Marcia (46), adolescence is the period of identity formation that includes the formation of a professional identity. This important developmental phase includes different  stages,  from  the  two  immature  stages  of identity diffusion and foreclosure to exploration and the most mature identity stage, which is the achievement  of  an  identity.  One  can  reasonably assume that educational aspirations as a measure of professional  identity  formation  or  maturity  follow the  same  pathway  and  that  this  identity  formation varies  among  individuals.  Although  some  young adolescents  have  not  yet  begun  the  process  of exploring their educational options (diffusion stage), others may follow their parents' advice or directions without exploring their own aspirations (foreclosed). Those  at  the  less  mature  stages  may  be  in  the beginning or middle of their exploration stage and may  still  be  undecided,  whereas  others  have  both explored  their alternatives  and  determined  their educational direction. As a result of the young ages of  the  adolescents  in  this  study,  the  number  of indecisive youths is not surprising. Because males are known  to develop their identities during later developmental stages, gender differences in educational aspirations may  exist. According  to identity formation models, the influence of environmental  factors  is  important,  to  initiate  and support identity formation. The lack of parental role models and negative peer support may act as negative environmental  conditions  and  thereby  explain  the indecisiveness seen in this study.

## Strengths and Limitations

The major strengths of this study are the populationbased design and the high response rate, which add to  the  generalizability  of  the  study.  However,  the reliability and validity of short scales (e.g., the SDQ for  conduct  problems)  may  be  questioned  (47).  A cross-sectional study design is limited, and it does not indicate the causal direction of associations.

Moreover,  the  survey  was  answered  in  classrooms during school time, so the cluster effect could have influenced the responses. Furthermore, all information obtained for the study was based on selfreports, and it may thus be affected by recall bias. Small effect sizes must be considered. In the multiethnic survey sample, 10%  of the adolescents reported  being  of  Sámi  ethnicity,  and  6%  of  the adolescents reported Laestadian affiliation.

## Conclusion

This study supports  earlier  findings  that  addressed the  strong  influence  of  good  educational  skills  on educational aspirations. Geographical findings showed  that  adolescents  from  the  southernmost county  had  significantly  higher  levels  of  academic aspirations.  The  study  reveals  that  mental  health problems must be addressed to empower adolescents with respect to their aspirations. Facilitating parental involvement, ensuring school support, and providing supportive  clinicians  are  urgent  tasks  that  must  be addressed to ensure that hyperactive and inattentive youths have the tools that they need to cope with schoolwork and to foster their educational aspirations.  Emotional  problems  should  not  be considered an obstacle to higher-level aspirations, as this  study  revealed  more  intermediate  aspirations among individuals with these concerns.

More research is needed to determine the associations  between  educational  aspirations  and high school completion as well as subsequent work situations given the role of adolescence as a formative stage of life.

## Clinical Significance

In  this  study,  hyperactivity  and  attention  problems were observed to be obstacles to higher educational aspirations. Because educational aspirations influence educational attainment and later success  in  the  work  force,  hyperkinetic  disorders need  to  be  diagnosed  and  treated  to  ensure  that adolescents with these issues have equal opportunities to receive higher education.  Such adolescents can be helped  through  cooperation among parents, teachers, and clinicians.

In addition, adolescents with emotional problems who aspire to intermediate levels of education need the same type of support and treatment to explore and find the tools they need if they have the skills and motivation to aspire to higher educational levels.

## Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the Regional Centre for Child and Youth Mental Health and Child Welfare (RKBU-Central Norway), Norwegian University of Science  and  Technology (NTNU), for hosting and sharing.

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