## 'Making us see science'

Visual images in popular science articles and science journalism

## BY HARALD HORNMOEN

The article explores how scientific research and scientists are represented visually in popular science and science journalism. It discusses communicative functions and cultural meanings of visual elements in science stories. Drawing on concepts from the visual grammar developed by Gunther Kress and Theo van Leeuwen, the author indicates how different kinds of modality are used to address the audience in popular science articles in Scientific American and Illustrert Vitenskap (a Scandinavian magazine). It is argued that the visual elements in popular scientific magazines are conventionally arranged in a manner coinciding with a pedagogical/educational intent typical of much popular science, taking the readers from a reality they are presumed to have experienced towards more abstract scientific knowledge. However, the two magazines analyzed differ markedly with respect to the audience competence that they implicate in their visual representations. The level of visual abstraction in Scientific American contributes to creating an identity for its audience as belonging to well-educated and advanced elites, as opposed to the images of Illustrert Vitenskap, where the emphasis is to a larger extent on a naturalistic coding. The author goes on to discuss how photographs, visual composition and verbal text work together in a multimodal rhetoric typical of many science and health stories in Norwegian newspapers.

## Introduction

Illustrations representing spectacular explosions in the universe; diagrams  attempting  to  show  how  nerve  cells  communicate; photographs depicting scientists in lab coats staring at test tubes: Such visual images occur quite frequently in popular science stories.

Mediated visual images do not simply accompany verbal texts. They actively organize meaning and invite to be interpreted in particular  ways  (Kress  &  van  Leeuwen 1990 , 199 6,  Veel 1998 ). However,  little  research  has  been  done  on  how  images  create meaning in popular science and science journalism. This is a bit surprising considering the salient use of visual elements (such as graphical illustrations, photographs, drawings) not only in television programmes and popular science magazines like Scientific American and New Scientist , but also as a part of the specialized science pages or the science-related material in the news sections of daily newspapers.

This article explores how scientific research and scientists are represented visually in popular science and science journalism, and it  discusses  communicative  functions  and  cultural  meanings of visual elements conventionally used in science stories. I limit my analysis to samples from newspapers and popular science  magazines.  The  journalistic  articles  mainly  focus  on  research topics within medicine or the natural sciences.

I use both the term 'popular science' and 'science journalism' in  order  to  encompass visual images represented in a popular science  magazine  like Scientific  American (where  most  of  the articles are written by scientists, not professional journalists) as well as images in articles about scientific research in newspapers. The  latter  are  written  by  so-called  independent  journalists  in my samples. However, the term 'science journalism' is not limited to include only articles displaying a critical attitude or approach to their subject. Rather, I find it difficult to point out distinct visual features in journalistic articles that have a different approach to their subject than primarily attempting to popularize  or  explain  developments in scientific research for an audience of non-professionals in the field reported on.

When I devote a relatively large part of the text to analyzing Scientific American (SA), it is because of the influence that the more than 150 -year-old magazine has had on the formation of popular science, including its visual dimension. The Scandinavian magazine Illustrert Vitenskap (IV) has been somewhat influenced  by  SA  visually.  But  IV  has  a  markedly  more  populist orientation  than  SA,  thus  allowing  for  a  fruitful  comparative analysis of how visual images are presented to different readerships of popular science. I have also chosen to analyze images appearing in large newspapers in Norway (such as Aftenposten and  Verdens  Gang),  an  objective  here  being  to  shed  light  on how such media visually attempt to attract reader attention to stories about science among other kinds of news stories found in newspapers.

Many readers may link an expression like 'visual images in the media' to photographs. However, theoretical and methodological  introductions  to  reading  images  normally  analyze  several dimensions of visual presentation such as graphic illustrations, the composition of visual elements in layout, the level of abstraction  in  illustrations  and  how  images  and  words  work  together rhetorically. I will also touch on such dimensions by using some of  the  insights  and  concepts  provided  by  Gunther  Kress  and Theo van Leeuwen ( 1990 , 199 6) in their account of the grammar of visual design.

Questions for the study are: How are visual images applied in popular science magazine articles and newspaper articles presenting scientific issues and findings? What are possible meanings and functions of the images and their composition in such articles?

In the first part of the article, I particularly examine how visual modalities are used in information graphics (visual representations of information or knowledge) commonly found in popular science magazines. In the second part, I analyze visual representations of science in Norwegian newspapers. Here I do not only look at information graphics applied in science news, but also at formulaic  photographic  depictions  of  scientists  and  how  such photographs  work  together  with  verbal  text  in  a  multimodal rhetoric found in science and health stories.

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The analytical  concepts  discussed  and  applied  in  this  study may hopefully contribute to what Norman Fairclough ( 1995 : 201 ) calls 'critical media literacy', that is a critical awareness of media discourse in social processes. More specifically, it is hoped that media students and practitioners  may  be  made  aware  of  how visual images not only mediate science and facilitate our understanding of research-generated knowledge, but also reflect power relations  between  participants  such  as  scientific  researchers and audiences/readerships. Such awareness may again stimulate reflection on how science could be visualized differently in the media.

Visual communication is becoming more and more crucial in the domains of public communication, and it may be - as Kress and Van Leeuwen predict - that: ''Visual literacy' will begin to be a matter of survival, especially in the workplace' ( 199 6: 3 ).

## A narrative of nature?

One of few substantial contributions to understanding the use of  images  in  popular  science  is  provided  by  discourse  analyst Greg Myers ( 1990 ). He analyzes the ways in which the narratives are constructed in some articles in scientific journals ( Science , Evolution , Hormones and Behaviour ) and in articles by the same authors on the same topics for more popular journals, Scientific American and New Scientist . According to Myers, the texts in the scientific journals create a narrative of science , whereas the popularizing  articles  present  a narrative  of  nature .  What  is  meant by these concepts? Basically, that the 'scientific' texts emphasize and are organized according to processes and concepts of scientific  research,  and  this  is  reflected  in  the  syntax,  vocabulary and illustrations. The focus of the popularizing articles, on the other hand, is on the object of research rather than the research activity.  In  journalistic  representations  of  natural  science,  the narrative is chronological and organized around nature (plants or animals may be the subject). The syntax, vocabulary and illustrations emphasize the externality of nature to scientific practices.

Myers claims that the differences in the narratives of articles for professionals and those for popular audiences are even more apparent in the illustrations than in the verbal texts.

In one of the examples that Myers gives to support his assertion, he compares the visual representations in scientific journals  with  the  use  of  images  in  a  popularized  account  of  the  research in an article in SA. The articles are about biologist David Crew's research on the evolution of sexual behaviour and the systems that control reproduction in lizards and snakes. Crew's articles  in  scientific  journals  often  have  graphs  showing cycles of various hormones. According to Greg Myers, the illustrations in the SA article, on the other hand, attract the readers' attention to the snakes themselves (to nature , in other words), rather than to the research as such. A painting of the snakes is reproduced on the cover of the magazine, and the introductory page of the article is dominated by a colour photograph of  male snakes mating. The next pages feature a series of drawings of the mating behaviour of these garter snakes.

The  four  drawings  of  the  snakes  outline  the  stages  in  their mating behaviour and thus provide a narrative of nature for the article (Fig. 1 ). See the appendix for the figures referred to.

The article also features graphs of hormonal cycles, illustrating  central  findings  of  Crew's  studies  (Fig. 2 ).  The  way  Myers sees it, SA at each stage includes a little picture showing sperm in  the  testicles  or  displaying  little  snakes  growing  in  the  eggs and then hatching. These are illustrations attempting to visualize for the non-specialist reader what the stages mean. And Myers claims that these illustrations 'help the reader to focus attention on the organism rather than on the concept of cycles, or on the measurement of hormonal levels and the gonadal sizes that are the data reported here' (Myers 1990 : 1 6 1 ). The same effect is not brought  about  by  the  'more  stylized'  sorts  of  graphs  used  in scientific  journals  such  as  the  one  in Hormones and Behavior (Fig. 3 ).

Myers' suggestion of a radical difference in the way the graphs in the texts of the professional and popular articles function is not particularly convincing. By visual means, SA communicates the concept of hormonal cycles rather than drawing attention to the organisms as such. But the graph in this magazine illustrates this in a pedagogical manner by also including illustrations of the organisms, in this case the snakes. The fact that the popular scientific magazine includes such representations does not necessarily imply that attention is drawn away from the scientific concepts, but rather that they aid our understanding of them by also showing explicitly the natural objects.

## Naturalistic and scientific modality

In  order  to  acquire  a  better  understanding  of  the  way  images communicate meaning in different kinds of popular science articles, I find it useful to apply some of the concepts that Kress and van Leeuwen ( 199 6) provide in their account of the grammar of visual design. This goes particularly for their concept of modality . The term 'modality' is from linguistics and refers to the truth value or credibility of statements about the world. In different social  groupings  there  is  a  tendency  that  different  expressions and criteria develop in order to decide what is more or less credible, true or real.

Kress and van Leeuwen accentuate some main modalities in our culture, or more precisely some 'coding orientations', which are sets of abstract principles that inform the way in which verbal texts  and  images  are  coded  by  specific  social  groups  or  within  specific  social  contexts.  Two  of  the  main  categories  can  be termed, with discourse analyst Per Ledin's formulations (Ledin 2000 ), 'naturalistic' and 'scientific' modality. In naturalistic modality, the visual representation of the world is based on norms stating  that  we  observe  the  true  world  with the  naked  eye , whereas visual representation in scientific modality is based on norms according to which the truth is abstract : It is not accessible by close and spontaneous experience of reality and must be established by scientific principles. Briefly, the two kinds of modality can be expressed in the following way:

A naturalistic modality: A visualization coding the world according to our everyday sensory experiences, as we per- ceive it with the naked eye. The modality is marked by elements such as depth, detail, background and light being included in the representation.

A scientific modality: A visualization that does not stop at our everyday perception of the world, but probes beyond the visual appearance of things towards what is found 'below  the  surface',  towards  the  general  and  principal.  The modality  is  characterized  by  a  suppression  of  elements such as depth, detail, background, light and shadow.

(The descriptions are from Ledin 1997 : 49 , my translation)

Different modalities address the audience in different ways. On the one hand, we can talk about visual elements relating to 'what we see'. Colour photographs often code reality in a way that relates  to  the  viewers'  everyday  sensory  experiences,  at  least  we have a tendency to understand them in such a way. On the other hand, visual elements that relate to 'what we know' present this knowledge at a greater distance from our everyday experiences. For example, graphs are conventionally regarded as expressing a more abstract or scientific modality. They are a kind of visual representation that omits background, depth and other dimensions conventionally contributing to an everyday spontaneous coding of reality.

Such categories of modality are not absolute, they are found in mixed forms. However, different social groups and institutions will  accentuate  different  modalities  depending  on  the  context of communication. For instance, elite groups in society are more prone to use abstract visual modalities. One should not forget how the ability to produce or read signs grounded in this coding is a mark of social distinction, of being an 'educated person'.

## Modality and composition in magazines

Popular science magazines typically apply mixed forms of modality  in  their  visual  presentations. This  is  characteristic  of  an elite-oriented  magazine  such  as Scientific  American as  well  as

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the Scandinavian magazine Illustrert Vitenskap ('Illustrated Science'),  which  markets  itself  as  'The  Nordic  countries'  largest magazine  on  nature,  science  and  technology'.  In  popular  science magazines where the intention to a large extent is to convey 'new' scientific findings or insights and at the same time create  some  understanding  of  scientific  concepts  and  ways  of reasoning (however different their ambitions in this respect), it is  characteristic  that  the  articles  are  presented  as  a  mixture  of verbal  text  and  graphs  and  images  -  whether  they  are  photographs or more or less naturalistic illustrations by drawings or paintings.

## Scientific American

Let's have a look at SA first. Glancing through any recent edition, one is struck by the visual presentations of the magazine. Undoubtedly, they are eye-catching, even flashy when compared to the sparse line drawings of specialist journals - that is, if these journals include any illustrations at all.

But it is also a distinguishing trait of the articles in SA that the visual expressions mix different modalities. Very often, the visual layout of an article combines representations of 'what we see' and of 'what we know'. As in the visualization of how the earth's carbon cycle can influence global climate and the role a plantlike organism plays in this process (Fig. 4 ).

The images of nature with mountains, the ocean, clouds, the sky,  a  volcano and the  factory  pipe  represent  'what  we  see', whereas the arrows in the landscape that connect different elements in the picture accompanied by words and figures represent 'what we know', or at least what science has contributed to our knowledge about transport and causal connections in this cycle.

When different visual elements are organised in articles that cover several pages, they tend to follow a pattern where a naturalistic  orientation  precedes  a  scientific  orientation.  Characteristically, a naturalistic modality dominates the visual expression on  the  opening  pages  of  the  articles  (together  with  the  head and the lead), whereas more of a scientific or an abstract modality  occurs  further  on  in  the  article. This  is  illustrated  by  an article about a parasite bacterium with the ability to change the sex of or eliminate its hosts.

The story's layout begins with images (Fig. 5 ) of what we can see and relate to, at first a butterfly threatened by the parasite (the butterfly being beautiful and eye-catching - together with the visually salient word 'sex' in the headline). Photographs of other insects influenced by the bacterium follow (Fig. 6), before the  last  composition  of  images  covering  two  pages  presents  a more abstract graphic visualization of the parasite's adaptive tactics (Fig. 7 ).

Visually,  there  is  in  other  words  a  movement  from  what  is known, that is from images familiar to the reader, to more abstract representations - to what appears to be new information to the uninitiated in the field of research. In several of the larger graphic illustrations in SA, the visual elements are also distributed along a horizontal axis in such a way that those placed on the left are presented as given and the ones on the right as new . This  is  in  accordance  with  a  rule  in  Kress  and  van  Leeuwen's grammar of visual design. This rule can be understood as one of the codes of spatial composition of visual elements, at least in western cultures. In the upper part of the illustration of how a  particular  kind  of  cells  orchestrates  the  immune  response against invaders (Fig. 8 ), the given (the human body) is typically placed to the left. The level of visual abstraction increases further to the right along a horizontal axis.

To a large extent, the images in a magazine like SA are arranged - together with the text - in a way that attempts to take the reader from a world she has experienced and is familiar with to a reality of  more  abstract  scientific  knowledge. This  kind  of  movement is similar to what Robert Veel ( 1998 ) has observed as an effect of visual images in environmentalist texts for students.

The  manner  of  switching  between  naturalistic  and  abstract visual modalities seems to have a kind of verbal parallel in what I  have  elsewhere  characterized  as  a  'semi-narrative'  form  displayed in a lot of science journalism (this also applies to SA, see Hornmoen, Meyer & Sylwan 200 6). A typical way of structuring these texts is to have narrative parts (preferably in the opening and at the end of an article) alternate with parts devoted to ex- position. Whether they focus on the actions or the behaviour of human beings or other organisms, a main objective of the narrative parts is to create reader identification, whereas the expository parts describe, elucidate and discuss processes and findings of the research presented in greater detail.

But  although  many  of  the  visual  compositions  undeniably have a pedagogical function, I emphasize that one finds exceptions to the rule of the given placed to the left and the new to the  right  in  the  double-paged  compositions  of  this  magazine. Graphs with a marked abstract modality often appear in the left part of the compositions. And it is certainly not always the case that graphic illustrations and diagrams explicitly offer the reader something she has 'already seen' as a point of entrance to visual abstractions  of  the  research  presented.  For  instance,  the  illustration of a vaccine strategy against AIDS (Fig. 9 ) is at a considerable semiotic distance from what we see with 'the naked eye', in spite of some outlines of an arm and a syringe.

Illustrations such as this one signal the kind of audience the magazine addresses. To a larger extent than many other popular science magazines, the compositions of SA do take the readers' interest  and  competence  in  abstract  visual  codes  for  granted. The abstractions in the magazine's graphic illustrations also have a verbal parallel in a relatively frequent use of a specialized vocabulary in the articles. The specialized words and the abstract visualizations mark a 'differentness' in relation to both the everyday language and the more naturalistic images used. This 'differentness' does not only signal that the version of reality which this language presents (or creates) is 'alien' compared to the version presented by everyday language and naturalistic images. When such different signs are included to the extent that they are in SA, they also contribute to creating an identity for its readers as belonging to a well-educated and advanced socio-cultural elite.

## Comparing Scientific American with Illustrert Vitenskap

In  a  rather  clear  contrast  to  SA,  the  visual  compositions  in  IV signal  that  this  magazine  addresses  a  broader  audience  than elite  groups  in  society.  Although  a  curiosity  about  science  to some extent is expected from the reader, the magazine hardly presupposes a special competence in abstract visual codes. That is not to say that the influence of a magazine like SA cannot be traced in this magazine's layout of text, images and graphs.

However,  a  naturalistic  orientation  is  more  dominant  in  IV . Differences between the two magazines stand out in their cover illustrations. Whereas SA seldom has naturalistic representations of human beings on its covers, such images as well as other motifs with a naturalistic modality commonly appear on the cover of  IV .  The  covers  of  the  two  magazines  issued  in  September 2003 (Fig. 10 ),  both  of  them  with  neuroscience  as  their  main story, hint at the influence of SA on IV. But the covers also indicate disparities in their visual aesthetics and ways of addressing the public. In IV, the human face is salient beneath the image of the brain. The glare of the eye can be interpreted as underscoring  the  mysteries  in  the  headline  ('hjernens  mysterier'  can  be translated into 'the mysteries of the brain'). But the direct way of  addressing  the  viewer  also  signals  that  this  is  a  topic  that concerns 'you', in other words the onlooker (or potential reader of the magazine).

The  cover  of  SA  to  a  larger  extent  appears  as  something  to observe. When the human figure's head is depicted in profile , the viewer is positioned at a greater distance from it than from the motif of IV. The composition as a whole also requires more of an  active  interpretative  role  from  the  viewer  in  order  for  it  to make sense at some level.

Moreover,  the  layout  in  IV  more  consistently  follows  a  pattern where the naturalistic is positioned to the left, and illustrations with a somewhat more abstract coding are placed to the right. In a story about stress (Fig. 11 ), there is a visual appeal to the reader's recognition on the left of the two-page layout, while on the right there is a graph illustrating one's ability to perform and one's level of stress as well as the 'new' information that research  has  generated.  The  graphic  illustrations  are  less  complex in this magazine, with a visualization that rarely invites the reader to reflect on the research being presented. A case in point is the layout for a story about an allegedly increasing IQ in the population (Fig. 12 ),  the  images  here  accompanying  the  headline's  assertion 'We are getting wiser and wiser'. It is a kind of

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visual  aesthetic  that  to  a  larger  degree  than  SA's  illustrations contributes  to  creating  an  image  of  scientific  research  as  an activity about discovering more or less certain connections, or 'facts' , in the world.

## Illustrations in the Norwegian press

I  now take a closer look at the visual dimension in journalism about science and research issues in the Norwegian press.

The press in Norway does not have an extensive specialized coverage of science and scientifically related issues (Eide & Ottosen 1994 , Hornmoen 1999 ). Apart from some specialized radio and TV programmes and a few specialized pages in the newspapers,  science  and  research  issues  typically  appear  as  a  part  of the  general  news  coverage  or  as  a  part  of  other  areas,  for  instance the coverage of health issues. I emphasize that the press uses scientists as so-called expert sources commenting on news events just as much as it lets them speak about scientific research as such. The activity of representing comments by experts hardly  qualifies  as  'science  journalism'.  But  it  is  worth  mentioning that when photographs of commenting experts are included in the story's layout, it is not unusual to arrange a setting that visually  underscores their status as scientific experts, whether this is achieved by the photo capturing them in front of shelves upon shelves with books or in technologically authoritative laboratory settings (Fig. 13 ). Such illustrations serve to strengthen the credibility  of  the  portrayed  expert's  message as well as strengthening  the  impression  of  the  journalistic  story  as  being  a  truthful representation of reality.

But quite often, one also sees visual compositions that are inspired by the popular science genre as it appears in magazines. The ambition is then, apparently, to convey scientific research findings or to situate news events within a research-based frame of  understanding.  For  newspapers  with  sufficient  financial  resources, photographs or other kinds of illustrations with a marked naturalistic  orientation  are  supplemented  by  more  or  less sophisticated graphs. Accompanying an article in the newspaper Aftenposten about Mars being closer to the earth than it has been for a long time, we can see the typical mix of modalities (Fig. 14 ). Here there is an illustration of the Neanderthals to the left and a more abstract modality to the right. However, the abstraction is not at the level characteristic of the graphs of Scientific  American  -  the  audience  of  the  newspaper  clearly  being considered to be broader than that of SA.

Tendencies in the visualization of science issues in the press can be considered in relation to how these issues are represented and framed in words. In my own study of the science coverage in  Norwegian  daily  newspapers  (Hornmoen 2003 ),  I  identify some traits  typical  of  how  scientific  research  is  represented  in journalistic texts. Use of language and frames emphasizing the uniqueness and the awesome qualities of the phenomenon or issue exposed is widespread, whether this is a technological innovation  as  a  result  of  research  or  the  research  activity  itself or what is 'uncovered' or 'revealed' by this activity. Related to this is a preoccupation with findings or discoveries. In addition, many articles focus on the potential utility and the kind of application that can result from research.

Reports  on  so-called  'sensational'  or  'unique'  scientific  discoveries  have  a  long  tradition  in  journalistic  coverage  of  science. American journalists have called this 'gee-whiz-reporting' or 'breathless discovery stories' (see Blum and Knudson 1997 ). The visual correlate to this journalism is spectacular illustrations of what scientific research has 'revealed' or science-based technology has generated, so that the illustrations indirectly constitute a tribute to science or to the technology that has enabled them (Fig. 15 , Fig. 1 6). Impressive motifs of celestial bodies, planets  and  stars  repeatedly  occur  in  articles  about  astronomy. However, the possibility of creating flashy images such as the SA illustration of explosions in the universe (Fig. 17 ) is more limited in newspapers than in magazines.

## Displaying the value of science

Such  spectacular  illustrations  are  visual  expressions  of  what rhetorician  Jeanne  Fahnestock  ( 1993 )  has  termed  the wonder appeals characteristic  of  science  journalism.  Her  viewpoint  is that journalists try to reach and engage readers by being clear

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in their claims about the value of the scientific discoveries they report on. One way of doing that is praising or 'celebrating' the findings. In my view, spectacular illustrations of the kind mentioned invite the reader, or rather the viewer, to strike a position where she looks up to the phenomenon or object represented in  humble admiration of what scientific research is capable of uncovering and technology can manage to produce.

More prosaic are the articles in health journalism presenting research with possible consequences for our health. But the illustrations of such stories also try to be explicit about the value of the research reported on. For an audience of non-experts, a recognized value in this area is how the research leads to further benefits,  how  it  can  be  used  to  improve  people's  health.  This kind  of  value  requires  the  efforts  of  photographers  and  illustrators to make it visible in a newspaper layout. For instance, the visual composition in an article (Fig. 18 ) tries to establish a connection  between  the  photograph  and  the  graphic  illustration right beneath it, so that the science-based vaccine method described appears to be relevant and important to the audience. In the photo, the researcher depicted (the researcher in a white lab coat, one notes) is looking at the mouse and the syringe, his glance in this  way  forming a so-called vector -  in  other  words an imagined line, here emanating from the researcher's eyes. The direction  of  his  glance  leads  the  reader's  glance  towards  the new vaccine which is the topic of the article (the article's headline may be translated  into 'New  Norwegian  vaccine  method:  can help  against  HIV  and  cancer').  For  the  reader,  an  image  of  a needle pricked into a laboratory mouse is hardly a striking expression of the vaccine's potential applicatory value. But in the total visual composition, the syringe also forms a vector down towards the graphic illustration's motif of a human arm which the needle is put into, this under the subtitle 'This is how the new vaccine method works'.

The more abstract modality that dominates the graphic illustration  may  presumably  function  -  together  with  several  specialized words in text beneath it - to convince the reader about the utility of the vaccine method. Words that are used here may give the reader the impression that 'the authoritative voice of sci- ence' is speaking. The irony is that the article's main text discloses that  this  vaccine  method  has  still  not  been  tested  on  human beings. In their eagerness to visualize the utility of the method, the  illustrators  end  up  promising  more  about  its  potential  for application  than  what  is  reasonable  based  on  the  vaccine  experiments.  However,  this  kind  of  visualization  is  barely  unfortunate  for  research  groups  seeking  publicity  and  access  to  research funding through the media.

## Selling science through images

Selling science though the media has become a main objective for many public relations professionals as well as researchers in scientific  institutions  (Nelkin 1995 ).  Quite  a  lot  of  the  science stories in the Norwegian press also suggest that journalists, photographers  and  layout  professionals  readily  promote  different types of research and try to create a public appreciation of scientists' need for more funding. Sometimes the mission on behalf of science can take on a form of argumentation strikingly similar to the rhetoric of advertising. A main goal of advertising is to set the recipients of a message in a mood that makes them receptive to  the  argumentation  of  the 'sender'  of  the  message.  A  typical strategy  is  to  oppose  negative  attitudes  that  one  assumes  the audience might have and open up to the positive sides of the product or the service. ('You may have been told that Fiat corrodes fast. You can forget that. We have now developed …').

A  similar  strategy  can  be  traced  in  the  Aftenposten  story about Norwegian biotechnology 'lagging behind' (Fig. 19 ). Particularly  interesting  here  is  how  the  photographs,  the  visual composition and the text work together in order to convince the reader about the necessity of investing more money in Norwegian biotechnology. A picture of a mouse with human ears - an image likely to arouse feelings of disgust - is positioned on the top  left  hand  side  of  the  page  beside  a  large  photograph  of  a bioengineer seeing 'the future' and 'the possibilities' of the industry. In the text beneath the photo of the mouse, the research leader  in  a  biotech  company  is  cited  as  saying  that  he  understands that people regard images like the 'mouse with the human ear' as grotesque, but he also points out that he does not reckon  that  'cultivation  of  ears'  will  become  a  major  research trend in biotechnology. The lead and other parts of the text follow up by presenting common objections that people have and then let the leader argue against these or assert that 'biotechnology is essentially not controversial'. In this way, he is allowed to make way for the message: Norway is unfortunately lagging behind in this field, but it can become a great growth industry if these companies are given 'the same possibilities to develop as in other European countries'. At the bottom of the page, there is another picture that in contrast to the image of the mouse indirectly  argues  ethically  in  favour  of  this  field  of  research. The illustration text tells the reader that what we see is 'nice technology', a so-called 'technomouse' that the participants in the picture are 'caressing', a machine that, according to the text, will 'spare the lives of 3 , 000 laboratory mice every year'.

If the illustrations together with the text in this story attempt to put a so-called media-created image (the mouse with the ear signifying  the  scary  biotechnology)  to  death,  I  am  personally more struck by how the large picture contributes to maintain a cultural stereotype. The picture of the researcher glancing at the test tube and its content has become a visual cliché in newspapers. The image is especially used to illustrate stories about assumed  developments  within  genetic  research  and  biotechnology. This image is in many ways a continuation and transformation of a traditional cultural stereotype, namely the fortune teller with the crystal ball . The difference is that it is the researcher who is granted the ability to see the possibilities, to foresee the future.

Apart from creating cultural prejudices such as 'scientific research is something that goes on in laboratories and is carried out by people with test tubes and white coats', I notice how this and other pictures with a similar motif (Fig. 20 , Fig. 21 ), tend to construct a certain viewer position by the use of angles in the photograph.  As  Ledin  ( 1997 )  notes,  when  the  angle  makes  the viewer 'look up' towards the depicted, this gives the participants in the picture a symbolic power over the onlooker. Furthermore, he notes how images with participants depicted in profile situate the viewer at a distance where she is not expected to engage directly with them, unlike a depiction 'from the front' - face to face.

In my three examples of 'researchers with tubes', two of them are depicted in profile, whereas the angle in all the photos are from below and up towards the researcher (although in varying degrees).  The  scientists  are  looking  upwards  at  the  test  tubes (or the glass), so that the viewer's eyes are led to fixate what can be considered both an instrument in (the tubes) and a product of research (the content of the tubes) as if to signal: herein lie the possibilities, or herein is the solution, whether it is the solution to  a  lack  of  industrial  innovation  in  Norway  or,  in  a  broader sense, the solution to the problems of mankind or the world's crises. These are images that create a distance in relation to their audience. To  me,  the  images  also  transmit  something  beyond their  overt  message  (the  message  that  in  this  field  of  research there are vast possibilities). At another level, the pictures tell me that these possibilities are something that is reserved for these scientist  experts,  something  they  deal  with.  Even  though  their predictions and results to some extent will concern me, they are not  something  that  I  am  an  implicated  participant  in,  something that I - or 'the readers' in a wider sense - can join in and contribute to creating conditions for. The images create a distance  to  their  audience  in  the  same  way  as  standardized  science news formulations such as 'scientists have shown' and the frequent references to 'unique' scientific discoveries. The many images of researchers in white coats in science journalism work in  the  same  way  as  the  visualizations  of 'spectacular'  or 'awesome' objects of scientific research do. Above all, they invite the audience to look up to scientists and science in deep admiration and respect.

## Concluding remarks

Let  me  sum  up  tendencies  in  how  visual  images  are  used  in popular science and science journalism. A characteristic trait in popular science magazines is that they alternate between graphs, photographs,  other  types  of  illustrations  and  verbal  texts.  The illustrations  of  the  stories  often  switch  between  a  naturalistic modality and a more abstract modality in a way that can take the reader from a reality she is familiar with towards a reality con- sisting  of  more  abstract  scientific  knowledge.  However,  there can be marked differences in the way a magazine like Scientific American and one like Illustrert Vitenskap addresses its readers. Graphic  illustrations  are  less  complex  in  IV  than  in  SA.  They hardly invite the reader to reflect on the represented research, which typically appears as an activity that discovers 'facts of the world'. In contrast, the more complex graphics in SA to a larger extent draw attention to the processes and concepts of science. Differences  in  the  levels  of  visual  abstraction  indicate  the  two magazines' differing views of their readerships. In contrast to IV, SA creates an elite identity for its readers.

In  major  Norwegian  newspapers,  one  also  finds  several  examples of a visual mixture of naturalistic and abstract modalities. Moreover, visual motifs and compositions may be marked by  how the articles  highlight  so-called 'unique'  research  findings or emphasize the utility of the research. Whether they include  spectacular  illustrations  of  what  new  research  has  'revealed' or pictures of researchers in white coats lifting test tubes, such popular science clichés invite their audience to look up to scientists  and  their  activities  in  admiration.  Often,  the  visual compositions are designed in a way that makes them suited to convince readers of the vast possibilities of the research reported on. This  suggests  that  selling  science  and  technology  through journalistic coverage has become an objective not only for some researchers, but also for some journalists.

I have indicated some of the causes for such trends. They are partly  the  result  of  what  editorial  staffs  consider  as  necessary communication strategies in order to make complex issues engaging. The images and layouts visually argue for the value of the research,  in  this  way  also  reflecting  how  science  stories  in newspapers compete for reader attention with stories that have more obvious news value, such as crime stories. Furthermore, working within their media frames (time frames, for instance), the people who are responsible for the illustrations and the layout have to draw on a reservoir of formulaic expressions, or socalled schemata . A schema may be understood as a kind of model  for  the  representation  of  different  areas  of  reality  (Kjørup 1995 ). The laboratory man in the white coat with a test tube is such a model of the scientist and science, a handy image to use in order to create recognition. This image is also invested with a cultural authority, something that, from the reader's viewpoint, may strengthen the status of journalism as a truthful account of reality.

Are there not other ways of representing science and sciencerelated  issues  visually  in  journalism?  Certainly  there  are  other ways, but I find it difficult to spot clear trends among them, for example as to what characterizes images accompanying articles representative  of  more  critical  science  coverage.  This  may  be partly  due  to  such  journalism  seeing  scientific  research  in  a broader  societal  context  and  not  necessarily  focusing  on  research and developments within science as such. The use of images,  then,  does  not  necessarily  become  distinct  or  different compared to what one finds in critical journalism in other areas.

Let me end this article by relating the subject to my own practical experience as an editor and journalist of the magazine Apollon. This is a popular science magazine published by the University of Oslo. An editor of such a publication has a certain obligation to promote the institution's research. That undoubtedly influenced the way I used illustrations. But although I can now clearly see how several articles reproduced the visual clichés in popular science, my ambition as an editor was to develop a kind of journalism that was as critical as possible within the frames mentioned. Part of my goal was to reduce the distance between science and society; a distance that I find that the media have a tendency to maintain. To achieve this purpose, I found the portrait  genre  most  usable,  not  only  because  of  the  freedom  the genre  provides  for  the  writer,  but  also  for  the  photographer. Here, the photographer could portray scientists as persons that the reader was invited to engage in a dialogue with, so to speak. An example is the portrait of Niels Christie, Professor of Criminology (Fig. 22 ).

I  have  argued  that  there  are  certain  codes  and  established conventions guiding the use of images in popular science and science journalism. These codes may be accentuated in different ways, depending on such things as the newspaper's or the magazine's perception of its readers. However, I think there are

//

a  lot  of  unexplored  possibilities  for  a  different  visualization  in science journalism. One challenge is to portray science and science-related issues in a way that makes us see with 'fresh eyes', so  to  speak,  and  invites  the  viewer  to  participate  in  questions connected to scientific research. But contributing to this by the use of images is certainly not a small challenge.

## REFERENCES

- Blum, Deborah, Mary Knudson (eds.) ( 1997 ): A Field Guide for Science Writers , New York: Oxford University Press.
- Eide, Martin, Rune Ottosen ( 1994 ): 'Science journalism without science journalists:  notes  on  a  Norwegian  Media  Paradox', Public  Understanding of Science No. 3 , pp. 425 -434 .
- Fahnestock,  Jeanne  ( 1993 ):  ' Accommodating  Science:  The  Rhetorical Life of Scientific Facts', pp. 17 -3 6 in Murdo William McRae (ed.): The Literature of Science. Perspectives on Popular Scientific Writing , Georgia: University of Georgia Press.
- Fairclough, Norman ( 1995 ): Media Discourse , London: Edward Arnold.
- Hornmoen, Harald ( 1999 ): Vitenskapens vakthunder. Innføring i forskningsjournalistikk , Oslo: Tano Aschehoug.
- Hornmoen, Harald ( 2003 ):  'Forskningen har vist': Roller og maktrelasjoner  i  forskningsjournalistikk',  pp. 182 -199 in  Kjell  Lars  Berge,  Siri Meyer & T.A. Trippestad (eds.), Maktens tekster , Oslo: Gyldendal.
- Hornmoen, Harald, Gitte Meyer & Peter Sylwan ( 200 6): Fornuften har flere  stemmer. Offentligheten, journalisten  og  forskeren ,  Oslo:  Cappelen Akademisk Forlag.
- Kjørup,  Søren  ( 1995 ): Hvorfor  smiler  Mona  Lisa?  -  en  bog  om  billeder og deres brug , Frederiksberg: Roskilde Universitetsforlag.
- Kress,  Gunther,  Theo  van  Leeuwen  ( 1990 ): Reading  Images ,  Victoria: Deakin University Press.
- Kress, Gunther, Theo van Leeuwen ( 199 6): Reading Images: The Grammar of Visual Design , London: Routledge.
- Ledin, Per ( 1997 ): 'Med det nyttiga skola wi söka att förena det angenäma …'. Text, bild  och  språklig  stil  i  veckopressens  föregångare ,  Lund: Institutionen för nordiska språk, Lunds universitet.

Myers, Greg ( 1990 ): Writing Biology: Texts in the Social Construction of Science , Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.

Nelkin, Dorothy ( 1995 ): Selling Science. How the Press Covers Science and Technology , New York: Freeman and Company.

- Veel,  Robert  ( 1998 ):  'The  Greening  of  School  Science',  pp. 114 -151 in J.R. Martin & Robert Veel (eds.): Reading Science. Critical and Functional Perspectives on Discourses of Science , London: Routledge.

## T H E   F I G U R E S   R E F E R R E D   T O

Figs. 1 , 2 : from Scientific  American ,  November 1982 ,  copied  from Myers ( 1990 )

Fig. 3 : from Hormones  and  Behavior ,  Vol. 18 , 1984 ,  copied  from Myers ( 1990 )

Fig. 4 : from Scientific American , August 2002

Figs. 5 , 6, 7 : from Scientific American , April 2002

Fig. 8 : from Scientific American , November 2002

Fig. 9 : from Scientific American , June 2002

Fig. 10 : from Scientific American , September 2003 / Illustrert Viten- skap 12 / 2003

Fig. 11 : from Illustrert Vitenskap 3 / 2000

Fig. 12 : from Illustrert Vitenskap 12 / 2003

Fig. 13 : from Nationen , August 2003

Fig. 14 : from Aftenposten , 27 . 08 . 2003

Fig. 15 :

from VG Nett , 19 . 0 6. 2001

Fig. 1 6:

from VG Nett , 05 . 12 . 2000

Fig. 17 : from Scientific American , December 2002

Fig. 18 : from Aftenposten , 03 . 05 . 2001

Fig. 19 : from Aftenposten, 02 . 02 . 2000

Fig. 20 :

from Apollon 3 / 199 6

Fig. 21 : from VG Nett, 27 . 0 6. 2000

Fig. 22 : from Apollon 3 / 1997

//

## Norwegian Abstract

## 'Visualisert vitenskap'. Billedillustrasjon i populærvitenskap og forskningsjournalistikk. HARALD HORNMOEN

Artikkelen  utforsker  hvordan  forskning  og  forskere  blir  representert  visuelt  i  populærvitenskap  og  forskningsjournalistikk. Den diskuterer hvilke kommunikative funksjoner og kulturelle betydninger visuelle elementer har i artikler om forskning. Ved å  anvende  begreper  fra  den  visuelle  grammatikken  utviklet  av Gunther Kress og Theo van Leeuwen, antyder forfatteren hvordan ulike typer modalitet blir brukt til å adressere leserne i populærvitenskapelige  artikler  i  magasinene Scientific American og Illustrert Vitenskap .  Forfatteren argumenterer for at de visuelle elementene konvensjonelt blir tilrettelagt med et pedagogisk siktemål, slik at de kan føre leserne fra en virkelighet som de antas å være fortrolig med og henimot mer abstrakt vitenskapelig kunnskap. Det er imidlertid markante forskjeller i måten Scientific American og Illustrert Vitenskap gjør dette på. Abstraksjonsnivået i Scientific American bidrar til å skape en identitet for magasinets lesere som en velutdannet og avansert sosial elite. Illustrert Vitenskap legger  betydelig  mer  vekt  på  naturalistiske avbildninger. Forfatteren diskuterer videre hvordan fotografier, visuelle  komposisjoner  og  verbaltekster  virker  sammen  i  en multimodal retorikk som er vanlig i forsknings- og helseartikler i norske aviser.

EMERGING

FEMALE

MATING BEHAVIOR of the red-sided garter snake is confined to

three days to three weeks the males sun themselves near the den

a short, intense springtime breeding season. For a period of from

FEMALE

in the ball succeeds in mating with the female by inserting one of his

males immediately disperse (3). The mated female, rendered unat-

two hemipenes into her cloaca (her urogenital opening). The other

Figure 5.6. A narrative in illustrations. Illustration by Patricia V. Wynne from "The

tific American, November 1982, PP. 160-61. Copyright O 1982 by Scientific American,

Ecological Physiology of a Garter Snake, " by David Crews and William Garstka, Scien-

Inc. All rights reserved

4

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HIBERNATION

FEMALE HORMONE CYCLE

FEMALE GONAD CYCLE

FOLLICLES

MALE HORMONE CYCLE

MALE GONAD CYCLE

VAS DEFERENS

TESTICLE

JANUARY

Scientific American, Inc. All rights reserved.

EMERC NCE

AN

DISPERSAL

TO THE DEN

HIBERNATION

<!-- image -->

FEEDING

RETURN

2.5

<!-- image -->

o Costrnie Phytoplankton's Influence on the Global Carbon Cycle THE EARTH'S CARBON CYCLE can dramatically influence global climate, depending on the relative amounts of heat-trapping

(green arrows) the atmosphere and upper ocean, which exchange

carbon dioxide (COz) that move into (yellow arrows) and out of

gases every six years or so. Plantlike organisms called phyto-

ocean dwellers annually incorporate about 50 billion metric tons of

plankton play four critical roles in this cycle. These microscopic

carbon into their cells during photosynthesis, which is often

stimulated by iron via windblown dust (1). Phytoplankton also

temporarily store CO, in the deep ocean via the biological pump:

deep sea, where it is released as CO, as the dead cells decay (2).

about 15 percent of the carbon they assimilate settles into the

Over hundreds of years, upwelling currents transport the dissolved

gas and other nutrients back to sunlit surface waters.

A tiny fraction of the dead cells avoids being recycled by

seafloor. Some of the rock-bound carbon escapes as CO, gas and

becoming part of petroleum deposits or sedimentary rocks in the

reenters the atmosphere during volcanic eruptions after millions of

years of subduction and metamorphism in the planet's interior (3).

RESPIRATION AND DECAY

DEAD CELLS

## Burning of fossil fuels, in contrast, returns CO, to the atmosphere about a million times faster (4). Marine phytoplankton and

IRON-RICH DUST

UPWELLING

DECAY

terrestrial forests cannot naturally incorporate CO, quickly enough to mitigate this increase; as a consequence, the global carbon cycle has fallen out of balance, warming the planet. Some people have considered correcting this disparity by fertilizing the oceans with dilute iron solutions to artificially enhance phytoplankton photosynthesis and the biological pump. -P.G.F

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

PHYTOPLANKTON

2

PETROLEUM

"ANO

'SEDIMENTARY

ROCKS

4

3

BURNING

OF FOSSIL

FUELS

METAMORPHISM

SUBDUCTION

VOLCANISM

By directing its victims' sex lives, the bacterial parasite WOLBACHIA may be helping to produce new species The bacterian Wallachin pet to seen per te the

## arasitic SEX Luppeteers

## Don't bite the hand that feeds you.

The old adage sums up the approach parasites are expected to take with their victims. A freeloader that can spread only when its host reproduces ought not to be overly harmful: too much damage to its unwilling benefactor will affect the parasite's own chances to procreate. This scheme contrasts with the tactics of a pathogen that has a short infectious period, such as the flu virus. In that case, the virus has no long-term interest in the carrier's well-being, so a get transmitted quick" strategy is favored almost regardless of the cost to the hapless host.

The widely distributed bacterium Wolbachia (a close relative of the gut bacterium Escherichia coli) is a boarder with a long-term interest in its invertebrate host. It lives within cells and is transmitted to the next generation by invading its host's eggs. Contrary to the old saying, however, the bacterium engages in various radical manipulations of its hosts, including killing male offspring, turning males into females and rendering some host matings infertile. If Wolbachia's reproduction is so intimately tied up with that of its meal ticket, why does it create so much havoc?

Over the course of time, however, Darwinian natural selection has been able to sidestep the parasite's custodial sentence in male hosts. Rather than being a dead end, the problem of nontransmission has been turned into an opportunity. Wolbachia may have played much more than a walk-on part in this evolutionary drama because its manipulations can have profound long-term effects on its victims. By interfering with host reproduction, Wolbachia may be setting the stage for new species to form.

The short answer is that the bacterium is not carried in sperm. This egg-only propagation method means that the parasite's reproductive interests lie firmly with female hosts. Males, as nontransmitters, are akin to evolutionary prison cells for the bacterium.

Wolbachia is highly abundant and has rather catholic tastes in choosing its insect and invertebrate carrier species. When John H. Werren and his colleagues at the University of Rochester screened neotropical insects for the presence of Wolbachia, they found that 17 percent of 154 species harbored the bacteria.

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The true frequency of infection may well be considerably higher, however. Greg Hurst and his co-workers at University College London and the University of Cambridge have found several well-studied species of Wolbachia in about a tenth of the individuals in a host population. Sampling only a few individuals from a given species, as the Rochester group did, is therefore likely to miss many incidences of infection. Further, Marjorie Hoy and Jay Jeyaprakash of the University of Florida have determined that the technique employed in the Rochester study often wrongly indicates an absence of parasitization. Using a more robust method, the Florida researchers discovered that more than three quarters of the species they tested were infected with the bacterium.

COMPULSORY SEX CHANGES and perhaps forced speciation can be traced to the wolbachia bacterum. the tiny parasite transtorms would-be male pill bugs (above) into females because it can reproduce only through the female's eggs. The split between two Nasonia wasp species (an example is shown at right seems to have been caused by Wolbachia.

Nor is the parasite found only in insects; it appears in crustaceans (notably pill bugs and freshwater shrimps), mites and nematode worms as well. So far it has not been detected in a vertebrate animal. We estimate that more than 20 million species may harbor Wolbachia, suggesting that scientists have so far studied merely the tip of a huge and important iceberg.

## Choosy Males

ONE WAY IN WHICH Wolbachia can profoundly influence its victims is by grossly distorting the normally balanced sex ratios of its hosts' populations. For instance, males are extremely rare in some groups of the African butterfly Acraca encedon and of the widespread pill bug Armadillidium vulgare (also called a wood louse).

In the butterfly, this phenomenon is caused by the pervasiveness of a male-killing strain of Wolbachia (more than 90 percent of A. encedon females support the parasite). The bacterium presumably kills off males to benefit its own relatives, which are infecting the slain males' sisters. This act of suicide by the individual makes sense because a Wolbachia bacterium in a male host is already a "dead man walking." Sperm do not carry the bacterium, so it has no chance of moving to another host anyway; hence, the parasite has nothing to lose. Moreover, its kin in the dead males sisters benefit from this behavior because male killing occurs before the hosts have hatched. Consequently, a banquet of unhatched male offspring lies there ready to be devoured when the rest of the brood emerges. Such sibling cannibalism by parasitized females is thought to give them an important advantage over competitors.

In pill bugs, Wolbachia converts would-be males into females. By feminizing males, the parasite is changing a non-

Although this adaptive advantage has yet to be definitively demonstrated in A. encedon caterpillars, it has been established in Adalia bipunctata, commonly called the two-spot ladybug (or ladybird). The period between hatching and finding their first aphid meal is a particularly vulnerable time for the larvae of this ladybug. A free lunch provided by a deceased brother is therefore a great boon to them and consequently to the Wolbachia they carry.

transmitting host into one that will pass the infection on to its offspring. To return to the prison analogy, this is rather like a convict receiving a hacksaw inside a cake.

In both the butterfly and the pill bug, the bacterium skews the populations' sex ratios massively toward females. Males therefore represent a valuable commodity. This scarcity reverses normal gender roles, because females are in demand in populations with an equal sex ratio. Females make a much larger contribution to the young in the form of large, nutritious eggs, whereas the males" investment of cheap sperm is much smaller. As the chief donors to their young, females are typically much fussier in their choice of mates, accepting only the fittest males.

The selection process is inverted in Acraea and Armadillidium, however, because males are so hard to come by. Indeed, work by Francis M. Jiggins and

his colleagues at the University of Cambridge has revealed that in heavily affected populations of the A. encedon butterfly, the entire system of choosing mates has changed. Rather than spreading throughout the habitar, females form dense aggregations on small grassy plots. In one such cluster, 350 butterflies were found packed into a 200square-meter area. In species with conventional sex roles, such as the sage grouse, these gatherings, known as leks, are where males congregate and females

come to shop.

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Could the aggregations in Acraea represent role-reversed leks to which males come to select a partner? The current evidence is inconclusive. By demonstrating that virgin females are more likely to inhabit the sites than mated females, Jiggins has shown that females are indeed gathering to find mates. The question remains, however, whether the males are doing the choosing.

In the example of the pill bug, Thierry Rigaud and his collaborators at the University of Poitiers in France have shown that males prefer not to mate with feminized males. Furthermore, if males do mate with transsexual individuals, they deliver relatively few sperm to them.

Jiggins had originally found that mated females are more likely to lack the infection than virgins, implying that males may be selecting uninfected females as partners. Unfortunately, he and one of us (Randerson) have been unable to replicate this result, so the situation continues to be unclear.

Our own work using mathematical techniques to model the evolution of choice in these situations has shown that natural selection for such an alteration in mate choice does occur if a host population contains sex-ratio distorters. This result raises the problem, though, of what happens to the parasite when infected females fail to find a mate. The theoretical models show that when males are able to distinguish perfectly between infected and uninfected females, the bacterium will simply be selected out of the population. If, however, the males occasionally make a mistake and mate with parasitized females, then this is enough to keep Wolbachia in the population.

## Sex Changes in Hosts

In some infected populations, the responsibility for gender determination has shifted from the pill bug to its parasite. Pill bugs have what is known as a WZ sex-determination system: males have ZZ chromosomes, and females have WZ. (This arrangement contrasts with the more familiar XY system, in which males are XY and females are XX.) Because only the few eggs that do not contain Wolbachia become males, infected WZ females give birth mostly to daughters: both WZ. females and sex-changed males (ZZ. females). These Z.Z. females in turn almost exclusively produce ZZ females. As a result, infected females of either type beget more daughters than normal females do. Thus, with each succeeding generation, the proportion of individuals with the normal female chromosome W drops and eventually nears zero. At that point, the parasite is left entirely in control of sex because everyone is ZZ-if the pill bug has the parasite, it's female; if not, it's male. In other infected pill bug groups, the hosts seem to have wrestled back control over their sex ratios by setting the proportion of offspring that receive the bacterium in some as yet undetermined manner.

MALE MATE CHOICE may well be one response to the spread of a feminizing bacterium. An even more fascinating one may be the evolution of new mechanisms for genetically determining gender. Research by Rigaud and his associates has shown that Wolbachia can determine gender in A. vulgare, because male pill bugs have all the genes necessary to become females. All that is needed for an individual to become male is a shot of male-inducing hormone from the "male gland" early in development. Thus, if the parasitic bacterium can block development of this gland, its host will be female.

Wolbachia's most common manipulation is to interfere in the success of the host's matings. Known as cytoplasmic incompatibility, this strategy renders all matings between infected males and uninfected females infertile because the bacterium releases toxins into the sperm's protoplasm see box on next page]. Other pairings are left unaffected. Halting the procreation of uninfected females indirectly benefits females carrying the bacterium. As a result, these females contribute a larg-

LAURENCE D. HURST and JAMES P. RANDERSON have studied Wolbachia parasites at the University of Bath in England. Hurst is professor of evolutionary genetics at Bath. A recent father, he is interested in the evolution of genetic systems and enjoys the lateperiod works of Beethoven, walking his dog and attempting to cook. In 2001 Randerson completed his doctoral studies at Bath on the wider evolutionary consequences of selfish organelles and symbionts. He next ioved to London to join New Scientist magazine as a writer. In his spare time, Randerson plays trombone in a soul/funk band.

er proportion to the nest gencration, which allows their free cading Wollashia so spread more widely.

Barners to free pone flow heraren populations are all-itportant in speciation, the origination of new species. In the clas vic example, hoolopst imagine that a physical barrier arise, perhaps the formation of a new mountain range or the creation od an island revulring from a rise in sea level. This obstacle splits a provosty homogeneous population into two, preventing inberbreeding berween the now populations and allowing them to drift apart penctically. Over time the groups diverge to the point that they can no longer interbreed if they are later brought together. Becaine their parcats" genetic systems are now in compatible, hybrid offipring, either do not sarvive or ane senile.

## On the Road to Speciation

One consequence of chis interverition i that the hacteriom restrict gone flow between different groups of its host. This is mos pronounced in bidirectional cytoplasmic incompatibility, in which rwo groups of bouts contain mutually incompatible strains of the hacteman. In thar intance, all matings berw een hosts from the different groups are doomed by interrul sabotage.

This question is difficult to anower because the process by which one species splits into two takes a long time to complete, much longer than the lifetimes of evolutionary biologists. The

BOLOGISTS FAMILIAR with Wollachia began to ask whether the impodiments to gene flow created by cytoplasmic incompatibility could be cough to allow a populacion to bifarcate penetically without the existence of a physical obstruc tion. Were thee bacterial freeloaders the agents of what might he called infectious speciation?

## Sexual Sabotage

AN IMPORTANT ADAPTIVE tactic employee by some strains of the Wolbochie bacterial Nost matings by rendering certain pairings barten, By restricting the gene flow among its hosts, Wolbachio is thought to be contributing to the development of new species.

Cytoplasmic incompatibiiny as the phenamenon is called, occurs when an attempt to mate, As an evalutionary strategy, it involves indirectly helping hosts that contain one's relatives by harming these that dont

In males, some straies of Wobochie a6t a takin to the host's sperm, which probably alters the proteins that bind to NA. The poisonous agent causes the male's chromosomes to condense abnormally on fusion with the egg and ing. When the male mates with an condensation occurs. in this case. bochis deploys an antitoxin in the ete That rescues the zygote.

This manipulation of the host by the bacterium has been interpreted as an act of evalutionary spite because it reduces the fertility of unparasitized females with no direct benefit to those bacteria that sostage the sperm. The strategy is successfol, however, because it indirectly benefits infected females and hence their resident Wolbachia. These females have no nestrictions on their choice of mates and thus have an advantage over. parasite-free females. As infected females beget more infected females, this strategy promotes the spread of the bacterium. Michael Turelli of the University of Calfamia at Davis and Ary A Hollmann of La Trebe Üniversiby in Australia have uncovered good evidence ane direction are sabotaged. Things get more inseresting if theme is more than one Incompatibility, a situation known as bidirectional cyteplasmic incompatibility For the sake of argument, imagine two bacterial strains, A and B, I the egg saving antitoxin from strain A is ineffective against the toxin from strain 8, and vice for the success of this approach. in the tastern U.5. the so-called Riverside strain of Wolbachia that causes cytoplasmic incompatibility is spreading through the temitary of its host population (the fruit My Oresophile simulens| along a freet traveling about 100 klometers a year.

<!-- image -->

In unidicectional cytoplasmic Incempatiblity, just one strain of Wolbechie is involved, so matings in anly versa, then matings in either direction are Incompatible. If all individuale in the population are infected with one strain or the other, the only successful matings are those betwren individuals harboring the same strain. Host matings betaten strains will always lead to incompatibility. The two Wolbochia strains have split the host population into two groups that cannot interbreed -L.DA. ond J.P.R

UNWANTED HITCHHIKERS Hobachia реота путино way hrwg the female beats, making mates vuper fious. The parasites ine shown here as Righter green spots on an nanct egs (rep) and as specke inside an infected cell [bottom)

best that can be done is to look for Wallachia hosts that exhibit cytoplasmic incompatibility and are on the pathway to spociation. By sudying such sugonitive examples, biologies hope to determine whether the parasite Is likely to be a force in the crolution of new species.

Shoemaker and his coworkers looked at two species of fruit fly, DrosophsLa recens and D. aubguinariz The first of these is infected with a Wolbachia strain that causes cytoplasmic incomputbility, the scoond is uninfected. At a result, matings between D. salapuinania females and D. recens males ant infertile. If Wolbachir were the only factoe at work, then gene flow bereten the fruit-fly species would will be possible, but it

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turms out that these matings do not occur succosfully. which are found in castern North America. An investigacion of Uolke D. sadqwinaris, D. reces females are quite choosy when each other. Gene flow in one direction is peevented by Wollachu (even though matings occur), whereas the flow in the reverse direction is prevented by careful mate choice by D. recen females.

Two species of parasitic wasp that appear to be near the end of such a journey are Nasonia vitripenmis and N. ginaiti, both of

their wasps by Johannes A. J. Breeuwer of the University of scotting mates, hurdly ever picking a male of the other species Amiterdam and Wetren of the University of Rocheer revealed by mistake, Hence the swo barrier mechanisms complement that the barriers to soccessful mating berween these species are not determined solely by differences between the wasps themcher-Wolbachia n involved. The researchers found that when both spocies are treated with antibiotics, matings between the Despite these and other suppestive exam ples, the case for in two produce fertile young. Without the antibiotics, imiable offlectioun speciation has yet to be proved. le in notable, bomever. spring result because each wasp species contains a different that Wolluchir infections are especially prevalent in insects and strain of the parasite, Icading to bidirectional cytoplasmic inmices, the most species-rich animal groups. Perhaps Wollach compatibility between the hours. in had a hand in murturing new shooes on these bosby brancher of the trce of life.

## Who's Running the Show?

FAR FROM BEING a minor freeloader, the Wolluchia parasite in widespread in nature and manipulases the reproduction of a varicty of bost organiums in diverse ways. What is more, attempes hy the bacterium's hosts to erade infection have sent their biology and evolution in unexpected directions. As scicatists begin to explore more of Wallachia' will bidden biology, we expect this influential passenper to have other sur prises in store.

## MORE TO EXPLORE

Influestial Passengers: Inherined Micreorganisms and Arthropod Reproducties, S.L. O Nell, 4 A. Helfmann and 1. H. Weren. Oilort University Press. 1997

Sex-Ratie-Distarting Wolbochia Causes Sex-Male Reversal is It* set. F.M. Jiggins, G.D.D. Harst and MEN. Majerus in of the Royal Society of Landes I, Vol. 267, Na. 1478. my 7.2000

patibiley Precades Other Hybrid patibities in Mesania S. R. Bordenstein, F.P. OMars and A.M. Vel 409, Na. G821, pages 702-710, Febrary R, 200L.

In an isopod with Welbochie-loduced Sex Reversal Males Prader Real Females. L Moreai, A Benin, Y. Coubes and 1. Rigood in y Bology, Vol. 14, Me. 1. page 388-354 May 2001.

Wollachiz is not the only cause of current isolation beneron these two species of Nasonia, though. The second gencratice of hybrid wasps tends to have severe developmental problems perhaps indicating that genetic changes in the wasps own DNA are now sufficient to keep the two species apurt. Whether the parasite was involved in promoting this divergence in the pust has not been determined.

In some cases, Wollachi may coetnibute so the process of speciation withour being the primary cause. A team of researchers, including D. DeWayne Shoemaker of Western Michigan University, Vaishali Karju of bodians University and John Janike of the University of Rochester, has rumed up cr

In the case of the reproductive separation between N. girawls and N. longicornis, the story is different. These two parasitic wasps have been taxonomically detentined to be ditter ent species-for ex. mple, they parasitize different host groups. tat again, Wolbachia plays a key role--in this instance, by casing bidinectional cytoplaimic incompatibility. Wetren and his Univenity of Rochester colleagoes Seth Bordenstein and Patrick O'Hara have recently shown that in the absence of the bacterium, the hybride are normal and remain so in solnequent generations. Although genetic divergence of the wasps" DNA has yet to occur, Wallachi appears so he on the cup of foreing the evolution of new species.

ence that even the incomplete ob stacle to gene fow provided by unidirectional cytoplasmic incompatibility can contribore to reproductive isolation. [see bos on opposite papel.

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## One AIDS Vaccine Strategy

A VACCINE APPRACH being pioneered by Merck involves an initial injec tion of a naked DNA vaccine followed months later by a booster shot of crippled, genetically abered adenovirus particles. Both are designed to elicit an immune response targeted to the HIV core protein, Gag, and to primarily arouse the cellular arm of the immune system— the one that uses cytotoxic T cells to destrey virus-infected cells. The naked ONA vaccine aise results in the production of antibody molecules against Gag, but such antibodies are not very useful in fighting HIV.

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unogmicity, its ability to prompt an mmune response. In plase III, the po. sential vaccine is given to thousands of volunteers who are followed for a long time to see whether it protects them from infection. Phase Ill trials for any drug tend to be costly and difficult so admin ister. And the AIDS trials are especially challenging because of an ironic requirementi subjects who receive the vaccine must be counseled extensively on how to reduce their chances of infection. They are told, for instance, to use condoms or, in the case of intravenous drug users, clean needles because HIV is spread through sex or blood-to-blood contact.

lating the cellular arm of the immune sys tem, the purt that includes activity by cy. footic T cell. A growing contingent of investigators suspect that an antibody response alone is not sufficient; a strong cdlular response must also be clicited to prevent AIDS.

Indeed, the early findings do not seem encouraging. Last October an independent data-monitoring pand did a perim inary analysis of the resils of the Nonh American/European data. Although the pand condocied the analysis primanly to incertain that the vaccine was causing no danperous side effects in the volunteers, the reviewen were empowered to reccen trial, involving nearly 16,000 people. le combines the Vaxen vaccine with a ca narypok virus into which scientists have sinched genes that encode gp 120 as well as two other proteim - one that makes up the HIV core and one that allows it to reproduce. Because this genctically cpnecrod canarypox virus (made by Aventin Pastrur, headquartered in Lyons, France) conces cellv and causes them to display fragments of HIV on their surface, it stimulates the cellular an of the immune system.

Political wrangling and quoitions over in scientific value have slowed widespread resting of the sp120 canarypox

## Results from the first large-scale trial of an AIDS vaccine should become available at the end of this year.

Yet the study will yield results only if mend haling the trial carly if the vaccine some people don't heed the coumeling appeared to be working. They did not. and become exposed anyway.

This vaccine, which is produced by VaxGen in Beisbane, Calit. —a spin-off of biotsch juggernaut Genentech in South San Francisco is being rested in more than 5,400 people (mostly homosexsal men) in Noeth America and Europ and in roughly 2,500 intravenous drug uner in Southeast Asis. The results from Sorth American/European trial, w which began in 1998, are expected to be ounced near the end of this year. an- The controversial stady set to begin in Thailand is also a large-scale phase I

This approach coold hackfine, though, if people who receive a partially effective AlDS vaccine believe they are then prorected from infection and can empipe in ricky behavior. Karen M. Kuntz and Elizabeth Bogard of the Harvard School of Pablic Health have constructed a com puter model simulating the effects of such a vaccine in a group of injection drug users in Thailand. Acconding to their model, a 30 percene effective vaccine would not shone the spread of Alls in a commu nity if 90 percent of the people who received it went back no sharing needles or using dirty needles. They found that sach reversion to riky behavior would not wash our the public health benefit if a vac cine were at least 75 peroent effective.

For it part, VaxGen awers that it will sock U.S. Food and Drug Administration approval to sell the vaccine even if the phase Ill triah show that it redoces a person's likelihood of infection by as little as 30 percent. Company president and co-founder Donald P. Francis points out that the first polio vaccine, developed by Jonas Salk in 1954, was only 60 perom effective, yet it slashed the incidence of po lo in the US. quickly and dramatically.

Pogry Johnston, anistant director of AIDS vaccines for NEAD, says she expects there will be a trial of the vaccine but em phasizes that "it will be a Thai trial; we won't have any [NIAD) people there on the ground ninning thines."

vaccine. Inicially the National Institute of Allengy and Infectious Discases (NIAID) and the U,S. Department of Defense were scheduledao conduct eventially duplicate triah of the vaccine. But NAID pulled the plug on its trial after an examination of the dars from a phase Il study showed that fewer than 30 percent of the volun seers generated cytotoxic T cella against HIV. And in a boresucratic twist, this past January the White House trandered the budget for the Defense Depurtment trial over to SAID as part of an effort to streamline AIDS reearch.

Critice cite these machinations as a case study of politics gerting in the way of progrew against AIDS. "There's linde science involved" in the trial, claims one keptic, who wonders why the Thais aren't asking. -16 it's not good mough for America, how come it's good enough for us?* Others point out that the trial, which was concrived by the Defense Department, will answer only the question of whether the vaccine works; it woelt collect any data that scientists could use no explain its posential failure.

The fint potential vaccine to have reached phase Ill consts of ip 120, a protein that studs the outer envelope of HIV and that the virus uses to lasch onto and infect cells. In theory, ar leav, the presence of gp 120 in the blooditream sould accivate the recipient's immune system, cause ing it to quickly mount an attack tangered to gp 120 if HIV later finds its way into the body.

Many AIDS rescarchers are skeptical of VaxGen's approach because gp120 Bormully occuns in clumps of three on the surface of the virus, and the company's vaccine employs the molecule in its monomeric, or single-molecule, form. Moreover, vaccines made of just proțcin generally elicit only an antibody, or hu moral, response, without greatly stimu

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## SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN

## SPECIAL ISSUE

SEPTEMBER 2003 WWW.SCIAM.COM

34.95

Ultimate Self-Improvement The Quest for a Smart Pill Brain Stimulators Taming Stress New Hope for Brain Repair Mind-Reading Machines Genes of the Psyche Neuroethics

## BETTER BRAINS

How Neuroscience Will Enhance You

COF YRICHT 2003 SC ENTIFCANERIDAN, IME.

innbikk Yteevne Vi yter mest når vi er stresset roppen mobiliserer all sin energi til & klare den aktuelle utfordringer cress er et tegn på at vi ruster oss til å yte noe utenom det vanlig illustrert Vitenskno nf. 1212003

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## Vi blir klokere og klokere

Den gjennomsnittlige intelligensen er blitt vesentlig høyere de siste tiårene, antakelig fordi hjernen blir stimulert som aldri før. Men forskerne er ennå uenige om hva intelligens egentlig er.

Intelligensen er blitt markant høyere, men forskerne er uenige om nøyaktig hvor mye det er snakk om. Et dansk anslag basert på IQ-målinger av unge menn på

Mustrert Vitenskap nr. 12/2003

sesjon viser en stigning på 10 poeng i lopet av 40 år. Andre målinger kommer til en stigning på hele 20-25 poeng på 50 år. Men ett er sikkert. Det er særlig én del av prøvene i IQ-testen som de nye generasjonene klarer mye bedre. Det gjelder blant annet visuelle og romlige prøver der man for eksempel skal dreie en terning i tankene. Derimot har det ikke skjedd noen stor endring i de delene av testen som omfatter testpersonenes spraklige og matematisk-logiske evner.

sykologene undret seg Gang på brukte for å måle intelligens. Báde barn og unge klarte flere oppgaver enn tidligere, slik at de måtte finne på nye og. vanskeligere oppgaver for å holde gjennomsnittet nede på 100 når de málte IQ. Først langsomt gikk det opp for forskerne at det ikke var testene det var noe i veien med, men at barn og unge mennesker ganske enkelt var blitt klokere.

Stigningen i intelligens er blitt konstatert i en rekke land. Den kalles Flynneffekten, oppkalt etter professor james·

25

barn og unge.

Norum.

Skjevt

FORBRUK: Matindustrien lokker oss til høyere forbruk med flere søte produkter. Brus står for mye av veksten i sukkerkonsumet i Norge. FOTO: SCANPIX

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## Svært usunn mat fra industrien

Mat · Større brus-

flasker, mer sukker og

større matporsjoner. Det

er noen av triksene mat-

industrien bruker for å

få oss til å spise mer.

arbeidet med å få ned

Nå har WHO satt i gang

forbruket av usunn mat.

Jon Olav Folsland

Jon.foisland@nationen.no

I går skrev Nationen om for-

sker Runar Døving som mener

fråtsing at det nærmest er blitt

at ferietiden forer til så mye

tvangstanker for nordmenn.

Den internasjonale matindus-

trien gjør ogsá hva den kan for

som mulig. Det gjøres blant

at vi skal spise så mye og usunt

annet ved å tilsette sukker i

maten. Forbrukerrådet testet

som frokostblandinger og fant

forleden en «sunn» matvare

at opptil halvparten av innhol- det var sukker. Også matvarer som yoghurt, brød og barnemat blir tilsatt sukker. Professor i ernæring Kaare N. Norum mener sukkerforbruket blant den norske befolkning fører til dårligere helse, spesielt hos - Det er bekymringsfullt utfra barns overvekt. Det er en epidemi over hele verden, sier liker sukker, og det er det som er baktanken til næringsmiddelindustrien, sier professoren, som mener sukkerinntaket er svært bekymringsfullt for folkehelsen. - Umiddelbart fører sukkerinntaket til tannråte. På lang sikt fører det til overvekt som igjen gir sekundære effekter som tannråte og diabetes, sier Norum. Mindre porsjoner Norum leder en internasjonal Verdens helseorganisasjon (WHO)

mener at sukker ikke bør være mer

enn 10 prosent av den samlede

energien vi far i oss. I Norge ligger vi referansegruppe som Verdens Helseorganisasjon har satt ned for bekjempe blant annet problemet med sukker. Der stár blant annet kampen mot næ- WHO går blant annet inn

om årsaken.

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BEKYMRET: Ernæringsekspert Kaare N. Norum er bekymret for vårt en økt mengden for å få oss til à spise mer. På 70-tallet inneflaske brus 250 milliliter. I dag økning på 100 prosent. Norum ønsker også en mindre aggressiv markedsføring. - Det er blitt en ubalanse og dette er et sammensatt problem, men vi ønsker i alle fall en strammere regulering av markedsføring og reklame, sier Norum.

på 13-14 prosent, men det er svært skjevt fordelt. Noen spiser svært mye mer sukker enn andre. - Barn og ungdom spiser mer sukker enn gjennomsnittet. Det henger for en stor del sammen med økningen i konsumet av sukrete leskedrikker. Men også søte frokostblandinger og søt yoghurt konsumeres det mye av, sier Norum, som ikke er i tvil - Det er godt med sote ting. det er ingen tvil om det. Barn ringsmiddelindustrien. inneholdt i 1960 200 kalorier,

for å få næringsmiddelindustrien til á lage mindre porsjoner, sier Norum. Dette problemet er klart størst i USA, hvor forskning har vist at porsjonsstørrelsene nærmest har eksplodert de siste árene. En normal porsjon pommes frites økte sukkerforbruk. ler av næringsmiddelindustriholdt for eksempel en normal

mens 600 kalorier er normalen i dag. Men også i Norge har deer normalen en halv liter, en L.

hjul Psykiatri. Det er mot et bakteppe av psykiatri sa- suer nva Aftenpostens er- ruter nenis Kvinnens saken fordi hun ikke vas strafferettslig tilregnelig. Likevel var det en overselskapet.

Kragere tingrett 1 novem-

·n nuveciornandlingene 1

ber.

Sist planeten Mars var så nær Jorden som i dag, satt

neandertalere rundt leirbålet. Neste gang vil være

om 284 år. Da har menneskene sannsynligvis baser

på vår naboplanet.

Mars nærmere

enn på 60 000 år

ROLF L. LARSEN

Historisk. Kom deg derfor

ten i dag. Den er historisk

ut for à se den rede plane-

nar.

Klokken

11.51 er av-

standen til Mars -bare-

kilometer.

ca. 56 millioner millioner

Det ca.

er

60 000 ar siden den rode

den. Neste gang vår nabo-

planeten var så nar Jor-

planet og Jorden er like

2287. Da har menneskene

nær hverandre, vil vare 1

sannsynligvis selv inntatt

planeten! Nå mà vi nøye

oss med à se vår kanskje

fremtidige utpost 1 rom-

- Mars vil være synlig

met, fra bakken:

med det blotte øye som

en intens lysende, rod

nekk på himmelen.

Den

kommer opp i sydøst ved

sydvest og er synlig frem

22-tiden, beveger seg mot

til den forsvinner i mor-

genlyset, stipendiat sier

Knut Jørgen Røed Ode-

stitutt ved Universitetet i

gaard ved Astrofysisk in-

Oslo.

Bra på Østlandet

holdene her i landet blir 1

De beste observasjonstor-

Sør-Norge 1 kveld.

- Det

blir bra vær på Ostlandet

og Sørlandet.

sier vakt-

havende Blindern,

statsmeteorolog Olav

pà

Erikstad.

Ellers I landet

blir det mye regnbyger og

overskyet.

fortvile, selv om været blir

Men folk behøver ikke

dårlig flere steder i dag:

lig, bade med det blotte

- Mars vil være flott syn-

øye og i stjernekikkert ut

Med

elsen av september.

august og også i begynn-

en normal stjernekikkert

som gir

70 ganger

for-

størrelse, vil du kunne se

Mars like flott som du ser

pá fullmânen med det

blotte oye, forteller ast-

60 000 år siden. Sist Jorden var så nær

Mars, satt neandertalerne rundt leirbdlet.

I kveld vil Norsk Astro-

nomisk stille

stjernekikkerter til dispo-

Selskap

sisjon på Nedre Blindern 1

Oslo.

tet vil vare fra kl. 23.30 til

Mars-arrangemen-

02.00.

Hvorfor skjer dette nå?

den med 15-17 års mel- om Mars er nærmest ol orden lengst tra Solen p. samme tid. I tilegg endres banene litt. Tyngdekreftene fra andre objekter 1 Solsystemet forandrer banenes form hele tiden. Dette giør feks. at Jordens bane kan bli mer sirkulær enn nå, men også den kan bli mer avlang. Ost

Mars er spesielt nær Jor-

lomrom.

1988 og før det 1 1971 og

Sist gang var 1

1956. Denne gangen kom-

mer Mars enda litt nær-

mere enn den var de for-

rige gangene.

-Alle

planetene i sol-

systemet

lange baner rundt Solen.

går i svakt av-

De fleste banene er gans-

ke sirkulære, men ikke

mer enn at avstanden til

Solen varierer med flere

millioner For kilometer.

eksempel varierer Jor-

dens

mellom 146 og 152 millio-

avstand tra Solen

Middelav-

standen mellom Mars og

ner kilometer.

Solen er ca. 228 millioner

km, men banen til Mars er

vesentlig mer aviang enn

forkla-

rer astronomen.

det jordbanen er.

Ut i fra dette ser vi at

Mars og Jorden kommer

ronomen.

nærmest hverandre der-

mme best?

e allerede i dag.

игори

nde byer til tantastiske priser - alt vi krever er at du

id. Du ma minat vare borte natten /

Svenn Morten Torsnes mottok i går et tilbud fra - Vi mà nà diskroner

farer ligger tilbudet mellom en halv og én million

Mars nærmest Jorden siden steinalderen Mars er i dag nærFakta om Mars: mere enn den har *Størrelsen er vel halvparten av Jordens, diameteren er 6790 km vært på nesten 60 000 ăr. ·Tyngdekraften er omtrent en tredjedel av den på lorden Var nabo-planet er under 56 millioner * Mars har en meget tynn atmosfære som for det meste består av karbondioksid km fra Jorden. - CO2

*Et Mars-døgn er 24 timer og 37

## minutter · Gjennomsnittstemperaturen er minus 55, men temperaturen Nærkontakt: varierer fra minus 133 i polarMars beveger seg rundt Solen rundt områdene om vinteren til halvannen gang lenger borte enn Jorden. pluss 24 grader på solsiden Omkring hver 26, måned kommer Jorden om sommeren. på innsiden av Mars og de to planetene er pa linje med Solen 27. august: 1. mai: 56 millioner km 1. mars: 1. januar: 98 millioner km 179 millioner km 267 millioner km

Mars' bane: En elliptisk bane som tar 687 dager. Det betyr at dist-

Delfine Bem trende k /ormen

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ILLUSTRASION: NASA ansen fra Solen varierer med 42,5 mill, km. Mars pa nattehimmelen Mars er nà det sterkeste lysobjektet på nattehimmelen

1, Yangmanne MELKEVEIEN Steinbuhe ytee VP sora Se isyd Vekten Vest

## Kide REUTERS/Royal Astronomical Society/Astrofysisk instituttUIO © AFTENPOSTEN CRAFICX

neste nærmote kommer -alleredeår 2287, Reed Odegaard. sier Romsonder på vei Mars er over halvparten så stor som Jorden, har en meget tynn atmosfære og en stor rustråd, ørkenaktig overflate. Den rode

## Banene til Mars og Jorden er for tiden slik at

fargen skyldes oksiderte jernmetaller 1 overflates-

teinene.

Mars er fortsatt omgitt av mye mystikk. Mens vi 1 dag vet at det ikke er - eller har vært - små grønne menn på den rode planeten, har romsonder oppdaget en rekke spor etter rennende vann. Til tross for at Mars er langt mindre enn Jorden, har den en del likhetstrekk: Den har to polkalotter av is, den Om 284 år. Neste gang har menneskene sannsynligvis baser på den rode planeten. har nesten samme døgnlengde og den er den mest amerikanske ILLUSTRASJON: NASA tivt liv. En europeisk og to romsonder er nà på vei for a utnytte den historisk korte reise- lovende planeten i Solsystemet når det gjelder muligheten for å finne primiavstanden Person funnet død etter brann i Fitjar advokat

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## Fremtiden blir kald og svart

- annonse +

VG FØLGER

Romfart

Universets skjebne er omsider avslørt. Fremtiden blir kald, svart og uendelig.

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Tips en venn om denne saken! - Se dagens mest populære tips!

## Av LINN SANDBERG SKARSTEIN

Denne sensasjonen komn frem etter et av de lengste og viktigste eksperiment innen partikkelfysikk utfort noensinne. Resultatene ble kunngjort for en måpende skare av vitenskapsmenn verden rundt i går ettermiddag. Mange forskere har lenge hvilt på teorien om en såkalt «Big Crunch» - det vil si en tro på at alt i

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$ annonse

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nanteAnt

- annonse t

## Sikre bevis for vann på Mars

OSLO: For første gang har forskere funnet sikre bevis for at det har eksistert store sjøer med vann på planeten Mars. Funnet setter fart i spekulasjonene om liv på andre planeter enn jorden.

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Tips en venn om denne saken! - Se dagens mest populære tips! Se også vår bildespesial Vann på Mars.

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-Der hvor det er vann er det håp om Iw, sier forsker Knut Jørgen Røed @degaard ved Astrofysisk Institutt ved Universitetet i Oslo til NTB.

## Store mengder vann

Det er høyoppløselige bilder fra det amerikanske romfartøyet Mars Global Surveyor som avslører at Mars har lag på lag med sedimentære bergarter, som vi kjenner dem fra jorden. Dette betyr sannsynligvis at det for flere milliarder år siden eksisterte store mengder vann på planeten.

DEN RØDE PLANET: Dette bildet av Mars eller «Den røde planet» som den også kalles, er tatt av NASA Hubble Space Telescope i mars 1997. Nå har forskerne funnet bevis for at det har vært sjøer på planeten. Foto: AP

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Lave priser - Høy kvalitet

## PARKETT

Finn håndverkeren her!

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www.colorline.no

## SVAR & VINN

- en reise for 2

· annonse A PICTURE LIKE THIS could not have been drawn with any confidence a bursts-flashes of high-energy radiation that light up the sky a couple of decade ago, because no one had yet figured out what causes gamma-ray times a day. Now astronomers think of them as the ultimate stellar swan debris and sprays out some of it. A series of shock waves emits radiation.

song. A black hole, created by the implosion of a giant star, sucks in The Brightest

## Explosions inth Universe Every time a gamma-ray burst goes off, a black hole is born

By Neil Gehrels, Luigi Piro and Peter J. T. Leonard

Early in the morning of January 23, 1999, a robotic tele-

## constellation Corona Borealis. Though just barely visible through binoculars, it turned out to be the most brilliant ex-

scope in New Mexico picked up a faint flash of light in the

plosion ever witnessed by humanity. We could see it nine bil-

to be rather different from the man-made explosions that the

lion light-years away, more than halfway across the observable universe. If the event had instead taken place a few thousand light-years away, it would have been as bright as the midday sun, and it would have dosed Earth with enough radiation to kill off nearly every living thing. The flash was another of the famous gamma-ray bursts, which in recent decades have been one of astronomy's most intriguing mysteries. The first sighting of a gamma-ray burst (GRB) came on July 2, 1967, from military satellites watching for nuclear tests in space. These cosmic explosions proved Ny norsk vaksine-metode:

Torsdag 3. mai 2001

210 0

Kan hjelpe mot HIV og kreft

Elektriske støt gjør at

genmateriale lettere kan

komme inn

i cellene, og det åpner

for å lage HIV-vaksine

og behandle kreft.

LENE SKOGSTRØM

ROLF OHMAN (foto)

Er testet. Metoden har i et

par år vært provd ut på mus.

rotter og kaniner, med godt

dere ut på større dyr. Meto-

resultat. Nå proves den vi-

den gir store muligheter for

genmateriale mot sykdom-

å lage vaksiner basert på

mer som HIV, malaria eller

tuberkulose. Men den kan

også brukes som teknikk for

allerede har oppstått. For

å behandle sykdommer som

eksempel kreft,

eller syk-

dommer som skyldes man-

gel på et hormon eller prote-

in.

·Elektroporering- kalles

teknikken, som forsker Ia-

cob Mathiesen or professor

Terje Lømo har utviklet ved

salfag ved Universitet I Oslo.

Institutt for medisinske ba-

De tok patent på metoden

nasjon i USA for.

for genterapi og DNA-vaksi-

Elektroporering betyr &

genmolekyler (DNA) bedre

anvende elektriske felt for at

skal bli tatt opp I kroppens

med cellemembranene, slik

celler Strømmen -gjør noe-

at det blir lettere for DNA-

molekylene å trenge Igjen-

ner du anvender, lager dine

nom. Avhengig av hvilke ge-

egne celler den vaksinen du

trenger.

Tryggere enn virus

forsekene internasjonalt på

Pá 80-tallet startet de første

à fore DNA, eller genmateri-

rus brukes ofte som -bærer»

ale, direkte inn i cellene. Vi-

av genene. Noen av virusets

genene man ønsker à over-

egne gener byttes ut med de

føre. Dette er en effektiv me-

waw

IXAa Kanalea solana ikke l årsavi

210 000 nol

lâr har 3

Celle med hull TB-protein i celleveggen som blir produsert ner omkom ker i april Tarets fin

Rotte-vaksine. En spesiell sprøyte med elektroder er laget for å levere strøm og DNA samme sted, forklarer forsker lacob Mathiesen. Metodene som utvikles kan apne for å lage blant annet HIV-vaksiner. SLIK VIRKER DEN NYE VAKSINE-METODEN:

Spreytespiss med elektrode TB-gen 2 DNA-molekylet med TB-gen sprøytes inn i muskelen

## kan krysse seg med andre virus. De er vanskelige og kostbare å produsere. DNAmolekylene som den norske betalt årsav giftsdirekto har betalt re 16. mai, kar I tillegg má talt for sent, ner i tillegg;

stille.

metoden benytter seg av, er derimot holdbare, tåler mye og er enkle og billige å frem-

Gode resultater

Forskerteamet har lykkes med å overføre deler av genmateriale fra tuberkel-basillen inn 1 muskelceller på mus og rotter. Når DNA fra

tuberkel-basillen

inn i muskler som blir stimulert elektrisk, her muskelfib-

sprøytes

rene tatt opp genmaterialet

soksdyrene,

og begynt à produsere et protein som normalt lages av tuberkel-basillen. Dette proteinet har i sin tur utløst en Immunreaksjon hos foret tegn på at dyrene er i ferd med å bli immune mot tuberkulose. Metoden er også prøvd ut på tre geiter ved Veterinaerinstituttet 1 for Også her hadde metoden effekt, men forsøket var for lite til a ta svar på om metoden virker like godt på store som på mindre dyr. Resultatene fra Veterinærinstituttet var DNA-molekyl (plasmid) med gen fra TB-bakterien

grevlinger.

nødvendig for à gå videre med forsøket på kuer i Storbritannia, der britiske veteSORKCOC rinarer deltar | samarbeidet. I England er tuberkulose et stort problem for storfe, som trolig smittes av Cellekjerne

## ringformet DNASamtidig blir

skelig å å anvende metoden

Strøm - en ulempe - En ulempe ved vår metode er at den krever elektrisk strøm for å virke. Det er ikke alltid like behagelig. Rottene har fitt total-bedøvelse. På geitene riorde vi det enkelt ved å lokalbedøve et lite 1 Et gen fra tuberkulosebakterien (TB) plasseres inn l et plasmid. område på en muskel, og slik vil vi også giøre det pă kuene. Men strøm-stimuleringen kan gjøre det van-

## ved vaksinering av mennes-

ker 1 stor skala, Innrømmer Mathiesen. Men ved enselte sykdom mer kan metöden likevel tanta henbt vid moesevale. uTu en eukdom

- DNA-molekylet lastet med TB. gener kommer seg inn i cellekiernen.

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Icellen

## Immuntrafikken. If rende tallet

har 88 persi

<!-- image -->

i Sveri

- Helseministe ner for at ryg får avslag orr Sverige av Ris skal få en ny Sahlgrenska i kehus i Götet Ifpige stat:
- immunsystemet utenpå cellen, og skaper en varis vaksinasjonseffekt

© Aftenposten Grafiide Anne Gjertsen er velrenomn tetssykehus n tanse på beh; forskning på

molekyl, ogsi kalt muskelvevet elektrisk stimulert. «Klassisk», tradisjonell vaksinasjon går ut på 5 sprøyte inn svekkede bakterier og virus | kroppen. De gjer at kroppen produserer antistoff - vi blir immune mot sykdommen. Kroppens immunreaksjon blir utlest av spesielle proteiner eller strukturer fra bakterier/virus. Det går an 3 identifisere nettopp de gensekvensene som koder for disse strukturene. Den nye metoden går ut på 3 sprøyte disse gen-sekvensene inn i kroppens celler. Foryok med små dyr viser at denne formen for vaksinasjon gir god beskyttelse og apner for utvikling av marge nye vaksiner.

NYHETER

--- 300

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Norsk

bioteknologi

henger etter

Ett av få. Diatec slår bioteknologi og Internett i én

satser på en av verdens fremste vekstbransjer - med

smekk. Det lille selskapet er blant de fa i Norge som

utradisjonelt distribusjonsapparat.

Naturlige grenser. Bioteknologi fremstår ofte som

Men forskningssjef Geir Gogstad tror naturen setter

skremmende: Mus med menneskeorer og klonede dyr.

grenser som teknologien ikke kan passere.

CHRISTIAN HARALDSEN

cere har latt vare & ta patent på opp-

ROLF CHMAN (fete)

Hva kan vaere mer fremtidsrettet enn a

Det lille selskapet Dhatec por nettopp

kombinere blotexnolog og Internett?

det tra sine kortorer og laboratorier 1

Det kan hores luftig ut, men sel-

Forskningsparken| Osio

skapet har heüer jordnære ambisjoner

2.6 millioner kroner, og i år er budsjet-

1 for omsatte de syr ansatte for cirka

tet 4 millionez. Koen milliardfocresning

vil det fre år gamle selskapet aldri bi 1

empel på den bioteknologiske bransjen

) Norge Proporsjonene er beskjedne

Norge i bakleksa

Et av Norges sterste blotech-selskaper.

Jor. Forskningssjef Geir Gogstad an-

omsetcer for opp mot 1 milliard kroner.

sar at porsice bioteknologiselskaper

1 dag. Hvis godvilien

te tallet skal oke ti 50 milliarder kroner

Men han ser inen grunn tül at ikke det-

i lopet ar 20 ar. Hvis bransjen fâr

de

som landre europeiske land.

det internasjonale revisjons- og konsu-

teige en undersekeise foretatt av

lentfirmaet Emst & Young. telte Euro-

ansatte og en samlet omsetning på 3.1

pa 1036 biotech-selskaper med 39 000

milliarder dollar 1 1997. Samme]

Arma

mennesker og omsatte for 18,6 milliar-

anslar at bransjen sysselsatte 153 000

der dollar1 USA| 1998.

somhet vi ikke vanligvis forbinder med

Men disse tallene kan Inkludere vik-

bioteknologi. For moderne bioteknolo-

gi er en ung bransje. som har ligget i ku-

vesen lenger enn investorene hadde

Det er ferst nå bioteknologi begyn-

som leder an, med langt mer liberale

nerå bli butikk. Selvfølgelig er det USA

iger etter og

regler enn I EU. Norge ben

Lil tross for at både kompetanse og risi-

så sammenlignes med vare naboland

kovillig kapital innes i rikel

- Norge, sier Sigmund Kva ses 1 InnoM-

- Vi er forferdetig på bakbena ber 1

ed, en offentlig organis som skal

forskning på belseomridet.

bidra tül kommersialisering av norsk

Noe ar Arsaken xan na vart as tots vilje mot kommersiell anvendelse av forskningsresultater.

Norsk verdiskapning

Tilltgere Dynal-sjet Cart Christian GU-

Han er

nå partner | Investeringssel-

kvart milliard kroner og spesialiserer

skapet Neomed. som disponerer en

seg på medisinsk teknologi. Han viser

oMed driver for & sikre at norsk forsk

til det arbeidet som blant annet Inn-

ning skai fore til norsk verdiskaping

ring blant forskere, mener Gilhuus-

Dette har fort til en holdningsend-

Moe.

skiedd de siste fire-fem ârene, sier ban.

- Det er en positiv utvikling som har

Gilhuus-Moe mener oppfinnsomhe-

Bjørn Pedersen eler to tredjedeler av

ten er stor blant nordmenn, men at det kan skorte på internasjonal erfaring Grunderne 1 Diatec er 1 hovedsak forskere med bakgrunn fra Rikshospisom sammen med daglig leder Fremtiden. Oyvind Rpe

aksjene. Resten av aksjene eies av ak-

er det syv ansatte i selskapet

sjemeglere 1 Sundal Collier. Forelepig

Diatecs virksomhet er i bunn og

serer antistoffer for Rikshospitalet og

grunn lite mystisk. Selskapet produ-

Ullevål Sykehus så vei som internasjo

nale DOO L

Markedsføringen skjer nesten uteluk-

gigantseiskaper

kende via Internett og e-post, og des

priser enn konkurrenter som har et

med kan seiskapet operere med lavere

stort selgerkorps.

Antistoffer

produsenter av antistoffer verden over.

Diatec er bare en av mange hundre

tradisjonell

er

antistofter batt pro

fares den sykdomm

dusert i dyr, for eksempel mus, som på-

Stoller mot. Dermed prod

en man vii ha anti erer dyret

produserer derimot antistottene 1 så-

antistoffer som så kan utvinnes. Distec

som har fere kommersielle fordeler

troket med 3000 mus artig dersom se)

Jem Pedersen reper gjerne at det vill

skapet hadde anvendt den tradisjonel-

produksjonen har utlest 15 000 kroper·

le metoden. Og it den musevennlige

ngestøtte fra Poreningen for dyrenes Snill teknologi. Hann mus årlig.

<!-- image -->

om kan bi dette ürhundrets største vekstnæring Okke foregâtt lenge nok til at alle kon-

<!-- image -->

sekvenser på miloet er dokumentert

eler med» Dia cOnO

riddebsebkapene Alpharma og Nycormed har oga bioteknologtsk vinl or sparer livet til 3000

<!-- image -->

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## Morgendagens manipulerte maltider

## - Vi knasker i oss arvestoff hver dag

- Jeg tror at vi om ti år drikker el brygget på genmodifiserte gjærvarianter og spiser ost laget ved hjelp av genmodifiserte mikroorganismer. Og vi gjør det uten store betenkeligheter. Folk glemmer at de hver eneste dag knasker i seg massevis av arvestoff, sier førsteamanuensis Reidunn Aalen ved Biologisk institutt, Universitetet i Oslo.

selge bra. Tomatplanten har fått ett av sine egne gener «snudd», slik at en uensket egenskap bortfaller. Genmodifisering betyr ikke nedvendigvis at en plante får tilført ett eller flere gener fra en annen art, det som forskerne kaller transgene planter. Tomaten har dermed fâtt lengre holdbarhet ved at celleveggene ikke brytes ned like fort som hos andre tomater. Det betyr igjen at grønnsaken ikke må plukkes når den er gronn for å tảle lagring og frakt, men kan henge på planten til den er moden. Smaken skal være den samme, utseende og næringsinnhold det samme - så hvorfor er vi likevel inngrodd skeptiske?

Tekst: Ingeborg Wiese

Genteknologi og landbruk er et stort satsningsområde innen moderne bioteknologi. De som tror på forskningen, spår at den kan bidra til å dekke verdens matvarebehov globalt, mens kritikerne frykter at manipuleringen med naturen kan få store og katastrofale konsekvenser. Og midt imellom står forbrukerne, som til syvende og sist kan velte mange års forskning og kommersiell satsning hvis de ikke vil kjøpe de genmodifiserte produktene.

## Genmodifisert tomatplante

I USA har den etter hvert berømte tomaten Flaur Saur vært på markedet en stund og skal ifolge det amerikanske selskapet Calgene

- Som medlem av Bioteknologinemnda opplever jeg at behovet for informasjon og debatt er enormt, både hos bender og forbrukere. De fleste vet ikke hva genmodifisert mat egentlig er, men de er intuitivt mistenksomme. Det assosieres lett med kunstig, skadelig eller usunn mat, mener Aalen.

Hovedhensikten med å gi en plante et nytt gen, fra for eksempel en annen planteart, er à forhindre avlingstap forårsaket av sykdom, skadedyr eller ugress. 1 dag går store deler av verdens avlinger tapt på grunn av edeleggelser. Planteproduksjonen i utviklingsland er særlig utsatt for insektangrep, og det eneste man har hatt som mottiltak, har vært giftige insektmidler. Intensiv bruk av disse har fâtt store og negative konsekvenser for folks milje og helse. Genmodifiserte planter som er resistente mot for eksempel insekter, kan redusere bruken av giftige midler betydelig, ifølge forskerne.

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En annen vesentlig hensikt er á forbedre kvaliteten til planten, ved å gjøre den mer holdbar og oke næringsinnholdet, slik man har gjort med den genmodifiserte tomaten. Bruk av genmodifiserte planter kan også bidra til å utvide dyrkingsmulighetene, ved at plantene blir mer tolerante overfor tørke, kulde eller salt.

Planteforedlere har i århundrer laget nye plantesorter ved å overføre gener ved tradisjonell krysning og seleksjon. Metoden tar lang tid, men resultatene har gitt planteprodukter med høy kvalitet. Kulturplanter som opprinnelig var uegnet som mat til mennesker og dyr, har gjennom nitid, tradisjonell foredling blitt spiselig og sunn næring.

Moderne genteknologi kan effektivisere tradisjonell foredling. Genmodifisering av planter åpner dessuten for helt nye muligheter, blant annet ved at kulturplanter kan tilføres egenskaper ikke bare fra nært beslektede arter, men i prinsippet fra alle grupper av organismer, fra virus til pattedyr.

Forskning på genmodifiserte planter er suksessfull i den forstand at plantene i stor grad oppferer seg som forventet. Til sammenlikning har genterapi pă mennesker ikke på langt nær vist samme framgang. Det er enkelt à

Forsker Reidunn Aalen med en genmodifisert plante: - Det er sider ved utviklingen jeg er betenkt over, som at så mange forskere er ansatt i landbruksindustrien og at genteknologi i så stor grad brukes til å oke profitten nettopp hos den. (Foto: Stale Skogstad O)

gi planter nye gener. Fra én genmodifisert plantecelle kan man få en ny plante der alle cellene inneholder det nye genet som gir planten en ny egenskap.

## Landbruksindustrien forer an

Bade i Europa og USA strommer det inn søknader til offentlige myndigheter om à få markedsføre genmodifiserte planter. På verdensbasis har allerede 60 plantearter blitt utsatt for genetisk modifisering, og det er utfort 3000 felteksperimenter med transgene planteavlinger.

- Er det i det hele tatt mulig å bremse dette lokomotivet som med all mulig tydelighet er satt i bevegelse?

- Om ti år tror jeg vi spiser genmodifisert mat uten å tenke stort over det. Men det er sider ved utviklingen jeg er betenkt over, som at så mange forskere er ansatt i landbruksindustrien, og at genteknologi i så stor grad brukes til å oke profitten nettopp hos den. Landbruket er i dag en kjempeindustri, og jeg kunne ønske at teknologien også ble brukt til nyttigere formål. Det er de store næringsmiddelfirmaene som styrer etet i Oslo. Apollon 3/96

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## - Gi meg et monster!

- Selv om jeg ferdes sammen med mange som regnes som fullstendig umulige, har jeg aldri mott monstre. Du kan se monstre i folkeeventyrene og i mediene, men gi meg et ordentlig monster, da! Det er merkelig at jeg aldri kan mote et.

hevder at ghettoer har fordeler. du har kritisert psykiatrien kraftig, du mener det er for få voktere på T-banen, og du sier at norsk narkotikapolitikk er fullstendig feilslatt. Og du har gitt ut boker med titler som for eksempel «Hvis skolen ikke fantes».

Tekst: Marianne Tonnessen

- 1 de fleste relasjoner synes jeg det er mulig å nå fram til den andre og snakke sammen på en noenlunde rimelig måte, sier Nils Christie.

- Det å skape bilder av den andre som farlig og ond, sperrer for muligheten til à få i gang en samtale.

Vi er i gang med en samtale på hans kontor. Christie har vært ansatt som professor i kriminologi ved Universitetet i Oslo i over 30 år. I lopet av denne tiden har han også rukket å bli kjent for mange kontroversielle utspill i mediene. Men han oppfatter ikke seg selv som kontroversiell:

- Jeg synes jeg er nokså fredelig og grei, og at det som oppfattes som kontroversielt, er nesten selvfolgelige observasjoner. Hva slags utspill tenker du på?

· Du har jo allerede for lenge siden gått inn for å legalisere hasj, du har sammenliknet metadon med insulin, du er skeptisk til integrering av innvandrere og

- Det siste er jo bare en enkel betraktning om hvordan det er. Jeg synes det er mer forbausende at det ikke er selvinnlysende for andre at skolen har en vesentlig oppbevaringsfunksjon i samfunnet, og at den er bygd opp slik at den passer best for over- og mellomklassen. At det er hoyst tvilsomt å snakke om narkotika når man holder tobakk og alkohol utenfor, og at man burde hindre at unge mennesker der hvis de er fanget inn i farlige livsformer. Alt dette er jo svært enkelt, og jeg ønsker ikke å skape kontroverser. Men jeg forsoker å si at «det var da rart at man kan gjøre det på den maten», sier han.

- Metadonsaken er en god illustrasjon på dette: Hvis det kom en virus som særlig rammet dem som arbeidet kan hjelpe dem, mens ingen ville finne på å nekte de sukkersyke insulin. Dette er en forskjell basert på rendyrket moralisme. Og legeetisk er det et voldsomt brudd med det tilvante: At legen ikke skal ta hensyn til sin pasient, men til pasientens nabo, for ellers ville det kanskje friste naboen til å begynne med heroin. Når man ser et slikt misforhold, må man jo fortelle om det.

Men Christie sier at han egentlig ikke liker å være i den offentlige debatt:

- Nei, det synes jeg er slitsomt. Jeg synes ikke det er morsomt å være en offentlig person, jeg er nokså sjenert. Men når jeg kommer med ny bok, vil jeg at den skal bli kjent, og kringkastingen er et flott alternativ til det à stã på universitetets kateter.

- Foler du at du får gjennomslag for det du sier?

- Jeg tenker av og til som Frelsesarmeen: Synden er der hele tiden. Det er en evig kamp å forsøke å ha et reflektert samfunn.

foran en dataskjerm, da ville samfunnet mobilisert enormt. Når

-Jeg synes ikke det er morsomt à være en offentlig person, jeg er nokså sjenert.

det gjelder folk i sterkt truede livssituasjoner som bruker heroin, vet vi også at noe kan gjores. Det er påvist at deres dedelighet blir betydelig mindre hvis de får metadon. Og det er en billig investering.

Men langtkomne narkotikabrukere skal nektes stoffet som Jeg vet ikke om det virker eller ei, det ville vært helt latterlig å tenke at det jeg sier, hadde betydd noe særlig. Vi er så mange, og vi er eksponenter for ting i tiden. Jeg er vel en liten piccolofløyte i det store orkesteret, en som har vært så heldig å ha fâtt arbeide mange og friske år ved en institusjon som gir rom for à forsøke å utvide forståelsen av grunnleggende fenomener i samfunnet.

portrettet

1

1

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