## HERMES

Journal of Language and Communication in Business

No. 66 - 2026

Published by the School of Communication and Culture, Aarhus University ISSN: 1903-1785

## HERMES

## Journal of Language and Communication in Business

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*Clara Marchán-Sanz / **Erika Fernández-Gómez / ***Beatriz Feijoo-Fernández

## Dilemmas Faced by Micro-influencers in Commercial Collaborations: Ethical Responsibility and Personal Gain

## Abstract

Influencer  marketing  continues  to  expand, intensifying debates  about  compliance  with  advertising  regulations  and the distribution of responsibility among influencers, brands, and other stakeholders. This qualitative study draws on 30 indepth interviews with micro-influencers in Spain to examine how they interpret and manage legal requirements and ethical considerations in the context of commercial collaborations. The findings indicate a high level of awareness of disclosure obligations,  with  most  participants  reporting  regular  identification  of  sponsored  content.  While  interviewees  generally attribute primary responsibility for product-related information to brands, they also acknowledge shared accountability and describe  practices  aimed  at  ensuring  accuracy  and  maintaining  credibility.  Although  participants  recognize  significant pressure to increase follower numbers, they largely reject the practice of purchasing followers. Instead, they emphasize authenticity, thematic coherence, and trust as central to sustaining their professional legitimacy. Overall, micro-influencers conceptualize ethical responsibility less as strict adherence to formal rules and more as an ongoing communicative practice oriented toward credibility, audience expectations, and long-term professional sustainability.

## Keywords

Micro-influencers; influencer marketing; advertising; transparency; ethics; regulation; disclosure, dilemmas.

## 1. Introduction

Influencer  marketing  continues  to  expand  at  a  sustained  pace,  drawing  increasing  scholarly  and regulatory  attention  to  its  communicative,  legal,  and  ethical  implications.  Global  revenue  from influencer marketing is projected to exceed 30 billion USD by 2025 (Statista, 2025), while in Spain alone the sector attracted 125 million euros in investment in 2024, representing a 58.0% increase compared to the previous year (Infoadex, 2025). This growth reflects the consolidation of influencer marketing  as  a  strategic  form  of  business  communication  that  enables  brands  to  engage  diverse audiences on social media in an effective and cost-efficient way (Jayasinghe, 2021; Ye et al., 2021). Influencers are commonly perceived as capable of producing content that audiences regard as more authentic,  organic,  and  effective  than  traditional  brand-generated  advertising  (Landgrebe,  2024), making  influencer  marketing  a  particularly  salient  communicative  practice  among  younger generations (Calçada, 2019).

Despite these advantages, influencer marketing also entails significant challenges. The profession of  digital  influencer  is  relatively  recent  and  remains  only  partially  professionalised,  resulting  in blurred  boundaries  between  personal  expression,  commercial  communication,  and  regulatory compliance.  Influencers  frequently  encounter  situations  in  which  economic  incentives,  ethical considerations, and legal obligations are difficult to reconcile. For example, maintaining a relatively small  community  may  limit  access  to  commercial  collaborations,  whereas  artificially  increasing follower numbers through practices such as purchasing followers undermines credibility. Similarly,

*  Clara Marchán-Sanz Faculty of Economics and Business Universidad International de la Rioja, Logroño clara.marchan@unir.net

** Erika Fernández-Gómez Faculty of Communication, Department of Journalism. Universidade de Vigo, Pontevedra erifer@uvigo.gal

*** Beatriz Feijoo-Fernández Universidad Villanueva, Madrid

beatriz.feijoo@villanueva.edu transparent disclosure of sponsored content is both ethically and legally required, yet influencers often perceive that such disclosure may negatively affect audience engagement. In this context, the articulation of clear legal frameworks and the establishment of shared professional standards remain ongoing challenges.

In Spain, the regulatory landscape combines general advertising legislation with self-regulatory mechanisms  developed  by  the  industry.  Notably,  the Code  of  Advertising  Conduct  through Influencers , first introduced in 2020 and updated in 2025 (Autocontrol, 2025), seeks to clarify good practices  in  influencer  marketing.  Nevertheless,  despite  these  regulatory  advances,  substantial difficulties persist, particularly regarding the clear identification of advertising content -an issue that continues to raise concern among regulators, advertisers, and the wider public.

Within  the  broad  spectrum  of  influencer  profiles,  micro-influencers -commonly  defined  as content creators with fewer than 100,000 followers -deserve particular analytical attention (Conde & Casais, 2023; Park et al., 2021). Although they typically command smaller audiences, microinfluencers often report comparatively high levels of engagement and credibility, even when content creation does not constitute their primary professional activity (Fernández-Gómez & Quintas-Froufe, 2025). Moreover, while many micro-influencers hold university degrees, they frequently lack formal training  in  digital  content  production,  advertising  regulation,  or  ethical  standards  related  to commercial communication (Fernández-Gómez et al., 2024). Despite their growing  relevance in brand strategies, micro-influencers remain comparatively underexplored in academic research.

Existing literature on ethics in influencer marketing has largely focused on issues of transparency, compensation, and authenticity, with Borchers and Enke (2022) identifying up to ten distinct ethical dimensions within the field. Other studies have examin ed ethical considerations from influencers' own perspectives,  often  within  specific  content  niches  such  as  travel  (Wellman  et  al.,  2020)  or parenting blogs (Archer, 2019). However, relatively little attention has been paid to how microinfluencers  understand,  interpret,  and  negotiate  legal  and  ethical  obligations  in  their  everyday commercial practices, particularly as part of their professional communication with audiences and brands. Addressing this gap, the present study examines the dilemmas faced by micro-influencers in the context of commercial collaborations, with particular attention to issues such as the identification of  advertising,  the  accuracy  of  product-related  information,  and  the  rejection  of  questionable practices such as purchasing followers. Drawing on 30 in-depth interviews with micro-influencers in Spain, the study explores how these digital prescribers navigate tensions between legal compliance, ethical responsibility, and personal or economic gain, as understood from their own perspectives. This research contributes to ongoing discussions on professional responsibility and ethical decisionmaking in contemporary business communication.

## 2. Theoretical Framework and Literature Review

## 2.1.   Influencer Marketing as a Strategic Communication Tool: Responsibility and Influence

Influencer marketing refers to a communication process in which opinion leaders on social media -commonly referred to as influencers -are incorporated into advertisers' strategies by recommending products or services on behalf of brands (Bakker, 2018). Influencers generate content designed to encourage interaction and engagement among their audiences  (Campbell & Farrell, 2020),  often integrating sponsored messages seamlessly into editorial-style posts (Hudders & Lou, 2022). This blending  of  commercial  and  non-commercial  content  contributes  significantly  to  the  persuasive power of influencer communication (Kim & Kim, 2021).

Followers tend to perceive influencers less as traditional celebrities and more as relatable peers (Hudders  et  al.,  2020),  which  enhances  perceptions  of  authenticity  and  credibility.  As  a  result, influencer recommendations are often considered more authentic and accessible than conventional brand-generated advertising (Djafarova & Rushworth, 2017; Zhou et al., 2021). Empirical research has demonstrated the effectiveness of influencer marketing across a wide range of sectors (Leung et al., 2022), including fashion (Chetioui et al., 2020; Gomes et al., 2022), luxury branding (Pangarkar & Rathee, 2022), and beauty (Djafarova & Rushworth, 2017).  Influencers also play a relevant role in the dissemination of knowledge and norms in socially sensitive domains such as sustainability (Yıldırım, 2021), neurosurgery (Riccio et al., 2022), mental health (Bauer & Sappenfield, 2024), and education (Carpenter et al., 2021). However, the difficulty audiences face in distinguishing between editorial  and  advertising  content,  combined  with  influencers'  capacity  t o  shape  attitudes  and purchasing  decisions,  underscores  the  responsibility  influencers  hold  toward  their  followers  and society  more  broadly  (Mackay,  2021).  This  responsibility  forms  the  foundation  for  ethical  and regulatory debates surrounding influencer marketing practices.

## 2.2. Emerging Regulatory Landscape in Influencer Marketing

In Spain, influencer marketing operates within a fragmented yet expanding regulatory environment that encompasses more than 300 national, regional, and European legal provisions (Villajoana, 2016). Of particular relevance are regulations addressing misleading and disguised advertising, primarily governed by the Unfair Competition Law (1991) and Law 34/2002 on Information Society Services. Disguised advertising -defined as commercial content that is not clearly identified as such -has emerged as the central  concern  for  regulators  and  self-regulatory  bodies  alike,  as  it  undermines consumers' ability to critically evaluate persuasive messages (Núñez-Cansado et al., 2021).

In response to these concerns, the Spanish Association of Advertisers (AEA) and AUTOCONTROL introduced the Code of Conduct on the Use of Influencers in Advertising in 2020 (Autocontrol  de  la  Publicidad,  2020),  later  updated  in  2025.  This  self-regulatory  framework complements  existing  legislation  and  seeks  to  clarify  best  practices  in  influencer  advertising. Specifically, the  Code establishes  guidelines  for  the correct  identification  of  commercial  content (Lázaro, 2020), affirms that disclosure obligations apply to all influencers regardless of audience size, and stipulates that content constitutes advertising of whether compensation is monetary or in kind (IAB Spain, 2022, p. 47).

A significant  regulatory  development  occurred  with  the  approval  of  Royal  Decree  444/2024, approved on April 30 and published in Spain's Official State Bulletin (BOE). It specifically regulates which introduced specific obligations for socalled 'users of special relevance.' Influencers meeting thresholds of more than one million followers, annual revenues exceeding €300,000, and high levels of audiovisual output are now required to register in the State Register of Audiovisual Providers, aligning them with traditional audiovisual actors. Similar regulatory approaches have already been adopted in France (Díaz, 2023) and are under discussion in Italy (Verdú, 2024).

Non-compliance with these regulations carries tangible consequences. In July 2023, the Spanish Ministry of Consumer Affairs warned major influencers of potential fines exceeding €100,000 for failing to properly disclose sponsored content, following findings that more than 77% of analyzed posts  violated  transparency  requirements  (Ministry  of  Consumer  Affairs,  2023).  Despite  these enforcement efforts, compliance remains uneven. A pan-European investigation by the Consumer Protection Cooperation Network revealed that only 20% of influencer posts were correctly labeled as advertising (Reuters, 2024), a trend mirrored in Spain, where only one in four posts included adequate  disclosure  (Viña,  2024).  These  data  illustrate  the  persistent  gap  between  regulatory frameworks and actual industry practices.

## 2.3. Toward Professionalization: Regulatory Fragmentation and Diffuse Accountability

The advertising industry is still learning how to manage influencer marketing activities (Borchers & Enke, 2021). It involves multiple stakeholders -including influencers, brands, social platforms, users and intermediary agencies -often resulting in fragmented accountability for regulatory compliance and ethical governance.

Two factors contribute to the slower pace of professionalization in influencer marketing. First, many  brands  without  advertising  experience  are  entering  space,  drawn  by  the  affordability  of working  with  micro-influencers  (Hund,  2019;  Silalahi,  2021;  Wei  &  Liang,  2021;  Abdullah,  & Ampauleng, 2024). It is common for collaborations to involve only free products, rather than formal contracts or  monetary  compensation  (Villegas-Simón et al., 2022).  Second,  many  microinfluencers -often described as amateurs (ICMEDIA, 2021) -lack awareness of how the advertising industry operates or what legal and professional standards apply (Fernández-Gómez et al., 2024).

In response to these challenges, industry bodies and self-regulatory organizations have intensified efforts  to  promote  ethical  awareness  and  regulatory  literacy.  AUTOCONTROL,  together  with stakeholders  such  as  IAB  Spain,  keeps  working  to  establish  the  ethical  principles  governing influencer marketing by revising the Code of Advertising Conduct through Influencers (2025). The revised code introduces clearer definitions of advertising content, broadens its scope of application, strengthens identifiability requirements, reinforces protections for minors, incorporates provisions related  to  artificial  intelligence,  and  emphasizes  shared  responsibility  among  industry  actors. Complementing  these  regulatory  developments,  the  launch  of  the Basic  Training  Course  for Influencers  on  AUTOCONTROL Advertising Regulations in  June  2025  signals  an  effort  to  build regulatory literacy and professional capacity within the sector.

However,  improving  regulation  enforcement  will  require  more  efforts.  Experts  also  call  for increased  brand  commitment  to  self-regulation  through  awareness  campaigns  (Caro,  2021)  and stronger enforcement mechanisms to penalize noncompliance (Hudders et al., 2020). A previous study on micro-influencers points to the prevalence of bad practices in the industry -driven by lack of financial return and transparency training (Fernández-Gómez & Quintas-Froufe, 2025).

## 2.4. The Influencer's Dilemma: Authenticity, Transparency, and Ethical Persuasion

Beyond regulatory compliance, influencer marketing raises  broader  ethical  questions  concerning responsibility,  transparency,  and  the  persuasive  effects  of  commercial  communication.  Ethical responsibility  does  not  lend  itself  to  a  single,  universally  accepted  definition  but  is  commonly understood as the obligation to consider the foreseeable consequences of one's actions when these affect others or collective goods. Nihlén Fahlquist (2018) emphasizes the prospective dimension of responsibility, oriented toward harm prevention and informed decision-making, while Schicktanz and Schweda (2012) highlight its relational and context-dependent nature within specific social and technological settings. In applied ethics, responsibility is enacted through the navigation of dilemmas and value conflicts, requiring context-sensitive judgment rather than a purely rule-based application of abstract norms (Wellman et al., 2020).

Initial research on ethics in influencer marketing focused primarily on three themes: transparency, remuneration, and authenticity. Transparency concerns the clear identification of sponsored content, while  remuneration  addresses  the  ethical  implications  of  financial  or  material  compensation, particularly from a public relations perspective (Archer et al., 2014). Authenticity, in turn, relates to whether influencers engage in brand collaborations based on shared values or primarily financial gain.  Expanding  this  framework,  Borchers  and  Enke  (2022)  identify  ten  ethical  dimensions, including autonomy, sincerity, truthfulness, professionalism, loyalty, and social responsibility.

Authenticity has subsequently been identified as a core ethical principle in influencer practice (Wellman et al., 2020). Authenticity rests on two key principles, being true to oneself and brand (personal brand) and being true to one's audience . Ethical influencer collaborations therefore require alignment between sponsored content, influencer identity, and audience expectations, rather than the avoidance  of  commercial  activity  per  se.  Influencers  frequently  report  rejecting  collaborations motivated solely by financial gain when such partnerships conflict with their values or audience interests, as these practices risk undermining credibility and long-term trust.

To  preserve authenticity, influencers typically adopt one of two  strategies: passionate authenticity , whereby brand values align closely with personal beliefs, or transparent authenticity , which emphasizes explicit disclosure of sponsorships (Audrezet et al., 2020).

Research grounded in congruence theory suggests that alignment between influencer and brand enhances perceived credibility and campaign effectiveness (Belanche et al., 2021; Gaied & Rached, 2017; Han & Chen, 2022; Hudders et al., 2020; Torres et al., 2019). Alignment between influencer and follower values further reinforces trust and shapes purchasing behavior (Venciute et al., 2023).

The effects of transparency on audience perceptions remain mixed. While some studies suggest that sponsorship disclosure may reduce persuasive effectiveness by activating persuasion knowledge (De Veirman & Hudders, 2019), others indicate that inadequate or ambiguous labeling undermines perceived authenticity and trust (Ardley et al., 2022). Audience expectations also vary considerably. Hwang et al. (2021) identified four types of consumers based on their expectations of influencer marketing: 'Advertising tool,' 'Entertainer,' 'Information source' and 'Tastemaker' . Those who primarily  seek  informational  content  from  influencers  demand  particularly  clear  and  explicit disclosures. Empirical evidence further demonstrates that ambiguous disclosure significantly reduces perceived transparency (Woodroof et al., 2020), whereas clear sponsorship labeling enhances trust, engagement, continued following, and, in some cases, purchase intention (De Cicco et al., 2020; Pan et al., 2025).

## 3. Objectives and Methodology

This  qualitative  study  aims  to  examine  the  dilemmas  faced  by  micro-influencers -defined  as individuals with fewer than 100,000 followers (Park et al., 2021; Conde & Casais, 2023) -in relation to the legal and ethical responsibilities arising from their commercial collaborations. Rather than testing hypotheses, the study adopts an exploratory and interpretive approach designed to capture how these emerging actors within the advertising ecosystem understand, experience, and negotiate legally and ethically sensitive aspects of their professional practice.

Specifically, the study is guided by five research questions:

1. To what extent are micro-influencers aware of their obligation to disclose commercial content?

This question examines whether micro-influencers recognize the legal and ethical requirement to identify sponsored content and how consistently they apply this in practice.

2. How do microinfluencers perceive their followers' reactions to commercial collaborations? The goal is to understand whether influencers believe their audiences are receptive to sponsored content and capable of recognizing it as such.
3. Do micro-influencers consider current regulations sufficient, and do they perceive a need for further regulation?

This question explores their stance on the adequacy of legal and ethical guidelines and whether they identify specific risks for certain audiences or sectors.

4. Who do micro-influencers believe should be responsible for ensuring the accuracy of information shared in commercial content?
2. This question seeks to clarify perceptions of shared or delegated accountability in
3. influencer-brand collaborations
5. Are micro-influencers aware of the practice of purchasing followers, and have they ever engaged in it?

The aim is to assess both awareness of and engagement in follower purchasing, a behavior widely regarded as ethically questionable within digital marketing.

By  addressing  these  questions  through  in-depth  interviews,  the  study  contributes  to  a  better understanding of how micro-influencers navigate the intersection of personal authenticity, audience trust, and compliance with advertising standards.

## 3.1 Methodology

This research builds on a prior exploratory survey (Marchán-Sanz et al., 2024) conducted with 290 micro-influencers  using  a  structured  questionnaire  to  examine  their  commercial  practices  and relationships within the influencer marketing ecosystem. To deepen and contextualize those findings, the present study employed semi-structured in-depth interviews. An exploratory qualitative approach was adopted, as such designs are particularly appropriate for investigating phenomena that have received limited systematic empirical attention (Stebbins, 2001).

The sample consisted of 30 micro-influencers registered on a digital platform operating in Spain, Mexico,  and  Colombia,  which  connects  influencers  with  brands.  At  the  time  of  the  study,  the platform's database contained approximately 6,500 micro -influencers. Registration on the platform ensured that  all  participants  had  at  least  minimal  commercial  activity -an  essential  criterion  for meeting the study's objectives. Micro -influencers who had completed the initial online survey were invited via email to participate in a follow-up interview. Inclusion criteria required that influencers have fewer than 100,000 followers. The sampling strategy aimed for diversity in age, gender, and content  areas  (e.g.,  lifestyle,  beauty,  fitness,  gastronomy).  Sampling  reached  saturation  after  30 micro-influencers had been interviewed.

Interviews were conducted online via Microsoft Teams between October and December 2023 and lasted approximately 40 minutes each. All interviews were recorded with participants' consent and subsequently  transcribed  verbatim).  The  interview  transcripts  were  analysed  using  a  qualitative content analysis approach, combining deductive and inductive coding procedures:

- Deductive coding: based on the scripts designed for the interviews, a series of previously defined analysis categories and subcategories were created.
- Inductive coding: allowed the identification of emerging patterns and unforeseen categories that arose during the data review.

The coding process was informed by Braun and Clarke's (2006) guidelines for systematic qualitative coding,  while  the  overall  analytical  logic  followed  a  content  analysis  framework  focused  on organizing findings into analytically relevant categories rather than developing interpretative themes (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004).

The interview protocol and data collection procedures received approval from the Research Ethics Committee of Universidad Internacional de la Rioja.

## Specific Objective

## Section 1

Assess awareness of disclosure obligations

## Section 2

Explore perceptions of audience recognition and acceptance

## Section 3

Examine perceptions of regulatory adequacy

## Section 4

Clarify perceived responsibility for information accuracy

## Guiding Questions

- Are you aware of the requirement to disclose advertising content?
- Do you consistently disclose it?
- Do social media users in general -and your followers specifically -recognize when content is commercial?
- How do you believe they typically react to sponsored content?
- What do you think the regulatory framework for micro-influencer activity should entail?
- Are there specific sectors or vulnerable audiences that require special protection?
- Who do you believe is responsible for ensuring accuracy in sponsored content, and why: the brand, the platform and/ or influencer marketing agency, the microinfluencer?

Specific Objective

## Section 5

Investigate awareness of unethical practices

## Guiding Questions

- Do you find it difficult to grow your follower base organically?
- Is there a follower count you consider a career turning point?
- Are you aware that followers can be purchased?
- Have you ever engaged in this practice?

Table 1: Alignment Between Research Questions and Interview Guide. Source: Compiled by the authors.

## 3.2. Participant Profile

The majority of interviewees were female (80%), while 20% were male. In terms of age, 16.7% were between 19 and 24 years old, 56.7% between 25 and 40, 20% between 41 and 50, and 6.6% were over  51  years  old.  Regarding  educational  background,  40%  held  a  university  degree,  20%  had completed vocational training, and 20% had completed secondary education.

Instagram was the primary platform for most participants (80%). One participant primarily used Twitch,  one  Facebook,  and  six  TikTok.  Additionally,  46%  of  respondents  were  active  on  two platforms, most commonly Instagram and TikTok, while 30% were active on three platforms, 13% on four platforms, and one participant on five platforms.

With respect to audience size, 40% had fewer than 10,000 followers, 43% had between 10,000 and  30,000  followers,  and  6.6%  had  more  than  50,000  followers.  The  most  common  content categories were lifestyle (20%), beauty and fashion (10%), beauty (13%), and gastronomy (6.6%). Other niches included mental health, family, motherhood, and caravanning.

## 4. Results

## 4.1 Disclosure of Commercial Partnerships

Nearly all participants (29 out of 30) demonstrated awareness of the legal obligation to disclose commercial collaborations  in  their  content.  Among  these,  approximately  80%  reported  that  they consistently  label  branded  content,  even  when  such  disclosure  is  not  explicitly  requested  by  the collaborating brand. As one participant explained: ' By law, which many people do not do, and this is by law, you have to notify that you are advertising… I mean, I do it' (Female, 26, Lifestyle) . This account illustrates a proactive orientation toward regulatory compliance and ethical transparency.

In fact, several interviewees spontaneously emphasized that beyond legal requirements, they feel a personal responsibility to maintain transparency with their audiences. In contrast, the remaining 20% disclosed collaborations only when specifically instructed to do so by the Brand. Participants also  noted  that  most  brands  typically  request  explicit  disclosure  of  collaborations,  indicating  an emerging norm of transparency within the industry. However, a minority of respondents recalled having worked with brands that preferred not to have promotional content labeled as advertising. The reasons for this preference were not disclosed, and no consistent traits -such as company size or locality -were observed among these brands. Some interviewees further expressed concern about the  negative impact of disclosure on content visibility. Specifically, they believed  that  including Instagram's 'Paid Partnership' tag could lead to reduced reach and engagement, as the platform may deprioritize such content in users' feeds. O ne participant explained:

I've personally observed that when I upload a video and include the paid partnership tag, the video receives almost no views. This is because the platform interprets it as branded content, which it believes should be subject to paid promotion, and consequently reduces its visibility. (Female, 34, Beauty)

## 4.2. Audience Recognition and Perception of Sponsored Content

Interviewees generally believed that their followers are capable of recognizing sponsored content, particularly  because  legal  regulations  require  influencers  to  identify  commercial  collaborations.

Beyond formal labeling, several participants noted that followers can often detect promotional intent when a product does not align with the influencer's usual content or  personal brand: 'When it's something  out  of  the  ordinary,  different  from  what  the  profile  is  usually  about,  I  think  that  the follower will surely notice' (Female, 39, Gastronomy)

Although some influencers initially expressed concern about audience perceptions, many reported that followers understand such collaborations as a normal part of the influencer's profession. They acknowledged that advertising serves as a primary source of income and that followers are generally aware of this reality. As one participant explained:

Whoever wants to understand understands it and knows that this is your profession, and they know that you are an advertising medium. So in the end, you have to upload advertising content, collaborations, products, services, and so on. (Male, 21, Lifestyle)

Despite  this  general  acceptance,  two  practices  were  identified  as  damaging  to  followers' perceptions.  First,  excessive  promotional  content  was  viewed  as  fatiguing  or  off-putting.  One respondent noted: 'People get very tired if you turn into a home shopping channel' (Female, 46, Family content). Second, participants emphasized the importance of congruence between the brand being  promoted  and  the  influencer's  established  thematic  focus.  Collaborations  perceived  as inconsistent  with  the  influencer's  usual  mess aging  or  values  were  more  likely  to  be  rejected  by followers. Many interviewees, therefore, reported a deliberate effort to partner only with brands that align with their identity and content. One participant expressed this commitment as follows: 'When you c reate content that is genuine, that aligns with what you talk about and believe in, even if it's a collaboration, if it's coherent, your followers won't reject it' (Female, 27, Nutrition).

In  summary,  while  transparency  and  authenticity  are  generally  appreciated  by  audiences, credibility can be undermined by over-commercialization or a lack of thematic consistency. These findings highlight the importance of alignment and moderation in fostering trust and sustaining the perceived integrity of microinfluencers' work.

## 4.3 Attitudes Toward Regulation: Ambivalence, Enforcement, and Selective Concern

Participants  expressed  diverse  and  often  ambivalent  views  on  the  legal  regulation  of  influencer marketing. Overall, the topic did not emerge as a major concern for most respondents, and no clear consensus was observed regarding how regulation should be approached.

A minority of participants -particularly those with professional backgrounds in advertising or formal training in marketing -advocated for a regulatory framework equivalent to that of traditional media. These respondents emphasized that, just as conventional advertising is subject to numerous laws and standards, social media content should be held to the same level of accountability: ' Just as television has rules that you cannot break, I think that here (in influencer marketing), it is becoming quite necessar y, don't you think?' (Female, 34, Entreperneurship). For these participants, the issue was not so much the absence of regulation, but rather the lack of enforcement mechanisms.

The  law  is  there  and  you  have  to  put  it  in  by  law,  but  there  is  no  follow-up  to  ensure compliance,  because  very  often  it  is  not  complied  with,  even  with  girls  who  work  with platforms where the platform itself tells you that you have to state that it is a free product. (Female, 27, Beauty)

When  prompted  to  consider  whether  certain  audiences  or  product  categories  require  greater regulatory oversight, some interviewees pointed to especially vulnerable groups, such as children and adolescents, as well as sectors related to health, pharmaceuticals, and nutrition. One participant remarked: 'I would regulate content a lot more for girls  between 8… pay attention to what I'm saying -8  years  old  and  19,  20.  I  mean,  we  need  to  protect  that  audience  because  it  is  highly impressionable'  (Female,  23, Lifestyle).  However,  for  most  interviewees  the  extension  and/or tightening of regulations does not seem to be a priority.

## 4.4 Responsibility for Product Information: Brands, Visibility, and Credibility

Most  interviewees  believe  that  brands  bear  the  primary  responsibility  for  providing  accurate information about their products in the context of commercial collaborations.

As one participant explained:

Look, I think that in the end, if you're the one speaking about a product, and there's a brand behind it, the responsibility lies with the brand. You're basically a communication channel. As long as you don't cross certain boundariesbecause you are still yourself, and you should know when to say, 'I won't say that'. That responsibility lies with the brand, not even with the agency, but the brand directly. (Female, 20, Beauty)

Nonetheless, most participants  acknowledged a shared responsibility between brands and influencers. They noted that influencers are 'the ones showing their face,' and if they promote a product that turns out to be ineffective or causes adverse effects -such as a cream that leads to a reaction -it  is  the  influencer,  not  the  brand,  who  is  directly  exposed  to  audience  feedback  and criticism.

For many, this is ultimately a matter of credibility and honesty. According to participants, when a product performs poorly, it is the influencer's image and trustworthiness that are most at risk. As one interviewee put it:

Whether you have 200, 500, 1,000, or even 10,000 or 20,000 followers, you're influencing those people. So, it's important that what you say is accurate and beneficial to everyone. In the end, you lose followers, and the brand just gets negative comments. (Female, 27, Nutrition)

In response to these perceived risks, many micro-influencers reported engaging in self-regulatory practices aimed  at safeguarding their credibility. These  included verifying brand-provided information, researching ingredients, testing products, and  carefully framing promotional claims. One participant described this approach as follows: 'I read and research the productswhere they come from, what the ingredients are. I want to be fully informed. So, when I speak about them, it's based on real knowledge. What I say is the truth ' (Female, 45, Product reviewer).

Overall, while formal responsibility was widely attributed to the brands, many micro-influencers demonstrated  a  strong  awareness  of  the  ethical  and  reputational  risks  associated  with  product endorsements and took steps to uphold their credibility.

## 4.5.   Audience Growth Strategies: Organic Expansion and the Rejection of Purchased Followers

## 4.5.1. Challenges of Organic Audience Growth

Most interviewees  reported  that  organic  growth  on  Instagram  has  become  increasingly  difficult, particularly in comparison with TikTok, which was perceived as enabling faster audience expansion. Participants frequently expressed frustration with the opacity  and unpredictability of Instagram's algorithm,  as  illustrated  by  the  following  account: 'It's  very  hard  to  understand  Instagram's algorithm.  Some  videos  get  lots  of  views  and  others  barely  any -we just don't get it  anymore' (Female, 39, Camper lifestyle).

Interviewees  also  emphasized  the  importance  of  follower  count  as  a  gatekeeping  mechanism shaping  access  to  influencer  platforms  and  monetization  tools.  In  this  regard,  reaching  10,000 followers was widely described as a critical threshold:

The  magic  number  is  10,000.  That's  what  opens  the  doorto  platforms,  to  features  on Instagram that you wouldn't have access to otherwise . If you have 5,000 to 7,000 followers, it doesn't  change  much.  But  8,000  to  10,000-there's  a  difference.  Once  you  hit  10,000, Instagram also lets you do other things, like use tools that someone with just 5,000 followers wouldn't have. (Female, 27, Nutrit ion)

## 4.5.2. Attitudes Toward Purchased Followers

All participants indicated awareness of follower-buying schemes and reported receiving frequent offers via private messages or email. With two exceptions, interviewees stated that they had never purchased followers. The two participants who had done so characterized it as a one-time experiment motivated by curiosity and highlighted the absence of meaningful engagement:

For a while, I tried out one of those apps that gives you users. You watch two or three videos and suddenly you get 100 or 200 users. The worst thing is that they're just there, dead. They don't do anything, they don't interact. (Female, 45, Mental health)

Despite pressures to increase audience  size, participants  overwhelmingly  rejected  follower purchasing on ethical grounds and emphasized the value of authentic engagement and community building.  As  one interviewee explained: 'We want to build a real community. Buying followers won't help us in any meaningful way-it just gives you a number that doesn't actually offer any benefit ' (Female, 19, Lifestyle).

## 5. Discussion

This study examined the legal and ethical dilemmas faced by micro-influencers in the development of commercial collaborations, with particular attention to disclosure practices, audience perceptions, responsibility for product claims, regulatory attitudes, and growth strategies. Overall, the findings indicate that ethics in influencer marketing is not primarily understood by micro-influencers as a matter of deliberate rule-breaking, but rather as an ongoing process of negotiation between legal obligations, credibility concerns, economic pressures, and platform dynamics.

This balancing process emerges across multiple dimensions of microinfluencers' professional practice,  including  compliance  with  disclosure  requirements,  the  preservation  of  credibility  and audience  trust,  responses  to  economic  and  platform  pressures,  and  attitudes  toward  regulatory oversight. Rather than privileging a single ethical criterion, participants described navigating tradeoffs among these competing demands in their everyday decision-making.

Taken together, the findings suggest a generally high level of legal awareness among microinfluencers with respect to advertising disclosure. Participants demonstrated familiarity with existing disclosure requirements and frequently expressed an intention to comply with them, even in cases where brands did not explicitly request labeling. This pattern is consistent with prior survey-based research conducted with Spanish micro-influencers (Fernández-Gómez & Quintas-Froufe, 2025).

At the same time, broader industry reports indicate that disclosure practices remain inconsistently implemented  across  influencer  content  (Reuters,  2024;  Viña,  2024).  This  divergence  between declared compliance and observed practices may partly reflect the welldocumented 'interviewer effect'  (Daymon  &  Holloway,  2011,  p.  239),  whereby  respondents  present  socially  desirable behaviors.  More  broadly,  it  points  to  a  persistent  gap  between  regulatory  awareness  and  routine implementation, underscoring the need for more effective monitoring and enforcement mechanisms.

The  findings  also  reveal  tensions  surrounding  disclosure  that  extend  beyond  individual influencers. Several participants reported that some brands actively discourage explicit labeling in order to preserve an appearance of organic content. This practice stands in contrast to a growing body of research demonstrating that transparency can benefit both influencers and brands by fostering trust, enhancing engagement, and increasing purchase intention (Balaban et al., 2022; Karagür et al.,

2022; Kay et al., 2020; Mahadevan & Gayen, 2024). Consumers tend to value authentic product recommendations,  regardless  of  whether  they  are  sponsored,  so  long  as  they  appear  genuine (Wellman  et  al.,  2020).  While  micro-influencers  believe  their  audiences  can  detect  sponsored content, existing research provides a more nuanced perspective. De Cicco et al. (2020) showed that when brand -influencer congruence is high, sponsored content may not be recognized as advertising even  when  disclosure  is  present.  This  finding  complicates  common  assumptions  about  audience awareness and reinforces the importance of clear and standardized disclosure practices.

Participants further framed commercial collaborations as an accepted and normalized component of influencers'  professional  activity, reflecting  the  broader  institutionalization  of  influencer marketing as a legitimate form of commercial communication. This perception aligns with previous research  indicating  that  audiences  often  view  branded  content  positively  when  it  aligns  with influencers' established identity (Fernández -Gómez & Quintas-Froufe, 2025).

Nevertheless,  interviewees  consistently  identified  two  practices  that  undermine  credibility: promoting brands unrelated to their personal niche and engaging in excessive sponsored content. These 'red lines' mirror earlier findings highlighting the importance of brandcontent congruence for  advertising  effectiveness  and  persuasiveness  (Belanche  et  al.,  2021;  Janssen  et  al.,  2021).  In particular,  excessive  commercial  activity  was  described  as  creating  a  tension  between  income generation and the risk of being perceived as a 'tele -shop,' thereby eroding audience trust ( MarchánSanz et al, 2025). This concern is supported by evidence indicating that audiences tend to distrust influencer content when they perceive an overload of advertising (Ki et al., 2023).

Responsibility  for  the  accuracy  of  product  claims  constitutes  one  of  the  most  salient  ethical tensions identified in the study. Although participants generally attributed formal responsibility to brands, they simultaneously emphasized the reputational risks they personally face when promoting inaccurate or misleading information. This asymmetry between legal accountability and reputational exposure  places  micro-influencers  in  a  particularly  vulnerable  position,  as  their  credibility  and audience trust are directly implicated. These findings echo research showing that Gen Z audiences expect honesty from both brands and influencers, even if influencers are sometimes judged more leniently for missteps (Pradhan et al., 2023). Participants also perceived that brands tend to attract harsher  public  criticism  than  influencers  when  problematic  practices  occur,  and  that  macroinfluencers are subject to stricter ethical scrutiny than micro-influencers. Nonetheless, the interviews suggest that micro-influencers remain acutely aware that their professional sustainability depends on maintaining credibility, irrespective of formal accountability structures.

With regard to regulation, most participants expressed limited concern, suggesting that formal legal oversight is not perceived as central to everyday professional practice unless shaped by prior experience  in  marketing  or  advertising.  Only  a  small  group  advocated  for  stricter  regulation, particularly in relation to content aimed at minors or involving sensitive product categories such as food and health. Rather than viewing regulation as the primary mechanism for professionalization, participants  consistently  emphasized  authenticity -being  true  to  oneself -and  credibility -being honest  with  one's  audienceas  the  core  ethical  principles  guiding  their  practice.  This  emphasis aligns closely with the framework proposed by Wellman et al. (2020), which highlights authenticity as a key driver of trust in influencer -audience relationships.

Finally, the findings reveal a persistent ethical tension surrounding audience growth. Although micro-influencers acknowledged strong pressure to increase follower counts in order to access brand collaborations,  platform  tools,  and  monetization  opportunities,  they  overwhelmingly  rejected  the practice of buying followers. This rejection was grounded in concerns about authenticity, community building, and reputational risk. Participants believed that brands and platforms, including Meta, are increasingly capable of detecting artificial growth and penalizing inauthentic practices.

At the same time, they openly recognized the strategic importance of reaching certain numerical thresholds,  which  unlock  access  to  influencer  networks  and  higher-value  collaborations.  This pressure  can  be  understood  both  from  the  perspective  of  followers -who  may  associate  higher follower counts with greater influence and popularity, the socalled 'mere number effect' (Zhou et al., 2023; De Veirman et al., 2017) -and from advertisers seeking broader reach and higher returns on investment (Conde & Casais, 2023).

In sum, the ethical challenges faced by micro-influencers do not primarily stem from intentional non-compliance  with  regulations,  but  from  a  set  of  structural  dilemmas  shaped  by  market expectations, platform algorithms, economic incentives, and reputational concerns. Navigating these tensions requires continuous ethical judgment and self-regulation rather than simple rule adherence, highlighting the need for shared responsibility among influencers, brands, platforms, and regulators.

## 6. Conclusions

This study sheds light on how micro-influencers in Spain navigate the legal and ethical frameworks governing  their  commercial  activities.  Particular  attention  was  given  to  advertising  disclosure practices, which currently constitute the primary focus of regulatory scrutiny in influencer marketing. The study's main contribution lies in its qualitative, micro-level perspective, which reveals the strong sense of responsibility micro-influencers feel toward both their professional identity and their online communities. Participants expressed greater concern about reputational damage and the potential loss of audience trust than about formal compliance with disclosure regulations. While they generally believed  that  users  understand  the  implicit  rules  of  social  media  platforms  and  do  not  perceive sponsorship disclosure as problematic, they were deeply concerned about appearing dishonest or inauthentic.  For  these  content  creators,  long-term  credibility  and  trust  were  viewed  as  far  more critical to professional sustainability than short-term economic gains.

The findings further suggest that ethical responsibility in influencer marketing cannot rest solely on  individual  influencers.  Greater  accountability  is  required  from  all  stakeholders  involved, particularly brands and platforms. Collaborative efforts among influencers, brands, agencies, and platforms  are  essential  to  ensure  that  commercial  communication  remains  transparent,  fair,  and trustworthy. The implementation of new regulations and the broader adoption of instruments such as the  Influencer  Code  of  Conduct  may  contribute  to  improving  ethical  standards;  however,  such measures  must  be  accompanied  by  more  effective  enforcement  mechanisms  if  they  are  to meaningfully reduce non-compliance.

Despite its contributions, this study has limitations. As a qualitative investigation focused on the Spanish context, its findings are not statistically generalizable and may not reflect practices in other cultural or regulatory environments. Future research could broaden the scope  by  including  the  perspectives  of  brands  that  engage  in  collaborations  with  microinfluencers. This would help explore the perceived strategic value of micro-influencers in marketing,  how  collaborations  are  operationalized,  and  how  legal  and  ethical  issues  are addressed from the brand's perspective.

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