## HERMES

Journal of Language and Communication in Business

No. 65 - 2025

Published by the School of Communication and Culture, Aarhus University ISSN: 1903-1785

## HERMES

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## *Alisa Kasianova / **László Kovács

Culture and brand communication: An analysis of Facebook advertisements of Volkswagen in Germany and Italy according to Hofstede's cultural dimensions

## Abstract

The current study explores the connection between Hofstede's cultural dimensions and advertising elements by analyzing Volkswagen's Facebook posts targeting German and Italian consumers. For the analysis, 96 German and 57 Italian advertisements were collected from Volkswagen's Facebook page. Texts and pictures of advertisements were analyzed using the semiotic approach, to identify how the cultural dimensions of Hofstede are present in the posts and how they reflect characteristics of the given culture. The analysis proved that German and Italian posts share certain common features; however, Volkswagen adapts the advertisements - both language and visual elements - to align with cultural expectations, balancing both universally appealing and locally relevant themes.

## Keywords

intercultural communication; advertising; semiotics; culture; Volkswagen

## 1. Introduction

Today, social media has become an inevitable advertising channel. Through advertisements on social media, international companies can instantly reach large audiences in any part of the world. At the same time, these companies need to pay attention to the linguistic and communication aspects of their  advertising,  since  they  target  customers  who  speak  different  languages  and  share  different cultural values.

Culture is described as a system of values uniting members of society and shaping the way they perceive themselves and the world (Bekimbetova et al., 2021; De Mooij, 2021; Kovács, 2024; PeñaGarcía et al., 2020). According to Hofstede (2001), culture can be seen as mental programming that differentiates members of distinct groups or categories, with values serving as stable, measurable components of cultural frameworks. Hofstede's research suggests that cultural values can be conceptualized and analyzed through specific dimensions, providing a structured approach to understanding cultural differences.

Culture has a large impact both on the advertising strategies used by the company and customers' purchase behavior (Bekimbetova et al., 2021; Ellis, 2021; Peña-García et al., 2020). Although standardized approaches to advertisements in different cultures may be used, adapting advertisements to the needs and expectations of the target audience makes them more understandable and appealing to consumers and, as a result, more persuasive and engaging (Anholt, 2000; Ellis, 2021).

The interest towards the research of the influence of culture on advertising is increasing (see De Mooij & Hofstede, 2010). Researchers in intercultural communication, linguistics, and marketing focus  on  different  aspects  of  intercultural  advertising.  For  example,  Bonilla  (2018)  explored  the cross-cultural use of multimodal metaphors, and Li, L. (2024) analyzed the translation of business advertising  slogans  from  the  perspective  of  Hofstede's  cultural  dimensions.  Considering  the

*  Alisa Kasianova Faculty of Humanities Multilingualism Doctoral School University of Pannonia asianova.alisa@gmail.com

**  László Kovács Faculty of Social Sciences Department of Business Communication and Marketing Eötvös Loránd University kovacs.laszlo@sek.elte.hu multimodal nature of advertising, recent studies focus on both verbal and visual aspects of crosscultural advertising (Bonilla, 2018).

While previous works effectively address linguistic and communicational challenges of crosscultural advertising, there is a need to consider the dynamic nature of contemporary cultures. This research emphasizes the need to explore how rapidly changing social and cultural contexts, including globalization, technological advancements, and social movements, influence advertising strategies.

The current study explores the connection between cultural aspects and advertising through the example of Volkswagen - a German automobile manufacturer. We chose a global automotive brand because cars and car brands are especially culture-laden, representing culture and transmitting cultural values (De Mooij, 2021; Miller, 2020; Parment, 2014). Volkswagen, as a global brand, is perceived as a German car brand of the mass market segment. Although the global brand is located in Germany, in its advertisements, it must consider the cultural characteristics of the target audience, thus the first objective is to seek an answer to the following research questions:

- (1) How do German and Italian advertisements of Volkswagen reflect Hofstede's cultural dimensions?
- (2) In a second research question, we wish to see whether current changes in society can be captured in car advertisements on Facebook:
- (3) To what extent do German and Italian Facebook car advertisements share the same features or differ in their attempt to adapt to the target culture?

To capture the difference in cultural values represented in German and Italian advertisements of Volkswagen, we choose Facebook as a platform for data collection, since research has also shown that  marketers  tend  to  focus  resources  primarily  on  Facebook  to  promote  a  brand  (Unnava  & Aravindakshan, 2021).

In the first part of the study, we describe the connection between advertising and culture and show how the analysis of signs can be applied to social media posts. Then, we analyze Volkswagen's Facebook posts on the official German and Italian pages of the company and show how these posts are connected to Hofstede's cultural dimensions and the broader contexts of the target cultures.

## 2. Literature review

The  rapid  evolution  of  social  media  has  fundamentally  reshaped  the  landscape  of  branding  and marketing communication. Social media platforms, such as Facebook, Instagram, and TikTok have become indispensable tools for marketers to engage with consumers, build brand awareness, and foster  loyalty.  Research  highlights  the  multifaceted  role  of  social  media  in  integrated  marketing communication: it serves as a platform for targeted advertising (Voorveld, 2019), interactive brand storytelling (Singh & Sonnenburg, 2012), and community building (Laroche et al., 2012).

In social media like Facebook, individuals create connections, interact with each other, exchange information or express their emotions (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010). Social media have changed marketing in several ways: they can be used as the place of promotion, the place the product is sold on, as a source consumer-connected data, as a platform for brand value co-creation, and as a general marketing tool (Li et al., 2023). In social media, connections are paramount: companies and consumers are connected and interact with each other directly or indirectly (Li et al., 2023).

An increasing trend in marketing communications connected to social media is influencer marketing (Joshi et al., 2023; Vrontis et al., 2021). For brands using influencers, it is important to choose the authentic influencers for the brand, depending on the marketing goal of the given campaign or post (Vrontis et al., 2021). In recent years, a shift towards micro-influencers and long-term partnership between the brand and the influencer is observable (Kim, Kim 2023). Another, more recent shift is towards virtual influencers: today, human-like influencers emerge, which are not real persons but computer-generated personalities (Landgrebe, 2024). Marketing communication in social media is also influenced by electronic word of mouth: social media posts are used as information source and the obtained information may influence consumer decisions (Leong et al., 2021). Today, social media and social media marketing cannot be left out of a company's marketing communications activities (Rehman et al., 2022), since social media advertisements influence consumer decisions (Khan, 2022), and social media marketing may increase the willingness to pay more for a product (Farzin et al. 2023).

It is important for brands in this new environment to differentiate, create emotional connections, and build brand knowledge more effectively (Kohli et al., 2015). The task is, however, not easy,  since  through  social  media,  consumers  are  actively  contributing  to  the  value  of  the  brand through user-generated brand stories (Gensler et al., 2013). Brands and marketing experts are less in control of the messages connected to the brand because these messages are constantly generated also through consumers (Kohli et al., 2015). Engagement with social media posts increases not only brand loyalty, but also identification with the brand (Hamzah et al., 2021). Engagement in social media is achieved by focusing on emotions, while sales numbers can be increased by functional (and not emotional) communication of product benefits (Liadeli et al., 2023). Managing brands in the times of social media means that quality will be a key element and that brands need to convey an image consumers can identify themselves with (Kohli et al., 2015).

As social media is about interaction, consumers must be involved in each step of the branding process (Kohli et al., 2015). In this new environment, social media marketing of a brand enables the co-creation of the brand value, adds to brand trust and brand loyalty (Sohaib & Han, 2023; OseiFrimpong et al., 2022). In social media, entertainment is a key factor: entertainment influences customer engagement, which again leads to brand loyalty (Bazi et al., 2023, Ibrahim & Aljarah, 2021).

Branding is inevitably connected to culture (see Holt, 2004; Schroeder, 2009; Schroeder & Salzer-Mörling, 2006). Culture becomes increasingly important in branding in social media (Holt, 2016). For example, culture influences how a brand interacts with consumers (Acar, 2014), while cultural differences of consumers influence how they react to and interact with different social media posts (Khan et al., 2016). While planning for social media, brands have to consider not only cultural characteristics of the target audience, but also social media strategies appropriate for the given culture (Moriuchi, 2021). Cross-cultural social media marketing, as an emerging research topic, may help marketers target consumers more effectively (Buzeta et al., 2024).

Based on these insights, this research explores the role of culture in shaping social media branding strategies. Specifically, it analyzes how cultural values are reflected in the social media posts of Volkswagen in Italy and Germany. By examining these cultural markers, the study aims to investigate how brands adapt their messaging to resonate with different audiences on Facebook.

## 2.1 Ways to 'measure' culture. Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory

Culture as a complex phenomenon is studied within different academic disciplines, such as sociology (Spillman,  2020),  psychology  (Keith,  2019),  intercultural  communication  (Neuliep,  2020),  and philosophy (Cahill, 2021). The notion of culture has been used for centuries, and approaches to and definitions of culture are evolving continuously (Baldwin et al., 2006; Faulkner et al., 2006).

Alexander et al. (2023) define culture as the learned aspects of society, symbolic in their nature. Several authors emphasize that culture is a phenomenon transmitted through social interaction (Alexander et al., 2023; Puchner, 2023). Culture includes various control mechanisms governing the way people think, learn, feel and act; it affects our relationships, interactions, and social order, influencing the way we see the world and ourselves (De Mooij, 2021).

It is important to consider that culture is formed not only from the resources of particular communities but also from encounters with other cultures (Puchner, 2023). Borrowed ideas and practices provide new insights for the individuals and shape their worldview. In today's globalized era, culture can be considered a flexible notion, as different communities may acquire cultural features of each other (Puchner, 2023; Venkateswaran & Ojha, 2019).

As a complex system of values, norms, and beliefs shared by a group of people, culture influences different aspects of consumer behavior, such as buying motives, decision-making, and preferable features of the product or service (De Mooij, 2021; Bekimbetova et al., 2021; Ellis, 2021). Therefore, forecasting values determining the behavior of the customer may help the company make its advertisements more appealing and persuasive to the audience.

The adaptation of advertisements to the values of a particular culture is not new in advertising. More than three decades ago, international companies were already practicing the strategy of adaptation. For example, Han & Shavitt (1994) found that Korean advertisements generally reflected interdependence and harmony as essential cultural values, while American advertisements emphasised individuality. Today, international companies often conduct detailed research on the consumer behavior of the target culture in order to reflect specific cultural values and ideas in their advertisements (Karkhanis, 2019). They study the lifestyle and consumption habits of the target audience, the most popular mass media and brands (Karkhanis, 2019). For example, in cultures where health is considered a major value, people pay special attention to health-related products, such as organic foods (Ellis, 2021).

Social processes, which include motivation, needs, emotion, and other aspects steering behavior, may also influence consumer behavior (De Mooij, 2021). For example, for Chinese people, a bicycle is a necessary means of transportation, while for most Americans, cycling is a social need - a healthy entertainment that brings people together (De Mooij, 2021).

The connection between culture, language, consumer behavior, and advertising proves the importance of considering the values of the target culture. One of the comprehensive frameworks describing cultures is Hofstede's theory of cultural dimensions. We use Hofstede's theory as a theoretical framework in this study, because it is believed to be one of the most fundamental theories of culture (De Mooij, 2021, Nakata & Izberk-Bilgin, 2009, Minkov 2024) and a theory often used in marketing-related cross-cultural research (Saleem & Larimo, 2016; De Mooij, 2021).

Culture is, according to Hofstede, 'the collective programming of the mind that distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from others' (Hofstede, 2001, p.  9). The notions 'group' and 'category' can be applied not only to a national society, but also to 'regions, ethnicities occupations, organizations, or even age groups and genders' (Minkov, 2012, p. 11). Hofstede (2001) emphasizes that culture is part of the mental programming, which consists of three parts: human nature, culture and personality. While human nature is inherited in genes and universal in all humans, culture characterizes a specific group or category and is learned, and personality is 'a unique set of mental programs', shaped both by culture and personal experiences (Hofstede, 2001, p. 7). Values are one of many manifestations of culture: they are stable building blocks of culture and can be measured by questionnaires (Hofstede 2001). Based on literature, Hofstede (2001) assumed that cultural values can be described in dimensions.

The original theory of Hofstede contained four cultural dimensions: individualism, masculinity, power distance and uncertainty avoidance (Hofstede, 1980). Today, the model includes six dimensions:

- (1) Power distance index (PDI): the extent to which less powerful social groups accept and expect the unequal distribution of power.
- (2) Individualism vs. Collectivism (IDV): the extent to which society prioritizes personal freedoms and is individually-oriented, or if it values coherence and the sense of belonging to a group.

·It

G

35

50

53

99

70

65

75

57

39

40

30

- (3) Masculinity vs. Femininity (MAS). In masculine societies, the dominant values are achievement, success, competitiveness and material reward for achievement. Feminine societies are based on cooperation, care for others and modesty; their priorities are comfort and quality of life.
- (4) Uncertainty avoidance index (UAI): the extent, to which the members of a particular culture feel uncomfortable in uncertain and ambiguous situations.
- (5) Long-term orientation vs. Short-term orientation (LTO): the extent to which society has a pragmatic and future-oriented point of view or is conventional and maintains the traditional approaches.
- (6) Indulgence vs. Restraint (IVR): the dimension introduced by Hofstede in 2010. An indulgent culture values enjoyment and the satisfaction of one's desires. In restrained societies, positive emotions and enjoyment are expressed less and are restricted by social norms and high moral discipline (Hofstede et al., 2010).

Since the present study focuses on German and Italian cultures, in the first step, we show how the two cultures score on Hofstede's above-mentioned dimensions (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Comparison of Hofstede's dimensions of Germany and Italy (The Culture Factor, 2023)

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Figure  1  demonstrates  that  Germany  and  Italy  share  a  number  of  similarities  in  how  they  are characterized through Hofstede's dimensions: both cultures are masculine, individualistic, restrained and avoiding uncertain situations. The differences in the cultures' characteristics are also present. Germany  is  described  as  a  highly  decentralized  country,  while  Italy  scores  average  and  is characterized  by  inconsistent  attitude  to  power  distance  in  different  regions  of  the  country  (The Culture Factor, 2023). Germany is described as a culture combining the features of both long- and short-term orientation, with long-term orientation slightly more evident. Italy, on the other hand, scores low on LTO, indicating that it is a short-term oriented culture with conservative, traditionsbased values (The Culture Factor, 2023). Besides, Germany is described as a more individualistic culture compared to Italy, as Italy's score is close to average.

Although Hofstede undoubtedly brought culture into focus in international management and business (Søndergaard, 2024), some authors do not recognize his results, connected to methodological issues and the fact that Hofstede assumed that cultures are 'monolithic' (McSweeney 2024). Hofstede sees national culture as a structured system in which each individual has distinct, independent cultural value sets (Signorini et al., 2009). However, culture can also be characterized by fuzziness and complexity (Spencer-Oatey, 2000). For example, individuals within the same national culture do not necessarily share identical beliefs and attitudes (Signorini et al., 2009).

In addition, Hofstede's cultural dimensions framework conceptualizes culture as relatively stable and  measurable,  whereas  Spencer-Oatey  (2000)  emphasizes  its  dynamic  and  flexible  nature. McSweeney (2002) criticizes Hofstede's model as an 'extreme' and 'uni-level' approach, arguing that it does not sufficiently account for cultural interactions across the globe or the adoption of practices and values from other cultures. Connected to the dimensions of Hofstede, critics emphasize that country scores have changed over time; besides, the data was collected at different times and sometimes 40-50 years apart (Boski, 2024), which makes the results generalizable, partly due to the used method (Schiffinger, 2024).

Despite the criticism of Hofstede's model, his theory is still considered a significant contribution to cross-cultural studies. It provides valuable insight into the concept of national culture from a pragmatic point of view (Venkateswaran & Ojha, 2019). Another advantage lies in the simplicity of dimensions. They are frequently used in cross-cultural studies and allow for the exploration of factors influencing consumer behavior (De Mooij, 2021).

While the concept of national culture and cultural values is essential for the present research, it is also important to consider the car consumer culture. Globalization, characterized by increased interconnectedness  through  capital  flow,  technological  advancements,  and  media  (De  Mooij,  2021; Ritzer, 2010), drives cultural convergence, where different cultures adopt shared values and consumption patterns (De Mooij, 2021). This convergence allows advertisers to use universal themes like success and sense of belonging to appeal to their audience (Schühly, 2022). However, some argue that globalization also sparks a focus on preserving cultural identity (Hills & Atkins, 2013). Further, we will explore the similarities and differences in the values reflected in Volkswagen's German and Italian Facebook advertising, which will provide insights into the processes of cultural convergence and divergence in car advertising.

While this section provided an overview of Hofstede's theory of cultural dimensions, it is important to understand how exactly they can be identified in Facebook advertising. Further, we discuss the semiotic approach used to identify Hofstede's cultural dimensions in Facebook posts.

## 2.2 Semiotic approach: verbal and visual signs

Advertising  is  an  interdisciplinary  concept  that  can  be  studied,  besides  marketing,  within  the framework  of  linguistics  (Meer  &  Pick,  2019),  intercultural  communications  (De  Mooij,  2021), psychology (Fennis & Stroebe, 2020), and other fields. In the context of the present research, it is important to remember that meaningful and understandable messages can affect customers' purchase behavior.  All  meaningful  phenomena  can  be  referred  to  as signs ,  which  are  studied  within  the framework  of semiotics (Chandler,  2017).  Therefore,  a  semiotic  approach  was  chosen  for  the analysis of cross-cultural advertising of Volkswagen.

When exploring the semiotics of advertising, we consider the role of both verbal and visual signs in the analysis. With the development of technologies and possibilities for visual communication, the role of an image has significantly increased (Li & Xie, 2020). This tendency was described by Mitchell (1994, p. 11), who referred to this change as 'the pictorial turn': the social turn towards spectatorship and visuality.

The pictorial turn has gained even greater momentum with the development of digital media. The widespread use of smartphones and the expansion of mobile internet services allow for the instant sharing of images and videos online, reinforcing the dominance of visual communication (Li & Xie, 2020).

This visual dominance is particularly evident in social media advertising, which has become increasingly image-driven (Shi & Wan, 2022). Various visual techniques, such as close-up shots and detailed graphic representations of products, not only emphasize product benefits but also enhance customer engagement (Shi & Wan, 2022). Image-centric social media platforms such as Instagram, YouTube, and TikTok prioritize visual content, allowing images to reach global audiences within seconds (Li J., 2024). The pictorial turn in digital media underlines the growing importance of images in shaping public discourse, influencing consumer behavior, and redefining cultural paradigms in the advertising landscape (Li J., 2024).

There are different classifications of visual elements in advertisements. The taxonomy of Berman and Blakeman (2009) includes layout style, visual images, typeface, character or spokesperson representing a product, decorative borders of an image, color, logos, and slogans. Moriarty et al. (2015) identify illustration and photo, color, typography, design, layout, and style. All these elements have their role in conveying the company's message. For example, color sets the mood of the advertisement, while layout and typeface define the visual or verbal tone to be used (Berman & Blakeman, 2009). Verbal and visual elements complement each other and create meaning; therefore, in the semiotic analysis, we will consider both verbal and visual parts of the post.

Finally, we would like to mention the role of signs associated with social media advertisements: emojis and hashtags . Emojis are graphic symbols that refer to objects, feelings, and abstract ideas (Rodrigues et al., 2017). Used individually or in a string, emojis add an emotional meaning to the message and make it more appealing to the receiver (Shi & Wan, 2022). Nowadays, emojis are not only used by individuals, but are also elements of online advertising (Das et al., 2019). Different brands, from electronics producers (Shi & Wan, 2022) to car manufacturers (e.g., Chevrolet) (Das et al., 2019) use emojis more and more often.

Different studies prove the positive effect of emojis on consumers' engagement. Das et al. (2019) found that the presence of emojis leads to an increased interest in the product and higher purchase intentions. They underline that this effect is more significant in the case of products that meet the emotional rather than functional needs of customers. Another example is recent research by Phan and Wiesinger (2022), who explored the use of emojis in tourism-related Instagram posts. According to their results, positive face emojis tend to contribute to the persuasive power of the posts.

Another peculiar element of social media communication is a hashtag, described as 'a form of social  tagging  featuring  the  #  symbol  followed  by  a  word  or  phrase'  (Zappavigna,  2018,  p.  1). Hashtags first appeared on Twitter in 2007; over time, their use spread to other social media platforms, such as Facebook, Instagram, and YouTube (Mahfouz, 2020 ; Potnis & Tahamtan, 2021). It is possible to summarize the main functions of a hashtag:

- Categorizing the topics and ideas, enabling an online search (Mahfouz, 2020; Potnis & Tahamtan, 2021)
- Creating bonds between individuals and topics in social media through emphasizing specific topics and ideas (Zappavigna, 2018; Mahfouz, 2020).
- Raising awareness and mobilizing support for social causes and movements (Ta'amneh & AlGhazo, 2021).
- Advertising, promotion, and increasing brand awareness (Shi & Wan, 2022; Shin et al., 2018).

The multiple functions of hashtags have attracted the attention of researchers exploring social media advertising. Shin et al. (2018) found that the use of hashtags led to positive reactions from consumers toward the informativeness, enjoyment, and interactivity of the advertisements. Besides, active use of hashtags increased the visibility of brand-related topics to intended customers (Shi & Wan, 2022). Additionally,  hashtags  can  be  used  to  encourage  certain  behaviors  of  the  audience.  A  study  by Ilhamsyah and Herlina (2019) explores the use of the hashtag #adaaqua by the Indonesian mineral water brand AQUA, which aimed to raise teenagers' awareness of the importance of drinking water. Therefore, in this research, we analyze emojis and hashtags due to their significance and role in advertising and promotion.

Semiotic signs will be scrutinized alongside Hofstede's model: we identify and analyze verbal and visual signs in social media posts of Volkswagen reflecting any of the cultural dimensions identified by Hofstede.

## 3 Methods

## 3.1 Sampling

For  the  analysis,  we  collected  the  advertisements  from  the  official  German  and  Italian  pages  of Volkswagen on Facebook:

- (1) German page: https://www.facebook.com/VolkswagenDE
- (2) [Italian page: https://www.facebook.com/VolkswagenIT](https://www.facebook.com/VolkswagenIT)

Facebook  has  the  most  users  among  social  media  platforms  in  Germany  and  the  more  even distribution across age groups (Pokrop, 2023). In Italy, user numbers are comparable to those of Germany (44,2 million vs. 46 million) (Statista, 2025a; Statista, 2025b). Overall, 27% of Facebook users in Germany are between the ages of 25 and 34, while only 6% were 65 years or older (Statista, 2025a). In Italy, Facebook also had its largest user base in the 25 to 34 age group, which made up 20,6% of the audience (Statista, 2025b). The 45 to 54 age group accounted for 18,6% of users, while the 35 to 44 group represented 17,4% (Statista, 2025b). Additionally, 11,7% of Facebook users in Italy were 65 and older, and 17,2% were between the ages of 18 and 24 (Statista, 2025b). Comparing the two countries, Germany has a higher proportion of users in the 25 to 34 age group, but Italy has a more diverse age distribution with a stronger presence of users in older and middle-aged categories.

This demographic composition aligns well with Volkswagen's target audience, which typically includes adults aged 25 to 54 - an age range associated with financial independence and car-buying capacity (Shastri, 2025). The company, with its wide range of product, targets diverse consumer groups, which includes people of different ages, occupation, and level of education (Pitko, 2021; Shastri, 2025). Facebook, therefore, can be considered an appropriate platform for reaching potential Volkswagen customers, as Facebook demonstrates wider user diversity compared to other social media platforms.

The analyzed Facebook posts appear to address a broad but strategically relevant target group. While some posts (e.g., those highlighting new models or family-friendly features) are likely aimed at middle-aged adults or families, others (such as environmentally themed posts or those focused on innovation) may appeal to younger users. Therefore, the posts reflect a diversified communication strategy that engages different subgroups within Volkswagen's overall target audience.

The data collection was based on the continuous sampling method. Continuous sampling method implies that all posts published within the given period were considered for analysis, regardless of the advertised model. The examples of models advertised by Volkswagen in the case of both target cultures are GTE, T-Roc, T-Cross, Touareg, Golf, Taigo, and ID range. All advertisements published from January 1 st , 2022, to June 30 th, 2022, were included for the analysis: 96 German and 57 Italian advertisements, totaling 153 posts. We chose a shorter period (six months), because each post had to be manually categorized according to cultural dimensions. The size of the sample ensured that trends could be observed, but the amount of data remained manageable. The data collection period was chosen, because the number of Facebook advertisements published within this period is comparable. We also decided against using newer advertisements, since, on the one hand, it would be hard to distinguish cultural influences from factors connected to actual political and economic challenges and  restructuring.  On  the  other  hand,  we  wanted  to  analyze  human-generated  posts.  After  the introduction of diverse AI platforms in and after 2023, it is no longer certain whether an ad was created by humans or with AI assistance (cf. Campbell et al. 2021, Chen et al. 2024).

The following parts of the posts were analyzed:

- (1) Caption (text of the post)
- (2) Visual elements: a photo or a video in the post, including text within the picture (if used)
- (3) Emojis (if used)
- (4) Hashtags (if used)

Among the collected Facebook advertisements, 11 German (11,5% of the German-language posts) and 39 Italian (68% of the Italian-language posts) were in the video format. However, most of the Italian-language video posts were slideshows consisting of 3-4 static images connected by style, visuals, and captions. As a result, they were categorized and analyzed as images. Video posts were analyzed dynamically, considering both visual and verbal signs, as well as sequencing, transitions, and timing. Each frame was assessed for composition, color, and objects, while movement, editing, and narrative structure were also evaluated.

Social media advertising is characterized by multimodality, which means that Facebook posts are not simply text-based but rather a complex interplay of visual and linguistic elements. Considering all these elements together, we can gain a comprehensive understanding of how Volkswagen communicates with potential customers and conveys targeted meanings through advertising, reflecting either the cultural values of the target region or the brand identity and strategic values of the company itself.

While various social media platforms offer unique opportunities for cross-cultural advertising research, Facebook stands out as a particularly valuable platform due to its global reach, diverse user demographics, and rich data availability. In 2025, 3.07 billion monthly active users use Facebook, which exceeds the number of monthly active users of other platforms and messengers, such as Instagram and WhatsApp (2 billion in both cases) (Kakadia, 2025). Unlike other platforms, such as Instagram, which is popular among younger audiences, Facebook's user base includes a wider age range and cultural diversity (Laor, 2022). For example, Facebook's user base is substantially more agediverse than platforms like Instagram: over 50% of users are aged 35+, and roughly 20-30% are 45 and  older  (Oberlo,  2024).  Consequently,  Facebook  offers  a  more  valid  context  for  analyzing Volkswagen's advertising messages, which target adult consumers across a wide age spectrum, - not just younger millennials or Gen Z. In addition, other social networks have certain limitations regarding their content (for example, Instagram is a visually-based social network (Li & Xie, 2020). In this research, we are focusing on both visual and textual elements of the post; therefore, Facebook was selected as the most convenient platform for data collection.

## 3.2 Data arrangement and coding procedure

All advertisements posted within the selected period were collected in a digital database and divided into  two  groups  according  to  their  target  culture.  For  each  advertisement,  we  registered  the publication date and the date of access, the advertised model of the car, visual and textual parts of the post, the text of the caption and text within an image (if any), emojis and hashtags. The original versions of the posts in the German and Italian language were used for the analysis.

For coding the posts, we used 12 categories, each corresponding to one of Hofstede's six cultural dimensions and their bipolar opposites. These categories were assigned based on identifiable verbal and/or visual signs present in each post. To guide this process, we used a deductive approach informed by Hofstede's original framework (1980), as well as his later work (Hofstede et al., 2010), de Mooij's (2021) insights on advertising and culture, and the cultural indicators outlined on The Culture Factor platform (2023).

The posts were examined for both explicit and contextually interpretable cultural signs. When a post clearly reflected a Hofstede dimension - either through language, visual cues, or messaging structure, - it was assigned one or more categories accordingly. Posts that lacked any identifiable cultural indicators were not assigned a category. Coding was carried out manually, and a sample of posts was rechecked to ensure consistency in interpretation and application of the coding scheme.

Table 1 lists dimension-specific themes, as well as particular verbal and visual elements representing them.

| Hofstede's dimensions      | Key themes                                                                                                                            | Examples of semiotic signs                                                                                                                                                                                                                           |
|----------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| High power distance        | Status, prestige, obedience, respect for authority                                                                                    | Status objects (clothes, accessories). Interrelation of people shown (e.g. older vs younger person, boss vs employee). Formal language, use of titles                                                                                                |
| Low power distance         | Equality, sharing, control is disliked                                                                                                | No distinctive attributes or symbols of luxury People wearing simpler clothes The distance between people of different age or social statuses is less obvious                                                                                        |
| Individualism              | Focus on personal achievement, independence, individual freedom                                                                       | People depicted alone / with their immediate families / in a small group of friends. Multiple generations of a family are rarely shown People enjoying privacy Being alone as a relaxing activity The use of personal pronouns I , you , we          |
| Collectivism               | Group harmony, family, sharing, people, trust                                                                                         | People depicted with family members / in a group of friends / involved in social activities. Showing multiple generations (e.g. grandparents) Being alone as a symbol of loneliness The use of personal pronoun we                                   |
| Masculinity                | Challenge, performance, uniqueness, standing out, achievement, success, traditional gender roles                                      | '…big and fast are beautiful' (De Mooij, 2021, p. 133). Large gender role differentiation Women are shown to be tough Use of hyperbole Assertive tone                                                                                                |
| Femininity                 | Focus on cooperation, nurturing, quality of life, compassion Use of understatement                                                    | Focus on the 'small'. Depicting families / friends / couples. If celebrity endorsement is used, famous people tend not to show that they are famous (reflecting modesty) Men are shown to be tender Small gender role differentiation Nurturing tone |
| High Uncertainty Avoidance | Need for explanation, testing, scientific proof, expert opinion, safety, plan, preparation, secure, check, readiness, avoiding threat | Focus on technical details, showing how a product works Presenters depicted as experts (e.g., professors, competent professionals)                                                                                                                   |
| Low Uncertainty Avoidance  | Adventure, risk, exploring, openness to change, innovation                                                                            | Focusing on the result, rather than details Aparody on experts or professionals is frequently used                                                                                                                                                   |

Table 1. Dimension-specific verbal signs and visual images (De Mooij, 2021; De Mooij, M., & Hofstede, 2010; Hofstede, 1980; Hofstede et al., 2010; The Culture Factor, 2023).

| Long-term orientation   | Orientation towards the future, practicality, harmony with nature, saving for future, openness to change   | Aman in harmony with nature and other people Visual objects / activities related to nature                                                                                                                                                         |
|-------------------------|------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Short-term orientation  | Orientation towards the past and present: Sense of urgency (encouraging to buy the product now)            | Showing efficiency, quick results Demonstrating the application of the product to the present context Symbols of tradition Showing people fulfilling social obligations The idea of 'instant pleasure' (De Mooij, 2021, p. 236)                    |
| Indulgence              | Independence, freedom, enjoyment, pleasure, desire, adventure, fun                                         | Images of people involved in free time activities Happy facial expressions, relaxed poses Symbols of freedom: open spaces, natural landscapes, motion Activities related to indulgence, spending, consumption Self-expression through luxury goods |
| Restraint               | Restrictions, control, strict social norms, maintaining order                                              | People engaged in work or routine activities rather than leisure activities Working hard, saving money                                                                                                                                             |

By identifying verbal and visual semiotic signs related to the abovementioned themes, we coded the collected advertisements according to the dimension they represent.

In order to ensure the consistency and transparency of the research, an assistant coder was involved in the coding procedure. The double-coding procedure is frequently used in qualitative studies: it allows the coders to independently analyze and compare the coding results and thus increase the trustworthiness of the analysis (O'Connor & Joffe, 2020). In this research, two coders - an Italianspeaking and a German-speaking, - worked on coding of the data. The coders, one with master's degree in Theoretical Linguistics, another - with master's degree in applied linguistics, - were trained according to the abovementioned system of codes prior to the coding process. In the case of the differences in the interpretation of the semiotic signs, the disagreements were discussed to reach a consensus.

Based on the meanings created by the combinations of signs, the posts were coded according to the cultural values they represent.

## 4 Results: Comparative analysis of German and Italian adaptations

Over the period of six months, 84 out of 96 German-language advertisements and 55 out of 57 Italianlanguage advertisements contained the features of the cultural dimensions of Hofstede. However, a number of posts - 12 in German and 2 in Italian language - did not contain explicit verbal or visual references to any of these cultural dimensions. These posts tended to be either purely informative (e.g., introducing a new automobile model) or abstract in nature, such as the following:

Drei  Buchstaben,  die  für  Gänsehaut  sorgen…  GTI. ('Three  letters  that  give  you  goosebumps... GTI')

Some of such posts did not focus on cultural aspect but rather contained interaction with the audience:

Leichtmetall-Alarm! Wo sind die Felgen-Profis unter euch? Sagt uns welche ihr hier erkennt! ('Alloy Alert! Where are the rim pros among you? Tell us which one you recognize here!')

These  examples  illustrate  how  certain  advertisements  focus  on  general  product  promotion  and engagement rather than emphasizing culturally specific themes.

Figure 2 illustrates the occurrence of cultural dimensions in the German- and Italian-language posts (in percentage), which allows comparing their frequency in the case of both target cultures.

Figure  2.  The  frequency  of  occurrence  of  Hofstede's  cultural  dimensions  in  German  and  Italian  posts  of Volkswagen

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Figure 2 shows that Masculinity and Long-Term Orientation were the most frequently used cultural dimensions  in  both  German  and  Italian  Facebook  advertisements  of  Volkswagen.  The  brand emphasized power, confidence, and innovation, with a focus on sustainable solutions. Indulgence was also common across the two target cultures, highlighting the brand's role in customer enjoyment and freedom.

Other cultural dimensions appeared less frequently. Femininity was more prominent in Italianlanguage posts, while Low Power Distance and High Uncertainty Avoidance were present but less emphasized. The Collectivism vs. Individualism dimension was rarely used, with few posts focusing on in-group loyalty or individual achievement. Short-term orientation was also used rarely, reinforcing the brand's forward-thinking nature. Lastly, High Power Distance, Low Uncertainty Avoidance, and Restraint were either not reflected, or reflected in a limited way, suggesting that Volkswagen's messaging prioritized inclusiveness, flexibility, and a forward-thinking, liberated approach, corresponding to the brand's emphasis on innovation and customer freedom.

Table 2 compares the key themes related to the cultural dimensions in the context of German and Italian Facebook advertising, with the examples of verbal and visual semiotic signs representing each dimension. All examples with the references to the corresponding Facebook posts can be found in the Appendix.

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| Dimension             | German-language posts                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                       | Italian-language posts                                                                                                                                                                                                      |
|-----------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Masculinity           | Being noticeable and recognizable                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           | Being noticeable and recognizable                                                                                                                                                                                           |
| Masculinity           | optisch zu erkennen ('visually recognizeable'), exklusiv ('exclusive')                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                      | icona inconfondibile ('an unmistakable icon')                                                                                                                                                                               |
| Masculinity           | Power and assertiveness (presenting a car with human qualities)                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             | Power and assertiveness (presenting a car with human qualities)                                                                                                                                                             |
| Masculinity           | Auffällig selbstbewusst ('conspicuously self- confident'), sportlichen Charakter ('sportive character')                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     | carattere sportive ('sportive character'), piena di carattere dentro e fuori ('full of character inside and out' English-language slogans Who says you can't? , Born Confident                                              |
| Masculinity           | Visual signs related to Masculinity                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         | Visual signs related to Masculinity                                                                                                                                                                                         |
| Masculinity           | Depicting the automobile in motion, at high speed symbolizing achievement, power and dominance (Example 1)                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  | Depicting the automobile in motion, at high speed symbolizing achievement, power and dominance (Example 1)                                                                                                                  |
| Masculinity           | Using contrast color schemes, visually emphasizing automobile in the picture or video (Example 2)                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           | Using contrast color schemes, visually emphasizing automobile in the picture or video (Example 2)                                                                                                                           |
| Masculinity           | emojis indicating power and confidence ( )                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  |                                                                                                                                                                                                                             |
| Femininity            | Comfortable driving                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         | Comfortable driving                                                                                                                                                                                                         |
| Femininity            | Der Tiguan bietet seinen Insassen viel Raum in alle Richtungen - egal ob zwei oder vier Beine. 'The Tiguan offers its passengers plenty of space in all directions - regardless of whether they have two or four leg'                                                                                                                                                       | Perché scendere a compromessi quando si può avere sia l'innovazione che il comfort a bordo di Caravelle? ('Why to compromise when you can have both innovation and comfort on board of the Caravelle?')                     |
| Femininity            | Importance of relationships                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 | Importance of relationships                                                                                                                                                                                                 |
| Femininity            | Na, schon Pläne für heute Abend? Filme schauen im ID.LIFE ist noch Musik der Zu- kunft, auf die ihr hier einen kleinen Vorge- schmack bekommt. Wir wünschen euch einen wunderschönen Valentinstag! ('So, any plans for tonight? Watching films in ID.LIFE is still music of the future, which you can get a little taste of here. Wewish you a wonderful Valentine's Day!') | #SpazioAllAmore ('space for love')                                                                                                                                                                                          |
| Femininity            |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             | Acar as home                                                                                                                                                                                                                |
| Femininity            |                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             | una casa che si ricarica anche la casa ('a house that also recharges the house') C'é chi ti fa sentire a casa ovunque tu sia. California 6.1 ('There are those who make you feel at home wherever you are. California 6.1') |
| Femininity            | Visual signs related to Femininity                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          | Visual signs related to Femininity                                                                                                                                                                                          |
| Femininity            | Characters: couples, families, friends spending time together (focus on feelings and bonds) (Example 3)                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     | Characters: couples, families, friends spending time together (focus on feelings and bonds) (Example 3)                                                                                                                     |
| Femininity            | Advertised model: depicting larger, family-size cars (Example 4)                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            | Advertised model: depicting larger, family-size cars (Example 4)                                                                                                                                                            |
| Femininity            | Emojis related to love and feelings                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                         |                                                                                                                                                                                                                             |
| Femininity            | flexibility of the brand                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    | flexibility of the brand                                                                                                                                                                                                    |
| Long-Term Orientation | Change,                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                     | Change,                                                                                                                                                                                                                     |
| Long-Term Orientation | Verwandlungskünstler ('quick-change artist') Verwandlungskünstler, der die Zeichen der Zeit neu interpretiert ('quick-change artist that reinterprets the signs of the times')                                                                                                                                                                                              | La mobilità elettrica è già pronta a cambiare le nostre abitudini ('Electric mobility is already ready to change our habits')                                                                                               |
| Long-Term Orientation | Concern about the environment                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               | Concern about the environment                                                                                                                                                                                               |

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|                            | Der ID.4 zeigt, wie attraktiv Elektromobilität sein kann 'the ID.4 shows how attractive electric mobility can be'                                                                                                              | Entra nella nuova era dei Van elettrici. ('Enter the new era of electric vans')                                                       |
|----------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
|                            | Pragmatic and economic design of the car                                                                                                                                                                                       | Pragmatic and economic design of the car                                                                                              |
|                            | funktionaler Alltagstauglichkeit ('functional suitability for everyday use')                                                                                                                                                   | …a interni che fondono tecnologia e praticità… ('…interiors that blend technology and practicality…')                                 |
|                            | Visual signs related to Long-Term Orientation                                                                                                                                                                                  | Visual signs related to Long-Term Orientation                                                                                         |
|                            | Details: focus on technical equipment of the car to render the idea of innovativeness                                                                                                                                          | Details: focus on technical equipment of the car to render the idea of innovativeness                                                 |
|                            | Style: Futuristic style of the automobile (Example 5)                                                                                                                                                                          | Style: Futuristic style of the automobile (Example 5)                                                                                 |
|                            | Green color and images of greenery and nature as a sign of sustainability and environmental protection                                                                                                                         | Green color and images of greenery and nature as a sign of sustainability and environmental protection                                |
|                            | green heart emoji representing sustainability ( )                                                                                                                                                                              |                                                                                                                                       |
| Short-Term Orientation     | Reference to the traditions and legacy                                                                                                                                                                                         | Reference to the traditions and legacy                                                                                                |
|                            | Der eine hat Geschichte geschrieben, der an- dere steht in den Startlöchern, um sie fortzuset- zen. ('The one has made history, the other is ready to continue it') - reference to the advertising of new ID Buzz based on the |                                                                                                                                       |
|                            | Visual signs related to Short-term orientation                                                                                                                                                                                 | Visual signs related to Short-term orientation                                                                                        |
|                            | Depicting classic models of Volkswagen (Example 6)                                                                                                                                                                             | Details: symbols related to traditions. E.g., a Christmas stocking as a symbol of Epiphany (Example 7)                                |
| Indulgence                 | Free time, freedom, adventure                                                                                                                                                                                                  | Free time, freedom, adventure                                                                                                         |
|                            | Auszeit ('time-out'), Fahrt ('journey')                                                                                                                                                                                        | vivere la città ('experience the city'), libertà ('freedom'), Il bello di viaggiare ('the beauty of traveling'),                      |
|                            | Breaking out of the daily routine                                                                                                                                                                                              | Breaking out of the daily routine                                                                                                     |
|                            | Da fühlt sich jede Fahrt wie ein kleine Auszeit vom Alltag an. ('Every journey feels like a little break from everyday life')                                                                                                  | Anche la routine esce dall'ordinatio a bordo di Nuovo Multivan ('Even routine goes out of the ordinary on board of the New Multivan') |
|                            | Positive emotions and enjoyment                                                                                                                                                                                                | Positive emotions and enjoyment                                                                                                       |
|                            | Fahrspaß vorprogrammiert ('pre-programmed driving fun').                                                                                                                                                                       | Per partire con lo sprint giusto, basta fare il pieno di energia. ('To start with the right sprint, just fill up with energy')        |
|                            | Visual signs connected to Indulgence                                                                                                                                                                                           | Visual signs connected to Indulgence                                                                                                  |
|                            | Dominant colors: bright, contrast color schemes (Example 8)                                                                                                                                                                    | Dominant colors: bright, contrast color schemes (Example 8)                                                                           |
|                            | Characters and settings: Depicting people relaxing, enjoying free time activities                                                                                                                                              | Characters and settings: Depicting people relaxing, enjoying free time activities                                                     |
|                            | Settings: outside the city, picturesque landscapes (symbolizing freedom)                                                                                                                                                       | Settings: outside the city, picturesque landscapes (symbolizing freedom)                                                              |
|                            | Emojis related to positive emotions and free time activities, e.g.: 'Smiling Face with Heart-Eyes' ( ),                                                                                                                        | Emojis related to positive emotions and free time activities, e.g.: 'Smiling Face with Heart-Eyes' ( ),                               |
| High Uncertainty Avoidance | Reliability of the brand                                                                                                                                                                                                       | Exploration and discovery                                                                                                             |
| High Uncertainty Avoidance | bringt euch dank seines Dualmotor Allradantrieb zuverlässig ans Ziel ('takes you reliably to your destination thanks to its dual- motor all-wheel drive').                                                                     | scoprire ('discover'), spiegare ('explain') and la risposta ('the answer').                                                           |

Table 2. Main themes reflecting Hofstede's dimensions in German and Italian advertising

|                    | Visual signs related to High Uncertainty Avoidance                                                                                                                  | Visual signs related to High Uncertainty Avoidance                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|--------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
|                    | Attention to technical details and safety features                                                                                                                  | Attention to technical details and safety features                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                            |
|                    | Settings: potentially dangerous terrain (snowy roads, off-roads) in posts emphasizing safety                                                                        | Settings: potentially dangerous terrain (snowy roads, off-roads) in posts emphasizing safety                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                  |
|                    |                                                                                                                                                                     | Settings: engineering laboratoty, uniform (laboratory gown) - symbolizing reliability and expertise of the brand (Example 9)                                                                                                                                                                                                                  |
| Low Power Distance |                                                                                                                                                                     | Availability of the brand to general public                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   |
| Low Power Distance |                                                                                                                                                                     | Campaign #ElettricoPerTotti ('Electric for Totti') and #ElettricoPerTutti ('Electric for everyone'). Un viaggio di due anni ad emissioni locali zero per avvicinare il grande pubblico al mondo della mobilità elettrica. ('A two-year journey to zero local emissions to bring the general public closer to the world of electric mobility') |
| Low Power Distance |                                                                                                                                                                     | Relatability of the celebrity                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 |
| Low Power Distance |                                                                                                                                                                     | The celebrity (Francesco Totti) is portrayed as an ordinary person who learns about Volkswagen technology (Example 9)                                                                                                                                                                                                                         |
| Collectivism       | Being together, sharing emotions                                                                                                                                    | Being together, sharing emotions                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                              |
| Collectivism       | Der Tiguan Allspace ist bei fast jedem Ausflugsziel dein passender Begleiter ('The Tiguan Allspace is your perfect companion for almost any excursion destination') | Depicting people interacting (families, group of friends) In viaggio con tutto e tutti ('On a trip with everything and everyone') Words                                                                                                                                                                                                       |
| Collectivism       | Visual signs related to Collectivism                                                                                                                                | Visual signs related to Collectivism                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                          |
| Collectivism       | Characters: images of families and friends spending time together (Example 10)                                                                                      | Characters: images of families and friends spending time together (Example 10)                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                |
| Collectivism       | Automobile: Depicting larger models                                                                                                                                 | Automobile: Depicting larger models                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                           |

The analysis of Volkswagen's Facebook advertising reveals both similarities and differences in how the brand adapts to its German and Italian audiences. In both cultures, the company appeals to similar cultural dimensions, such as Masculinity, Long-Term Orientation, and Indulgence, reinforcing its brand image as a powerful, sustainability-oriented company, giving freedom and enjoyment to the driver.

Within these dimensions, Volkswagen often focuses on shared values, such as relationships and emotions in the context of Femininity. However, certain aspects of Femininity, such as modesty, were not present in either culture's posts. This may reflect the brand's message emphasizing standing out and making an impression, which aligns with Masculinity values.

At the same time, Volkswagen marketers sometimes used different signs to express similar ideas. For example, the color green was frequently used in environmentally-oriented advertising in both German and Italian. However, the Italian posts uniquely featured the slogan 'Volkswagen way to Zero,' highlighting the brand's journey towards sustainability, a message absent in the German advertisements. Additionally, while High Uncertainty Avoidance was represented by reliability and safety in the German posts, the Italian posts emphasized discovery and exploration, reflecting different cultural approaches to risk.

A notable difference was the company's appeal to Low Power Distance in the Italian market. The use of this dimension is related to a series of posts with the participation of Francesco Totti - an Italian football player and the ambassador of the company in Italy. According to the plot of the series, Francesco Totti became a part of Volkswagen's engineering team to explore the possibilities of electric mobility and make sustainable driving available to the public. The ideas of equality and accessibility are the important values of Low Power Distance.

Communication style also differed between the two cultures. German-language posts typically included detailed technical information about the advertised model, such as fuel consumption and emissions:

(Polo GTI: Kraftstoffverbrauch in l/100 km: innerorts 7,4 / außerorts 4,8-4,6 / kombiniert 5,85,6; CO₂ -Emissionen kombiniert in g/km: 131-128; Effizienzklasse: C-B.)

(Polo GTI: fuel consumption in l/100 km: urban 7.4 / extra-urban 4.8-4.6 / combined 5.8-5.6; combined CO₂ emissions in g/km: 131 -128; efficiency class : C-B.)

This peculiarity reflects the traditionally precise, detail-oriented nature of the German culture (De Mooij, 2021; Kaynak & Herbig, 2014).

Further, we discuss in more detail to what extent the use of cultural values in advertising reflects the cultural characteristics of Germany and Italy in the view of the broader context of these cultures.

## 5 Discussion

The  analysis  of  the  cultural  dimensions  of  Hofstede  used  in  Italian  and  German-language  posts demonstrates that they do not always correspond to Hofstede's characteristic of the cultures under study. Due to the evolving nature of culture and cultural dimensions, we interpret the results of the semiotic  analysis  from  the  perspective  of  the  current  socio-cultural  processes  taking  place  in Germany and Italy.

## 5.1 Masculinity / Femininity

Germany and Italy score 66 and 70 respectively on the MAS dimension, which means that masculine features in these cultures prevail over feminine (The Culture Factor, 2023). Volkswagen's frequent use of Masculinity and less frequent use of Femininity reflect Hofstede's description of these cultures.

However, the meanings of masculinity and femininity are evolving. The traditional view on masculinity as traits reinforcing men's dominance is changing as feminist movements and societal values shift (Iacoviello et al., 2021). For example, more German families are seeing women as the primary breadwinners, challenging traditional notions of femininity (Jurczyk, 2019). Similarly, in the Italian context, Scarcelli & Farci (2024) found that female social media users tend to associate femininity and an image of a woman with resilience and ambitions - traditionally masculine values. Additionally, in Italian corporate settings, more attention is being paid to the gender gap (Latura & Weeks, 2023).

At the same time, Ostuni et al. (2022) state that certain gender stereotypes remain in Italy. Some women wish to adhere to stereotypical feminine image and focus on traditional feminine roles, such as taking care of the family rather than, for example, building a career. However, this adherence to gender stereotypes is less common among younger generations (Ostuni et al., 2022).

Volkswagen's advertising reflects this transition. By emphasizing traditionally masculine attributes - such as achievement, overcoming challenges, and status - the brand appeals to both men and women, aligning with the modern redefinition of masculinity as a set of aspirational traits rather than a strictly gendered concept. This approach suggests that while Volkswagen's use of masculinity corresponds to Hofstede's findings, it also adapts to contemporary trends where masculine values are increasingly embraced by all consumers.

Given that Facebook's user base in Germany and Italy includes a high proportion of adults in the 25-55  age  range  -  working  professionals  and  middle-class  consumers  who  are  likely  to  value performance, reliability, and success, - the platform provides a relevant audience for such branding appeals. This reinforces Facebook's suitability for analyzing how culturally embedded values, like masculinity, are communicated by Volkswagen in each country.

## 5.2 Long- / Short-term orientation

Long-  /  Short-term  orientation  demonstrates  to  which  extent  the  culture  prioritizes  progress, pragmatism and long-term tasks over the conventional approach (Hofstede, 2001). In Hofstede's analysis, Germany scores 57 on LTO dimension, demonstrating a balanced combination of long- and short-term  values.  Italy  scored  39  on  LTO  scale,  which  indicates  its  preference  for  traditional approaches rather than innovativeness and forward-thinking.

The results of the analysis, however, demonstrate the long-term orientation of Volkswagen in the case of both target markets. Marketers underline the innovativeness of the brand, highlighting its care about the well-being of future generations and orientation towards sustainability.

The theoretical data from academic sources show the features of long-term orientation in German and Italian society, especially in the context of transportation. Both Italy and Germany pay significant attention to sustainability practices and promote the use of modern technologies for environmental protection (Notermans & Piattoni, 2022). Environmentally friendly solutions are becoming increasingly  important  in  the  modern  world,  especially  in  the  automotive  industry  (Agarwal  &  Kumar, 2021). Additionally, the description of the German society by Tomalin (2021) shows that people tend to adapt to the current situation and focus on its practical advantages. Corresponding to this idea, several  German-language  posts  underlined  the  practicality  and  functionality  of  the  advertised Volkswagen models.

In contrast, short-term orientation was minimally reflected in Volkswagen's advertising for both markets. The brand made little reference to traditions or legacy, whether cultural or company related. Instead, the focus remained on innovation and sustainability. By promoting 'green' and technologically advanced driving, Volkswagen positions itself as a brand that not only meets present-day needs but also contributes to a sustainable future, aligning more closely with long-term orientation than Hofstede's initial characterization of Italian culture might suggest.

## 5.3 Power distance

Low PDI was only reflected in Italian posts of Volkswagen. All cases of low PDI were found in a series of advertisements of Volkswagen ID featuring Francesco Totti - an Italian football player and the  brand  ambassador  of  the  company.  According  to  the  plot  of  the  campaign,  Francesco  Totti became a part of Volkswagen's engineering team and learned about different aspects of electric mobility.

Low power distance is manifested in several aspects. First of all, the goal of the entire campaign is to make electric mobility available to general public. Volkswagen presents the features of electric mobility in a clear and relatable manner, reinforcing the idea that technological advancements should be available to everyone rather than reserved for an elite group.

Additionally, the portrayal of Francesco Totti plays a key role in conveying this message. Rather than being depicted as an authority figure, he is shown in a laboratory coat, working alongside engineers as an equal team member. His status is deliberately downplayed, aligning with the values of Low PDI cultures.

The emphasis on LPD can be explained by the shift in Italian politics and society towards equality as the fundamental goal of the country's development (Di Battista et al., 2018). According to Hofstede (2001), Northern Italians dislike control and prefer equal distribution of resources and power. Southern Italy, in contrast, scores higher on the same scale (50), which means that this part of Italian society accepts a bigger distance between less and more powerful social groups. By positioning Totti as an approachable figure and explaining electric mobility in an inclusive manner, Volkswagen reinforces the idea of equal access to sustainable transportation for all customers.

## 5.4 Uncertainty Avoidance Index

Both Germany and Italy are described by Hofstede as cultures with high UAI, scoring 65 and 75 respectively. German-language posts emphasize the reliability of Volkswagen's technology and the importance  of  safety,  aligning  with  Germany's  structured  and  pragmatic  approach  to  reducing uncertainty. While Italian-language posts also highlight these features, marketers went further by dedicating an entire campaign to educating the audience about Volkswagen's technology and electric mobility  solutions.  In  14  Italian-language  posts  featuring  Francesco  Totti  as  Volkswagen's ambassador,  the  company  detailed  key  aspects  of  the  car,  such  as  safety,  autonomy,  charging systems, and navigation.

According to De Mooij (2021), cultures with high uncertainty avoidance tend to rely on expert opinions. The presence of laboratory coats and glasses in Volkswagen's ID advertisement series reinforces this idea, portraying the brand as trustworthy and its technologies as rigorously tested. This aligns with Italy's score of 75, indicating a cultural preference for reliability and thorough understanding  of  risks.  By  showcasing  technical  details  and  demonstrating  product  functionality, Volkswagen caters to consumers' need for clear explanations, reinforcing confidence in the advertised model.

## 5.5 Individualism / Collectivism

The dimension Individualism / Collectivism was used least frequently in both German and Italian advertisements of Volkswagen. Germany is characterized as a highly individualistic culture, scoring 79 on this dimension. Italy, on the contrary, scored 53, which suggests the balance of individualistic and collectivistic features.

Collectivistic features were identified in four Italian-language posts and one German-language post, conveying themes of unity and shared experiences. Verbal signs of collectivism included terms indicating  in-group  relationships  and  belonging,  such  as tutti ('everybody')  and condividere ('share'). These findings align with regional variations - southern Italy, in particular, emphasizes family ties and social bonds (De Mooij, 2021; The Culture Factor, 2023). By incorporating collectivistic values, Volkswagen positions itself as a brand that fosters connections among consumers.

## 5.6 Indulgence / Restraint

While Hofstede's model (2010) identifies Germany and Italy as restraint cultures (with the scores of 40 and 30 respectively), our analysis reveals a prevalence of 'indulgent' themes in Volkswagen's advertising.

These findings suggests a potential shift in these cultures towards valuing enjoyment and satisfaction (Sotgiu, 2016). In Italy, young adults tend to prioritize hobbies, well-being, and serenity (Sotgiu, 2016). In Germany, regional and generational differences also play a role, with some areas embracing a more relaxed, enjoyment-oriented mindset (Tomalin, 2021). These findings prove the complexity of cultural values and their potential evolution over time.

Volkswagen's messaging emphasizes pleasurable driving experiences and the freedom to engage in enjoyable activities, appealing to a consumer base that values personal satisfaction. While this does not entirely contradict Hofstede's scores, it highlights the dynamic nature of cultural values and the necessity for brands to adapt their messaging to contemporary lifestyle trends.

## 5.7 Emojis and hashtags: cross-cultural differences

The analysis of German advertisements demonstrates that emojis and hashtags were used in all 96 posts, totaling 304 emojis and 211 hashtags.

Emojis were used for different purposes, contributing to the overall meaning and emotional coloring of the advertisement and emphasizing particular parts and elements of the post. When used to create a special mood and atmosphere for the post, emojis usually represented facial expressions and convey certain feelings associated with the model or the process of driving. For example, emojis 'Smiling Face with Heart-Eyes' ( ) and 'Star-struck' ( ) were used to express the feeling of excitement and happiness associated with the advertised car.

Additionally, emojis were used to visually highlight important information in an advertisement. For example, 'Backhand Index Pointing Right' ( ) and 'Information Sign' ( ) were used in a combination and were inserted before the links leading to the company's webpage.

Hashtags used in German posts had less varied functions. Each advertisement contained a hashtag #volkswagen , referring to the company's name, and hashtags related to the advertised model or models. Such hashtags usually consisted of an abbreviation of Volkswagen (vw) and the actual name of the model (e.g., vw + Taigo = #vwtaigo ).

On the contrary, only 5 out of 57 collected Italian advertisements included emojis. In all cases, emojis were used to encourage the interaction between the company and customers. For example, in a post dedicated to World Snow Day, marketers suggested that the audience comment with an emoji about their preferred winter activity: skiing ( ), snowboarding ( ) or driving ( ) (Example 11). Four other posts using emojis featured Francesco Totti - the ambassador of the company. In all cases, the emojis were used within a photo. The company offered a challenge to the audience: to guess a particular technical feature of the advertised electric model through three emojis shown by the ambassador (Example 12).

Hashtags were used in 30 advertisements, totaling 97. Some of them specify the advertised model or range of Volkswagen (such as #VWCalifornia ). Others contribute to the meaning of the whole advertisement: for example, refer to a specific occasion or holiday (#GiornataMondialeDellaNeve ('World Snow Day'), #SpazioAllAmore ('Space for Love'), associated with Saint Valentine's Day).

Emojis and hashtags perform different functions in Facebook advertising. Besides contributing to the overall meaning of advertisements, they are also used to encourage customer engagement or even to  visually  emphasize different parts of the post. From a semiotic perspective, some emojis may function as iconic signs, especially those that resemble emotions, gestures, actions or notions they aim to express (Danesi, 2016). However, some emojis acquire symbolic meanings through their use in specific contexts (e.g., the 'fire' emoji symbolizing excellence or excitement).

While several studies suggest that certain basic emojis, especially facial expressions, can be interpreted consistently across cultures, their frequency, placement, and social interpretation may vary based on cultural norms, communication styles and socio-geographical factors (Barbieri et al., 2016; Leonardi, 2022). To illustrate this example, Barbieri et al. (2016) mention an emoji of a waving hand: it is interpreted differently in American and British English, conveying 'goodbye' in the U.S. and being associated with 'travel' in the U.K. Similarly, hashtags can carry both global and local meanings, depending on the language, event, or value emphasized (Caleffi, 2015). Although no specific research is known that directly compares emoji or hashtag use in German and Italian advertising, our analysis  shows  that  their  communicative  functions  differ:  German-language  advertising  features emojis more frequently and functionally, while Italian posts show richer hashtag use with rare emojibased interaction.

Answering  the  first  research  question  -  How  do  German  and  Italian  advertisements  of Volkswagen reflect Hofstede's cultural dimensions? - we can underline the multimodal nature of social media advertising in creating culturally adapted messages. Visual and verbal signs were carefully selected to align with cultural values of the target region and with the image of the brand as a reliable, sustainability-oriented and giving confidence and freedom to the driver.

In connection to the second research question - To what extent do German and Italian Facebook advertisements share the same features or differ in their attempt to adapt to the target culture? - we can conclude that Volkswagen primarily focuses on universal branding elements and refers to similar themes and ideas reflecting cultural values important for both target audiences, thus demonstrating the influence of globalization. However, through certain advertising solutions, the company accentuates the nuances of the German and Italian culture: for example, through detail-oriented language in the case of Germany and engaging an Italian celebrity or referring to Italian traditions in the case of Italy. These results demonstrate the importance of balancing consistency and advertising adaptation to effectively reach different cultural markets.

## 6 Limitations and future research

The current study has several limitations. First, the analysis is based on Hofstede's model of cultural dimensions, which was selected due to its frequent use in marketing and intercultural communication studies and its simple application in cross-cultural comparison. At the same time, other models could contribute  to  the  comprehensive  study  of  culture  in  social  media  advertising.  For  example,  the GLOBE  approach  by  House  et  al.  (2004)  would  provide  a  more  modern  insight  into  the representation of cultural dimensions in cross-cultural advertising.

Second, the analysis was made in a time of globalization and changing societal values.  In this light, it is not surprising that some of the cultural values reflected in advertising do not correspond to Hofstede's characteristics of Germany and Italy. It is important to remember that culture is a complex notion that is subject to change and adapt to the rapidly developing world (Ergashev & Farxodjonova, 2020). Besides, current processes of globalization affect economic, political, social, and other realms of life; cultures become closer and adopt the views and values of each other (ZhangWu, 2023; Venkateswaran & Ojha, 2019). Therefore, in addition to Hofstede's - or any other - theory, it is necessary to pay attention to the current socio-political trends of the culture in question.

Third, the results are based just on one German car brand. It would be interesting to analyze social media advertisements of other brands of Volkswagen Group (e.g., Audi, Skoda, Seat), or of other German car brands (e.g., Mercedes, Mini) and of Italian brands (e.g., Fiat, Alfa Romeo) and to compare the results with each other.

Fourth, the differences in emoji and hashtag use in advertisements could be analyzed in relation to culture and language.

## 7 Conclusions

The analysis of Volkswagen's German and Italian Facebook posts showed that verbal and visual signs were carefully selected to create culturally specific meanings. These elements complemented each other to convey ideas and emotions aligned with the broader context of each culture.

At the same time, not all advertisements were culturally coded. Several posts (2 Italian and 12 German) did not contain explicit verbal or visual elements related to Hofstede's cultural dimensions, but instead focused on interactive, engaging, or abstract content. These culturally neutral posts are analytically valuable in themselves: they may reflect a universal or globally standardized communication strategy, contrasting with the cultural focus seen in other posts. Their presence supports a more nuanced understanding of how brands balance global consistency with local adaptation and highlights the limitations of relying solely on Hofstede's framework to interpret social media advertising discourse.

Considering the socio-cultural context of Italy and Germany was necessary for understanding the choice of advertising solutions for the company. Advertisements reflected both cultures' current social aspects, such as a focus on equality, the shift in gender roles, and increasing role of sustainability. By addressing the issues important to its customers, the company considered the demands and motivations of the German and Italian consumers.

Finally, even though Germany and Italy share certain cultural values and contextual factors of context, there were differences in the use of Hofstede's dimensions, as well as the language of advertisements. For example, German advertisements tend to focus more on technical details, reliability, and safety, whereas the Italian advertisements emphasize discovery, exploration, and accessibility, with more emphasis on relationships and emotions. Overall, Volkswagen adapts its messaging to align with cultural expectations, balancing both universally appealing and locally relevant themes.

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## Appendix: Example references

| Example 1:   | https://www.face- book.com/VolkswagenDE/posts/pfbid02jiWsA3vvsmVCzmre9s2bLj2nirummV3fk5 pfHkkw6SjQesypy1wLhj8h6nWnWopcl   |
|--------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Example 2:   | https://www.facebook.com/VolkswagenIT/pho- tos/a.241190629236569/5178094832212766/                                        |
| Example 3:   | https://www.facebook.com/VolkswagenIT/videos/4995649053823632/                                                            |
| Example 4:   | https://www.facebook.com/VolkswagenMagyarorszag/pho- tos/a.393280880690620/4974132929272036/                              |
| Example 5:   | https://www.facebook.com/VolkswagenDE/photos/5484759071550799                                                             |
| Example 6:   | https://www.facebook.com/VolkswagenDE/photos/5455673871125986                                                             |
| Example 7:   | https://www.facebook.com/VolkswagenIT/pho- tos/a.241190629236569/4837070332981886/                                        |
| Example 8:   | https://www.facebook.com/VolkswagenDE/videos/726880968732650/                                                             |
| Example 9:   | https://www.facebook.com/VolkswagenIT/videos/287133470266716                                                              |
| Example 10:  | https://www.face- book.com/VolkswagenDE/posts/pfbid0ZTYMQqxE4w6FtX7cB8U9hufShU4D3Csa nfETvJMXcxgJG2q9bY36SbVShJwADRCCl    |
| Example 11:  | https://fb.watch/id316x7WRy/                                                                                              |
| Example 12:  | https://www.facebook.com/VolkswagenIT/pho- tos/a.241190629236569/5178022012220048/                                        |