## HERMES

Journal of Language and Communication in Business

No. 65 - 2025

Published by the School of Communication and Culture, Aarhus University ISSN: 1903-1785

ge and Comm

MES - Journal of

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## HERMES

## Christiane Limbach

## Spanish-to-German Translations of Olive Oil Export Company Websites: a Focus on Geographical Indication and Olive Oil Category Terminology 1

## Abstract

According to a report by the Spanish Ministry of Agriculture, Fishing and Nutrition (2022), olive oil accounted for a total turnover of 148.39 million euros in 2021, making olive oil Spain's fifth agricultural product in terms of sales volume. Approximately one third of all production is exported, Germany leading European exports with 258 tons (t) of olive oil. Product descriptions must be translated for foreign markets, and in this case, particular attention must be paid to the terms used to describe olive oil quality, notably the geographical indications and olive oil categories. Terminological research (Ibañez Rodríguez, 2003) is thus a key dimension of translation here: the selected words must be recognisable by potential foreign customers, and they must be in line with the terminology established by the European Commission. In this study, we worked on a corpus of websites of Andalusian small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in both German and Spanish. These SMEs all actively produced and sold olive oil and had an EU geographical indication register. In order to analyse how geographical indications and olive oil categories were translated from Spanish into German and to determine whether EU terminology was applied, we used the Sketch Engine programme. We found a wide range of translations which were potentially creating misunderstandings and raising doubts in the minds of German consumers.

## Keywords

Spanish-German website localisation; economic translation; extra-virgin olive oil; Protected designation of origin (PDO); Protected geographical indication (PGI)

## 1. Introduction

Olive oil plays a key role in the Spanish economy and the volume of olive oil sales increased from 19,735 t in 2004 to 30,881 t in 2021 (Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación, 2022, p. 3). Andalusia has 1.62 million hectares of olive groves, making it the Autonomous Community with the largest olive grove surface area. A notable province within Andalusia is Jaén, which accounts for 36%  of  Andalusia's  olive  grove  surface  area  (Junta  de  Andalucía).  Olives  and  olive  oil  are Andalusia's leading products: 1.15 million tons of olive oil were obtained in the region over the 2021/22 production year, representing a 3.9% increase with respect to the 2020/21 production year and  a  4.2  %  growth  compared  to  the  average  of  the  four  previous  production  years  (2017/18  2020/21). In fact, the total olive oil production in 2022-23 was valued at 2,860 million euros.

Marks of quality, that is, olive oil quality in this case, play an equally important role in product promotion. Upon analysis of the quality seals granted by the European Commission, we can observe that the number of Protected Designations of Origin (PDO) attributed to Spanish olive oil rose from 3 to 31 between 1988 and 2021 (Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación, 2022, p. 72).

1    This project was financed by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) and by the Ministry of Economy, Knowledge, Business and University of the Andalusia Government within the framework of the FEDER Andalusia 2014-2020 operational programme, specific objective 1.2.3. "Promotion and generation of frontier knowledge and knowledge oriented to the challenges of society, development of emerging technologies" within the framework of the reference research project UPO-1265425, ERDF co-financing percentage 80%.

*  Christiane Limbach Facultad de Humanidades / Departamento de Filología y Traducción Universidad Pablo de Olavide clim@upo.es

Within  the  Andalusian  Autonomous  Region,  there  are  currently  12  PDOs  and  1  Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) distributed across 230 companies (Limbach, in press).

Olive oil exports are an essential part of Spain's economy: a total of 1,222 t of olive oil with a PDO are exported from all over Spain to EU countries, while 7,160 t are exported to third countries, especially to China (2,316 t). Within the EU, the major countries of destination of most PDO olive oil exports are Germany (258 t) first, Italy (257 t) second, and France (254 t) third (Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación, 2022, pp. 70-71).

Moreover, ever more companies are offering guided tours of their olive groves and oil mills. This kind of tourism is called 'oleoturism' (Janodet, 2022) and it includes oil tasting events, visiting the olive groves, learning the olives harvest, how oil is obtained, etc. In this way, the olive oil business is becoming increasingly similar to the wine business. Also, health benefits of olive oil are taken into account as well as its promotion: it is a major component of the Mediterranean diet and is gaining ground in the natural cosmetics industry.

Linguistic mediation plays a significant role given that olives - as well as other related products and  services  (oleotourism)  -  are  being  exported  and/or  offered  to  foreigners  and  tourists.  This mediation is all the more important in the countries that are the biggest purchasers of olive oil. In other  words,  within  the  EU,  German  linguistic  mediation  has  an  important  role  to  fulfil  since Germany is Europe's largest buyer of olive oil.

Several types of texts are generated in this field, which can be called oleic field. On the one hand, we  find  company  websites,  where  companies  present  themselves  and  conduct  promotional campaigns.  On  the  other  hand,  we  find  texts  which  refer  to  economic  activity,  and  which  are elaborated by and for the trade (purchase contracts, product reports, delivery notes, etc.). There are also legal texts, which regulate, for example, oil quality, the obtaining of quality seals, etc., to name but a few. We must remember that the EU also establishes standards, regulations and reports on the olive oil produced in member countries, as well as its quality and categories. Likewise, producer countries themselves have their own legislation relating to olives and olive oil, etc. In addition, ever more scientific literature is emerging on olive oil and olives (Fernández Roca & López-Manjón, 2024; Rubio López, 2025; Sanz-Valdivieso & López-Arroyo, 2025).

The different types of texts elaborated on olive oil are thus specialised or semi-specialised. We believe that to conduct linguistic mediation in the various textual domains relating to olive oil (the commercial, legal, economic domains, etc.), it is necessary to gather the proper documentation and to be familiar with the subject - as in the case of the wine sector and in any other type of specialized translation.  In  this  sense,  according  to  Ibáñez  Rodríguez  (2003,  p.  538),  translating,  writing  or revising  texts  about  vines  and  wine  requires,  as  in  the  case  of  any  other  specialisation,  requires essential subject knowledge and the management of documentation.

The objective of this work was to study how certain elements indicative of olive oil quality specifically, olive oil categories and the PDO/PGI - were translated on the websites of SME. The SME selection criteria were as follow: to be dedicated to olive oil production and sale; to have a PDO or PGI granted by the European Commission; and to have been localised from Spanish to German. Our research was part of a broader research project entitled 'COMVENCE. Multimodal Multilingual Digital Communication for Andalusian SME: Discursive analysis of corporate websites', a research and  innovation  project  within  the  framework  of  the  ERDF  Andalusia  2014-2020  operational programme, financed by the Andalusian Government through European regional development funds, conducted from 1 June 2021 to 30 June 2023 at the Pablo de Olavide University of Seville 2 .

In  the  following  we  will  first  address  website  localisation,  the  challenges  for  translators,  the theoretical framework and empirical data before focusing on website discourse of Andalusian olive oil SMEs. After that, we will comment on the objectives of our study as well as the methodology and the corpus used in this study. As the documentation phase forms part of our research objectives, we will present this section right before our results and then draw the conclusions of our research.

[2    For further information see https://www.upo.es/investiga/comvence/](https://www.upo.es/investiga/comvence/)

## 2. Website Localisation and Challenges for Translators

Website contents combine texts with the use of computers and internet and are visualised and used online (Medina Reguera & Ramírez-Delgado, 2022, p. 125). They stand out for their functionality (Shepherd  &  Watters,  1999;  Schmid-Isler,  2000;  Jiménez-Crespo,  2013),  as  they  allow  user interactions and are dynamic and updated (Media Reguera & Ramírez Delgado, 2015, p. 125). They are also multimodal, since they can integrate written text, audio, videos, and images.

Several studies have examined websites in the oleic field from a linguistic viewpoint. Medina Reguera & Ramírez-Delgado (2019, 2022) examine and classify website localisation errors made by companies  in  the  olive  sector.  Their  main  starting  hypothesis  is  that  a  high-quality  multilingual communication strategy increases sales abroad, focusing on the website as a basic communication tool. The authors analysed 116 websites of olive oil production and export companies in their original version in Spanish and localised into English, taking into account text superstructure, macrostructure and microstructure. The authors found that most localisation errors were due to the inappropriate use of language (63.58%), followed by section omissions or content deletion (33.48%). They concluded that web localisation professionals should build awareness around the impact of localised versions and how the latter allows to optimise the product results of small company websites (Medina Reguera & Ramírez-Delgado, 2019, p. 17).

Along the same lines, Carmona Sandoval & Ait Saadi (2015, p. 12) started with the hypothesis that the growing exchanges between Spanish and foreign companies should lead to increased demand for professional translation services and a greater number of localised websites. They analysed the websites of Alicante and Murcia companies belonging to the Spanish Federation of Associations of Exporting Producers of Fruits, Vegetables, Flowers and Live Plants (FEPEX).

Yet, the results were surprising: corporate websites in the fruit and vegetable sector were scarce and  poorly  translated.  Furthermore,  when  they  were  localised,  the  predominant  language  was English, despite the fact that the French-speaking and German markets purchase almost 50% of all Spanish merchandise sold abroad (Carmona Sandoval & Ait Saadi, 2015, p. 24).

Other works have examined the website translations of Andalusia's Regulatory Councils and their localisation into German (Limbach, 2025) or the websites of Andalusian SMEs and their localisation into German (Limbach, in press).

In line with Medina Reguera & Ramírez-Delgado (2019), as well as Carmona Sandoval & Ait Saadi (2015), we believe that a professional German localisation of Spanish SME websites dedicated to olive oil production and sale can improve seller-buyer communication and thus increase sales. As Medina Reguera (2015, p. 21) comments, language is a major barrier:

Sin embargo, los motivos por los que el aspecto lingüístico es uno de los más olvidados en el desarrollo del negocio internacional no son atribuibles a las industrias de la lengua, sino más bien  a  la  falta  de  información  o  concienciación  sobre  los  beneficios  que  la  inversión  en multilingüismo genera o revierte en las empresas. Una buena muestra de esta carencia es el bajo número de sitios web corporativos que tiene España respecto de otros países de la UE (Informe ePyme 2014) […]

[However, the fact that linguistic aspects are among the most overlooked in the development of international business cannot be attributed to the language industry, but rather to a lack of information or awareness about the benefits which investing in multilingualism generate or revert  back  to  companies.  A  good  illustration  of  this  lack  is  Spain's  reduced  number  of corporate  websites  compared  to  other  EU  countries  (Informe  ePyme  2014)  […]  [Our translation]

Added to this are the numerous challenges faced by translators and the fact that translations are executed by non-professionals or directly via automatic translation, which is not always of good quality. Below we offer a summary of some of the greatest website localisation challenges faced by companies that sell olive oil on international markets:

- a.   The translator must pay special attention to the different speech functions: the informative function, promotional function, commercial function, the phatic and interpersonal function, and the appellative function.
- b.  The translator must know the terminology as well as the subject and must also recognise the communication level (expert-expert, expert-novice, (semi-) expert-layman). They must recognise the corresponding elements in the source language text and know how to transmit them appropriately in the target language. A distinctive technique, specific knowledge, or certain advances are normally generated in a specific culture and therefore the terms used to refer to them do not exist yet in other cultures. Problems thus arise when trying to translate newly-created technical terms that do not yet have a corresponding term in the target language (Ibáñez Rodríguez, 2003, p. 539).
- c.   The translator must be familiar with Spanish culture and tradition, that is, Andalusian culture. Indeed, not only are certain terms culturally unique but certain types of knowledge as well, such as geographical, culinary, festive domains, etc. In this case, the translator must expand the source text information for the target recipients since they are less knowledgeable in these domains than the source text recipients. Culture is also reflected in how the different functions mentioned above are expressed in the text. As specified by Suau Jiménez & Labarta Postigo (2017, p. 206), discursive elements depend on culture and cannot be translated literally without creating a 'polluted' discourse.
- d.  Other translator difficulties include having to convince companies that they need a highquality translation and that it should be realised by expert and well-trained translators, not by laymen or machine translation (Medina Reguera, 2015, pp. 38-39).

In  this  work,  we  focus  on  the  translation  of  terms  that  guarantee  olive  oil  quality,  so  prior documentation plays an essential role - as in any specialised translation (Ibáñez Rodríguez, 2003, p. 540). In line with Gamero Pérez (2001, p. 45), Ibáñez Rodríguez (2003, p. 541) confirms that to ensure adequate documentation, the following sources should be consulted:

- -terminological sources, which provide information on specialised terms (glossaries, specialised dictionaries, terminological databases, etc.),
- -specialised documentation, which offers a set of knowledge about a specific discipline (encyclopaedias, parallel texts, manuals, monographs, research articles, etc.),
- -bibliographic sources, which provide information on the documentation available in each specialty (bibliographic repertoires, library catalogues, etc.)

Added to these sources is the enormous amount of information available on the Internet, which can be accessed through search engines and by entering the appropriate search words to properly filter the results.

## 3. Theoretical Framework and Empirical Data

Norwegian egalitarianism finds its root in the nineteenth century liberal principles concerning ciTranslation research does exist in the field of olive oil texts; however, the number of studies is still scarce, and even more reduced regarding the Spanish-German linguistic combination. Some works investigate  webpage  localisation  in  the  field  of  olive  oil  (Medina  Reguera  &  Ramírez-Delgado, 2019),  in  the  domain  of  fruits,  vegetables  and  live  plants  in  the  Alicante  and  Murcia  regions

(Carmona Sandoval & Ait Saadi, 2015), or on oil tourism websites (Luque Janodet, 2022). Other olive oil studies focus on lexicographic or terminological issues. Thus, terminology glossaries can be  found  for  the  English-Spanish  and  the  Spanish-English  linguistic  combinations  (Santa  María, 2013) or for the Spanish-English and the Spanish-Chinese (Roldán Vendrell, 2013). A lexical study has also been conducted on Spanish-German oil tourism promotion in Andalusia (Montes Sánchez, 2020). Terminological work has equally been carried out on wine and olive oil tasting (López Arroyo & Sanz Valdivieso, 2022) as well as translation research on wine and olive oil in medical fields (Montes Sánchez, 2023). Protected designations of origin and geographical indications have also been studied, but not in the field of olive oil, only wine (Ramírez Almansa, 2019).

## 4. Website Discourse of Andalusian Olive Oil SMEs

In the case of Andalusian oil SME websites, we observed that the web discourse has a dual function: on the one hand, it informs readers about the products (informative function); and, on the other, it builds up the readers' desire to buy them (promotional function). The promotional function is also found in other textual genres such as tourist guidebooks (Suau Jiménez & Labarta Postigo, 2017). In our  view,  website  discourse,  which  we  examine  in  this  work,  shares  similar  functions  and characteristics with tourist guidebooks. Tourist guidebooks

'mezclan la promoción [turística], la divulgación de conocimientos […], a lo cual habría que añadir  quizá  la  influencia  de  la  función  interpersonal,  con  marcadores  y  estrategias  que conforman un diálogo implícito entre autor y lector' (Suau Jiménez & Labarta Postigo, 2017, p. 206).

[mix the promotion [of tourism], the dissemination of knowledge […], to which we should perhaps add the influence of the interpersonal function, with markers and strategies that form an implicit dialogue between author and reader] [Our translation]

Our experience shows that oil SME websites follow a similar pattern: they are designed to present the company as well as its products and services, and to sell the latter to potential buyers.

The texts also include cultural references to the intangible heritage of Andalusian culture (Luque Janodet, 2022, p. 58), which can be divided into the following categories: 1) festive rituals; 2) crafts and knowledge; 3) modes of expression; and 4) food and culinary systems.

The terminological dimension adds to these functions. As Luque Janodet (2022, p. 60) confirms,

'[l]os usuarios de la olivicultura y elaiotecnia articulan un discurso más o menos especializado en función de los conocimientos del emisor y del receptor.'

[Olive  growers  and  elaiotechnics  users  articulate  a  more  or  less  specialised  discourse depending on sender and receiver knowledge].

In our case, the terms can refer to the olive harvesting process, tools, the olive oil production process, the cultivating and care of olives, etc.

Durán Muñoz & del Moral Álvarez (2014, pp. 48-49) defined three levels of communication: 1) highly  specialised  expert-expert  communication;  2)  expert-novice  communication,  which  may require  certain  techniques,  such  as  including  explanations  of  certain  specialised  terms;  and  3), (semi)expert-layman communication, where the audience cannot be expected to have specialised knowledge. This latter level corresponds to the website discourse analysed in this study, i.e., one where experts communicate to the public. In German-speaking literature such communication is also known  as fachexterne  Kommunikation (literal  translation:  external  specialised  communication) (Engberg, 2017).

As the main function of this discourse  is  commercial,  here  we  also  encounter  marketing  and commercialisation language, including legal terms that justify the product quality, such as the oil categories produced and the quality seals obtained. Company website narratives dedicated to olive oil  sales  are  also  expected  to  describe  product  quality,  which  is  why  they  also  include  linguistic elements that refer to certificates or awards.

On  this  topic,  the  discourse  is  therefore  hybrid  in  nature:  it  intermingles  technicalities, terminology,  and  colloquial  elements.  Moreover,  it  has  multiple  purposes:  its  functions  are informative,  promotional,  commercial,  phatic  and  interpersonal  as  well  as  appellative.  The company's  aim  is  to  present  itself  (informative),  as  well  as  the  products  and  services  it  offers (informative), to promote them (promotional), sell them (commercial), establish and maintain contact with potential customers (phatic and interpersonal), while also encouraging them to buy its products or services (appellative).

## 5. Objectives and Methodology

Several objectives were pursued in this work: first we compiled our corpus (see section 6), then, we completed a documentation phase, which was a secondary study objective (see section 7). In our view, our main terminology documentation source should be the content published by the European Commission (EC) on the internet (European Commission, Olive oil in the EU) since this institution protects the quality of agricultural products produced in member countries through PDO and PGI, as well as through the olive oil categories that we examine in the present work. After that, in a third step, we examined how certain elements indicative of olive oil quality were translated from Spanish into German on the websites, which formed our corpus. We thus focused on the terms used for the olive oil categories as well as the terms established by the European Commission, and which can be found on the EC website, to indicate the quality of certain products, in our case, the PDO and the PGI. On the websites in German, we aimed to identify the terms that could adequately identify the various olive oil categories and correspond to the EU's PDO and PGI.

Finally, we compared the results of our corpus to the documentation results to determine whether a  potential  German  consumer  was  able  to  evaluate  olive  oil  quality  based  on  the  chosen  terms. Worthy of note, there was no intention to categorise translation or localisation errors in any way in this work.

Through this work, we aimed at extending linguistic (and translational) olive oil studies. We thus conducted a study which had already been initiated on the German localisation of the websites of Regulatory Councils responsible for regulating and standardising the actions of agents assigned to an olive oil designation of origin in Andalusia (Limbach, 2025).

Regarding the work methodology, we compiled a corpus of all Andalusian SMEs which: were dedicated to olive oil production and sale; were granted an EU PDO or PGI; and whose website was in both Spanish and German. We used the Sketch Engine programme, an online text analysis tool that studies language by analysing massive text collections called corpora, to compile and work with the corpus. The data relating to the study objectives was extracted through word search queries and single word and multiword term extraction. We also used frequency lists in order to examine how many times a specific single or multiword term was used in our corpus.

## 6. Our Corpus

Our corpus is a subcorpus of the COMVENCE project. While the COMVENCE corpus is made up of websites of Andalusian SMEs dedicated to the production and sale of products of which some are registered  as  PDO  or  PGI  (wine,  cheese,  ham,  olive  oil,  etc.),  our  corpus  is  made  up  only  of Andalusian SMEs dedicated to the production and sale of olive oil coming in both a Spanish and German  version.  We  therefore  call  it  COMVENCE\_OLEO.  A  total  of  230  Andalusian  SMEs producing virgin olive oil have been attributed a PDO or PGI. A search in the Google search engine showed that only 159 of them (69%) had a website - and that 71 companies (31%) did not. Of the

159 SMEs that had a website, only 7 offered a German version, i.e., 4%. Although our corpus is relatively small, it represents the translation reality and is thus relevant for our study.

The geographical distribution of the corpus was as follows:

- -Cordoba (7 pages, 2 enterprises)
- -Granada (5 pages, 1 enterprise)
- -Jaen (16 pages, 3 enterprises)
- -Sevilla (4 pages, 1 enterprise)

We selected only the webpages that contained information on the protected designation of origin, excluding pages on which no EC protection information appeared, such as, for example, the contact form or the online store. We downloaded the selected pages in html format and compiled a parallel corpus using the Sketch Engine programme, one in Spanish and the other in German. An attempt was made to align the corpus with the help of the Sketch Engine programme. However, due to the non-sequentiality of the hypertext a correct alignment was not possible. For this reason, we decided to examine the Spanish and the German corpora separately, once in Spanish and once in German, contrasting our analysis for each item in the other corpus respectively . Also worthy of note is the fact that we had no information on whether the websites had been localised through automatic or human translation. We did not detect any machine translation plugins, but this is no guarantee that machine translations were not used, as the text could have been machine-translated beforehand.

## 7. Documentation Phase: Olive Oil Categories, PDO, PGI and TSG and Their Translation into German

As mentioned above, we considered the official terms used by the European Commission our main source for the terms and therefore looked them up on the official website in the Spanish and German version.

## 7.1. PDO, PGI and TSG

The EC offers three types of protection: the Protected Designation of Origin (PDO), the (Protected) Geographical Indication (PGI) and the Traditional Specialty Guaranteed (TSG). In the case of olive oil, only the PDO and PGI apply, as olive oil does not fit the criteria for TSG, which focuses on a product's traditional characteristics independently of where it is made. As the EU states, 'product names registered as PDO are those that have the strongest links to the place in which they are made' (European Commission, Geographical indications and quality schemes explained). It applies to food, agricultural products, and wines. 'Every part of the production, processing and preparation process must take place in the specific region. For wines, this means that the grapes have to come exclusively from  the  geographical  area  where  the  wine  is  made'  (European  Commission,  Geographical indications and quality schemes explained).

According to the EU,

the PGI emphasises the relationship between the specific geographical region and the name of the  product,  where  a  particular  quality,  reputation  or  the  other  characteristic  is  essentially attributable to its geographical origin. [It applies to] food, agricultural products and wines. For most products, at least one of the stages of production, processing or preparation takes place in the region. In the case of wine, this means that at least 85% of the grapes used must come exclusively  from  the  geographical  area  where  the  wine  is  actually  made  (European Commission, Geographical indications and quality schemes explained).

As the EC states on their official website the term Traditional Speciality Guaranteed (TSG)

se lell.

ODYNINONKC

RI

highlights the traditional  aspects,  such  as  the  way  the  product  is  made  or  its  composition, without being linked to a specific geographical area. The name of a product being registered as a TSG protects it against falsification and misuse (European Commission, Geographical indications and quality schemes explained).

Companies can apply to the EC for one of these Geographical indications which 'enables consumers to trust and distinguish quality products while also helping producers to market their products better' (European Commission, Geographical indications and quality schemes explained).

These EC labels exist in all 24 official EU languages. Likewise, the logos can be downloaded from  the  website  in  all  official  languages.  In  Spanish,  the  term  used  by  the  EC  for  Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) is Denominación de origen protegida (DOP) whereas the the official German term for PDO proposed by the EC is geschützte Ursprungsangabe (g. U.) (see Image 1 and 2). The official terms used by the EC for (Protected) Geographical Indication (PGI) are Indicación Geográfica protegida (IGP) in Spanish and geschützte geographische Angabe (g. g. A.) (see Image 3 and 4). Finally, for Traditional Speciality Guaranteed (TSG) the official terms are Especialidad tradicional garantizada (ETG) in Spanish and garantiert traditionelle Spezialität (see Image 5 and 6). However, this kind of protection cannot be applied to olive oil which is why we did not take it into consideration in our research.

Thus, these respective terms in the German language are used to qualify the products that have obtained these protection labels in Germany. Therefore, German consumers who pay attention to the quality of the products they consume are accustomed to both the terms and the logos in German and recognise them.

<!-- image -->

Image 1: Logo PDO in Spanish

<!-- image -->

Image 3: Logo PGI in Spanish

Image 2: Logo PDO in German

<!-- image -->

Image 4: Logo PGI in German

<!-- image -->

Image 5: Logo TSG in Spanish

<!-- image -->

Image 6: Logo TSG in German

<!-- image -->

A quality translation from Spanish to German should therefore use the established EC German terms. The logos with the German term (Images 2, 4 and 6) could even be incorporated into the target text.

It should be noted that the EC always uses the term Ursprungsbezeichnung and never the term Herkunftsbezeichnung as we can observe in other types of documents such as the Official Gazettes of the EC, specifically, Regulation (EU) No. 1151/2012 3 on quality schemes for agricultural products and foodstuffs.

## 7.2. Olive Oil Quality Categories

Both Spanish and European legislation establish quality criteria for olive oil. The EC distinguishes 8 olive oil categories (extra-virgin olive oil, virgin olive oil, virgin lampante olive oil, refined olive oil, olive oil composed of refined olive oils and virgin olive oils, olive pomace, crude olive-pomace oil and refined olive pomace oil). Not all of them, however, can be sold to consumers: 'Only extravirgin olive oil, virgin olive oil, olive oil composed of refined olive oils and virgin olive oils, and olive pomace oil can be purchased directly at retail' (European Commission, Olive oil in the EU).

The EC further establishes that:

[i]n order to be marketed under a certain category, the olive oil's characteristics must respect the limits established for that category under EU rules. It is the responsibility of the operators and the EU Member State to ensure that this is the case (European Commission, Olive oil in the EU).

The rules, regulations and information provided by the EC regarding the olive oil categories are of special interest from a translational point of view, since these categories can be consulted, together with their respective definitions, in all official languages by simply changing the language on the website. There are three different categories of virgin olive oils. Among them, one is not directed towards the retail market but is used for industrial purposes. Table 1 presents these olive oil categories together  with  the  information  provided  by  the  EC  in  Spanish,  German  and  English  (European Commission, Olive oil in the EU).

3    Regulation (EU) No 1151/2012 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 November 2012 on quality schemes for agricultural products and foodstuffs

Table 1. Olive oil categories established by the EC in Spanish, German and English (European Commission, Olive oil in the EU, data collected by the author)

|                                                                             | Spanish                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                 | German                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                             | English                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                   |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Categorías de aceite de oliva / Olivenöl- Kategorien / Olive oil categories | Aceite de oliva virgen extra: es la categoría de mayor calidad. Desde un punto de vista organoléptico, no tiene defectos y es afrutado. No debe tener una acidez superior al 0,8 %.                                                                                                                                                     | Natives Olivenöl extra ist die Kategorie mit der höchsten Qualität. Hinsichtlich ihrer organoleptischen Eigenschaften hat es keinerlei Fehler; der Geschmack ist fruchtig. Sein Säuregehalt darf 0,8% nicht überschreiten.                                                                                         | Extra virgin olive oil is the category with the highest quality. From an organoleptic point of view, it has no defects and is fruity. Its acidity level must not exceed 0.8%.                                                                                             |
|                                                                             | Aceite de oliva virgen : puede presentar algunos defectos sensoriales pero en muy pequeña cantidad. No debe tener una acidez superior al 2 %.                                                                                                                                                                                           | Natives Olivenöl darf geringfügige sensorische Mängel aufweisen. Sein Säuregehalt darf2% nicht überschreiten.                                                                                                                                                                                                      | Virgin olive oil may have some sensory defects but at very low level. Its acidity must not exceed 2%.                                                                                                                                                                     |
|                                                                             | Aceite de oliva virgen lampante : es un aceite de oliva virgen de calidad inferior, con una acidez superior al2% y no presenta características afrutadas ni defectos sensoriales sustanciales. El aceite de oliva lampante no está destinado a la comercialización en el mercado minorista. Se refina o utiliza con fines industriales. | Oliven-Lampantöl ist ein natives Olivenöl von geringerer Qualität mit einem Säuregehalt von mehr als 2 %, keinerlei fruchtigen Eigenschaften und erheblichen sensorischen Mängeln. Oliven-Lampantöl ist nicht zur Vermarktung im Einzelhandel bestimmt. Es wird raffiniert oder für industrielle Zwecke verwendet. | Lampante olive oil is a lower quality virgin olive oil with an acidity of more than 2%, with no fruity characteristics and substantial sensory defects. Lampante olive oil is not intended to be marketed at retail stage. It is refined or used for industrial purposes. |

## 8. Results

Below we present the results of our research in the exact way they were extracted from our corpus, i.e., reproducing punctuation, spaces, and spelling errors.

## 8.1. PDO and PGI

In the Spanish corpus, we searched for the terms or abbreviations related to the PDO or PGI. We also created frequency lists and obtained the following results:

Table 2. Spanish corpus PDO/PGI results

| Search terms in the Spanish corpus   |   Results in numbers |
|--------------------------------------|----------------------|
| DOP                                  |                    1 |
| D.O.P.                               |                    0 |
| DO                                   |                    4 |
| D.O.                                 |                    6 |
| Denominación de origen               |                   12 |
| IGP                                  |                    0 |
| Indicación                           |                    0 |

The results of our Spanish corpus show that there are several ways to refer to PDO. The most used option  was Denomination of  Origin with  a  total  of  12  results.  No  case  was  found  in  which  the adjective protected was  added. Different abbreviations were used, although less frequently, D.O. coming first (6 results), DO , second (4 results) and DOP last (1 result).

To examine which terms were used in the German corpus, we found some non-translated terms, based on Medina Reguera & Ramírez-Delgado (2019, pp. 7-18), that is, in our case, in Spanish, or even in English. Additionally, to verify whether it produced any results, we searched for both the term Ursprungsbezeichnung and the term Herkunftsbezeichnung , the latter being a literal translation of Spanish which is never used by the EC.

Table 3. German corpus PDO/PGI results

| Search terms in the German corpus       |   Results in numbers |
|-----------------------------------------|----------------------|
| DOP                                     |                    2 |
| DO                                      |                   13 |
| D.O.P.                                  |                    0 |
| D.O.                                    |                    0 |
| Denominación                            |                    0 |
| Denomination                            |                    0 |
| Indicación                              |                    0 |
| Indication                              |                    0 |
| Bezeichnung                             |                    0 |
| Herkunft                                |                   16 |
| Ursprung                                |                    4 |
| Geschützte Ursprungsbezeichnung (g. U.) |                    2 |
| Herkunftsbezeichnung                    |                    8 |

In the German corpus, we found the Spanish abbreviations DOP (2 results) and DO (13 results) as well as the terms Herkunft (16 results) and Herkunfsbezeichnung (8 results), Ursprung (4 results) and geschützte Ursprungsbezeichnung (g. U.) (2 results).

## 8.2. Olive Oil Categories

Regarding the olive oil category, we searched for single word or multiword terms or abbreviations and also created frequency lists. The results are shown in Table 4:

Table 4. Results obtained for the olive oil categories in the Spanish corpus (alphabetical order)

| Search terms in the Spanish corpus   |   Results in numbers |
|--------------------------------------|----------------------|
| Aceite(s) de oliva virgen extra      |                   50 |
| Aceite(s) de oliva virgen            |                   14 |
| Aceite(s) de oliva                   |                   93 |
| AOVE                                 |                   57 |
| Lampante                             |                    0 |

In the German corpus we found the terms extra virgin olive oil (50 results), virgin olive oil (14 results) and olive oil (93 results) both in singular and plural, as well as the abbreviation EVOO (57 results). As expected, the term lampante did not appear in our corpus, since this oil is not intended for retail commercialisation.

Apart from the German terms, we also searched for Spanish and English terms. We elaborated frequency lists and term lists (both single-word and multi-word) to find the equivalent terms used in the German corpus to refer to the olive oil categories.

Table 5. Results in the German corpus for the olive oil categories (alphabetical order)

| Search terms in the German corpus               | Results in numbers   |
|-------------------------------------------------|----------------------|
| 100% native Olivenöl Virgen Extra               | 2                    |
| Aceite de oliva                                 | 4                    |
| Aceite de Oliva Virgen extra                    | 12                   |
| AOVE(s)                                         | 50 4                 |
| Bio Olivenöl                                    | 2                    |
| DOSierra Segura Olivenöl von maximaler Qualität | 2                    |
| einzigartiges Bio Olivenöl                      | 2                    |
| Evoo(s)                                         | 28 5                 |
| extra natives Olivenöl der Extraklasse          | 2                    |
| Extra ursprüngliches Bio Olivenöl               | 2                    |
| Extra ursprüngliches Virgin Bio Olivenöl        | 3                    |
| Extra Virgen (Ursprungs) Olivenöl               | 2                    |
| Extra Virgin Olivenöl                           | 2                    |
| Geflügel                                        | 4                    |
| Jungfrau                                        | 0                    |
| natives Bergöl extra                            | 4                    |
| natives Olivenöl                                | 2                    |
| natives Olivenöl extra                          | 16                   |
| natives Olivenöl Virgin/Virgen Extra            | 0                    |
| Olivenöl aus D. O. Baena                        | 2                    |
| Olivenöl Virgen Extra                           | 10                   |
| Organisches Extra Ursprüngliches Bio Olienöl    | 2                    |
| virgen                                          | 28                   |
| virgin                                          | 16                   |

As we can see in Table 5, we detected a wide range of translations or even non-translations, as well as translations into English. In the section below, we evaluate the results.

## 8.3. Critical Evaluation of the Results

As we mentioned above, our Spanish corpus is composed of all the websites of Andalusian SMEs producing virgin olive oil which have been attributed a PDO or PGI and also have a German version of their website. We therefore consider the Spanish corpus representative also relatively small with 7 enterprises in total. The Spanish term Denomination of origin without the adjective protected (12 results) was the most notable of all in our corpus, though we also found some abbreviations, most of which equally missed the P for protected ,  whether with or without a dot ( DO and D.O. ,  4  and 6 results).

4    among which 'AOVE (kurz für Aceite de Oliva Virgen Extra; natives Olivenöl extra)' appeared twice

5    among which 'EVOO (Extra Virgin Olive Oil)' appeared twice

The equivalent terms found in the German corpus were more varied. In only two cases did we encounter the term geschützte Ursprungsbezeichnung with its abbreviation g. U. , used by the EU. A literal translation ( Herkunftsbezeichnung )  was found in 8 cases without the adjective geschützt ,  a lexeme not used by the EU. Likewise, we detected the Spanish abbreviation DO (13 results) and to a  lesser  extent,  the DOP (2  results)  abbreviation.  In  these  cases,  the  Spanish  abbreviation  was maintained and was not translated into German, making it almost impossible for a German viewer to understand that it referred to geschützte Ursprungsbezeichnung , a term that is recognised and sought after as it represents and gives a EU guarantee of oil quality.

Regarding  the  olive  oil  categories,  it  is  worth  highlighting  the  frequent  use  of  the AOVE abbreviation in the Spanish corpus (57 results) and Extra Virgin Olive Oil(s) (50 results), both in singular and plural. The results indicated that the use of the abbreviation was preferred and that this oil  category  predominated. These results seemed to be coherent as Extra Virgin Olive Oil is  the highest quality category.

Nevertheless, in the parallel German corpus, we detected a wide range of alternative references to the olive oil categories and grouped them as follows:

- -Use of abbreviations in Spanish and English: on the one hand, we observed the use of the Spanish abbreviation AOVE (50 results) and the English abbreviation EVOO (28 results). In only 2 cases in each language was an explanation added. While in the case of AOVE, the Spanish letters were explained and translated into German, in the case of EVOO, only the English term was referred to, with no translation into German. In this case, German consumers would possibly not understand the meaning. This fact could be a hint of a machine translation (Cuartero & Limbach, 2024, pp. 35-36).
- -Non-translated terms: we detected the use of the terms Aceite de oliva virgen extra (12 results) and Aceite de oliva (4 results), i.e., non-translated terms. Therefore, German consumers would probably not understand them. Again, this could be due to a machine translation (Cuartero & Limbach, 2024, pp. 35-36).
- -Terms with mixed languages: we detected translations such as 100% native Olivenöl Virgen Extra (2 results), Extra ursprüngliches Virgin Olivenöl (3 results), Extra Virgen (Ursprungs) Olivenöl (2 results), Extra Virgin Olivenöl (2 results), Olivenöl Virgen Extra (10 results). Two or even three languages were mixed in these translations: Spanish, German and English. None of these terms correspond to official EU terminology, making it difficult for a German public to understand whether the oils fulfil the conditions of the official olive oil categories established by the EU. Also here, this could be due to a machine translation.
- -Word repetitions: in some cases, a word was repeated, specifically extra : Extra natives Olivenöl der Extraklasse (2 results). In this case, the official EU term was used but in a different Word order and repeating der Extraklasse , which causes uncertainty in target recipients since the translation does not match the term that they expect to see and understand. This could be another hint of a machine translation.
- -Attempt to integrate the PDO idea into the oil category: in some cases, an attempt was made to integrate the notion of PDO into the olive oil category: (einzigartiges) Bio Olivenöl (2 results and 2 results respectively), DO Sierra Segura Olivenöl von maximaler Qualität (2 results), Extra ursprüngliches Bio Olivenöl (2 results), Olivenöl aus D.O. Baena (2 results), Organisches Extra Ursprüngliches Bio Olivenöl (2 results). All translations probably raise doubts in the minds of the public because they could seem to be misleading advertising attempts, the term used to be similar to the official EU qualification.
- -Creation of terms: the translation natives Bergöl extra (4 results) was found. In this case, a term was created based on the Spanish aceite de oliva de montaña creating some confusion as to whether it refers to Olivenöl (olive oil) or not.

- -Serious error: we detected a serious translation mistake in the case of Geflügel (4 results), since it refers to birds. In our opinion, this may be an automatic translation error due to the mistaking of the abbreviation AOVE(s) for the Spanish word aves , classifying it as a spelling error, probably because the abbreviation could not be recognised.
- -EU terms: we also detected the terms used by the EU, specifically, natives Olivenöl extra (16 results) and natives Olivenöl (2 results).

Also notable were the spelling errors found: most were adjectives written in upper case instead of lower case, compound words that were written separately instead of together, words written entirely in upper case, a Spanish custom (the use of upper case) but not a German one, etc.

## 9. Discussion and Conclusion

The  various  objectives  pursued  in  this  study  were  fulfilled.  First,  we  completed  a  rigorous documentation task in order to determine the appropriate EU-established German terminology used to  designate  olive  oil  categories,  as  well  as  geographical  indications.  Second,  we  examined  the terminology used in reality, that is, on the websites of Andalusian SMEs which produce and sell olive oil and have been granted an EU PDO or PGI. We specifically examined the actual use of olive oil category terminology as well as the PDO and PGI in both Spanish and German. Indeed, we consider the latter as key descriptive elements of olive oil quality and thus an important commercial factor in the discourse of the examined websites.

The study results showed that official EU terms were sometimes used but not in the vast majority of the texts, whether regarding PDO or olive oil categories. As for the PDO in the versions localised into German, the variety of 'translations' was limited: they ranged from the non-translation of the Spanish abbreviations to a literal or partial translation, to a translation which used the official EU terms. In the case of the olive oil categories, translations widely varied. We detected non-translations and translations into English, confirming the research results of Media Reguera & Ramírez-Delgado (2019). We also detected a mixture of languages in the same 'term', creations of words, imprecise translations, etc. Also worth highlighting was the large number of spelling errors, the majority being upper- and lower-case errors and words written separately instead of together.

The  terminology  used  on  the  German  websites  therefore  lacked  coherence  and  accuracy. Moreover, official EU terms were not employed. This means that on the one hand, the German public probably  fails  to  directly  understand  the  terms  used  on  the  websites  and  is  therefore  unable  to determine the product's quality. On the other, consumers probably doubt the quality of the product, since they expect to find the EU term for the quality level: the fact that they do not encounter the precise term could be interpreted as misleading advertising.

The results suggest that no rigorous documentary work was undertaken before translating the websites, either because the translator was not a professional or because an automatic translator was used.  As  a  result,  the  products  are  not  adequately  presented  to  potential  German  buyers,  as  EU terminology is not being used, probably leading them to question the product's quality. We therefore agree with Media Reguera & Ramírez-Delgado (2019, pp. 17-18) who stressed the need to explain the importance of quality translations to SMEs as the chosen wording can have a direct effect on product sales.

We hope that the results of this study will serve both SMEs and translators in the field of olive oil and help terminologists to elaborate glossaries and lists of specialised bilingual Spanish-German terms.

Future  studies  could  extend  the  analysis  of  the  discourse  used  on  the  websites  of  olive  oil production SMEs that are granted designations of origin: they could focus on other terms or elements that refer to the quality or brands and consider the different textual functions (phatic, interpersonal, promotional, etc.).

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