## Translating medical texts into a foreign language: some methodological considerations

## Abstract

Many  authors,  scholars,  and  theorists  have  theoretically  denied  the  possibility  of translating into a foreign language (Newmark, 1998, 1995; Van Deth, 1989; VásquezAyora,  1977  among  others),  because  of  the  interference  caused  by  the  translator's mother tongue as well as the lack of competence, especially in writing, and level of intuition  when  going  into  the  foreign  language.  Authors  confront  and  argue  the different  points  of  view.  Arguments  in  favor  of  translating  into  a  foreign  language should also be considered (Wilss, 1982; Wotjak, 1981; Harris, 1990; Nord, 1992; Cao, 1996; Beeby, 1996; Quiroz and Muñoz, 1996; Zapata et al. 1998). Likewise, it is shown that methods, methodologies, and techniques may be used both ways. It is concluded that the correct establishment of text analysis features as well as linguistic characteristics in both languages make it possible to translate medical texts into English as a foreign language.

## 1. Introduction

In some countries in the last 10 years translation into a foreign language (TFL) has begun to gain widespread acceptance in theory by different authors.  Even though discussions about the topic are just beginning, translation into a foreign language will have to explore different facets

María Cecilia Plested A., Permanent Professor and Coordinator of Terminology

1 and Translation Research Group

e-mail:  plested@quimbaya.udea.edu.co

2 Gabriel Ángel Quiroz H., Member of Terminology and Translation Research Group

3 Carlos Arturo Muiroz H., Member of Terminology and Translation Research Grou

4 John Jairo Giraldo O., Member of Terminology and Translation Research Group Address:

Universidad de Antioquia

Bloque 11 -104

A.A. 1226

Medellín

(Colombia)

in  general,  specialized  and  literary  translation  at  a  cognitive,  metacognitive, socio-professional, ethical and political level.

The  following  theoretical  and  methodological  considerations  are valid for medical texts as well as for any other kind of scientific and technical texts to be translated into foreign languages.

Scientific development in translation has gone through many changes during history. Translation has changed from literal to dynamic equivalence. Today, it is not a totally empirical discipline any longer but reaches  a  wide  and  interdisciplinary  theoretical  basis.  This  aspect (interdisciplinarity) has permitted its own advance and that of each of the contributing disciplines such as discourse analysis, semiotics, linguistics,  psycholinguistics,  ethnolinguistics,  informatics,  literature, etc. (Wills 1996: 133).

In spite of its advance up to now, there exist some theoretical myths, which go against the practice, theory, and the scientificity of translation as supported by Zaixi:

The author attributes the underdevelopment of translation theory to such factors as empiricism, mysticism, dogmatism, and lack of overview on the part of the translator and translation scholar. (Zaixi 1977: 352).

The  manifestation  of  such  dogmatism  is  that  people  tend  to  follow blindly ideas put forward by authorities without regard to the contexts in which these ideas were first put forward. (Zaixi 1977: 336) .

One of those myths is translation into a foreign language called tema, active translation, etc. However, it is important to explain that many translation theoreticians give us elements which contradict their own principles.

Some authors only mention translation into a foreign language to refute  it  dogmatically  like  Vasquez-Ayora  (1977),  Van  Deth  (1989), Newmark (1988, 1995), etc.

Newmark states,  from  the  beginning,  that  his Textbook  of  Translation will be for translators and would-be translators translating into their mother tongue:

I shall assume that you, the reader, are learning to translate into your language of habitual use, since that is the only way you can translate naturally,  accurately,  and  with  maximum  effectiveness. (Newmark 1988: 3).

However, he accepts that there exists translation into the foreign language called 'service translation' as a great contribution to bring na- tions together. Besides, Newmark states that a good level of reading and comprehension must be held in a foreign language and a particular interest in one of the main translation subjects (scientific and technical, literary, and general translation) as a part of the translational competence. It can be seen that he accepts this type of translation, although he does not explain its methodology. Later, Newmark assures that there exist translators in the United Kingdom who translate into a foreign language, but he still continues denying the fact with no convincing arguments with respect to the reality. He also states that even in the United Kingdom, the bidirectional practice is recognized in the social, corporate and professional worlds but is not well regarded by theoreticians. (Newmark 1988: 54).

It can be observed in this brief review how translation has been attached to a restricted context: the linguistic one. It has to be highlighted that  translation  cannot  be  reduced  to  a  linguistic  fact  because  it  is  a semiotized product which involves different circles of a geopolitical, social, ethic, pragmatic and conceptual character of all the special subject field communication in which it is handled, specific concepts of specific  subjects  with  special  languages  as  stated,  among  others,  by Felber  and  Picht  (1984),  Arntz  and  Picht  (1995),  Fedor  de  Diego (1995). In other words, the text is made up of both linguistic elements and concepts that support it in a particular situation.

In this way, concepts such as effectivity, naturality, and precision can be discussed because they only depend on the translator's ability but not on the text type or language. Thus, the characteristics of a professional translator such as the perfect knowledge of both languages at all levels is not necessary because of the fact that as Newmark points out, competence will mainly be on the level of reading comprehension of the foreign  language.  It  is  even  known  that  in  their  native  language  most speakers do not have an adequate competence in the four skills and that others have it intuitively. Besides, the translator, as a specialist in languages who daily thinks of a language in a rational way, may translate into a FL using an adequate procedure which can be in both directions as Nord puts it:

...and (translation) should be valid for both directions, i.e. translating into as well as out of the translator´ s native language. The model thus produced can then serve as a general theoretical basis for translation studies, translator training, and translation practice. (Nord 1992: 12).

Here,  Nord  confirms  how  the  model(s)  of  translation  must  be  more general and less specific for a studied phenomenon or object as such as any theory must be.

Therefore, these arguments let a translation procedure be thought of as with no unification even if there is no methodological pattern among authors. On the contrary, some authors such as Neubert (1968), Wotjak (1981), Wilss (1982), Harris (1990), Nord (1992), Beeby (1996) state that methods, procedures, and techniques must be in both directions. In this way, it is intended to show that translation theory and practice can be done in both directions. For that reason, the methodology used in translating into the mother tongue can also be applied to translating into a  foreign  language  without  detriment  to  the  quality  of  the  translated text; that is to say, any model proposed so far may include both directions.

## 2. Methodological considerations

It is a fact that a quality translation requires an adequate methodology which includes text reception, text analysis of sender, receiver, intention-effect, channel, time, place, function, motive, and terminological units as well as medical specific language structures such as multinoun compounds, passive voice (quasi-passive in Spanish), -ly adverbs, terminology acronyms, Latin words, etc. It also requires  knowledge of procedures, techniques and tools for the transfer phase, revision and edition strategies as well as translational competencies at a cognitive, metacognitive and socio-professional levels such as the analysis, control, revision, production and management of the client and the necessary information tools and resources, and mode of delivery. The following methodology was used.

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The methodological process for this work is always done with precise steps that shape the terminology as well as concept and term precision.

Lirti, Mnboublagiail (Tomanplagion), and fobiet Fald Compebenone

According to Plested (1987) and Sandrini (1998)

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Therefore, using methodological competence means doing a conceptually-oriented  analysis  by  means  of  concept  and  definition  precision. Cognitive  competence  involves  the  knowing  of  both  terminology science theory and the subject field or subfields as happens in medicine, e.g. a medical text on Malaria may involve the following fields: parasitology, statistics, research methods, lab techniques, immunology, taxonomy,  etc.  According  to  this  process,  terminology  work  permits  the solving of conceptual problems, e.g. interpretation of knowledge units in the way messages are transmitted through conceptual units. Termi- nology is indeed the coverage that involves information strategies with specialized communication and knowledge transfer in each specialized field (LSP). In this way, the translator avoids loss of time searching for 'medical'  terminology  just  in  medical  dictionaries.  He/she  will  use different sources and subject field dictionaries for a medical text.

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According to (Budin 1996: 126)

Terminology analysis and terminography work need the mental configuration of a subject field expert, in this case for the translator.

## 3. Geopolitical and ethical considerations

However, translation into a foreign language has a very marked geopolitical aspect. The traditional arguments originate in multilingual countries and regions where finding translators into different languages is easier  and  where  geographical  distances  are  short.  London,  Paris, Madrid and Berlin are  neighboring  capitals  with  different  languages and in case of not finding a translator, one of these cities can be resorted to by means of electronic communication.

Harris  reaffirms  the  hypothesis  about  the  geopolitical  framework from the viewpoint of interpretation. Geographical, political and linguistic contexts create the need for translation in both directions, into the native language and into the foreign language:

The norm taught in Western European interpreter schools is that professional conference interpreters should only work into their language A (i.e. their first language). I am tempted to call it a dogma, since I myself  have  been  criticized  by  members  of  AIIC  (the  International Association of Conference Interpreters) for insisting that our students at the University of Ottawa must learn to interpret as a matter of routine into their second (B) language as well, and be examined on their performance in both directions, B to A and A to B.[....]. However, it is a norm that is just not practical in places and in some circumstancesso it then ceases to be the norm. First, it will not work in most escort and court interpreting, where there is usually one interpreter to serve everybody [...] Secondly, it will not work in places where there is a shortage  of  native-speaker  interpreters  into  foreign  languages,  for example in the Soviet Union, where consequently the Western norm is not applied [...] Then again, it does not work well in Canada... (Harris 1990: 116).

What happens in a linguistic context such as that of Latin America concerning translation needs? It is well known that although there are many minority native languages (such as Quechua) it is not a multilingual region like Europe. Except in very few countries of Central and South America, Spanish is the official and most used language with a very small community of professional translators.

In Colombia, for example, there are few well trained translators and a lot of empiric translators, due mainly to the lack of translator training programs. Thus, it is understandable that very few translators of languages other than Spanish are available, that there are only some professional translators, and that translator training programs are just starting. Also, most of the few foreign citizens residing in the area that do translation work, do not have training in the field or are mainly engaged in other economic activities. And many times when they are hired for translation revisions, they are not qualified enough to meet the standards of a professional job, as in the case of medical translation (Muñoz & Quiroz, 1997).

As a result of the above situation, it is often the case that translation from Spanish into any foreign language is and has to be done by Spanish native speakers. Frequently, these translators do not have academic training in translation. They are usually personnel with a certain degree of command of one or several languages such as English, French, German, Spanish, etc. Since the 50's a proficiency test has been established as a requisite to become a certified official translator and interpreter.

All of the above specific contexts of situations of translation work in Latin America, and hence in Colombia, point to the search for an applied methodology which covers the real professional requirements in our countries. Therefore, we consider that a bidirectional methodology in the translation processes is the proper way. Also, this bidirectional translation practice is further legitimized by the everyday practice in view of such circumstances.

When dealing with the ethical and practical dimensions of translation, one has to bear in mind that theme and version are left for thirdparties to do: engineers, medical doctors, businessmen, and even secretaries (Gouadec 1989: 5). In Latin America it is a fact that translation into foreign languages is being done by nonnative speakers and with poor or no quality control.

Why not accept that it is a valid modality and strengthen quality control and adopt a methodology to insure that translations into foreign languages have acceptable quality standards? In this dimension, the social, ethical  and  practical  aspects  of  translation  are  superposed  within.  If nonnative  third-parties  engage  in  translation  into  foreign  languages, very often without due academic training and/or knowledge of the foreign language, why not accept that it can be done by a professionally trained translator with a carefully controlled process and an appropriate methodology? What about the professional knowledge of the translator?  Cannot  interdisciplinary  cooperation  achieve  high  standards  in translation into foreign languages?

Then, why not accept that theoretically it can be done and only new strategies and methodologies are needed to successfully carry out translation into foreign languages? Why not do it and with professionals? If we look at translation as a process and as product, it can be done both ways:

All translation processes are designed to be transferred from a source language to a target language, the process having the possibility of being effected from the mother language to the foreign language as well as the other way around - in each direction with its particular difficulties for translation. (Wilss 1982:71)

In the same perspective, Nord argues for the adirectionality of the translation process when she deals with her text analysis model (looping): In her view, it should be possible to produce a model of translation-oriented text analysis without reference to the specific characteristics of the source or target languages. It should not depend on the translator's level of competence (i.e. on whether he/she is a professional or a trainee) and should be valid for both directions, i.e. translating into as well as out of the  translator's  native  language.  The  model  thus  produced  can  then serve  as  a  general  theoretical  basis  for  translation  studies,  translator training, and translation practice.

We want to remark that the translation of specific subject field texts such as the medical texts need to be seen as a disciplinary subfield in the specialized communication processes within language for medical purposes. Therefore, a translator's methodological training must take into account the relation among knowledge, information processes, and specialized communication which overlap on the axis of the subject field units of knowledge (Budin 1996), that is to say terminology.

Nowadays, we as terminologists-translators  have  tested  the  above mentioned methodological procedures in the medical field. It means that we ourselves have been translating articles about research results in tropical diseases (Malaria and Leishmaniosis), which have been published in indexed journals of that field.

## 4. Conclusions

Having looked at  both  positions  concerning  the  legitimacy  of  translation into foreign languages by nonnative speakers, we can now maintain that some theoreticians have a narrow concept about language and translation, since they reduce translation to the linguistic dimension and seem to look at it as a non systematic process. These viewpoints are not universal and therefore do not take into account other more complex contexts  of  translation.  Some  authors  have  restricted  the  translation problem to a regional setting, overlooking translation and interpretation history as well as the social practice already explicitly stated.

The above shows that if translation is carried out with a controlled process, a good product should be obtained. Then, the processes can become adirectional, making it possible to build more powerful, adequate and general theory leading to a more scientific translation and thus, to delineate a methodology that allows for more rationality, control and precision of translation into foreign languages and/or mother tongue. Hence, resorting to linguistically and professionally competent translators leads to a higher degree of scientific qualification.

Besides, we should always take into account the importance of the specific  subject  field  matter  and  configuration  as  well  as  its  specific units of knowledge. This is one of the most important capabilities any translator has to have.

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