## CULTURE AND HISTORY Nr. 01 Juni 2023

## NEW APPROACHES TO THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

Global, Digital, Institutional, Biographical

By: Haakon A. Ikonomou History

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ABSTRACT: This brief introduction aims to situate this special issue's contributions within the broader historiographical shifts in the scholarship on the League of Nations. Particularly, it highlights how global, digital, institutional and biographical approaches have helped reveal the sheer scale and complexity of the League's role in interwar world ordering. The second aim of the introduction is to shed light on the work process leading up to this special issue: it involved several research-based courses, an integrated digital history project, and tailored seminars to turn exams into articles.

KEYWORDS: League of Nations, global history, digital history, biography, research-based teaching

## CULTURE AND HISTORY Nr. 01 Juni 2023

## Historiographical reflections

Following the First World War, the League of Nations (1920-1946) was set up as the first standing international  organization  (IO)  with  a  global  scope.  The  aim  was  to  foster  multilateral  cooperation, maintain economic stability and secure peace along the lines of the victorious powers. A deeply flawed yet innovative laboratory of global governance within a range policy fields, the League transformed the international sphere: With it, some of the basic mechanics of modern multilateral politics found their initial  shape  and  the  threshold  to  the  20 th and  21 st century  -  centuries  of  world  organizations  -  was crossed.  Despite the  onset  of  the  Second  World War,  the  fundamental  design of  the  League  and  its institutional  set-up,  would  be  adjusted  and  enhanced  in  a  second  generation  of  international organizations - the UN, EU, NATO and more - that remain with us today.

Our understanding of the League of Nations has changed drastically over the last few decades. Moving along from the idea that the outbreak of the Second World War made it, simply, a failure, it is now being reinterpreted as the training grounds of global governance in a multitude of fields (Pedersen 2007). The change  was  brought  on  by  the  so-called  transnational  turn  in  international  history  from  the  1990s onwards. While scholarship on the League of Nations in the postwar years to the 1980s predominantly wanted to understand why it failed, the new wave of research sought to understand how it functioned and what it did. In the 2000s and 2010s, this shift in perspective brought under the historians' gaze the full range of the League's activities, and particularly the landscape beyond traditional 'high politics' - health, economy and finance, intellectual cooperation, international law, social questions, transit etc. - in order to explore the policy shaping powers that lay in the networks of expertise and interests that clustered in Geneva (Mazower 2012; Borowy 2009; Laqua (ed.) 2011; Clavin 2013; Sluga 2013; Kott & Droux (eds.) 2013; Pedersen 2015; Sluga & Clavin (eds.) 2017; Maul 2019; Rodogno 2021). The League is today recognized as a nodal point where the exertion of power was moulded into bureaucratic, technical, and legal procedures of world ordering (Wheatley 2019; Mulder 2022; Herren & Okuda (eds.) 2014; GramSkjoldager, Ikonomou & Kahlert (eds.) 2020).

## CULTURE AND HISTORY Nr. 01 Juni 2023

Indeed, this research builds on and feeds into a much more nuanced understanding of the interwar period itself.  Long  gone  are  the  rigid  debates  of  one  or  two  world  wars . First,  the  First  World  War,  and particularly  its  violent  aftermath,  but  also  the  onset  of  the  Second  World  War,  is  now  studied  as experienced  very  differently  depending  on  geography  (among  other  things).  Much  of  the  Balkans (particularly Greece) and the Ottoman Empire/Turkey were at various stages of war from 1912 to 1923 (Gerwarth  &  Manela  2015;  Abbenhuis  &  Tames  2021;  Winters  2023).  China's  already  perforated sovereignty  was  violated  with  the  Manchurian  Crisis  and  subsequent  Japanese  invasion  from  1931 onwards. The former German colonies and Ottoman territories were incorporated into the League's internationalized colonial governance structure - the Mandates System. They would endure systematic oppression, militarized violence and complete lack of self-determination throughout the interwar period. Recent literature has reaffirmed and centred the League's role in an imperial world order, with Britain and France at its centre, which shaped the UN's creation fundamentally as well (Cf. Anghie 2005; Amrith 2006; Mazower 2009; Pedersen 2015; Bandeira & Monteiro 2017; Smith 2018; Jackson & O'Malley (eds.) 2018; Martin 2022). Second, with the works of historian Zara Steiner, and many others, the 'eurocentric'  interwar  period  has  equally  been  nuanced.  It  has  been  divided  into  a  postwar  era  of  careful reconstruction and experimental cooperation, followed by the hinge years when economic depression, political crisis, and autocratic challengers broke down the order built up around the League of Nations. This was followed by a 'pre-war' period from 1933 onwards (Hitler's ascent to power being the turning point) (Steiner 2007, 2013; Tooze 2014; Cohrs 2022, Tournès 2022). In short, global and imperial perspectives and international history that moves beyond methodological nationalism, have brought out new facets of the years of the League's existence.

Nuancing such macro- or meso- perspectives have been a surge in research on individuals or groups of people acting in the international sphere created and sustained by the League of Nations, the International Labour  Organization  (ILO),  the  multiple  professional associations and  (transnational) political movements  of  the  interwar  era,  civil  society  and  state  administrations. 1 What has  emerged  is  a  new appreciation of the complex, multidirectional and oft-frustrated agency of international actors. Studying

1 On the broader historiography on internationalisms: Iriye 1997; Iriye 2004; Davies 2007; Schot & Lagendijk 2008; Laqua 2011; Clavin 2012; Mazower 2012; Sluga 2013; Kaiser & Schot 2014; Pedersen 2015; Rosenboim 2017; Imlay 2018; Kott & Patel (eds.) 2018; Thakur 2021; Wagner 2022.

## CULTURE AND HISTORY Nr. 01 Juni 2023

internationalism and multilateral cooperation 'from below', historians Jessica Reinisch and David Brydan note, means appreciating the 'ubiquity and heterogeneity of internationalist endeavours' and paying 'close attention to how people have been 'doing internationalism'' (Brydan & Rheinisch (eds.) 2021, 7). Such approaches are useful vehicles to challenge, transcend and connect the neat categorizations that can dominate studies on a larger scale (Almagor et. al. 2023).

The transnational studies of international actors have been complemented with research on the lasting institutional frameworks within and between which these women and men acted. Several scholars have focussed  on  the  structuring  potential  of  the  League  of  Nations,  and  particularly  its  Secretariat  as  an institution, with specific bureaucratic norms and procedures. 2 The League Secretariat was an institution that combined diplomatic, technocratic, and bureaucratic modalities in distinct and lasting ways and the officials working there were exerting institutionalized forms of power. The interplay of structure, norms and  agency  is  apparent  in  the  many  important  contributions  focussing  on  women  employees  of  the League Secretariat. These studies are particularly sensitive towards the systemic discrimination inherent in  the  League  Secretariat,  despite  its  lofty  ambitions,  but  also  the  many  unrecognized,  informal  or disputed forms of power and influence women had in the engine room of the League (Piguet 2019, 2021; McCarthy 2014 ; Herren 2015; Sluga 2017).

The structured agency of League employees and other international actors of the interwar period has increasingly  been  investigated  by  combining  biographical  approaches  (individual  lives,  collective biographies,  and  prosopography,  social  network  analyses)  with  broader  analytical  scales  using  digital approaches. Madeleine Herren pioneered this approach with regards to the League of Nations and other international organizations, placing the 'boundary-spanners' of international relations at the centre of her analysis of global ordering in the 19 th and 20 th century (Herren 2009; Herren & Löhr (eds.) 2013; Herren (ed.) 2014). She also headed the important digital history project LONSEA, which created a search  engine  -  based  on  primary  sources  and  handbooks  -  to  explore  networks  of  internationalists, international  officials  and  international  and  non-governmental  organizations  in  the  interwar  period

2 For this particular wave of research: Auberer 2016; Tollardo 2016; Gram-Skjoldager & Ikonomou 2019AB; Ikonomou &

Gram-Skjoldager (eds.) 2019; Ikonomou 2021; Kahlert 2019; Cloet 2019; Moraes 2019; Gram-Skjoldager, Ikonomou, Kahlert (eds.) 2020; Tyler 2021; Seidenfaden 2022; Mumby 2022. Within historical IR, cf.: Reinalda 2009, 2011, 2013, 2019, 2020.

## CULTURE AND HISTORY Nr. 01 Juni 2023

(Herren, Sibille & Meigen (eds.) 2010-2016). Over the last several years, this trend has been followed up by several social network analyses (SNA) of League of Nations, focussing primarily on the various transnational  (business,  imperial,  philanthropic,  educational,  ideological,  expertise,  epistemic  etc.) networks  that  the  IO  was  embedded  in,  or  exploring  the  broader  patterns  of  the  make-up  of  the organization (Cf. Grandjean 2018).

Emanating from these historiographical and methodological developments is a new understanding of the role played by the League of Nations in bringing about a fundamental transformation of the international sphere: that is, how the way multilateral politics were conducted found a lasting institutionalized shape. The repercussions of this have been felt - for better or worse - across the globe and into the present day.

## A note on the process

This  special  issue  is  the  end-result  of  a  source-based  course, The  League  of  Nations:  international organization,  international  politics  and  internationalism,  1850s-1950s ,  offered  at  the  Saxo  Institute  in spring 2022. In this course the students explored five themes: (1) The emergence of internationalisms in the 19th century; (2) The devastating and transformative impact of the First World War; (3) The Paris Peace Conference and its lasting effects on 20th-century international relations; (4) The organization of the League of Nations and the role it played in interwar politics and technical cooperation; and (5) The legacies and lessons learned from the League into postwar international politics and organization. As seen from the above, the point was neither to recapitulate a narrative of failure, nor to shy away from the many darker  sides  of  the  League,  as  an  instrument  of  Euro-centric  civilizational  stratification  and  imperial governance, but to centre on its functions and practices. With offset in the newly digitized archives of the League of Nations, held at the United Nations in Geneva, the central methodological and empirical questions of the course was: What is the role of individuals, their experiences and competences, their social backgrounds and networks, their practices and desires, in shaping global politics?

The course was selected for a special programme in research-based teaching experiments, which gave us the opportunity to bring in a unique element, namely social network analysis. To this end, parts of the course was co-taught with Data Specialist Obaida Hanteer, Southern Campus Datalab, and supported by Xiaoyu Shi (DIKU, MA Student) and Jonas Tilsted (Saxo, BA Student). The network analysis aimed to trace the career trajectories, professional backgrounds, nationalities and genders of the permanent staff

## CULTURE AND HISTORY Nr. 01 Juni 2023

of the League of Nations Secretariat as it mapped on to its various branches and sections. The network analysis builts on two sets of prosopographical data (standardized biographical information): The alreadymentioned  LONSEA  database,  created  a  decade  ago  at  Heidelberg  University,  consisting  of  key biographical information (name, age, gender, nationality) as well as contractual information (position, rank, start of contract and end of contract) of all employees of the League Secretariat (and many more). And, secondly, the newly generated dataset from the so-called LONTAD-project (the United Nations Library & Archives Geneva's digitalization of all 15,000,000 pages of the League of Nations Archives). The  added  value  of  the  LONTAD  prosopographical  dataset  is  that  it  contains  information  about educational and professional backgrounds of League staff, and to some extent career trajectories after their contracts ended. The students learnt how to visualize networks in Gephi, which is an open-source software dedicated to network visualization. The network-based analysis could be part of the written exam papers, though this was no requirement.

The  course  was  also  an  integrated  part  of  the  project Visualizing  the  League  of  Nations  Secretariat ( VisuaLeague ). VisuaLeague is a digital research tool where users can (1) select, combine and search on nationality, gender, institutional entity, division and position within any given time span of the League Secretariat's existence freely, (2) visualize statistical representations of one's choices and (3) browse and download prosopographical data curated by oneself. The preparatory work of the team of instructors and scholars - Obaida, Xiaoyu, Jonas and myself - together with the visualizations, findings, questions, ideas and trouble-shooting of the students, played an instrumental part in its development. In the fall of 2022, Jonas Tilsted completed an internship at the UN Library & Archives Geneva, while Yuan Chen (DIKU, MA Student) became a central part of the project. This allowed us to work systematically - with data cleaning, coding and layout - towards the project's completion in February 2023. VisuaLeague is freely available and can be accessed here: https://visualeague-researchtool.com/.

Meanwhile, in the fall of 2022, I convened two seminars, with eight students motivated to develop their exam papers from the spring course into a special issue for Culture & History. The first seminar was devoted to re-writing the introduction and premise of the paper, laying out structure of the eventual journal article. The second seminar had the format of a workshop, where the students presented reworked, first-draft articles, and received comments and questions from experts in the field. We thank Karin van

## CULTURE AND HISTORY Nr. 01 Juni 2023

Leeuwen  (Maastricht  University),  Laura  Almagor  (University  of  Utrecht),  Michael  Jonas  (HelmutSchmidt-Universität  Hamburg),  Vera  Fritz  (University  of  Copenhagen)  and  Emil  Seidenfaden (University of Copenhagen) for their insightful interventions. The contributions to this special issue have thus taken colour from many scholars across disciplines, several different work processes (lectures, digital experiments,  writing  workshops  etc.)  and  an  ongoing  research  project  with  multiple  institutional partners. Exploring the range of the digitized League of Nations Archives, Hav P. Leu, Nils Holm, Malika Shaakerimova,  Jonas  Tilsted,  Cecilie  Plambeck-Grotum,  Rasmus  Andersson,  Jacob  Nedergaard  and Sebastian Vang Jensen pursue genuinely new approaches to the League of Nations and international cooperation more broadly - from global, digital, institutional and biographical perspectives. Together, they bring home the sheer scale and complexity of the League of Nations attempt at ordering the world.

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