## DISTURBING FLOWERS: THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL COLOURS OF CLAUD. RAPT. PROS. 2.90-132

By Beatrice Bersani

Summary: Claudian's colourful images have often been studied for their decorative function and as examples of late-antique fragmentary style. More recent scholarship, instead, has proposed that colouring provides coherence to the text through its symbolic meanings. This article analyses the aesthetic and symbolic significance of colourful imagery by differentiating between the three main dimensions of colour: brightness, saturation and hue. The blossoming meadow of Claud. Rapt. Pros. 2.90-132 is an ideal case study: a focus on all three colour components highlights that the formal choices and the symbolic meanings are not opposite or separate, but parallel in their fragmentary coherence, and each important for the interpretation of the text. Both the visual effects and the metaphoric charge of Claudian's colourful flowers undermine the idyllic atmosphere of the meadow and foreshadow Proserpina's abduction.

## INTRODUCTION

Accumulations of colour-terms characterize the fully-detailed images of Claudian's  poetry,  as  research  has  been  highlighting  since  Gualandri 1968,  Charlet  1988  and  Roberts  1989. 1 The  poet  privileges  clusters  of similar hues, of polychromatic imagery and of sharp contrasts between white and black or white and red. Such visual intensity and variety of

* I am grateful to Professor Andrea Balbo and Doctor Aaron D. Pelttari for their constant and precise suggestions on how to improve this paper. I would also like to thank the anonymous reviewer and the editors of Classica et Mediaevalia for their valuable comments.
- 1 See Gualandri 1968, Charlet 1988, 1991, and Roberts 1989 on the style of Claudian and other late antique authors' poetry.

Beatrice  Bersani:  'Disturbing  Flowers:  The  Three-dimensional  Colours  of  Claud. Rapt. Pros. 2.90-132' C&M 71 (2022) 1-21.

colours have often been studied for their aesthetic value and taken as examples  of  a  'jewelled'  and  fragmentary  style.  Recently,  Coombe's article  on De  Raptu  Proserpinae has  proposed  that  colouring  possesses, instead, a structuring besides decorative function, and that it provides coherence  within  an  apparently  episodic  narration . 2 Light  effects,  in particular,  bring  cohesion  to  the  narrative  plot  for  their  recursive symbolic meanings: interplays of light and darkness signal the mixing of upperworld and underworld thematized by Proserpina's myth, and the staining  action  of  dark  shades  and  pallor  on  light-filled  elements constantly reminds the reader of the irruption of death into life. 3

Coombe's paper suggests that structuring colours are evident in the colourful  ekphrases  of  vegetation  of Rapt.  Pros. 2.90-130. 4 Focusing  on these  lines,  my  article  seeks  to  introduce  tools  for  examining  colours which allow for a deeper comprehension of this and other texts. I will argue that, in order to gain a more complete understanding of the text, it  is  essential  that  we  conceive  colour  as  a  composite  phenomenon: although previous discussions have centred on effects of brightness and darkness, the full range of chromatic components (brightness, saturation and hue) is employed to create a plot that is fragmented but coherent symbolically.

My  focus  on  all  three  colour  components  will  highlight  that  the perspectives adopted by stylistic and hermeneutic studies are parallel and  interdependent,  rather  than  separate.  The  way  in  which  colourterms  are  formally  organized  on  the  page,  indeed,  can  mirror  and suggest emotional responses or symbolic meanings. From a formal and aesthetic point of view, for instance, white and red juxtaposed form a contrast between the most and the least saturated hue. In parallel, this precise  juxtaposition  recalls  a  sensation  of  conflict  and  hints  at  the symbology of death. The final section of the paper will draw particular

- 2 Coombe 2017: 260. The reference is especially to Gualandri 1968 and Roberts 1989, and their comparisons between late Latin poetry and mosaics. Hardie 2019 disapproves of these comparisons and highlights, instead, the coherence of late antique texts.
- 3 See also Borca 2000 and Mandile 2013 specifically about the Underworld: its lifeless atmosphere is recalled by non-colours (grey, foggy shades), paleness and darkness.

4 Coombe 2017: 253-54, 258.

attention  to  lines  98-100,  a  simile  between  the  Etnean  flowers  and  a 'green'  rainbow.  The  three  colour  components  will  offer  a  deeper understanding of this unlikely colourful description and of its underlying symbolic meaning. The symbolism recalled by the colour-terms will be connected to a colourful allusion to Thebaid 4,  which  is  critical  to  the interpretation of the whole passage.

The final purpose of this article is to suggest new potential research perspectives  on  how  colour  operates  in  general  in  poetry,  and  in particular in Claudian. Firstly, it will propose a more accurate instrument of analysis (chromatic tridimensionality) that fully highlights the visual sensibility of these texts. Secondly, and as a consequence, it will offer a more precise view of how colours imply metaphoric meanings that also work as factors of coherence. Ultimately, the study of this passage makes it possible to go beyond Roberts' stylistic viewpoint of 'jewelled style' and 'disjoint fragmentation'. 5 The late antique text uses both the aesthetic and  symbolic  impact  of  colour  to  suggest  meaningful  associations:  in doing this, it creates coherent narratives within fragmented visions, and fragmented visions according to a coherent plan.

## THE COMPONENTS OF COLOUR AND THEIR USE IN THE FLOWER CATALOGUES

Colour is a complex phenomenon that depends on how the human visual organs and the brain elaborate the physical properties of light. Light is the  spectrum  of  the  electro-magnetic  radiation  with  wavelengths between 380 and 760 nanometres. White light is what we perceive when all these wavelengths are mixed together. When we de-compose white light in single beams (for example making it pass through a prism), we obtain a continuous, rainbow-like sequence from violet to red, the visible spectrum: each chromatic sensation that we can detect on the spectrum corresponds to a certain wavelength. 6 Colloquially, we call the portions of  this  continuum  as  'colours'.  According  to  scientific  terminology, though, we should say 'hue': a 'hue' is the way in which we perceive a specific section of the spectrum with a specific wavelength. 'Colour' is a general term that describes how we sense an item in virtue of its hue and of  other  two  related  factors,  brightness  and  saturation.  Saturation corresponds to how 'intensely' we sense a certain chromatic radiation: this depends on the percentage of the same (monochromatic) wavelength compared with the percentage of white light contained in such radiation. Brightness is the amount of light perceived in a colour. In fact, every radiation has the same light intensity, but the human eye senses wavelengths around 550nm (yellow-green) as the most intense. As I  mentioned, hue, saturation and brightness in connection to each other define the colour of a certain item: blood is red, dark, and very saturated; a brick is red, less dark, and less saturated. Black and white are the two poles of the 'brightness' spectrum; red and white, instead, are respectively the most and the least saturated colours. 7 Claudian's poems contain several visual effects that integrate all these chromatic components in different ways. His texts often juxtapose different hues, degrees  of  saturation  and  light  effects,  and  tend  to  favour  chromatic contrasts that exploit the sharpest oppositions within all three parameters (typically, white and red, dark and light, red and black). The scene  that  I  am  going  to  analyse, Rapt.  Pros. 2.90-132,  offers  several examples of how Claudian plays with them to generate visual effects with high emotional and symbolic impact.

5 Roberts 1989.

See Tovée 2008: 1-108, Tilley 2011: 1-48 for an introduction on physics of light and

6 colour.

First of all, I shall introduce the context of the passage. A few lines earlier, Etna had prayed to Zephyrus (the subject of volat ) asking that he prepare its meadows. Here, Zephyrus has completed his work: Claudian describes the fields made fecund by the wind, where Proserpina and her companions are cheerfully collecting flowers. Mount Etna is portrayed as  a locus  amoenus :  the  atmosphere  is  typical  of  a  spring  day,  winds fertilize the soil, the sides of the volcano are described as gentle hills, and blossoms, fountains and a lake fill the landscape with life. 8 Let us zoom on the description of the flowers, my main point of interest:

7 See above and Smithson 2015: 437-65, Gunther 2019: 325-407, Hemming 2012 on science of colour and colour anthropology.

8 Gruzelier 1993: 186, Onorato 2008: 257. See also Charlet 2019: 23. For a detailed study on the ekphrasis of this locus amoenus , see Galand 1987.

- 90 Quaque volat vernus sequitur rubor; omnis in herbas turget humus medioque patent convexa sereno. sanguineo splendore rosas, vaccinia nigro imbuit et dulci violas ferrugine pingit. Parthica quae tantis variantur cingula gemmis
- 95 regales vinctura sinus? quae vellera tantum ditibus Assyrii spumis fucantur aeni? non tales volucer pandit Iunonius alas, nec sic innumeros arcu mutante colores incipiens redimitur hiemps, cum tramite flexo
- 100 semita discretis interviret umida nimbis.

And wherever he flies, the redness of spring follows; all the ground brims with grass and the celestial vault is disclosed, cloudless in its centre. He dips the roses in blood-red brilliance, the bilberries in black glow,  and  stains  the  violets  with  soft  rust.  Which  Parthian  belts, destined to gird the breasts of kings, are varied by so many gems? Which fleeces are equally dyed in the rich foams of the Assyrian vats? The bird of Juno does not spread such colourful wings, nor is the rising storm  thus  wreathed  by  the  bow  that  shifts  between  countless colours, when its watery path quivers green in its bent stream amidst the parted clouds. 9

At line 101, the flower catalogue and the related similes are followed by a lengthy description of the hills, the trees and the depths of Lake Pergus. Venus brings the attention back to the flowers at line 119, where she urges Proserpina and the nymphs to take advantage of the blossoming field. The virgins follow her exhortation:

- Pratorum spoliatur honos: haec lilia fuscis intexit violis; hanc mollis amaracus ornat; 130 haec graditur stellata rosis, haec alba ligustris. Te quoque, flebilibus maerens Hyacinthe figuris, Narcissumque metunt, nunc inclita germina veris,
- 9 Claudian's texts are from Gruzelier 1993; translations are mine.

## praestantes olim pueros […]

The grace of the meadows is stripped: this one weaves lilies with dark violets;  soft  marjoram  adorns  this  other  one;  this  one  walks  forth starred with roses, this one white with privet-flowers. You too they reap,  Hyacinthus,  lamenting  with  your  mournful  shapes,  and  you, Narcissus, now famous shoots of spring, once outstanding young men.

Read as a whole, these passages picture the scene preceding Proserpina's abduction,  which  all  the  main  literary  transpositions  of  the  myth report. 10 The Homeric Hymn to Demeter and Ovid's Metamorphoses and Fasti , like Claudian, draw great attention to the flowers and their colours: the reasons for this emphasis are that a flower (Narcissus) is responsible for Pluto's break-through, and that picking blossoms is a traditional element in representations of virginal rape. 11 As expected, Claudian's description offers  numerous  intertexts  with  the  Homeric  hymn  and  Ovid. 12 The structure of the catalogue and the flowers listed are borrowed from the Homeric hymn, although the later text is enriched with more species. 13 Ovid Met. 5.385-396 and Fast. 4.435-444, instead, influence the fact that Claudian does not present the daffodil as the trigger of the rape: in both passages,  vegetation  remains  a  pictorial  element  in  the  background. Claudian's debt to Met. 5  is  also  evident in  the  colouring  conveyed  by violets and lilies, the presence of Lake Pergus and a similar emphasis on

- 10  Ryser 2020: 154-80 offers an exhaustive discussion on Claudian's models and his reelaborations.
- 11  About the implications and literary connections between Claudian's text and the topos of virginal rape, see especially Rosenmeyer 2004: 175-76 and Coombe 2017: 254. I will just recall a few examples: in Theoc. Id. 11.30, Galatea is picking flowers when the cyclops falls in love with her; in Ap. Rhod. Arg. 3.896-99 Medea is doing the same before meeting Jason; in Moschus' Europa the girl is abducted while collecting flowers with her companions.
- 12  Onorato 2008: 261-62, Gruzelier 1993: 180, 189. Galand 1987 fully examines Claudian's debt to these models.
- 13 Hymn. Hom. Dem . 6-10: ' ἄνθεά τ᾽ αἰνυμένην , ῥόδα καὶ κρόκον ἠδ᾽ ἴα καλὰ / λειμῶν᾽ ἂμ μαλακὸν καὶ ἀγαλλίδας ἠδ᾽ ὑάκινθον / νάρκισσόν θ᾽ , ὃν φῦσε δόλον καλυκώπιδι κούρῃ / Γαῖα Διὸς βουλῇσι χαριζομένη Πολυδέκτῃ , / θαυμαστὸν γανόωντα .'

ver . 14 The author echoes Fast. 4 as he parallels the hyacinth at line 439, mentions the rose and the lilia alba at lines 441-42, and creates a similar effect of polyptoton and of asyndeton at lines 128-30. 15 At a formal level, one remarkable difference can be detected between De Raptu Proserpinae and the other three texts: the late antique poem breaks the unity of the single scene and doubles the flower catalogue. By bringing fragmentation  into  this  structure,  Claudian  actually  intensifies  the reader's attention and aesthetic response towards a single (meaningful) detail.

I  will  now focus on the first part of this broken catalogue as a first example of how the text employs chromatic components and creates repeated emotional-symbolic meanings through them. Previous scholarship has touched on the metaphoric charge of the blossoms and their colouring, but a comprehensive analysis that adopts a composite perspective makes it possible to recognize new shades of meaning. 16

Lines  90-93  mention red, bright red, purple, and blue-black plants. The variety of these colours recalls the luxurious atmosphere of the locus amoenus . At the same time, scholarship has noticed a connection with the erotic and violent charge of Proserpina's story exactly in the choice of these  visual  effects. 17 Focusing  on  the  purely  aesthetic  aspect  of  the passage,  we  notice  that vernus rubor at  line  90  introduces  the  general sensation of 'red', the dominating hue of these lines. In accordance with

- 14  Ov. Met. 5.385-96: 'haud procul Hennaeis lacus est a moenibus altae, / nomine Pergus, aquae. Non illo plura Caystros / carmina cycnorum labentibus audit in undis. / Silva coronat aquas cingens latus omne, suisque / frondibus ut velo Phoebeos submovet ictus. / Frigora dant rami, tyrios humus umida flores: / perpetuum ver est. Quo dum Proserpina luco / ludit et aut violas aut candida lilia carpit , / dumque puellari studio calathosque sinumque / implet et aequales certat superare legendo .' In this I follow Galand 1987: 93, pace Onorato 2008: 261-62.
- 15  Ov. Fast. 4.435-44: 'haec implet lento calathos e vimine nexos, / haec gremium, laxos degravat illa sinus: / illa legit calthas, huic sunt violaria curae, / illa papavereas subsecat ungue comas: / has, hyacinthe, tenes; illas, amarante, moraris: / pars thyma, pars rorem, pars meliloton amat. / plurima lecta rosa est, sunt et sine nomine flores; / ipsa crocos tenues liliaque alba legit, / carpendi studio paulatim longius itur, / et dominam casu nulla secuta comes.' I refer to the polyptoton haec / hanc and the asyndeton at Rapt. Pros. 2.128-30.
- 16  Galand 1987: 94-96 and 111-12, Coombe 2017: 253-54.
- 17  Coombe 2017: 253-54.

Berlin  and  Kay's  terminology, rubor is  a  basic  colour-term,  that  is  a lexeme enclosing the most comprehensive concept of the hue 'red': basic colour  terms  are,  besides  their  linguistic  properties,  psychologically salient for the perceiver. 18 Two lines later, this powerful sensation is decomposed  in  three,  more  specific  colour-terms: sanguineae ( rosae ), ferrugineae ( violae ), nigra ( vaccinia ). 19 Sanguineus represents the saturated red of the roses. Ferrugineus has to be understood as 'rust-coloured', in reference to the dark (probably purple) colour of the violets. 20 Vaccinium is either the blueberry, which is called niger for an intensification of its natural  blue-purple  hue,  or  the  blackberry  (or  another  similar  fruit), which looks almost black. In sum, actual reds (roses) are paired with dark 'reddish' hues (violets) and even with purple-black, a note of apparent discontinuity in the colourful canvas. 21 The variety is also suggested by the chiastic sequence of sanguineus and niger , one at the beginning and one at the end of the verse. In fact, the hue parameter does not vary too much  (all  these  flowers  have  a  certain  redness/purpleness),  while saturation and  brightness do: aesthetically, there is a  chromatic sequence, a descending climax, from most saturated to least saturated hue, and from brightest to darkest. Sanguineo splendore at line 90 suggests a very bright nuance of red, which is in itself the most saturated colour. The  following vaccinia  nigro  imbuit and violas  ferrugine  pingit ,  instead, diminish the concentration of red hue in favour of a greater darkness, typical of purple-black colours.

I should now analyse how these aesthetic choices affect the emotional and symbolic perception of these lines. To begin with, one should notice vernus rubor , the 'blush of spring'. By connecting spring with a colourterm (red), Claudian draws attention upon the seasonal cycle. This is a major theme of Proserpina's myth: according to the ancients, ver was linked  with  her  culminating  youth  and  with  her  presence  on  earth, which makes her mother benevolent. Rubor at line 90 and the following accumulation of red-related hues, thus, likely symbolize the exploding vitality of Proserpina and of Ceres as symbolic of nature. If the text insists so  much  on  the  colourful  lush  of  Mount  Etna  in  spring,  though,  one should wonder whether it just wants to depict its vitality, or, in fact, to prefigure its vanishing. The analysis of the three flower-colour matches at  lines  92-93  leaves  no  doubt.  As  mentioned  above,  the  list  seems  to evoke  the  prosperity  of  the locus  amoenus ,  also  because  it  recalls  the idyllic setting of Verg. Eclog. 2. 22 From a symbolic perspective, instead, the choice of the three hues with their different degrees of saturation and brightness anticipate death and rape. 23 The first image is the bloodred rose: the combination between the rose, flower of Venus, and a very saturated, eye-striking colour creates a strong erotic archetype connected with sexual passion and often found in epithalamic contexts. 24 Given Proserpina's 'flourishing' status, the red rose must be a metaphor of  her  sexual  readiness  for  her  soon-to-be  husband  -and  the  term sanguineus suggests  it  quite  explicitly. 25 Ripe  berries  and  violets,  then, create visual and symbolic connections with the husband in question, Pluto. Both fruit and violets share their darkness with the king of the Underworld and with the Underworld itself. Niger is the god of death's standard epithet, and his amictus in Rapt. Pros. 2.275 is said to be precisely ferrugineus . 26 One possible reason for this association between ferrugineus and  the  chthonic  lands  is  that  this  colour-term  recalls  a  process  of

18  Berlin & Kay 1969: 5-7. For an application of Berlin and Kay's theory to Latin, see especially Oniga 2007.

19  Galand 1987: 94, Onorato 2008: 252 and Guipponi-Gineste 2010: 57 have signalled this pattern.

20  On the meaning of ferrugineus , see Edgeworth 1978. Jacobson 1998: 315 suggests that violas ferrugine ( pingit ) is modelled on the Greek ἴα ἰῷ and does not refer to a particular shade of the violets.

21  See Onorato 2008: 261.

- 22  Guipponi-Gineste 2010: 57. Verg. Eclog. 2.18 alba ligustra cadunt, uaccinia nigra leguntur and 10.39 et nigrae uiolae sunt et uaccinia nigra are the source for vaccinia nigro at line 93. For the position of vaccinia within the verse, other models might be Verg. Eclog. 2.50 mollia luteola pingit uaccinia caltha and Ov. Trist. 1.1.5 nec te purpureo uelent uaccinia fuco . The rose, instead, recalls both the Hymn to Demeter and its recasting in Fasti .
- 23  Galand 1987: 111-12 and Coombe 2017: 253-54.
- 24  Charlet 2000: 189, Guipponi-Gineste 2010: 59, Coombe 2017: 254.
- 25  Coombe 2017: 254 sees in the 'blood-red' adjective a hint at the breaking of the goddess' hymen. See also Onorato 2008: 260, Guipponi-Gineste 2010: 59 on the symbolic value of the rose and its potential connections with Proserpina's imagery. Wheeler 1995: 124-27, has extensively treated the marriage-death topos in relation to Proserpina's abduction.
- 26  OLD s.v. niger ;  André 1949: 52-8. See also Rapt. Pros. 1.79-81: 'ipse rudi fultus solio nigraque verendus / maiestate sedet: squalent immania foedo / sceptra situ; sublime caput maestissima nubes.'

physical decay, the making of rust from iron. As a king, Pluto is expected to  wear  a  purple  cloak,  but,  as  personification  of  death,  this  appears rotten into a brownish-red shade. Likewise, the natural purple shade of the violets might be here de-saturated into a rust-like colour to suggest the same sense of decay. Iron itself has connections with the Underworld, for it inhabits the depths of the earth. Indeed, the chthonic context  is  described  as  iron-made  in Rapt.  Pros .1.127-128  […] Acheron Ditisque  severi  /  ferrea  lascivis  mollescant  corda  sagittis and  in Rapt.  Pros. 3.389-390 […] plantisque resultant / Tartara ferratis […]. 27

The colourful features of the three plants express a single concept, the present height of vitality and its imminent fading, and the red rose links such fading with the passage from virgin to wife. Each colour fills these lines with the omen that Proserpina's maturity corresponds to her withering:  indeed,  her  marriage  to  Pluto  is  literally  her  death. 28 Considering  the  general  colourful  effect,  as  well,  we  notice  that  the descending climax from most saturated to least saturated, brightest to darkest hue visually reproduces the virgin's descent to the dead. This point, though, only appears if careful attention is paid to all chromatic components. As a final consideration, I will mention that this passage confirms the fragmentary aesthetics of variation highlighted by Roberts: sanguineae rosae , ferrugineae violae and nigra vaccinia stand out of each line for their different light and intensity. Nevertheless, they create visual coherence  because  they  share  a  broader  dominion  (redness),  and because they interact with each other in a coherent pattern of chromatic degradation. Both the single colour-flower associations taken alone and their  coherent  effects  as  a  whole  iterate,  and  therefore  intensify,  the same meaning of death.

Lines 90-93 have allowed me  to introduce Claudian's way  of stimulating visual effects that connect single chromatic details with the main narrative plot (Proserpina's abduction), here producing a divergence between the cheerful look of the picture and its underlying atmosphere. I  will  now  focus  on  the  second  section  of  the  flower catalogue at lines 128-32. The author lists, in order of appearance, lilies, violets,  marjoram,  rose,  privet,  and  finally  hyacinth  and  daffodil. The hues introduced by these flowers stand out as whites (lily, hyacinth and daffodil) or purple-reds (violet, rose, marjoram). Lines 90-93 have mostly exploited  the  reddish  colour-range.  This  second  ekphrasis,  instead, iterates three antitheses based on the contrast of reddish and white hues and  on  their  cognitively-opposed  chromatic  parameters.  Each  line contains a couple: at 128 lilia and fuscis , white and dark, at 129 violis and amaracus , again purple (dark red) and white, at 130 rosis and alba ligustris , red  and  white.  Whereas  hue  remains  enclosed  in  the  reddish-white opposition in all three cases, the first two lines emphasize a brightnessdarkness  contrast,  while  the  third  is  based  on  a  most  remarkable divergence in saturation. Again, the chromatic choices imply a tribute to some literary predecessors. The same hues occur in Ov. Fast. 4.442 ipsa crocos tenues liliaque alba legit , from which the author borrows the lilies, and Met. 5.392 ludit et aut violas aut candida lilia carpit , from which he takes the contrast between violets and lilies. 29 The privet continues the tribute to Eclog. 2.18 alba ligustra cadunt, uaccinia nigra leguntur , already recalled by lines 90-93. In his re-elaboration, though, Claudian creates a double effect of visual variatio : on the one hand, he puts reddish and white hues in  contrast,  on  the  other,  he  changes  the  degree  of  darkness  and saturation in each line.

27  Guipponi-Gineste 2010: 58, Coombe 2017: 254.

28  Wheeler 1995: 125, Guipponi-Gineste 2010: 60 and Coombe 2017: 254.

The contrast of white and red strikes the eye, because it opposes, as mentioned  above,  the  most  saturated  (red)  and  the  least  saturated (white) colour. At an emotional level, this induces a sensation of conflict. Symbolically, these colours and their antithesis conjure images related to Proserpina's rape and confirm the overall negative sensation. To recall the previous discussion, dark violets are reminiscent of the tones of the Underworld, and the rose is an erotic archetype, repeated from line 91. White, instead, is traditionally the colour of innocence, young age and virginity -but also the paleness of death. White flowers, red roses or the two combined suggest love and death throughout Latin poetry. Thomas provides extensive evidence: white lilies represent death in Tib. 3.4.34 lilia et autumno candida mala rubent , in Verg. Aen. 12.68-9 lilia multa…alba rosa , and, juxtaposed to reds, in Aen. 7.708-9; violets and lilies have the same  function  in  Ov. Met. 10.190-191  (Hyacinth's  death)  and  Prop. 3.13.29-31 (the 'death' of the Golden Age), and so do violets and roses in Ov. Ars. 2.115-16. 30 Claudian is likely aware of the metaphoric charge of these  chromatic  effects,  and  the  replacement  of candida ( lilia )  in Met. 5.392 with fuscae (violets) in De Raptu Proserpinae hints at it: fuscis violis is broken in enjambement, so that the sensation of darkness appears twice and prevails over the brightness of the lily (stressed, instead, in Ovid's version). In sum, this passage presents a careful choice of colours and reelaboration  of  models  which  visually  and  symbolically  prefigures  the clash and confusion between life and afterlife portrayed by Proserpina's myth. As at lines 90-93, the rose, here in contrast with white marjoram, suggests  that  this  also  corresponds  to  the  (violent)  passage  from  a virginal to a sexual state.

The  choice  of  red  and  its  opposition  to  white,  the  variation  of darkness and saturation for each colour effect, and the role of all these sensations  in  creating  symbolic  connections  with  Proserpina's  rape make this passage a reinterpretation, or completion, of the first flower catalogue. As a result, Rapt. Pros. 90-130 looks studded with colour-flower associations  that  suggest  the  same  mournful  developments  in  two points. In perfect 'late antique style', the text fragments the description of  the  blossoming  fields  and  gives  it  coherence  by  repeating  similar colours,  chromatic  changes  and  symbolic  meanings.  Precisely  this breaking and variation on the theme creates an even stronger and more coherent interpretation of the text.

## THE VISUAL AND SYMBOLIC MEANING OF INTERVIREO I N THE SIMILE OF THE RAINBOW

Rapt. Pros. 98-100, like the framing flower catalogues at lines 90-93 and 128-30, generates a disturbing sensation of death. The passage compares the variety of the Etnean flowers with the colourfulness of the rainbow: while the simile suggests a sensation of liveliness, the only colour-term used, interviret ('is green among' the clouds, referred to the rainbow), fills the text with tension. 31 The reasons why 'green' has a threatening charge are mainly two: because, in association with the rainbow, it signals the arrival of a storm 32 and because it alludes to Statius' Thebaid ,  where it describes a concerning element of the landscape. This allusion, noticed but not yet analysed in previous scholarship, is decisive for the correct perception and interpretation of the passage. 33 The following paragraph will  address  its  implications,  to  shed  some  light  on  the  complex relationships between visual sensations, literary topoi and intertexts that Claudian  creates  through  this  single  colour-word.  Once  again,  my analysis will show  how  chromatic  components  are essential for acknowledging  and better understanding both the aesthetic and symbolic role of colour.

30  Thomas 1979: 312-14.

31  TLL 7.1.2303.84-2304.7, OLD s.v. intervireo .

To start, it is necessary to address the association of the colour green with the rainbow, treated also by Budaragina. 34 Differently from the red rose  and  the  rusty  violet,  this  colour  match  is  unrealistic  and  thus requires further consideration. One option is that the rainbow is called 'green' with no intention of reproducing real-life phenomena at all, and only to reinforce the simile between the sky and the presumably green meadow. However, there is at least one other monochromatic description of the rainbow where colour looks misplaced to the modern reader, but likely made sense to the ancient one. In his commentary to De Raptu Proserpinae , Onorato cites Prop. 3.5.32 purpureus pluvias cur bibit arcus  aquas ,  that  mentions  an  awkwardly  'purple'  rainbow. 35 Both Edgeworth and Bradley have pointed out that, in this case, the chromatic sensation stressed in the Latin term purpureus is not hue, but brightness: compared to modern languages, where colour-terms mainly correspond to different hues, Latin terminology is sensitive to degrees of brightness to a greater level. 36 Since for ancient authors the rainbow carries water

- 32  Coombe 2017: 257-58 mentions the rainbow as an anticipatory element for Proserpina's abduction.
- 33  Budaragina 2005 has reported but not investigated in depth the allusion to Statius' text. She has mainly focused on the literal meaning of intervireo , in the attempt to solve the incongruence of a green rainbow.
- 34  Budaragina 2005: 280-84.
- 35 Discreti nimbi in Rapt. Pros. 2.100 should be interpreted 'clouds still separated' rather than 'clouds disclosing after the storm'; see Onorato 2008: 253.
- 36  On purpureus as indicator of brightness and not only hue, see Edgeworth 1979 and Bradley 2009: 189-208. Similar discussions on other colour terms, especially candidus (as opposed to albus ), fulvus , flavus , rutilus , niger (as opposed to ater ), can be found in

and often announces storms, the bright 'purple' must suggest a sense of menace. 37 Here  we  must  wonder  whether  green,  like purpureus in Propertius,  reproduces  some  visual  attribute  of  the  rainbow  seen  as water-carrier.  Indeed,  it  is  not  unlikely  that semita  discretis interviret umida nimbis aims to represent the visual saturation of a rainbow fraught with rain, or its iridescent, water-like aspect -and not an unexplainable green hue. 38 If a 'green', saturated and vibrant rainbow is one that carries rain,  the  idyllic  atmosphere  of  the  present  passage  is  undermined.  In narrative terms, this colour-term plays the same role as the flowers and berries  at  lines  90-93:  both  of  them  represent  a  climatic  point  (the rainbow, because it is congested with rain, the vegetation, because it is at its highest level of ripeness) which foreshadows a negative explosion -the 'storm' or the 'withering', which symbolize the rape of Proserpina and which the flower-picking actually triggers. 39

The tension introduced by the visual effect(s) of intervireo is mirrored and enhanced by the intertextual background that this verb involves. Indeed, the only comparable locus where intervireo is used is Stat. Theb. 4.98-100 exutus laetisque minax interviret herbis / a miser! agrestum si quis per gramen hianti: / obvius et primo fraudaverit ora veneno , where it refers to a snake hiding in the grass and threatening a shepherd's safety. 40 It  is

André 1949. Bibliography that discusses brightness in Latin colour terminology includes Baran 1982 and Busatta 2014.

- 37  The rainbow can either be the prelude to a storm or the sign of its end. I agree with Onorato 2008: 253 and Coombe 2017: 257-58 that the first meaning seems more consistent, since both in Tib. 1.4.44 imbrifer arcus and in Stat. Theb. 10.125 nimborum fulva creatrix the rainbow is explicitly qualified as storm-carrier. About the imagery, functions  and  colours  of  the  rainbow,  see  Bonadeo  2004,  Bradley  2009:  36-55,  GrandClément 2018.
- 38 Viridis can apply to fog or saturation, see Auson. Mos. 15 viridis caligo .  On the other hand, Plin. Nat. 17.74 shows that viride caelum is  actually a way to say 'fresh, clear sky'. It is uncertain whether such a meaning could be transferred to viridis arcus (a rainbow that carries clear skies), but the fact that it forms umida semita seems rather to suggest an identification with the greenish and vibrant aspect of dense water. The rainbow which carries rain possesses the same aspect as a watercourse.
- 39  Besides the mentioned Coombe 2017: 257-58, see also Charlet 2000: 192 and Onorato 2008: 257.
- 40  This colour-term is actually present also in Sol. 52. 61: 'beryllorum genus dividitur in speciem multifariam: eximii intervirente glauci et caeruli temperamento' Both

unlikely  that  Claudian,  for  whom  Statius  is  a  major  model,  employs intervireo without  alluding to him: instead of choosing  a betterestablished chromatic association such as purpureus arcus ,  he  selects  a less foregone colour-verb only adopted here. 41 In purely visual terms, as well,  Statius  and  Claudian's  contexts  are  highly  similar:  a  rainbow between  clouds  does  resemble  a  snake  in  the  grass  for  its  shape,  its fluidity  and,  above  all,  its  colours.  The  snake,  indeed,  is  often  called caeruleus , iridescent, and I have argued earlier that a 'green' rainbow can suggest exactly a sense of vibrant iridescence -the rainbow is, after all, the iridescent  phenomenon par  excellence . 42 Finally,  Statius'  snake  and Claudian's rainbow are likely related in a symbolic way. Ancient myth and literature show very frequent connections between this phenomenon and the reptile,  starting  from  Hom. Il .  11.26,  where  the dragons sculpted on Agamemnon's armour are precisely compared with rainbows. According to Bonadeo's anthropological and literary study of Iris, snake and rainbow share the same metaphoric nature as 'elements of  passage'. 43 Whereas  the  first  makes  possible  the  transition  and communication between the human and the divine world, the second connects  terrestrial  life  to  chthonic  world.  Verg. Aen 5.84-89  (the description  of  the anguis  ingens )  is  a  clear  example  of  how  snake  and rainbow are related, because here the animal is both intended as a link with  the  underworld  and  compared  with  the  celestial  phenomenon. 44 The culture-driven, perhaps subconscious association between these two natural elements fully justifies Claudian's reminiscence of Thebaid 4.98 at

the genre of the work, a collection of memorabilia , and the context of use of interviret , though, are completely different from Claudian's text.

- 41  Budaragina 2005: 280-84. For an overview of Claudian's frequent allusions to Statius in the embroidering of his scenes, see Braden 1979: 210 and Gruzelier 1989. Wheeler 1995: 118-19 has also detected important allusions to Stat. Theb . 8.1-83 in the motif of the underworld opening in De Raptu Proserpinae .
- 42  Grand-Clément 2018: 202-07 for the iridescence of the rainbow and its connection with the snake.
- 43  Bonadeo 2004: 108-12.
- 44  Verg. Aen 5.84-9: 'dixerat haec, adytis cum lubricus anguis ab imis / septem ingens gyros, septena volumina traxit, / amplexus placide tumulum lapsusque per aras, / caeruleae cui terga notae, maculosus et auro / squamam incendebat fulgor, ceu nubibus arcus / mille iacit varios adverso sole colores. '

lines 98-100. Needless to say, such association loads the text with another negative  foreshadowing  of  Proserpina's  passage  to  a  new,  chthonic condition:  the  allusion  to  Statius'  snake  joins  the  peculiar  'green' colouring  of  the  rainbow  in  revealing  the  ominous  character  of  the simile. This impression is strengthened by the fact that Statius' reptile is called minax , a threat for the shepherd's life. The snake actually mediates between the upper world and those chthonic lands that Proserpina, too, is  destined to reach. And since the simile is between the rainbow and flowers,  which  in  fact  trigger  the  abduction  in  the  original  myth,  the allusion to the mournful snake forecasts Proserpina's transition to the underworld in even more precise terms.

There is  another  important  consideration.  As  Parkes  has observed, the  Statian  image  presents  a  certain  similarity  to  Eurydice's  death  in Verg. Georg. 4.458-59 immanem  ante  pedes  hydrum  moritura  puella  / servantem  ripas  alta  non  vidit  in  herba . 45 Both  pictures  portray  a  snake hiding in the grass, and menacing the character's life. In both, the animal cannot be distinguished from the background: Georg. 459 reads non vidit in herba , Theb . 4.98 reports interviret herbis . Precisely its invisibility causes the characters' explicit or supposed descent to the chthonic world. In Vergil, the snake plainly appears as Eurydice's killer; indeed, the girl is called moritura .  In  Statius,  the  suggestion  of  the  shepherd's  death  is indirectly contained within the apostrophe, but is still present. It is not unreasonable to argue that Claudian, in his use of intervireo , is aware of the  Vergilian  passage  on  Orpheus  and  builds  a  double  allusion  not previously identified. First of all, the Orphic myth has several connections with that of Ceres and Proserpina. The visions of the cosmic order implied by the Eleusinian and the Orphic traditions are indeed very close,  and  Proserpina  was  probably  included  in  later  Orphic  rituals. Claudian  was  probably  familiar,  if  not  with  the  Orphic  mysteries themselves, with their late antique literary transpositions: the narration of Proserpina's myth reported by these texts likely had some influence on  how  he  has  elaborated  his  subject. 46 Secondly,  Eurydice's  story  in Georgics recalls perfectly the narrative context of this passage, which is located right before Proserpina's descent to Hell. If this interpretation of text  and  (hypo-)hypotext  is  correct,  Eurydice's  death  as  described  by Vergil would  suggest and  anticipate Proserpina's descent to the Underworld,  as  much  as  a  'stormy'  greening  rainbow  does.  While Orpheus' beloved, though, is destined to the afterlife forever because of his failure, the latter will be permitted to go back to the earth thanks to her mother's power.

45  Parkes 2012: 97.

46  See Charlet 2000: 182-84 and above all Ryser 2020: 180-90, which contains a detailed discussion of whether, where and how Claudian could have been influenced by the orphic versions of Persephone's myth.

The  passage  is  handled  with  great  skill.  The  text  progresses  from description  to  simile.  The  simile  then  includes  a  composite  visual sensation which loads the whole picture with the prediction of a storm. The storm symbol, in turn, functions as an anticipation of Proserpina's physical passage to a new condition as dead wife. Through this very same chromatic  term,  Claudian  alludes  to  Statius  in  what  looks  like  a Kontrastimitation :  in  the  hypotext, intervireo is  inserted  in  a  negative picture  (a  snake  ready  to  bite),  in  the  text,  the  context  is  positive  (a rainbow recalling the exuberant colours of the flowers). 47 In fact, the two passages are in alignment, as suggested by the threatening meaning of green and a possible second allusion to Vergil. As a final parallel, the flowers  of  lines  90-93  and  128-30  will  provoke  Proserpina's  abduction into the chthonic world, as Statius's snake will send the shepherd to the afterlife.  Claudian is  writing  with  extreme compositional subtlety and shows  great  sensibility  to  multiple  layers  of  communication:  visual, emotional,  symbolic,  allusive.  All  this  is  suggested  by  the  simple,  yet highly conscious use of one colour-term exploited in all its possibilities.

## CONCLUSION

Colourful details in Rapt. Pros. 2.90-132 respond to the late antique taste for strong, polychromatic visualisation, and are fully aligned with the depiction  of  Mount  Etna  as  a locus  amoenus present  in  the  literary tradition.  Nevertheless,  both  the  aesthetic  effects  and  the  symbolic charge of such colours suggest a contrast with what superficially appears as an idyllic atmosphere. In the first example discussed, the insistence on red hues varied in darkness and saturation, and the fading of reds into dull  and  dark  purples  prepare  the  reader  for  the  erotic  and  chthonic character  of  this  myth.  In  the  second,  contrasts  between  whites  and different types of dark or saturated hues remind of the struggle between life and death, chastity and sexuality, that this poem thematizes. Finally, the use of the verb intervireo plays on multiple chromatic dimensions to create an ominous atmosphere, enhanced by an intertextual reference to Statius and Virgil. The rainbow and the allusion to the snake stress the concept  of  'bridge'  between  upper  and  underworld,  and  become themselves  a  'bridge'  between  temporal  events,  an  anticipation  of Proserpina's death.

47  For a definition of Kontrastimitation , Kaufmann 2017: 156-58.

The present paper confirms Coombe's statement that Claudian can skilfully bend colour to multiple needs: aesthetic, decorative, emotional and also narrative. To recall her words, cohesion may not be found in De Raptu Proserpinae 's rational and chronological presentation of facts, but certainly in the symbolic meanings of its chromatic effects. 48 However, my approach differs both from hers and from previous contributions in two ways. On the one hand, I have considered the formal and aesthetic choices (for example, the degradation of colours in lines 90-93) as neither separate nor in opposition to the symbolic meanings, but parallel -if not necessaryto them and equally important in suggesting the interpretation of the text. On the other, the discussion has introduced a more precise perspective on chromatic dimensions, which has made it possible to bring attention to more than the single colour (hue), or the single  light  effect.  The  focus  on  brightness,  saturation  and  hue  has allowed me to offer a more detailed and comprehensive understanding of the effect of colours-terms on the reader's visual perception of the text, emotions and expectations. Not only do variations within brightness anticipate Proserpina's abduction; juxtapositions and contrasts  between  different  degrees  of  saturation  and  hue  are  also essential for Claudian's narration. Finally, it has been highlighted that colour  choices  engage  with  multiple  literary  models  at  a  formal  but above  all  contextual  level.  Chromatic  allusions  to  previous  texts,  in particular  an  undetected  parallel  with  Vergil's Georgics and  a  not-yetanalysed reference to Statius' Thebaid , are the key to disclose the genuine character of the ekphrasis and, therefore, become elements of storytelling in their own right.

With my analysis, I wish to suggest that a similar, multi-perspective and complex approach to colour in poetry might open new possibilities for a more complete interpretation of Claudian's work. A viewpoint that encompasses style  and  meaning  can  show  how  late  antique  colourful descriptions do not have only a decorative function and are not only part of  mosaic-like,  formally  disjoint  narrations.  Colours  suggest  that  both formal  patterns  and  symbolic  meanings  can  be  fragmentary  and connected, or coherent even when the single detail is stressed.

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