## Hanna Risku & Angela Dickinson*

## Translators as Networkers: The Role of Virtual Communities

## Abstract

Recent  years  have  seen  a  rise  in  the  importance  of  virtual  and  real-life  knowledge sharing communities and communities of practice across many fi  elds of private and commercial  interest,  including  professional  translation.  This  article  examines  the characteristics  of  knowledge  sharing  communities  in  general,  identifi  es  their  key elements, looks at the motivation for membership and presents an empirical study of life in a thriving virtual translation community. In doing so, it draws on the results of a literature review combined with a participant observation based study and member survey  of  a  major  virtual  translation  community.  The  results  indicate  that  virtual translation communities can be lively platforms and offer translators a forum not only for sharing expert knowledge and collaborating, but also for keeping in touch with likeminded individuals.

## 1. Introduction

Over the past two decades, virtual communities and communities of practice have emerged across many fi  elds of interest and are now assuming an increasingly important role in the working or social lives of their members. Our interest in this topic began with an invitation to join the virtual translation community ProZ.com in 2001. Intrigued by the way members clearly identifi  ed with the site, we sought to understand their motivation for joining and for sharing knowledge so freely.

Our investigations showed that much of the literature on virtual communities focuses either on social communities, communities of practice or formal and informal networks within organisations. The relevance of those virtual communities that have emerged without a common corpo-

* Hanna Risku & Angela Dickinson Danube University Krems Dept. for Knowledge and Communication Management Dr. Karl-Dorrek-Str. 30 A-3500 Krems hanna.risku@donau-uni.ac.at

49

rate goal and thrive without the motivation of fulfi  lling corporate targets or fi  nancial rewards for the members is often overlooked (Schobert/ Schrott 2001: 519). Little material was available on professional (extraorganisational) virtual communities and few references could be found to translation communities.

In a series of articles written in 1995 and 1996 (and published in book form in 2006), Chriss appeals to translators to abandon their individualistic tendencies and realise they have colleagues around the world with whom to share information and experience. He suggests they communicate about terminology, technology, clients and other issues affecting the profession and start to regard each other as colleagues, friends and co-workers, not competitors. His recognition of the importance of collaboration for the future of the profession emphasised a need for interaction, mutual acceptance, knowledge sharing and cooperation. By doing so, translators would use synergies in their working environments, recognise and promote the professionalism of their fi  eld and work together to set common goals and standards for the profession.

This  appeal  did  not  go  unheeded,  and  recent  years  have  seen  the emergence of several virtual  translation  communities  (such  as  ProZ. com, TranslatorsCafe, LANTRA, GlossPost and Aquarius, to name but a few), with the communication possibilities offered by the internet enabling them to grow to a level of importance that merits recognition. Interest appears strong, and translators around the world are joining and devoting time and energy to participating in these communities (usually without direct fi  nancial gain).

This paper provides a theoretical look at virtual communities in general  and  seeks  to  identify  their  core  elements.  It  places  emphasis  on the motivation for membership and the role of virtual communities in knowledge exchange. Drawing on the results of a participant observation based study and member survey in a major virtual translation community, it looks at the relevance of such communities for the translation profession.

## 2. The Notion of Community

According  to  Lesser  et  al.  (2000:  vii),  '[...]  communities  consist  of three  components:  people,  places  and  things.  They  are  composed  of people who interact on a regular basis around a common set of issues, interests or needs'. However, there is much debate on whether a community can be virtual and/or exist solely on the internet (Wellmann/ Gulia 1999: 167). This arises from the traditional notion that community is based on mutual trust and that it is not possible to build trusting relationships without face-to-face communication. Although communities were traditionally centred around geographical locations, in recent years social network analysts have noted that the role of place is becoming less important and that such relationships can be maintained over long distances (Rheingold 1998; Wellmann/Gulia 1999: 169; Figallo 1998a).

## 2.1.  CoPs, Workgroups, Teams and Informal Networks in Organisations

Communities and networks have long played a role in organisations, but it is only in recent years that they have been paid serious attention. Wenger differentiates between communities of practice, formal workgroups, project teams and informal networks and sees organisational communities as 'the new frontier for organizations' and 'the promise of great opportunities for pioneers of the knowledge age' (Wenger: 1999: 5).

Communities of practice (CoPs) are informal, self-selecting groups generally formed by volunteer experts who share a common interest in a specifi  c area of competence (Wenger 1999: 3-5). Although they can have stated goals, their main purpose lies not in producing deliverables, but in learning together and sharing knowledge. Whilst CoPs are generally self-forming, organisational support and recognition help them reach their full potential both for their members and the organisation in which they are embedded. They are often non-permanent arrangements and only last as long as members share a common purpose and feel they can still learn from each other (Stewart 1997: 94-96; Seely Brown/Gray 1995).

In contrast, workgroups or teams are usually formed by management and consist of a group of people chosen to work on a joint project or task. Members are selected because they have the range of skills needed to achieve the project goals. Teams and workgroups typically remain in place until a project is fi  nished or the goals are realised (Wenger 1999; Skyrme 1999; Gill 2001).

Informal networks are another important form of knowledge sharing in organisations. In contrast to CoPs, they operate more at a social level and do not usually meet to discuss or work on a shared topic of interest (Wenger 1999). They are frequently built up over a long period of time and work without formal sanctions. Informal networks need not be restricted to company employees and can also include external contacts, customers, partners, or suppliers. Since informal networks '[...] function through personal contact and word of mouth, they engender the trust that is an essential engine of successful knowledge exchange' (Davenport/Prusak 2000: 37).

## 2.2.  Extra-Organisational Virtual Communities

Whilst the social aspect of learning and knowledge sharing plays a key role in CoPs and formal or informal networks, the need to network and share knowledge across chains of interdependent individuals and organisations can mean that the members of these networks are often not located at the same site or even in the same country. This has led to the emergence of virtual communities to enable them to keep in touch even without face-to-face meetings.

The term 'virtual community' was coined in 1968 by the internet pioneers Licklider and Taylor, who predicted that online interactive communities of the future would have a great impact on individuals and society, would consist of geographically separated members and be communities of common interest, not location (Licklider/Taylor 1968). At fi  rst glance, the notion of virtual community appears a contradiction in terms. Community is traditionally associated with a body of people living near one another who have something in common, where communication is usually verbal and face-to-face. Virtuality, on the other hand, is abstract and often associated with computers and cyberspace. People in virtual communities can live on the other side of the world, yet still form a community around a common interest. However, both local and virtual communities are in essence about people and interaction and all communities share certain characteristics. As Rheingold (1998) notes:

People in virtual communities use words on screens to ... engage in intellectual discourse, conduct commerce, exchange knowledge ... People in virtual communities do just about everything people do in real life, but we leave our bodies behind … a lot can happen within those boundaries.

## 2.3.  Virtual Knowledge Communities

Virtual  knowledge communities are organised groups of experts and other interested parties who exchange knowledge on their fi  eld of expertise in cyberspace within and across geographical or corporate borders. They focus on this knowledge domain, interact around relevant issues, expand their expertise through collaboration and build a common knowledge base (Skyrme 1999: 170).

Botkin (1999: 15) suggests communities are the answer to unlocking knowledge, since whilst membership doesn't necessarily solve a problem, it is more benefi  cial to be linked to a community of experts and colleagues than to be isolated. Referring to communities of knowledge, Allee (1997) notes they 'are so powerful that they now involve people in conversation with each other all over the globe'.

Freelance workers increasingly look to such communities to fi  ll a need in their working lives for collaboration, mutual learning or knowledge exchange. Membership is often voluntary, and people join because of their interest in the subject matter, making virtual communities ideal 'places' for constructive exchange. Knowledge sharing in such communities takes many forms, from discussions in parenting forums (Rheingold 1998) and yellow pages to targeted mailing lists or the KudoZ term help system at the translation community ProZ.com (Dickinson 2002).

## 3. Core Elements of Virtual Communities

The theoretical literature shows several common elements across virtual communities. If members do not identify with a community or share a common purpose, they are less likely to return regularly and interact frequently (Typaldos 2000). They also need a place to meet (although this no longer has to be a physical location) and continued, social interaction, preferably on a reciprocal basis, to build up trusting relationships (Rheingold 1998). The following section looks in more detail at the core elements of communities.

A community has to be centred around a shared purpose or common interest, which serves as the connecting link between members

(Covey 1998: 55). The shared purpose must be strong enough to encourage members to come together to achieve something collectively they could not do alone. The importance of a shared purpose should not be underestimated: it goes beyond just having something in common, which is unlikely to be enough to sustain a successful community (Rheingold 1998).

Communities need members and must attract the right kind of people (e.g. with expertise in the relevant fi  eld). Since membership is often voluntary, people join because they share the community's purpose and feel they will benefi  t from communicating with other members (see above). However, since they do not actually 'know' each other, a member needs a persistent identity in  the  community to make the person behind it recognizable to others (Donath 1999: 30). An identity is not necessarily a person's real name; aliases are also persistent identities, as they serve to uniquely identify a person to the community. However, an identity only imparts to a community what a person chooses to reveal and says little about their reputation . Reputation is earned based on actions, behaviour and the impression left on others (history of interaction). It provides a context for members to judge each other or the value of contributions and is the basis for a person's standing and status (Typaldos 2000; Donath 1999).

A community also needs to defi  ne its boundaries ,  i.e.  only  admit qualifi  ed members, or at least explicitly state its purpose and thus defi  ne who should or should not join. This is particularly relevant for free communities, as subscriptions or annual fees help deter lurkers (people who hang around a community yet make no contribution) and non-interested parties. Without boundaries, it is diffi  cult to ensure that those who do join are actually in a position to actively participate (Typaldos 2000; Gill 2001).

Trust forms the basis for reliable, mutually benefi  cial interaction between members (Fukuyama 1995: 26). A virtual community is a place where  people  meet  to  exchange  ideas  and  relationships,  loyalty  and trust gradually evolve. Before interaction can take place, members must be confi  dent that others will behave in an expected way. They have to be able to judge the motives of others without fear of being (ab)used (Figallo 1998a) or laughed at (Gill 2001). People do not automatically gain trust simply because they belong to the same community: trust has to be established and is a prerequisite for sharing work (Lesser/Prusak 1999: 127).

Members must fi  nd enough material of interest to motivate them to stay, return and maintain their membership. They need to be encouraged to contribute, thereby generating new content that is of interest to other members. If visiting a community is motivating and satisfying, members are more likely to remain loyal and not look for something else  to  better  satisfy  their  needs  (Figallo  1998b).  Community  organisers need to achieve a suitable balance between content and interest (e.g.  a  focus  on  the  shared  purpose  in  knowledge  sharing  communities). New members in particular quickly turn away if content and discussion drift off topic. Loyalty to  a  community encourages repeated interaction, generates a sense of belonging and, in turn, creates the critical mass of loyal members needed to ensure long-term survival (Armstrong/Hagel 1996: 95).

As communities grow, and members interact over an extended period of time, a need develops for common standards and values which set the rules of etiquette within the community (Gill 2001). According to Gill (2001), these guidelines differ from community to community, but must be clearly transmitted to new members. Rules and charters lay down the boundaries of personal and group interaction and are essential for building trust among members.

Whilst a high degree of self-rule  and  democracy  is  common,  virtual communities do not manage themselves. Somebody has to found them and take on the role of leader . If no one takes charge, they run the risk of dissolving into an unstructured mess or fading away due to lack of interest. Community leaders are often known as 'hosts' (Rheingold 1998). According to Figallo (1998b), hosts are 'usually looked to for help and support rather than for their ability to lead or dominate a conversation'. In our study, we also looked for indications of whether hosts play a key role in the structure and continuity of communities, defi  ne rules, make important decisions (e.g. to delete inappropriate postings, moderate discussions or even ban members) and resolve confl  icts, or whether other forms of leadership and structure can be observed.

As communities become established, history and dynamics start to play an increasingly important role (Typaldos 2000). A shared history reinforces the sense of community and makes repeated interaction with other members easier. Figallo (1998b) notes that as communities grow, some individuals may attempt to dominate them and attract attention by proliferating their own views and ideas. Since they unbalance a community and threaten its established standards and values, he recommends discouraging such actions and restoring a balance (e.g. by ignoring the protagonists).

Content attracts people to a community and is one of the reasons why they return. As Armstrong/Hagel (1996: 89) note, a 'community full  of  half  empty  rooms offers visitors a very unsatisfactory experience'. Communities distinguish themselves by and benefi  t from useful, member-generated content. Another key strength is their access to a target group and what is referred to in marketing terms as the ' network effect' 1 , i.e. the increase in value that accrues to a network when more people join it. The network effect is often seen as the basis of the business model of communities (Cohen 2001). If a community does not have enough members, it is unlikely to have enough content to attract new members (Morris/Ogan 1996).

## 3.1.  Model for the Core Elements of Community

Figure 1 summarizes the core elements of community in a model. As indicated above, a community needs to have had a founder (or group of founders), some kind of leadership or structure , centre on a common interest ( shared purpose ) and focus on member-generated content . It also needs a critical mass of members who meet membership requirements  ( identity/boundaries ),  form  relationships  ( reputation/ trust ) and see the need to communicate over time ( motivation/loyalty ) in an appropriate manner ( standards/values ). Its history and dynamics are infl  uenced by the formalisation brought about by the standards and network effects.

1 http://www.marketingterms.com/dictionary/network\_effect: 'The phenomenon whereby a service becomes more valuable as more people use it, thereby encouraging ever-increasing numbers of adopters.' (accessed 7 July 2008).

Balanced

Formalisation Identity Dynamics Boundaries Leadership Structure Purpose Content

Figure 1. Core Elements of Community

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## 4. Virtual Translation Communities

Virtual communities offer translators a platform for collaboration, communication and knowledge sharing. Indeed, over the last twenty years, a number of different virtual translation communities have been established. These range from translator directories and job boards to discussion groups on translation tools or business, legal and fi  nancial issues. In the following sections, we investigate whether they offer a positive example of the benefi  ts  of  virtual  communities  and  their  knowledge sharing possibilities.

Translation is knowledge work at its best and translators need a great deal of knowledge in their work (see Dam et al.: 2005; Risku et al.: to appear). Similarly, the nature of their profession and their text writing skills make them good written communicators. But it is also, in many cases, a solitary profession and access to a means of collaborating, communicating, sharing knowledge and learning can be of great benefi  t to translators in their work. Despite the popular misconception that little or no support is needed from clients, authors, subject experts or peers, such communication is an essential part of the translation process. Pri-

Reputation Network Effects or to the internet, communication between translators and clients was more diffi  cult  and  -  with  deadlines  making  accessibility  a  key  issue - contact to other translators was often limited to known colleagues, membership in local/national translation associations or attendance at translation conferences. As Sofer (1999: 68) notes, translation might be a solitary craft, but 'it doesn't have to be this way, especially in today's world. There are now organized translator groups everywhere, not to mention the Internet with its e-mail, chat rooms, and newsgroups'.

## 5. Empirical Methodology

To  examine  the  rise,  structure  and  motivation  for  membership,  the translation community ProZ.com was observed by one and the same person over a six-month period in 2001/2002. In addition, an anonymous member survey was carried out in 2002 and complemented by direct communication with the founder via e-mail in 2001/2002 and at a face-to-face meeting in December 2001. ProZ.com was selected because of its large membership and because it went beyond being an online job centre, offering knowledge sharing features such as term translation support, a multilingual glossary and member forums. At the time of  the  survey,  ProZ.com  had  over  25,000  registered  members  and  a growth rate of around 1,000 users per month; by 2007 it had more than 170,000 members, with 47,571 new registered users in 2006 and up to 80,000 users viewing up to 1 million pages per day. 2

Observation was carried out using the participant observation method described by Suler, whereby the observer joins as a member and tries to correlate an objective analysis of a group with the evaluation of his/her subjective reactions (see Suler 1996). The survey took the form of an online questionnaire containing a mixture of 19 open and closed questions (see Appendix 1) posted on the ProZ.com site for three days in February 2002. Access to the questionnaire was open to all registered members (both paying and non-paying). A total of 335 members completed the questionnaire. The results were analysed and assessed by a team of three students and a tutor from the 2002 Postgraduate MSc course in Knowledge Management at the Danube University Krems in Austria. The analysis of answers to the open questions was carried out in a data-driven manner, by reading all the answers on each questionnaire, identifying groups of similar answers and categorising and labelling these according to their content. Direct communication with the ProZ.com founder included the role of his background, personality and vision  in  shaping  the  spirit,  direction  and  development  stages  of  the group (see Suler 1996). The results were initially reported in a Master Thesis for the MSc in Knowledge Management at the Danube University Krems (Dickinson 2002).

2 See http://www.proz.com/employers/news?press\_id=18

## 6. ProZ.com

ProZ.com 3   was  launched  in  1999  by  Henry  Dotterer  and  has  offi  ces in the United States and Argentina. The community offers a range of tools and opportunities for translators, translation companies and others in the language industry to network, expand their businesses, improve their work and experience added enjoyment in their professional endeavours. It also provides a platform for translators to work together to improve the profession. Through collaborative services like the KudoZ term help system (a framework for assisting with the translation or explanation of terms and short phrases, see below), the Blue Board (a database of language job outsourcers with feedback from translators) or group buying (where members group together to buy products such as CAT tools), as well as networking in forums and national and international offl  ine meetings and conferences or Powwows (informal gettogethers of members who live in close proximity), ProZ.com sees its members as ushering in a new era of collaboration for translators 4 .

Since its launch, ProZ.com has continued to grow and is now the largest virtual translation community worldwide. Our survey showed that the majority of members are experienced professionals: over 60% of respondees had been translators for 5 years or more, indicating that such sites are not just the domain of 'new' translators. Over 80% of survey participants were freelancers. The majority were based in Europe (60.24%), followed by North/South America (33.43%), Asia (6.03%) and Africa (0.3%).

3 http://www.proz.com (accessed 1 April 2008).

4 For more details see http://www.proz.com/translation-articles/articles/964/

ProZ.com is a business, not just a free web platform. Different membership levels are available, with paying members granted full access to all data, features and clients on the site and certain networking privileges not available to non-paying users. ProZ.com maintains paying members are four times more likely to meet new clients than non-paying users, and as the site grows, new paying member-only features are being continually added.

The survey results indicate that many members become non-paying users fi  rst and upgrade to paying membership later. Whilst the level of access offered to non-paying users was seen as positive by some respondees (and an aspect that differentiates the site positively from other communities), others voiced reservations about the fact that this also attracts non-professional members.

As explained, one of the site's aims is to facilitate cooperation and knowledge sharing among language service providers. This is centred around the forums, knowledge base or term translation support provided in KudoZ, a collaborative system of human support in the translation of terms and short phrases. A unique page is assigned to each KudoZ question, where comments and additional information are also collated, allowing a comparison of all answers to a question at a glance. Other members can comment, agree or disagree with the answers (peer grading). KudoZ is browser-based and thus more structured and convenient to use than conventional mailing lists.

As a result of the many specialist or new terms being answered in KudoZ, ProZ.com also features a multilingual terminology database. The KudoZ Open Glossary (KOG) contains post-edited KudoZ questions, direct entries and donated glossaries. With over 2 million questions asked by September 2008, it is growing rapidly and is particularly rich in current, specialist and hard-to-fi  nd terms. All users can consult the KOG, with paying members given full access and credit given to all term contributors. Many members consider KudoZ a key element of the community and actively participate in this support system. When asked why they did so, 82% of respondees named knowledge sharing and helping others as their motivation. Other reasons included learning - e.g. through comparing the different answers to a particular question (46%), putting something back into the community (38%) or improving their image (15%). This indicates the importance of knowledge sharing and learning and suggests a strong sense of community.

## 7. The Core Elements of Community in ProZ.com

The following section applies the core elements of virtual communities described in section 3 to ProZ.com and provides specifi  c examples taken from the results of the member survey and from our observations.

## 7.1.  Shared Purpose, Identity and Boundaries

The shared purpose behind ProZ.com is based on the aim of creating a virtual meritocracy for translators in which members can earn, learn and share from each other. It describes itself  as  a  'translation  workplace' in which all services, activities and discussions focus on the art and business of translation. 5

ProZ.com members must set up a unique identity within the community and provide a profi  le with details of language pairs, fi  elds of expertise, qualifi  cations and experience. Since one of the aims of ProZ.com is to bring translators and outsourcers together, the information included in a profi  le is like a virtual business card. The relationship between a translator and client is based on mutual trust, and work is less likely to be given to someone who hides behind an anonymous profi  le. The inclusion of KudoZ information (details of questions answered or asked) in member profi  les also provides clients with a way of assessing expertise. Identity is an important issue: our observations indicated that many members use their real names as user-IDs, while the survey results indicate that 'anonymous' users or empty profi  les are frowned upon.

Membership of ProZ.com is open to anyone who wants to join and while members are expected to be working in the translation fi  eld, no compulsory check of credentials is carried out. This has been an issue of discussion (e.g. in the forums), since some members feel it reduces the professional image and the quality of knowledge shared. 19% of respondees named non-professional members as one of the things they liked least, illustrating the confl  ict between open membership and the need to protect the image of a community against unqualifi  ed members. However, ProZ.com does offer ID verifi  cation for members who have met a staff member, moderator or other member with the right to verify identities in person. Verifi  ed IDs are indicated in member profi  les.

5 See http://www.proz.com/translation-articles/articles/964/

## 7.2.  Reputation and Trust

In ProZ.com, there are two sides to the issue of reputation: the individual reputations within the community and the site's own reputation in the outside world. Members gain reputation through their behaviour on the site, the subject matter and tone of their postings, the information in their profi  les or the quality of their KudoZ answers. Since KudoZ is open to the public, the answers provided should be of a quality that ensures the community's reputation of being populated by experts. This is achieved, for example, through the grading of answers by other members.

Our observations indicate that members clearly trust ProZ.com and see it as a genuine community. Examples of this trust include upgrading to  paying membership and actively contributing to KudoZ activities. There are also examples of members who only got to know each other through the site developing working relationships and forming teams to share work or terminology.

## 7.3.  Motivation, Loyalty, Standards and Values

Interest in ProZ.com is confi  rmed by its large number of active members.  The  survey  indicated  that  motivation  for  membership  is  varied, with reasons including locating work (56%), sense of community (54%), learning/benchmarking (42%) or networking and collaboration  (30%).  It  is  described  by  respondees  as  'a  good  Samaritan',  'a warehouse of intelligent, helpful translators' or 'a sound investment for tangible (job offers, KudoZ) and intangible (sense of community, exchange, friendship) benefi  ts'.

Motivation to exchange knowledge is high, and members appear unaffected by traditional barriers to knowledge sharing. 52% of respondees named KudoZ as one of the things they liked best, while knowledge  sharing  (39%)  and  access  to  industry  information  (32%)  also featured in reasons for membership. 40% of respondees were paying members and had been members for 6 months or longer, refl  ecting a high retention rate and level of loyalty to the site.

In section 3 we noted that rules and charters are essential for building trust among members. ProZ.com has written guidelines and unspoken standards and values in place, and our observations show that communication generally adheres to high standards of netiquette. Since it is an open community, ProZ.com posts site rules and details of accepted behaviour in the forums, the KudoZ system and the peer grading system (e.g. whilst members can agree with a proposed answer without comment, a reason must be given for a disagree or neutral assessment). Since forums are open to the public, if postings drift off topic moderators or other members intervene to reinstate the desired standard of professionalism. There is a strong dislike of dominant posters and negative postings, and 21% of respondees named this as one of the things they liked least.

## 7.4.  Leadership and Structure

The leadership role at ProZ.com is assumed by the founder, staff members and voluntary moderators. Our observations showed that the leaders play a key role in the structure and continuity of the community, bringing a human touch to an impersonal medium. They defi  ne rules and play a key role in confl  ict management e.g. by deleting inappropriate postings or moderating discussions. As a meritocracy, regulation in ProZ.com is balanced, with the founder preferring it to be as self-regulating as possible. However, he is very much a key fi  gure and plays a strong personal role, gives direction, promotes the community and provides continuity.

The community's rapid growth has been accompanied by a need for some structure and regulation, e.g. in the form of language pair subcommunities, each with their own moderators. Moderators play an integral role in community dynamics and have been instrumental in establishing events such as the Annual Conference or national meetings. They also play an active role in their sub-communities, are involved in guiding site development and helping to grow and shape ProZ.com as a cooperative and a business.

## 7.5.  History and Dynamics

Our  survey  looked  for  indications  of  how  the  community  itself  and interaction  in  it  had  infl  uenced  members.  On  a  theoretical  level,  we sought here to emphasise the importance of a community's history in its analysis; however, since our study was not longitudinal, our results on history and dynamics are limited. Nonetheless, as the ProZ.com community grows, its importance to members becomes more obvious, with many members spending a considerable amount of time on the site: 24.2% of survey participants stated that they spent 3-5 hours per week at ProZ.com, while 19.4% spent 5-10 hours and 16.1% over 10 hours a week on the site.

To enable new (and existing) members to fi  nd information and trace community history, archived KudoZ terms and forum threads remain accessible. Members can also choose to display details of their own KudoZ history in their profi  le. Furthermore, the comments added to KudoZ answers or conversations in the forums also frequently indicate the shared histories of interaction and friendships that have been built up through the site.

Many survey participants indicated that membership had positively changed the way they worked, helping to improve their skills as translators or learn new skills (28%), providing access to new (global) markets (26%), opening up new networking and collaboration opportunities (23%) and creating an increased enthusiasm for their job and profession (10%). Several members also reported having built up lasting professional and social friendships (both virtual and real-life) through membership.

## 7.6.  Content and Network Effects

ProZ.com offers a range of functions and content specifi  cally for communication, collaboration and knowledge sharing between translators. On a scale of 1 to 5, the survey results indicate that members make most frequent use of the following areas: KudoZ (3.6), the translation jobs  system  (3.0),  glossaries  (2.2),  forums  (2.0)  and  the  Blue  Board (1.8). The relevance of appropriate content is indicated in a forum posting pointing out that the site is in a 'different league' when it comes to functionality, content and entertainment value. Similarly, some members noted they would be prepared to 'put up with advertising' if it would help guarantee the community's continued existence. Since advertising is often considered annoying and distracting, this offers a further indication of the value attached to the community.

The founders of ProZ.com accredit its rapid growth in part to wordof-mouth propaganda (network effects) by existing members and links from other websites. Almost 50% of the survey respondees indicated they had found out about the community through a friend, colleague, existing member or link from another site, and 98% stated they would recommend ProZ.com to colleagues and friends.

## 8. Benefi  ts and Drawbacks

Our results indicate that virtual translation communities can serve as strong  examples  of  knowledge  sharing  in  practice. They  offer  many benefi  ts to translators, providing them with a platform for exchanging information and knowledge with colleagues worldwide and access to rapid, qualifi  ed help. They also serve as a forum for giving and receiving advice or support and, since they never close, this help is available round the clock. Membership in such communities also provides commercial benefi  ts, e.g. access to new job markets, marketing opportunities and collaboration projects. This was refl  ected in the survey results, with 56% of respondees naming locating work as one of their reasons for using ProZ.com.

Whilst active participation in a virtual community can be benefi  cial, respondents noted that it can also be time-consuming and even (temporarily) addictive. Another drawback is that members may also fi  nd themselves confronted with 'virtual offi  ce politics' played out in the forums. As a member noted, one attraction of freelancing is the freedom from conventional offi  ce politics and it is 'galling to encounter something just as corrosive in the online environment', referring to a job forum where responses to a particularly low paid job amounted to little more than condescending remarks on the issue of unprofessional open bidding. The results of the survey show the following areas of contention in translation communities: job bidding issues (low rates), negative  postings  (and  dominant  members)  or  non-professional  members (lack of qualifi  cation or translating outside language pairs). Although a breach of accepted behaviour, fl  ames in translation communities can also be linguistically particularly vindictive given the translator's text communication dexterity. Some dominant members could also be observed, who seem to have opinions on almost every subject and are crit- ical to an extent that makes their motivation for membership diffi  cult to understand.

## 9. Closing Comments

The need for collaboration and knowledge exchange in translating has long been recognised, and virtual communities offer a forum for the collaborative  knowledge  sharing  activities  needed  in  this  profession. The high membership levels and participation at ProZ.com indicate a real need for what these communities have to offer. Members seem to rely increasingly on the site for communication, knowledge exchange, learning,  access  to  new  markets  and  an  increased  awareness  of  the profession. Trusting relationships and increased collaboration among members are on the increase and shared histories of interaction are developing. Standards and values are particularly important, and attempts to reinforce them refl  ect a desire to share high quality information and present a professional image of the community and the translation industry to the outside world.

The results of our survey suggest that translators see virtual translation communities not only as places for knowledge exchange and communication, but also as communities of like-minded individuals. When asked in the survey why there was a need for such communities, the reasons given could be grouped into four categories: knowledge exchange, individual learning, social and professional contact or commercial and professional issues. Participants commented on the solitariness of the profession, on the importance of 'no longer feeling alone' or of 'having another resource to turn to' when others had been exhausted.

Knowledge  exchange  in  these  communities  centres  on  language and linguistic knowledge, expertise and experience. Indeed, translators show great willingness to exchange knowledge and appear less affected by the traditional barriers to knowledge sharing encountered in scientifi  c communities, where initiatives may fail because they face a discouraging culture 'for fear of losing ownership of the intellectual property' (Hyams 2001), or in corporate environments where knowledge is often seen as power. On the contrary, there is no indication of any fears or risks to their personal situation through sharing knowledge in virtual communities or contributing to global glossaries, indicating a recognition of the underlying reciprocity of knowledge sharing. This may, of course, lie in the creative nature of translation. Since no two translators will produce the same translation of one source text, there is little professional risk in helping others and sharing the benefi  ts of experience.

Our observations indicate a strong sense of community in the community studied and an inherent willingness to help each other. Members seem to identify strongly with ProZ.com, emphasising that there is a need for such communities and offering confi  rmation that professional and trusting relationships can exist and be built up online. Since little scientifi  c research has yet been carried out into professional virtual communities and their knowledge sharing activities, our study results could prove benefi  cial for other communities of this kind. For example, the possibility of benchmarking through the KudoZ peer-grading system is an important step in guaranteeing the quality of information often missing in internet communities and a learning tool for members. A follow-up survey and analysis would serve to identify trends and changing motivations as communities grow and their history develops.

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## Appendix 1: ProZ.com Member Survey

My name is Angela Dickinson. I am a freelance translator based in Vienna and am currently studying for an MSc in Knowledge Management at the Danube-University in Krems, Austria. I am carrying out research for a Master Thesis on translators and online knowledge communities. Online communities appear to be becoming more and more important in our working and social lives and the aim of my thesis is to try to fi  nd out why! I wondered if I might take a few minutes of your time to participate in this research by completing the survey below. Thank you for your help!

- When did you join ProZ.com ? (MM/YY) 1.
- What level of membership do you have? 2. non-paying / premium / platinum
- How did you fi  nd out about ProZ.com? 3. From an existing member / from a professional publication or conference / from a friend or colleague / from another website / internet search / other
- How much time do you spend on average per week in ProZ.com? 4. <1 hour / 1-3 hours / 3-5 hours / 5-10 hours / >10 hours
- How often do you use the following areas (on a scale of 1 to 5)? 5. Answering KudoZ questions / reading answers posted by colleagues/ posting KudoZ questions / peer grading KudoZ answers / bidding for translation jobs / posting translation jobs / participating in forums / consulting glossaries / using Blue Board

## 70

- Why do you use ProZ.com? 6.
- Why do you answer KudoZ questions? 7.
- What do you consider to be the best aspects of ProZ.com? 8.
- What do you consider to be the worst aspects of ProZ.com? 9.
10.  Why do you think there is a need for translation communities like ProZ. com?
11.  Has membership of ProZ.com affected/infl  uenced the way you work as a translator and if so, in what way?
12.  Would you recommend ProZ.com to other translators?
13.  Are you male or female?
14.  Which country do you live in?
15.  What are your language pairs?
16.  How long have you been a translator? (in years)
17.  Which of the following best describes your work situation? Freelance translator / In-house translator/agency / Other
18.  Which other translating communities are you a member of?
19.  Optional: Your name and email address