## INTRODUCTION: DUCHAMP'S READYMADES -A REEVALUATION

In  a  poll  conducted for Gordon's Gin, the 2004 sponsor of the Turner Prize, a large majority of the 500 leading artists, dealers, critics and curators surveyed named Marcel Duchamp's Fountain (Fig. 1.8) the work of art that has had the highest impact on contemporary art today. The urinal that in April 1917 was turned around, signed R. Mutt, handed in to but then refused (or at least displaced) from the exhibition of the Society of Independent Artists in New York still seems to mock and destabilize the whole horizon of expectance that works of art generate: skill, originality, taste, aesthetic value, difference  from  utilitarian  technology,  distance  from  bodily functions, even stable objecthood.

Although many observers worry that the art institution has long since domesticated and commercialized the avant-gardist riot that Fountain took  part  in  initiating,  this  object -albeit  lost  almost immediately after it was conceived -retains its status as an everflowing source for the disruptive and subversive energy in which contemporary art forms, at least desire to, participate. Whereas its closest competitor in the same poll, Picasso's Les Demoiselles d' Avignon from 1907 , makes its revolution still in the domain of form -as if, in Braque's words, Picasso had drunk petroleum in order to spit fire at the canvas -Fountain and its small family of other readymades make their riot by completely abandoning the battlefield of forms, what Duchamp termed the retinal.

On the one hand, by appropriating pieces of technology that were not produced by Duchamp himself but by machines -a urinal, a bottle dryer, a dog comb, a snow shovel, an art reproduction, and so on -the readymades bring attention to what we could call the thingness of art: that despite all the transformations to which the artist can subject artistic materials, there is still a leftover of something pre-given, a naked materiality imported from the real, non-imaginary world. On the other hand, exactly by minimizing the artist's manual intervention, the readymades ultimately turn artistic creation into a question of choice. They thereby shift the attention to the world of the intellect and the institutional setting, the domain we have since the 1960s termed the conceptual: what are the more or less invisible, non-retinal, rules that make this particular work a work of art?

So, at the same time as the readymades stress thingness, they also, and quite paradoxically, minimize the essence of this thingness, making it seemingly interchangeable, as revealed by the machine origin  of  the  readymades  and  the  many  replicas  produced  by Duchamp and others. This impersonal mode of art-making seems to  be  fundamental for Duchamp, also when he interferes more closely in the form-giving of materials, as seen in the Large Glass (1915-23) (Fig. 3.2) which exists in several copies too. It is this binary material-conceptual move, framing whatever pieces of matter with auras of symbols, which in hindsight perhaps makes Duchamp rather than Picasso the most influential artist of modern art (if that is how art after 1900 should indeed be designated).

A multitude of words have been directed at the readymades after they and their initiator were rediscovered from the late 1940s onward by artists such as John Cage, Robert Rauschenberg and Richard Hamilton. So is it at all possible, a good century after the  non-exhibition of Fountain ,  to  say  anything  new  about  the readymades? The articles in this issue of The Nordic Journal of Aesthetics dare to try . Deriving from a symposium entirely devoted to the readymades, which took place at Aarhus University from 31st May to 1st June 2018 with Jacob Wamberg as organizer, the seven chapters to follow approach the subject from a variety of angles, re-examining  some  of  the  readymades'  immediate  temporal frames and conceptual vicinities, probing into their philosophical references -from  temporality,  to  space,  to  technology -and pursuing their aftermath both within and beyond Duchamp's work.

When  browsing  through  the  harvest  of  books  and  articles coming  out  of  the  centennial  of Fountain (Fig.  1.8) ,  Thierry  de Duve notes that 'newly verified facts are few and far between,' and  so,  if  Duchamp  scholars  want  to  enter  a  truly  unexplored ground, they have to 'embrace new hypotheses and new heuristic frames for their questions.' In his own contribution, 'The Story of Fountain : Hard Facts and Soft Speculation,' de Duve zooms in on the immediate contexts of the readymades, including a recent archival revisit of the contemporary plumbing industry. Ironically, observes de Duve, whereas Fountain has  become  infamous  for reinserting in an art context a piece of industrialism, contemporary advertising preferred to frame the same sort of sanitary equipment as artistic creation. Moreover, reflecting upon the complex game of  authorship,  agency  and  mail-like  sender-  and  receivership surrounding Fountain ,  de  Duve  sees  it  more  specifically  as  a carefully staged piece of talionism , a discrete revenge against the self-pompous promoter of correct Cubism, Albert Gleizes, who happened to be in New York at the time. Five years earlier Gleizes had  contributed  to  discrediting  Duchamp's Nude Descending a Staircase (No. 2) (Cp. Fig. 4.1) from the Parisian Salon des Indépendants , and hence he could now be reminded of his base conservatism when the same sort of refusal (and once again an unfair one) besieged Fountain at the newly established sister exhibition in New York.

As a supplement to this revisit of Duchamp's most canonic piece, Thomas Girst probes the half-forgotten periphery of readymade production in his ''That very funny article': Pollyperruque ,  and the 100th anniversary of Duchamp's Fountain .' An early example was the first piece on the artist in a major American newspaper, appearing on September 12, 1915 in the Sunday edition of The New York Tribune . Although written by Duchamp's later friend, editor and critic  Henry  McBride,  it  is  exclusively  marked  'By  Marcel Duchamp'. To add to Girst's observations, one is tempted to believe this was actually an example of decentralized authorship instigated by Duchamp himself. In another example, the piece of mail art Pollyperruque (1967) (Fig. 2.2) , sent to the New York gallerist Arne Ekstrom from Duchamp's summer residence in Spain, the artist makes encyclopaedic bird knowledge the vehicle for erotically charged punning, referencing in particular his recently finished piece, Étant donnés (1946-66) (Fig. 2.4) .

In 'Connecting Threads: Duchamp's Readymades and Large Glass Project in Context, 1913-1914,' Linda Dalrymple Henderson transports the readymades into the terrain of Duchamp's unfinished magnum  opus, The  Bride  Stripped  Bare  by  her  Bachelors,  Even (1915-23) (Fig. 3.2) , and thereby also into Duchamp's speculations on contemporary physics and technology. The focus of her attention is Duchamp's journey in August 1913 to the British coastal resort Herne Bay, to which he accompanied his younger sister, mainly playing  tennis  while  she  studied  English.  Thus,  Henderson demonstrates  how  the  tennis  racquet  press  became  a  central metaphor  for  Duchamp  at  this  time.  Apart  from  the  pressure around the strings being echoed in the readymade With Hidden Noise (1916) (Fig. 3.5) , it is structurally reminiscent of the Large Glass ' tripartite division in which the infinitesimally thin clothes of the Bride, echoing again the racquet strings, are sandwiched between the Bride's upper aerial domain and the Bachelors' lower prosaic one.  Likewise,  the  electrical  bulbs  from  the  pier  of  Herne  Bay, lighting up against the anti-retinal blackness of the night sky, find an echo in the Bride, as well as in the transparent readymade Paris Air (1919) (Fig. 3.12) , encapsulating the atmospheric element in a bulblike vessel.

In  ''There  is  No  Progress,  Change  is  All  We  Know':  Notes  on Duchamp's  Concept  of  Plastic  Duration,'  Sarah  Kolb  relates involvement  in  contemporary  mechanical  technology  with  a philosopher who is often seen as Duchamp's intellectual antipode, Henri  Bergson.  Whereas  the  Cubists  and  Futurists  sought  to translate  Bergson's  ideas  on  duration -time  as  perceived  by intuition -directly into retinal wholes, stitching together individual impressions into more or less comprehensive montages, Duchamp in contrast foregrounded the mechanical derivation of the singular cuts and, accordingly, their non-organic incoherence. The very notion of readymade is indeed an appropriation of Bergson's term for  the  mechanical  and  anti-intuitive, tout fait ,  that  only  gains relevance as a comic device. Discussing a number of Duchamp's works in transition from painting to readymade, including two experimental texts attempting to break down any conventional meaning,  Kolb  argues  that  Duchamp  nevertheless  embraced Bergson's idea of duration.

Jacob Wamberg's article 'Shrink to Expand: The Readymades through the Large Glass ' stresses Duchamp's ambivalent attitude to contemporary technology. Although the readymades could be seen as a more radical engagement with the mechanical and its cutting up of time than allowed for by Bergson and his Cubist and Futurist followers,  this  engagement  is  also  a  subversive  one,  wrecking the industrially produced utensils out of their habitual functions. Mobilizing  Giorgio  Agamben's  reading  of  Herman  Melville's short story Bartleby , the Scrivener (1856), Wamberg sees this mild sabotage performed by the readymades as an instance of epoché , the  skeptical  suspension  of  judgment  in  which  actualization  is erased in order to upgrade potentiality. Instead of considering this as a special feature of the readymades, Wamberg understands the readymades as objects that metaphorically have passed through the Large Glass (Fig. 3.2) ,  the spatial down-scaling from higher to lower dimensions in the transparent glass converging towards the readymades' erasure of predicted actualization. What Duchamp calls the 'common factor' between readymades and Glass , then, could be described as a generalized stripping bare of actualization, a neo-alchemical strategy of creation through decreation of already existing materials.

Following these explorations of the significance of readymades in relation to the philosophies of time, space and technology, the last two articles focus on the aftermath of the readymade, both within and beyond Duchamp's oeuvre. In his article 'The Second half  of  the  Readymade  Century  (1964-),'  Dieter  Daniels  notes the ironic fact that most of the readymades now in existence are not  the  ones  that  were  produced  industrially  and  initiated  by Duchamp into the periphery of the art world around the World War I. Rather, stamped with Duchamp's authority, a host of carefully reconstructed  replicas  were  circulated  as  multiples  in  1964,  50 years after the first readymade came into existence. With all their fetishist aura of hand-crafted originals, these collectors' items have, in Daniels' view, given in to that same art market which Duchamp originally sought to escape. Confirming Peter Bürger's criticism of the neo-avantgardes as being absorbed by the art institution, these reconstructed readymades are premonitions of the appropriation strategies that have been pervasive in the artworld since the 1980s.

For David Joselit, in his article 'The Property of Knowledge,' the  readymades  indeed  'afford  a  highly  efficacious  device  for exploring postindustrial knowledge economies' by superimposing an ambivalent intellectual property onto the industrially produced commodities  that  are  the  readymades'  point  of  departure.  In parallel with Wamberg's exploration of epoché ,  Joselit  sees  the readymades' primal innovation as a suspension of judgment, their mode of operation being analogous to that of photography and its multiplicity of roles in relation to traditional fine art media. More precisely, Joselit sees three dimensions of readymade practice: an ontological one, equating commodity and art object; a semantic one, exploring readymades as lexical elements within the artworks; and a cultural one, in which appropriated objects and images intervene in global conflicts of cultural property.

We tend to believe this collection of articles will refresh our understanding of the seemingly inexhaustible phenomenon of the readymade, and we hope our readers will not disagree -perhaps even finding some Duchampian amusement.

Jacob Lund and Jacob Wamberg