शिक्षण

शिक्षण ही अध्ययन सुकर करणे, किंवा ज्ञान, कौशल्य, मूल्ये, विश्वास व सवयींच्या प्राप्तीची प्रक्रिया आहे. अध्यापन, प्रशिक्षण, कथा सांगणे व संचलीत संशोधन यांचा शैक्षणिक पद्धतीत समावेश होतो. शिक्षण हे वारंवार शिक्षकांच्या मार्गदर्शनाखाली होत असते, तथापि विद्यार्थी स्वतःलासुद्धा शिकवू शकतात.  शिक्षण हे औपचारिक किंवा अनौपचारिक वातावरणात होऊ शकते व प्रत्येक अनुभव ज्याचा व्यक्तीच्या विचार करणे, अनुभवणे किंवा कृतींवर प्रगत परिणाम असतो त्यास शैक्षणिक गृहीत धरता येते. अध्यापनाच्या पद्धतीला अध्यापनशास्त्र म्हणतात.

औपचारिक शिक्षण हे औपचारिकपणे पूर्व प्राथमिक विद्यालय किंवा बालवाडी, प्राथमिक विद्यालय, माध्यमिक विद्यालय व नंतर महाविद्यालय, विद्यापीठ किंवा प्रशिक्षण या टप्प्यांमध्ये विभागले आहे.

काही सरकारांनी, तसेच संयुक्त राष्ट्र संघटनेने शिक्षणाचा मुलभूत अधिकार मान्य केलेला आहे. बहुतांश भागात विशिष्ट वयापर्यंत शिक्षण अनिवार्य आहे. शैैैैैैक्षणिक सुुधारणेसाठी व विशेषतः प्रमाण आधारीत शिक्षणासाठी  एक चळवळ आहे.

उत्पत्ती 
"शिक्षण" हा शब्द संस्कृतमधील आहे, ज्याचा अर्थ प्रशिक्षण देणे असा होतो.

इतिहास 

प्रागैतिहासात शिक्षणाचा प्रारंभ झाला, कारण प्रौढांनी बालकांना त्यांच्या समाजात आवश्यक मानलेले ज्ञान व कौशल्यामध्ये प्रशिक्षित केले. पुर्व साक्षर समाजात हे मौखिक व अनुकरणाच्या माध्यमातून साध्य व्हायचे. कथा सांगण्याने एकापासुन पुढच्या पिढीपर्यंत ज्ञान, मुल्ये व कौशल्ये दिली. जसे  संस्कृतींनी त्यांच्या ज्ञानाचा सहज अनुसरणातून शिकल्या जाऊ शकणाऱ्या कौशल्यांच्या पलीकडे विस्तार केला, तेव्हा औपचारिक शिक्षण निर्माण झाले. मध्य साम्राज्याच्या काळात इजिप्तमध्ये विद्यालये होते.

प्लॅटोने अथेंस येथे युरोपमधील पहिल्या उच्च अध्ययन प्रशिक्षण संस्थेची स्थापना केली. इ.स.पु. ३३० मध्ये स्थापन झालेले, इजिप्तमधील अलेक्झांड्रीया नगर हे प्राचीन ग्रीसच्या बुद्धीजिवीतेचा आधार म्हणुन अथेंसचे उत्तराधिकारी बनले. तिथे, इ.स.पु. ३ र्या शतकात अलेक्झांड्रीयाचे महान ग्रंथालय बांधले गेले. इ.स. ४७६ मध्ये युरोपीय समाजास रोमच्या पतनामुळे साक्षरता व संघटना कमतरतेचा सामना करावा लागला.

चीनमध्ये, लु राज्यातील, कंफुसिअस (५५१-४७९ इ.स.पु.) हा देशातील सर्वात प्रभावी प्राचीन विचारवंत होता, ज्याचा शैक्षणिक दृष्टिकोन चीन व शेजारील कोरिया, जपान व व्हिएतनामसारख्या समाजाला सतत प्रभावित करतो. कंफुसिअसने शिष्य गोळा केले व उत्तम शासनाच्या त्याच्या आदर्शांना स्विकारणाऱ्या शासकाचा व्यर्थ शोध केला, पण त्याचे तत्त्वज्ञान शिष्यांनी लिहिलेले होते व आधुनिक काळात पुर्व आशियात सतत प्रभावित करते.

अझटेक समाजातसुद्धा चांगले विकसित शैक्षणिक सिद्धांत होते, ज्याला नहुआत्ल भाषेत त्लाकाहुआपाहुआलिझटली असे म्हणतात. त्याचा अर्थ "व्यक्तीचे संगोपन करणे किंवा शिकवण्याची कला"   किंवा "व्यक्तीला सशक्त करणे किंवा उत्थान करणे" असा होतो. औपचारिक शिक्षा

र आधारलेली व समाज जीवनाद्वारे सशक्त झालेली ही शिक्षणाची व्यापक संकल्पना होती, जिने सांगितले की ते घरी सुरू ह. इतिहासतज्ञ दाखला देतात की औपचारिक शिक्षण सामाजिक वर्ग व लिंगभेद दुर्लक्षित करून सर्वांसाठी अनिवार्य होते.  तेथे नेक्स्ट्लामॅचिलीझ्टली हा शब्द देखील होता, जो " चेह to्यावर शहाणपणा देण्याचे कार्य आहे."  या संकल्पनांमध्ये शैक्षणिक पद्धतींच्या जटिल संचाचे अधोरेखित होते, जे वैयक्तिक विकासाच्या उद्देशाने आणि समाजात त्याचे एकीकरण करण्याच्या उद्देशाने पुढील पिढीला भूतकाळातील अनुभव आणि बौद्धिक वारसा संप्रेषण करण्याच्या दिशेने होते.

. There was also the word neixtlamachiliztli, which is "the act of giving wisdom to the face." These concepts underscore a complex set of educational practices, which was oriented towards communicating to the next generation the experience and intellectual heritage of the past for the purpose of individual development and his integration into the community.

After the Fall of Rome, the Catholic Church became the sole preserver of literate scholarship in Western Europe. The church established cathedral schools in the Early Middle Ages as centres of advanced education. Some of these establishments ultimately evolved into medieval universities and forebears of many of Europe's modern universities. During the High Middle Ages, Chartres Cathedral operated the famous and influential Chartres Cathedral School. The medieval universities of Western Christendom were well-integrated across all of Western Europe, encouraged freedom of inquiry, and produced a great variety of fine scholars and natural philosophers, including Thomas Aquinas of the University of Naples, Robert Grosseteste of the University of Oxford, an early expositor of a systematic method of scientific experimentation, and Saint Albert the Great, a pioneer of biological field research. Founded in 1088, the University of Bologne is considered the first, and the oldest continually operating university.

मध्ययुगात इतरत्र, इस्लामिक विज्ञान आणि गणिताची पूर्वोत्तर इबेरियन द्वीपकल्प पासून पूर्वेस सिंधू आणि दक्षिणेकडील अल्मोराविड राजवटी व माली साम्राज्य पर्यंतच्या मध्य-पूर्वेस स्थापना केली गेलेली इस्लामिक खलिफाच्या अंतर्गत प्रगती झाली.Elsewhere during the Middle Ages, Islamic science and mathematics flourished under the Islamic caliphate which was established across the Middle East, extending from the Iberian Peninsula in the west to the Indus in the east and to the Almoravid Dynasty and Mali Empire in the south.

युरोपमधील नवनिर्मितीचा काळ नवीन ग्रीक आणि प्राचीन ग्रीक व रोमन सभ्यतांची वैज्ञानिक आणि बौद्धिक चौकशी आणि कौतुक करण्याच्या युगात सुरू झाला. १ 1450० च्या सुमारास, जोहान्स गुटेनबर्ग यांनी एक मुद्रण प्रेस विकसित केले, ज्यामुळे साहित्याची कामे अधिक वेगाने पसरली गेली. युरोपियन युग साम्राज्याने तत्त्वज्ञान, धर्म, कला आणि विज्ञान या विषयांतील शिक्षणाची युरोपियन कल्पना जगभर पसरली. मिशनरी आणि विद्वानांनी इतर संस्कृतींकडील नवीन कल्पनाही परत आणल्या - जसे चीन आणि युरोप यांच्यातील ज्ञान, विज्ञान आणि संस्कृती प्रसारित करण्यात महत्त्वपूर्ण भूमिका बजावणा Jes्या जेसुइट चीन मिशनमुळे , युरोपमधील कृत्यांचे युक्लिडच्या घटकांचे भाषांतर चिनी विद्वानांसाठी आणि युरोपियन प्रेक्षकांसाठी कन्फ्यूशियसचे विचार. युरोपमध्ये अधिक धर्मनिरपेक्ष शैक्षणिक दृष्टीकोन उदयास आला.The Renaissance in Europe ushered in a new age of scientific and intellectual inquiry and appreciation of ancient Greek and Roman civilizations. Around 1450, Johannes Gutenberg developed a printing press, which allowed works of literature to spread more quickly. The European Age of Empires saw European ideas of education in philosophy, religion, arts and sciences spread out across the globe. Missionaries and scholars also brought back new ideas from other civilizations – as with the Jesuit China missions who played a significant role in the transmission of knowledge, science, and culture between China and Europe, translating works from Europe like Euclid's Elements for Chinese scholars and the thoughts of Confucius for European audiences. The Enlightenment saw the emergence of a more secular educational outlook in Europe.

आज बहुतेक देशांमध्ये, शालेय किंवा अन्यथा पूर्णवेळ शिक्षण हे एका विशिष्ट वयापर्यंतच्या मुलांसाठी अनिवार्य आहे. यामुळे लोकसंख्या वाढीसह अनिवार्य शिक्षणाचा प्रसार, युनेस्कोने केले आहे की पुढील .० वर्षांत आतापर्यंतच्या मानवी इतिहासापेक्षा जास्त लोकांना औपचारिक शिक्षण मिळेलIn most countries today, full-time education, whether at school or otherwise, is compulsory for all children up to a certain age. Due to this the proliferation of compulsory education, combined with population growth, UNESCO has calculated that in the next 30 years more people will receive formal education than in all of human history thus far.

औपचारिक शिक्षण
शाळा, महाविद्यालये आणि विद्यापीठांत दिल्या जाणाऱ्या शिक्षणास 'औपचारिक शिक्षण' असे म्हटले जाते. या शिक्षणाचा उद्देश, अभ्यासक्रम आणि शिकवण्याची पद्धत, सगळे निश्चित असते. अशा प्रकारचे शिक्षण नियोजनबद्ध असते. तसेच याचे उपयोजन काटेकोर व नियमबद्ध असते. यात शिकणाऱ्याला विद्यालय, महाविद्यालय अथवा विद्यापीठाच्या वेळापत्रकानुसार काम करावे लागते. यात परीक्षा घेणे आणि प्रमाण-पत्र प्रदान करण्याची व्यवस्था असते. या शिक्षणातील सर्वात मोठे वैशिष्ट्य हे की शिक्षण हे व्यक्ती, समाज आणि देशाच्या आवश्यकता पूर्ण करते. शिक्षण एका व्यक्तीत ज्ञान व कौशल्याचा विकास करते. तसेच त्याला काही व्यवसाय अथवा उद्योग साठी योग्य बनवते. पण हे शिक्षण खूप व्यय-साध्य असते, यामुळे पैसे, वेळ व ऊर्जा या सगळ्यांचा जास्त खर्च करावा लागतो.

The International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED) was created by UNESCO as a statistical base to compare education systems. In 1997, it defined 7 levels of education and 25 fields, though the fields were later separated out to form a different project. The current version ISCED 2011 has 9 rather than 7 levels, created by dividing the tertiary pre-doctorate level into three levels. It also extended the lowest level (ISCED 0) to cover a new sub-category of early childhood educational development programmes, which target children below the age of 3 years.

Early childhood education

Education designed to support early development in preparation for participation in school and society. The programmes are designed for children below the age of 3. This is ISCED level 01. Preschools provide education from ages approximately three to seven, depending on the country when children enter primary education. The children now readily interact with their peers and the educator. These are also known as nursery schools and as kindergarten, except in the US, where the term kindergarten refers to the earliest levels of primary education. Kindergarten "provide[s] a child-centred, preschool curriculum for three- to seven-year-old children that aim[s] at unfolding the child's physical, intellectual, and moral nature with balanced emphasis on each of them." This is ISCED level 02.

Primary

This is ISCED level 1. Primary (or elementary) education consists of the first four to seven years of formal, structured education. They are typically designed to provide young children with functional literacy and numeracy skills and to is guaranteed, solid foundation for most areas of knowledge and personal and social development to support the transition to secondary school. In general, primary education consists of six to eight years of schooling starting at the age of five to seven, although this varies between, and sometimes within, countries. Globally, in 2008, around 89% of children aged six to twelve were enrolled in primary education, and this proportion was rising. Under the Education For All programs driven by UNESCO, most countries have committed to achieving universal enrollment in primary education by 2015, and in many countries, it is compulsory. The division between primary and secondary education is somewhat arbitrary, but it generally occurs at about eleven or twelve years of age. Some education systems have separate middle schools, with the transition to the final stage of secondary education taking place at around the age of fifteen. Schools that provide primary education, are mostly referred to as primary schools or elementary schools. Primary schools are often subdivided into infant schools and junior school.

In India, for example, compulsory education spans over twelve years, with eight years of elementary education, five years of primary schooling and three years of upper primary schooling. Various states in the republic of India provide 12 years of compulsory school education based on a national curriculum framework designed by the National Council of Educational Research and Training.

Secondary

This covers the two ISCED levels, ISCED 2: Lower Secondary Education and ISCED 3: Upper Secondary Education.

In most contemporary educational systems of the world, secondary education comprises the formal education that occurs during adolescence.  In the United States, Canada, and Australia, primary and secondary education together are sometimes referred to as K-12 education, and in New Zealand Year 1–13 is used. The purpose of secondary education can be to give common knowledge, to prepare for higher education, or to train directly in a profession.

Secondary education in the United States did not emerge until 1910, with the rise of large corporations and advancing technology in factories, which required skilled workers. In order to meet this new job demand, high schools were created, with a curriculum focused on practical job skills that would better prepare students for white collar or skilled blue collar work. This proved beneficial for both employers and employees, since the improved human capital lowered costs for the employer, while skilled employees received higher wages.

Secondary education has a longer history in Europe, where grammar schools or academies date from as early as the 6th century,  in the form of public schools, fee-paying schools, or charitable educational foundations, which themselves date even further back.

It spans the period between the typically universal compulsory, primary education to the optional, selective tertiary, "postsecondary", or "higher" education of ISCED 5 and 6 (e.g. university), and the ISCED 4 Further education or vocational school.

Depending on the system, schools for this period, or a part of it, maybe called secondary or high schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, middle schools, colleges, or vocational schools. The exact meaning of any of these terms varies from one system to another. The exact boundary between primary and secondary education also varies from country to country and even within them but is generally around the seventh to the tenth year of schooling.

Lower secondary education
Programs at  ISCED level 2, lower secondary education are usually organized around a more subject-oriented curriculum; differing from primary education. Teachers typically have
pedagogical training in the specific subjects and, more often than at ISCED level 1, a class of
students will have several teachers, each with specialized knowledge of the subjects they teach.
Programmes at ISCED level 2, aim is to lay the foundation for lifelong learning and human development upon  introducing theoretical concepts across a broad range of subjects which can be developed in future stages.  Some education systems may offer vocational education programs during ISCED level 2 providing skills relevant to employment.

Upper secondary education
Programs at ISCED level 3, or upper secondary education, are typically designed to complete the secondary education process. They lead to skills relevant to employment and the skill necessary to engage in tertiary courses. They offer students more varied, specialized and in-depth instruction. They are more differentiated, with range of options and learning streams.

Community colleges offer another option at this transitional stage of education. They provide nonresidential junior college courses to people living in a particular area.

Tertiary (higher)

Higher education, also called tertiary, third stage, or postsecondary education, is the non-compulsory educational level that follows the completion of a school such as a high school or secondary school. Tertiary education is normally taken to include undergraduate and postgraduate education, as well as vocational education and training. Colleges and universities mainly provide tertiary education. Collectively, these are sometimes known as tertiary institutions. Individuals who complete tertiary education generally receive certificates, diplomas, or academic degrees.

The ISCED distinguishes 4 levels of tertiary education. ISCED 6 is equivalent to a first degree, ISCED 7 is equivalent to a masters or an advanced professional qualification and ISCED 8  is an advanced research qualification, usually concluding with the submission and defence of a substantive dissertation of publishable quality based on original research. The category ISCED 5 is reserved for short-cycle courses of requiring degree level study.

Higher education typically involves work towards a degree-level or foundation degree qualification. In most developed countries, a high proportion of the population (up to 50%) now enter higher education at some time in their lives. Higher education is therefore very important to national economies, both as a significant industry in its own right and as a source of trained and educated personnel for the rest of the economy.

University education includes teaching, research, and social services activities, and it includes both the undergraduate level (sometimes referred to as tertiary education) and the graduate (or postgraduate) level (sometimes referred to as graduate school). Some universities are composed of several colleges.

One type of university education is a liberal arts education, which can be defined as a "college or university curriculum aimed at imparting broad general knowledge and developing general intellectual capacities, in contrast to a professional, vocational, or technical curriculum." Although what is known today as liberal arts education began in Europe, the term "liberal arts college" is more commonly associated with institutions in the United States such as Williams College or Barnard College.

Vocational

Vocational education is a form of education focused on direct and practical training for a specific trade or craft. Vocational education may come in the form of an apprenticeship or internship as well as institutions teaching courses such as carpentry, agriculture, engineering, medicine, architecture and the arts.
 Post 16 education, adult education and further education involve continued study, but a level no different from that found at upper secondary, and are grouped together as ISCED 4, post-secondary non-tertiary education.

Special

In the past, those who were disabled were often not eligible for public education. Children with disabilities were repeatedly denied an education by physicians or special tutors.  These early physicians (people like Itard, Seguin, Howe, Gallaudet) set the foundation for special education today. They focused on individualized instruction and functional skills.  In its early years, special education was only provided to people with severe disabilities, but more recently it has been opened to anyone who has experienced difficulty learning.

इतर शैक्षणिक रुपे

वैकल्पिक 

मुख्य लेख: वैकल्पिक शिक्षण

आज "पर्यायी" मानले जात असताना, बहुतेक वैकल्पिक प्रणाली प्राचीन काळापासून अस्तित्वात आहेत. १९ व्या शतकाच्या सुरुवातीस सार्वजनिक शाळा प्रणाली व्यापकपणे विकसित झाल्यानंतर, काही पालकांना नवीन प्रणालीमुळे असंतुष्ट होण्याचे कारण आढळले. पारंपारिक शिक्षणाच्या कथित मर्यादा आणि अपयशाच्या प्रतिक्रियेच्या रूपात काही प्रमाणात वैकल्पिक शिक्षण विकसित केले. पर्यायी शाळा , स्वतःची शिक्षण , गृहशिक्षण आणि कृती आधारित अनौपचारिक शिक्षण(अनस्कूलिंग) यासह शैक्षणिक दृष्टिकोनाची विस्तृत श्रृंखला उदयास आली. उदाहरणार्थ पर्यायी शाळांमध्ये मॉन्टेसरी शाळा , वॉलडॉर्फ शाळा (किंवा स्टीनर शाळा), फ्रेंड्स शाळा , सँड्स शाळा , समरहिल शाळा , वाल्डनचा पथ , पीपल उपवन शाळा , सुडबरी खिंड शाळा , कृष्णमूर्ती शाळा आणि खुल्या वर्गातल्या शाळा समाविष्ट आहेत.

सनदी शाळा ही पर्यायी शिक्षणाचे आणखी एक उदाहरण आहे, ज्यात अलिकडच्या काळात अमेरिकेत मोठ्या संख्येने वाढ झाली आहे आणि सार्वजनिक शिक्षण प्रणालीत त्यांना अधिक महत्त्व प्राप्त झाले आहे.

१९ व्या शतकातील जर्मनीतील बालवाडीच्या शिक्षणाबद्दल फ्रेडरिक फ्रॅबेल यांनी जसे बालवाडीच्या वर्गात एकत्र केले होते त्याप्रमाणे या प्रयोगांमधून आणि नमुनेदार आव्हानांमधून काही कल्पना शिक्षणाच्या रुढी म्हणून स्वीकारल्या जाऊ शकतात. इतर प्रभावी लेखक आणि विचारवंतांमध्ये स्विस मानवतावादी जोहान हेनरिक पेस्तलोझी  ; अमोस ब्रॉन्सन अल्कोट , रॅल्फ वाल्डो इमर्सन आणि हेन्री डेव्हिड थोरॉ हे अमेरिकन तत्त्ववेत्ते ; पुरोगामी शिक्षणाचे संस्थापक, जॉन डेवी आणि फ्रान्सिस पार्कर ; आणि मारिया माँटेसरी आणि रुडॉल्फ स्टीनर आणि शैक्षणिक प्रणेते आणि अलीकडे जॉन कॅल्डवेल हॉल्ट , पॉल गुडमॅन , फ्रेडरिक मेयर , जॉर्ज डेनिसन आणि इव्हान इलिच यांचा समावेश आहे.

स्वदेशी 

स्वदेशी शिक्षण म्हणजे औपचारिक आणि अनौपचारिक शैक्षणिक प्रणालींमध्ये स्वदेशी ज्ञान, नमुने, पद्धती आणि सामग्री समाविष्ट करणे होय. वसाहतीनंतरच्या संदर्भात, स्थानिक शिक्षणाच्या पद्धतींची वाढती ओळख आणि उपयोग ही वसाहतवादाच्या प्रक्रियेतून स्थानिक ज्ञान व भाषेची धूप आणि तोटा याला प्रतिसाद ठरू शकते. याव्यतिरिक्त, हे स्वदेशी समुदायांना "त्यांच्या भाषा आणि संस्कृतींचा पुन्हा अधिकार सांगण्यास आणि त्यांचे मूल्यमापन करण्यास आणि त्याद्वारे स्वदेशी विद्यार्थ्यांचे शैक्षणिक यश सुधारण्यास सक्षम करू शकते."

अनौपचारिक शिक्षण 

आर्थिक सहकार आणि विकास संस्था (ओईसीडी) द्वारा परिभाषित शिक्षणाच्या तीन प्रकारांपैकी अनौपचारिक शिक्षण ही एक आहे. अनौपचारिक शिक्षण वेगवेगळ्या ठिकाणी  जसे की घरी , कामावर आणि दैनंदिन संवादातून आणि समाजातील सदस्यांमधील सामायिक संबंधांद्वारे होते. बऱ्याच शिकणाऱ्यांसाठी, यात भाषा संपादन , सांस्कृतिक नियम आणि शिष्टाचार समाविष्ट आहेत.

अनौपचारिक शिक्षणामध्ये, बऱ्याचदा संदर्भ व्यक्ती, एक समवयस्क किंवा तज्ञ असतो, जे शिकणाऱ्याला मार्गदर्शन करतात. जर विद्यार्थ्यांना अनौपचारिकपणे शिकवल्या जाणाऱ्या गोष्टींमध्ये वैयक्तिक रस असेल तर त्यांचे विद्यमान ज्ञान वाढविण्याकडे आणि शिकलेल्या विषयाबद्दल नवीन कल्पना गृहीत धरायला शिकणाऱ्यांचा कल असतो. उदाहरणार्थ, संग्रहालयाला पारंपारिकपणे एक अनौपचारिक शिकण्याचे वातावरण मानले जाते, कारण तेथे विनामूल्य निवड, विविधता आणि संभाव्य-अ-प्रमाणित विषयांची श्रेणी, लवचिक संरचना, सामाजिक समृद्ध संवाद आणि बाह्यरित्या लागू केलेले मूल्यांकन नाही.

अनौपचारिक शिक्षण बहुतेक वेळा शैक्षणिक आस्थापनांच्या बाहेरील ठिकाणी होते आणि विशिष्ट अभ्यासक्रमाचे पालन करत नाही, हे शैक्षणिक वातावरणात आणि अगदी औपचारिक शिक्षण परिस्थितीत देखील उद्भवू शकते. शिक्षक त्यांच्या शैक्षणिक वातावरणात विद्यार्थ्यांमध्ये अनौपचारिक शैक्षणिक कौशल्यांचा थेट वापर करण्यासाठी त्यांचे धडे रचू शकतात.

  १९ व्या शतकाच्या उत्तरार्धात, मुलांच्या विकासात महत्त्वपूर्ण योगदान म्हणून नाटकातून शिक्षण ओळखले जाऊ लागले. २० व्या शतकाच्या सुरुवातीस, तरुण प्रौढांना समाविष्ट करण्यासाठी ही संकल्पना विस्तृत केली गेली परंतु शारीरिक कार्यांवर जोर देण्यात आला. आयुष्यभराच्या शिक्षणाचे सुरुवातीचे समर्थक एल.पी. जॅक्स यांनी करमणुकीच्या माध्यमातून शिक्षणाचे वर्णन केले:"जीवन जगण्याची कला असलेले मास्टर आपले कार्य आणि नाटक, त्यांचे श्रम आणि विश्रांती, आपले मन आणि शरीर यांच्यात कोणताही फरक दर्शवित नाहीत. त्याचे शिक्षण आणि त्याचे मनोरंजन. काय आहे हे त्याला क्वचितच ठाऊक आहे. तो जे काही करत आहे त्याद्वारे तो उत्कृष्टतेच्या दृष्टीकोनातून जातो आणि इतरांना तो काम करत आहे की खेळत आहे हे निर्धारित करण्यासाठी सोडतो. स्वतः साठी तो नेहमीच दोन्ही करत असल्याचे दिसते. त्याला तो चांगले करतो. " करमणुकीच्या माध्यमातून शिक्षण ही जीवनाच्या सर्व क्रियाकलापांमध्ये अखंडपणे शिकण्याची संधी आहे. वैद्यकीय विद्यार्थ्यांना शरीरशास्त्र शिकविण्यासाठी पाश्चिमात्य ओंटारियो विद्यापीठाने ही संकल्पना पुनरुज्जीवित केली आहे.

स्वयं-निर्देशित शिक्षण

स्वशिक्षण हे स्वयं-निर्देशित शिक्षण आहे. एखाद्याच्या आयुष्यातील जवळजवळ कोणत्याही क्षणी एखादा स्वयंंशिक्षित होऊ शकतो. उल्लेखनीय स्वयंशिक्षितांमध्ये अब्राहम लिंकन (अमेरिकन अध्यक्ष), श्रीनिवास रामानुजन (गणितज्ञ), मायकेल फॅराडे (रसायनशास्त्रज्ञ आणि भौतिकशास्त्रज्ञ), चार्ल्स डार्विन (निसर्गशास्त्रज्ञ), थॉमस अल्वा एडिसन (शोधक), टाडो अंडो (वास्तुविशारद), जॉर्ज बर्नार्ड शॉ (नाटककार), फ्रँक झप्पा (संगीतकार, ध्वनिमुद्रण अभियंता, चित्रपट दिग्दर्शक) आणि लिओनार्डो दा विंसी (अभियंता, वैज्ञानिक, गणितज्ञ) यांचा समावेश होतो.

पुरावा-आधारित शिक्षण

पुरावा-आधारित शिक्षण म्हणजे कोणत्या शैक्षणिक पद्धती उत्तम कार्य करतात हे निर्धारित करण्यासाठी सुयोग्य योजना केलेल्या वैज्ञानिक अभ्यासाचा वापर होय. यात पुरावा-आधारित अध्यापन आणि पुरावा-आधारित अध्ययन असते. अंतरावरील पुनरावृत्तीसारख्या पुरावा-आधारित शिक्षण पद्धती शिकण्याचे प्रमाण वाढवू शकतात. पुरावा-आधारित शिक्षण चळवळीचे मूळ पुरावा-आधारित-पद्धतींबद्दलच्या मोठ्या चळवळीत आहे.

मुक्त शिक्षण आणि इलेक्ट्राॅनिक तंत्रज्ञान

बऱ्याच मोठ्या विद्यापीठ संस्था आता हार्वर्ड , एमआयटी आणि बर्कलेसारखे ईडीएक्स तयार करण्यासाठी विनामूल्य किंवा जवळजवळ विनामूल्य अभ्यासक्रम देण्यास प्रारंभ करीत आहेत. मुक्त शिक्षण देणारी अन्य विद्यापीठे अशी प्रतिष्ठित खासगी विद्यापीठे आहेत जसे की स्टॅनफोर्ड , प्रिन्सटन , ड्यूक , जॉन्स हॉपकिन्स , पेनिलव्हानिया विद्यापीठ आणि कॅलटेक , तसेच सिंघुआ , पेकिंग , एडिनबर्ग , मिशिगन विद्यापीठ आणि व्हर्जिनिया विद्यापीठ यासारख्या नामांकित सार्वजनिक विद्यापीठे.

मुद्रण यंत्रापासुन लोकांना शिकण्याच्या पद्धतीतील सर्वात मोठे बदल मुक्त शिक्षणास म्हणतात. परिणामकारकतेवर अनुकूल अभ्यास करूनही, बरेच लोक सामाजिक आणि सांस्कृतिक कारणांसाठी पारंपारिक संकुुल शिक्षण निवडण्याची इच्छा बाळगू शकतात.

बऱ्याच मुक्त विद्यापीठे विद्यार्थ्यांना प्रमाणित चाचणी आणि पारंपारिक पदव्या आणि प्रमाणपत्रे प्रदान करण्याची क्षमता ठेवण्याचे कार्य करत आहेत.

पारंपारिक गुणवत्ता-प्रणाली पदवी सध्या संकुल विद्यापीठांप्रमाणेच मुक्त शिक्षणाइतकी प्रचलित नाही, जरी आधीच संयुक्त राजतंत्रमधील मुक्त विद्यापीठ सारखे काही मुक्त विद्यापीठ पारंपारिक पदव्या प्रदान करतात. सध्या, बरेच मोठे मुक्त शिक्षण स्रोत त्यांचे स्वतःचे प्रमाणपत्र देतात. मुक्त शिक्षणाच्या लोकप्रियतेमुळे, ही नवीन प्रकारची शैक्षणिक प्रमाणपत्रे पारंपारिक पदव्यांपेक्षा अधिक आदर आणि समान " शैक्षणिक मूल्य " मिळवित आहेत.

२००९ मध्ये सर्वेक्षण झालेल्या १८२ महाविद्यालयांपैकी जवळपास अर्ध्यांनी सांगितले की, संगणकांतर्गत अभ्यासक्रमांसाठीचे अध्यापन संकुल-आधारित अध्यापनापेक्षा जास्त आहे.

नुकत्याच झालेल्या विश्लेषणामध्ये असे आढळले आहे की संगणकांतर्गत आणि मिश्रित शैक्षणिक पद्धतींचा संपूर्णपणे समोरासमोर ठेवणाऱ्या पद्धतींपेक्षा चांगला परिणाम होता.

शिक्षण क्षेत्र 

शिक्षण क्षेत्र किंवा शिक्षण प्रणाली हे संस्थांचा (शिक्षण मंत्रालये, स्थानिक शैक्षणिक विभाग, शिक्षक प्रशिक्षण संस्था, विद्यालये, विद्यापीठ, इ.) गट आहे, ज्यांचा प्राथमिक उद्देश्य शैक्षणिक वातावरणामधील बालक व तरुण व्यक्तींना शिक्षण पुरवणे हा आहे. यात अनेक व्यक्तींचा (अभ्यासक्रम निर्माते, निरीक्षक, मुख्याध्यापक, शिक्षक, रुग्णसेवक इ.) समावेश होतो. या संस्था विविध अनुषंगाने वेगळ्या असू शकतात.

शिक्षण प्रणालीचे इतर विविध घटक जसे की शिक्षण धोरणे व मार्गदर्शक तत्त्वे- ज्यांचा विद्यालय धोरणे संदर्भ घेऊ शकतात- अभ्यासक्रम व अध्ययन साहित्य, तसेच पुर्व व सेवेअंतर्गत शिक्षक प्रशिक्षण कार्यक्रम यांच्या साहाय्याने, विद्यालये शिक्षण देतात. विद्यालय वातावरणसुद्धा- भौतिक (स्थापत्य) व मानसिक (विद्यालय वातावरण) हे दोन्ही- विद्यालय धोरणांद्वारे मार्गदर्शीत आहे, ज्याने विद्यार्थ्यांचे हित जोपासले पाहिजे, जेव्हा ते विद्यालयात असतात.

आर्थिक सहकार्य व विकास संस्थेला असे आढळले की, जेव्हा मुख्याध्यापकांना संपूर्ण अधिकार व पदवीवर मुलभुत विषयांत प्रविण असण्याची जबाबदारी असते, तेव्हा विद्यालयांचा सर्वोत्तम सादरीकरणाकडे कल असतो. दर्जाची हमी व सुधारणेसाठी ते विद्यार्थ्यांकडून प्रतिक्रिया घेतात. शासनांनी विद्यार्थी निपुणतेची परिक्षा घेण्यापासुन स्वतःस मर्यादित केले पाहिजे.

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शिक्षण क्षेत्र हे काही भागधारक व इतर क्षेत्रासोबत परस्पर संबंधांच्या माध्यमातून समाजाशी पुर्णपणे एकरूप झाले आहे. यात पालक, धार्मिक नेते, अशासकीय संघटना, आरोग्य, बालक सुरक्षा, न्याय व अंमलबजावणी, माध्यमे व राजकीय नेतृत्व यांचा समावेश होतो.

विकास लक्ष्ये 

Chimombo pointed out education's role as a policy instrument, capable of instilling social change and economic advancement in developing countries by giving communities the opportunity to take control of their destinies. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted by the United Nations (UN) General Assembly in September 2015, calls for a new vision to address the environmental, social and economic concerns facing the world today. The Agenda includes 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including SDG 4 on education.

Since 1909, the percentage of children in the developing world attending school has increased.  Before then, a small minority of boys attended school.  By the start of the twenty-first century, the majority of children in most regions of the world attended school.

Universal Primary Education is one of the eight international Millennium Development Goals, towards which progress has been made in the past decade, though barriers still remain. Securing charitable funding from prospective donors is one particularly persistent problem. Researchers at the Overseas Development Institute have indicated that the main obstacles to funding for education include conflicting donor priorities, an immature aid architecture, and a lack of evidence and advocacy for the issue. Additionally, Transparency International has identified corruption in the education sector as a major stumbling block to achieving Universal Primary Education in Africa. Furthermore, demand in the developing world for improved educational access is not as high as foreigners have expected. Indigenous governments are reluctant to take on the ongoing costs involved. There is also economic pressure from some parents, who prefer their children to earn money in the short term rather than work towards the long-term benefits of education.

A study conducted by the UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning indicates that stronger capacities in educational planning and management may have an important spill-over effect on the system as a whole. Sustainable capacity development requires complex interventions at the institutional, organizational and individual levels that could be based on some foundational principles:
 national leadership and ownership should be the touchstone of any intervention;
 strategies must be context relevant and context specific;
 plans should employ an integrated set of complementary interventions, though implementation may need to proceed in steps;
 partners should commit to a long-term investment in capacity development while working towards some short-term achievements;
 outside intervention should be conditional on an impact assessment of national capacities at various levels;
 a certain percentage of students should be removed for improvisation of academics (usually practiced in schools, after 10th grade).

Internationalization
Nearly every country now has universal primary education.

Similarities – in systems or even in ideas – that schools share internationally have led to an increase in international student exchanges. The European Socrates-Erasmus Programme facilitates exchanges across European universities. The Soros Foundation provides many opportunities for students from central Asia and eastern Europe. Programs such as the International Baccalaureate have contributed to the internationalization of education. The global campus online, led by American universities, allows free access to class materials and lecture files recorded during the actual classes.

The Programme for International Student Assessment and the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement objectively monitor and compare the proficiency of students from a wide range of different nations.

The internationalization of education is sometimes equated by critics with the westernization of education. These critics say that the internationalization of education leads to the erosion of local education systems and indigenous values and norms, which are replaced with Western systems and cultural and ideological values and orientation.

Education and technology in developing countries

Technology plays an increasingly significant role in improving access to education for people living in impoverished areas and developing countries. However, lack of technological advancement is still causing barriers with regards to quality and access to education in developing countries. Charities like One Laptop per Child are dedicated to providing infrastructures through which the disadvantaged may access educational materials.

The OLPC foundation, a group out of MIT Media Lab and supported by several major corporations, has a stated mission to develop a $100 laptop for delivering educational software. The laptops were widely available as of 2008. They are sold at cost or given away based on donations.

In Africa, the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) has launched an "e-school program" to provide all 600,000 primary and high schools with computer equipment, learning materials and internet access within 10 years. An International Development Agency project called nabuur.com, started with the support of former American President Bill Clinton, uses the महाजाल to allow co-operation by individuals on issues of social development.

India is developing technologies that will bypass land-based telephone and Internet infrastructure to deliver distance learning directly to its students. In 2004, the Indian Space Research Organisation launched EDUSAT, a communications satellite providing access to educational materials that can reach more of the country's population at a greatly reduced cost.

Funding in developing countries
A survey of literature of the research into low-cost private schools (LCPS)  found that over 5-year period to July 2013, debate around LCPSs to achieving Education for All (EFA) objectives was polarized and finding growing coverage in international policy. The polarization was due to disputes around whether the schools are affordable for the poor, reach disadvantaged groups, provide quality education, support or undermine equality, and are financially sustainable. The report examined the main challenges encountered by development organizations which support LCPSs. Surveys suggest these types of schools are expanding across Africa and Asia. This success is attributed to excess demand. These surveys found concern for:
 Equity: This concern is widely found in the literature, suggesting the growth in low-cost private schooling may be exacerbating or perpetuating already existing inequalities in developing countries, between urban and rural populations, lower- and higher-income families, and between girls and boys. The report findings suggest that girls may be under represented and that LCPS are reaching low-income families in smaller numbers than higher-income families.
 Quality and educational outcomes: It is difficult to generalize about the quality of private schools. While most achieve better results than government counterparts, even after their social background is taken into account, some studies find the opposite. Quality in terms of levels of teacher absence, teaching activity, and pupil to teacher ratios in some countries are better in LCPSs than in government schools.
 Choice and affordability for the poor: Parents can choose private schools because of perceptions of better-quality teaching and facilities, and an English language instruction preference. Nevertheless, the concept of 'choice' does not apply in all contexts, or to all groups in society, partly because of limited affordability (which excludes most of the poorest) and other forms of exclusion, related to caste or social status.
 Cost-effectiveness and financial sustainability: There is evidence that private schools operate at low cost by keeping teacher salaries low, and their financial situation may be precarious where they are reliant on fees from low-income households.

The report showed some cases of successful voucher where there was an oversupply of quality private places and an efficient administrative authority and  of subsidy programs. Evaluations of the effectiveness of international support to the sector are rare. Addressing regulatory ineffectiveness is a key challenge. Emerging approaches stress the importance of understanding the political economy of the market for LCPS, specifically how relationships of power and accountability between users, government, and private providers can produce better education outcomes for the poor.

शैक्षणिक सिद्धांत

Educational psychology

Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations.  The terms "educational psychology" and "school psychology" are often used interchangeably.  Educational psychology is concerned with the processes of educational attainment in the general population and in sub-populations such as gifted children and those with specific disabilities.

Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by psychology, bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between medicine and biology. Educational psychology, in turn, informs a wide range of specialties within educational studies, including instructional design, educational technology, curriculum development, organizational learning, special education and classroom management. Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning sciences. In universities, departments of educational psychology are usually housed within faculties of education, possibly accounting for the lack of representation of educational psychology content in introductory psychology textbooks (Lucas, Blazek, & Raley, 2006).

The intelligence–education relationship

Intelligence is an important factor in how the individual responds to education. Those who have higher intelligence tend to perform better at school and go on to higher levels of education. This effect is also observable in the opposite direction, in that education increases measurable intelligence. Studies have shown that while educational attainment is important in predicting intelligence in later life, intelligence at 53 is more closely correlated to intelligence at 8 years old than to educational attainment.

Learning modalities
There has been much interest in learning modalities and styles over the last two decades. The most commonly employed learning modalities are:
 Visual: learning based on observation and seeing what is being learned.
 Auditory: learning based on listening to instructions/information.
 Kinesthetic: learning based on movement, e.g. hands-on work and engaging in activities.

Other commonly employed modalities include musical, interpersonal, verbal, logical, and intrapersonal.

Dunn and Dunn focused on identifying relevant stimuli that may influence learning and manipulating the school environment, at about the same time as Joseph Renzulli recommended varying teaching strategies. Howard Gardner identified a wide range of modalities in his Multiple Intelligences theories. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Keirsey Temperament Sorter, based on the works of Jung, focus on understanding how people's personality affects the way they interact personally, and how this affects the way individuals respond to each other within the learning environment. The work of David Kolb and Anthony Gregorc's Type Delineator follows a similar but more simplified approach.

Some theories propose that all individuals benefit from a variety of learning modalities, while others suggest that individuals may have preferred learning styles, learning more easily through visual or kinesthetic experiences. A consequence of the latter theory is that effective teaching should present a variety of teaching methods which cover all three learning modalities so that different students have equal opportunities to learn in a way that is effective for them. Guy Claxton has questioned the extent that learning styles such as Visual, Auditory and Kinesthetic(VAK) are helpful, particularly as they can have a tendency to label children and therefore restrict learning. Recent research has argued, "there is no adequate evidence base to justify incorporating learning styles assessments into general educational practice."

Mind, brain, and education
Educational neuroscience is an emerging scientific field that brings together researchers in cognitive neuroscience, developmental cognitive neuroscience, educational psychology, educational technology, education theory and other related disciplines to explore the interactions between biological processes and education. Researchers in educational neuroscience investigate the neural mechanisms of reading, numerical cognition, attention, and their attendant difficulties including dyslexia, dyscalculia, and ADHD as they relate to education. Several academic institutions around the world are beginning to devote resources to the establishment of educational neuroscience research.

Philosophy

As an academic field, philosophy of education is "the philosophical study of education and its problems (...) its central subject matter is education, and its methods are those of philosophy". "The philosophy of education may be either the philosophy of the process of education or the philosophy of the discipline of education. That is, it may be part of the discipline in the sense of being concerned with the aims, forms, methods, or results of the process of educating or being educated; or it may be metadisciplinary in the sense of being concerned with the concepts, aims, and methods of the discipline." As such, it is both part of the field of education and a field of applied philosophy, drawing from fields of metaphysics, epistemology, axiology and the philosophical approaches (speculative, prescriptive or analytic) to address questions in and about pedagogy, education policy, and curriculum, as well as the process of learning, to name a few. For example, it might study what constitutes upbringing and education, the values and norms revealed through upbringing and educational practices, the limits and legitimization of education as an academic discipline, and the relation between education theory and practice.

Purpose of education
There is no broad consensus as to what education's chief aim or aims are or should be. Different places, and at different times, have used educational systems for different purposes.  The Prussian education system in the 19th century, for example, wanted to turn boys and girls into adults who would serve the state's political goals.

Some authors stress its value to the individual, emphasizing its potential for positively influencing students' personal development, promoting autonomy, forming a cultural identity or establishing a career or occupation. Other authors emphasize education's contributions to societal purposes, including good citizenship, shaping students into productive members of society, thereby promoting society's general economic development, and preserving cultural values.

The purpose of education in a given time and place affects who is taught, what is taught, and how the education system behaves.  For example, in the 21st century, many countries treat education as a positional good.  In this competitive approach, people want their own students to get a better education than other students.  This approach can lead to unfair treatment of some students, especially those from disadvantaged or marginalized groups.  For example, in this system, a city's school system may draw school district boundaries so that nearly all the students in one school are from low-income families, and that nearly all the students in the neighboring schools come from more affluent families, even though concentrating low-income students in one school results in worse educational achievement for the entire school system.

Curriculum

In formal education, a curriculum is the set of courses and their content offered at a school or university. As an idea, curriculum stems from the Latin word for race course, referring to the course of deeds and experiences through which children grow to become mature adults. A curriculum is prescriptive and is based on a more general syllabus which merely specifies what topics must be understood and to what level to achieve a particular grade or standard.

An academic discipline is a branch of knowledge which is formally taught, either at the university – or via some other such method. Each discipline usually has several sub-disciplines or branches, and distinguishing lines are often both arbitrary and ambiguous. Examples of broad areas of academic disciplines include the natural sciences, mathematics, computer science, social sciences, humanities and applied sciences.

Instruction
Instruction is the facilitation of another's learning. Instructors in primary and secondary institutions are often called teachers, and they direct the education of students and might draw on many subjects like reading, writing, mathematics, science and history. Instructors in post-secondary institutions might be called teachers, instructors, or professors, depending on the type of institution; and they primarily teach only their specific discipline. Studies from the United States suggest that the quality of teachers is the single most important factor affecting student performance, and that countries which score highly on international tests have multiple policies in place to ensure that the teachers they employ are as effective as possible. With the passing of NCLB in the United States (No Child Left Behind), teachers must be highly qualified.

शिक्षणाची अर्थव्यवस्था 

It has been argued that high rates of education are essential for countries to be able to achieve high levels of economic growth. Empirical analyses tend to support the theoretical prediction that poor countries should grow faster than rich countries because they can adopt cutting edge technologies already tried and tested by rich countries. However, technology transfer requires knowledgeable managers and engineers who are able to operate new machines or production practices borrowed from the leader in order to close the gap through imitation. Therefore, a country's ability to learn from the leader is a function of its stock of "human capital". Recent study of the determinants of aggregate economic growth have stressed the importance of fundamental economic institutions and the role of cognitive skills.

At the level of the individual, there is a large literature, generally related to the work of Jacob Mincer, on how earnings are related to the schooling and other human capital. This work has motivated many studies, but is also controversial. The chief controversies revolve around how to interpret the impact of schooling. Some students who have indicated a high potential for learning, by testing with a high intelligence quotient, may not achieve their full academic potential, due to financial difficulties.

Economists Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis argued in 1976 that there was a fundamental conflict in American schooling between the egalitarian goal of democratic participation and the inequalities implied by the continued profitability of capitalist production.

शिक्षणाचे भविष्य 
आता अनेक देश त्यांच्या नागरिकांना शिकवण्याच्या पद्धती कठोरपणे बदलत आहेत. जग हे आतापर्यंतच्या सर्वात गतिमान दराने बदलत आहे, त्यामुळे बरेच ज्ञान फार लवकर अप्रचलित व अयोग्य ठरते. त्यामुळे नवीन ज्ञान लवकर व जलद मार्गाने ग्रहण करण्याची: अध्ययन कौशल्ये  शिकवण्यावर भर पडत आहे. फिनलँडच्या विद्यालयांनी संज्ञा आधारित अध्ययनासारखी नवीन गोष्ट प्रस्तुत करून, सामान्य विषय-आधारित अभ्यासक्रमे सोडण्यास सुरुवात केली आहे, जिथे विद्यार्थी हवामान बदलासारख्या संकल्पना शिकतात. अपारंपारिक विद्यार्थी, जसेे  प्रथम पिढी विद्यार्थ्यांसाठी मार्ग व  कार्यक्रम राबवणाऱ्या सक्रिय शैक्षणिक संस्थासुद्धा आहेत.prog

शिक्षण लवकरच बालकांसाठी आरक्षित गोष्ट राहणार नाही. प्रौढांनासुद्धा त्याची गरज आहे.  काही शासकीय यंत्रणा, जसे की फिनलँडमधील फिनिश नाविण्य निधी (सित्र), यांची तर अनिवार्य आजिवन शिक्षणाची योजना आहे.

हे सुद्धा पहा 
 शिक्षक दिन

टिपा 
King's School Canterbury has been in continuous existence from 597 AD

स्रोत

संदर्भ

बाह्य दुवे 

 
 UNESCO Institute for Statistics: International comparable statistics on education systems
 World Bank Education
 Systems Approach for Better Education Results (SABER) 
 Education Statistics (EdStats)
 OECD Education GPS: Statistics and policy analysis, interactive portal
 OECD Statistics
 IIEP Publications on Education Systems

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Main topic articles

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