College fraternity

A college fraternity is a social fraternal organization based in a college or university with membership limited to students and alumni. The concept originated in America, based in part on older fraternal orders such as Freemasonry. 
The first college fraternity was Phi Beta Kappa, which was founded in 1776 at the College of William and Mary.Historical Information by John W. Warren et al. (2000) Association of College Honor Societies. At some point in the early 19th century Phi Beta Kappa evolved from the prototypical fraternity into an academic honor society. Phi Beta Kappa, as the model for future fraternities, in turn derived its structure from Freemasonry, including secrecy, initiation, oaths, and rituals.Freemasonry and the Development of Greek-Letter Fraternities by David E. Stafford (2006) The Plumbline 14(3). Tennessee Lodge of Research, Scottish Rite Research Society. In 1825, the longest extant college fraternity was established at Union College, the Kappa Alpha Society.The Dark Power of Fraternities: A yearlong investigation of Greek houses reveals their endemic, lurid, and sometimes tragic problems—and a sophisticated system for shifting the blame. by Caitlin Flanagan (March 2014) The Atlantic.
The early fraternities formed to escape control by overbearing college administrators. Subsequently, fraternities have existed to create and maintain privilege. As such, they are anti-democratic, and have been among the last opponents of slavery abolition (though this was primarily among Southerners), higher education for women, and desegregation, as well as being bastions of overt racism (e.g. as expressed by blackface).Blackface Leads to Fraternity Suspension at Cal Poly in San Luis Obispo by Matthew Haag (April 11, 2018) The New York Times.Blackface, KKK hoods and mock lynchings: Review of 900 yearbooks finds blatant racism: In one of the most extensive searches of college yearbooks ever, we found blackface and Ku Klux Klan photos like Ralph Northam's far beyond Virginia. by Brett Murphy (6:43 a.m. PST Feb. 21, 2019) USA Today.
The fraternities of the 19th century frequently included literary exercises and debating as part of membership activities, but by the turn of the century, these aspects had been dispensed with entirely. By the 1950s, some fraternities had actually become anti-intellectual.
Ostensibly, fraternities act as philanthropic organizations, but this has been overstated.Fraternities as Charitable Powerhouses? One University’s Numbers Suggest Otherwise by Sarah Brown (February 02, 2018) The Chronicle of Higher Education. Fraternities also act as nepotistic employment networking organizations for their membership.Secret Handshakes Greet Frat Brothers on Wall Street by Max Abelson & Zeke Faux (December 22, 2013, 9:00 PM PST) Bloomberg (archived from 8 Jun 2018 02:13:29 UTC).
==Problem behavior and the aftermath==
The problems caused by college fraternities are not restricted to colleges or to fraternities. Organizations that have hazings (military, sororities, and even Masons) have had hazing-associated deaths. A combination of traits associated with college fraternities is likely the cause for the frequent problems: wealth and privilege, unsupervised young men, alcohol abuse, and secrecy with implicit blackmail. Indeed, Sage Carson, project manager for Know Your IX, said, "Fraternities are set up to support behaviors of toxic masculinity."Frats Will Never Be Anything but Hotbeds for Toxic Masculinity: The extremely racist and sexist video involving members of a Syracuse University fraternity that surfaced this week is just one recent incident in a long line of similarly offensive—and often dangerous—behavior. by Kimberly Lawson (Apr 19 2018, 11:00am) Vice. Colleges have frequently tried to dissociate or remove "bad" fraternities from campuses, but this has rarely solved the problem behavior. In 2013, Wesleyan University unsuccessfully tried to force all three of its fraternities to accept female residents (not as members). Two accepted and the third (Beta Theta Pi) ended its formal association with Wesleyan, but retained its membership within the university and the problems that it continued to cause. Reform campaigns against fraternities have been difficult:
Though fraternity constitutions and rules often appeal ideals to chivalryThe History of Pi Beta Phi Fraternity by Elizabeth Allen Clarke-Helmick (1915) and honor, the reality of fraternity behavior is often different.The American Fraternity: Psi Rho Ritual Book by Andrew Moisey (2018) Daylight Books. ISBN 1942084552. Includes facsimile term paper by Justin F. Romberg (pseudonym), "How to be a Man amongst Brothers".
It is not really possible to ban fraternities in the democratic societies because of (the First Amendment in the US) — and because many fraternity alumni are very generous to their alma maters — so the best solution seems to be suing fraternities into better behavior.
===Hazing===
Fraternities share the common elements of secrecy (including rituals), an initiation process (rushing or recruitment, pledging or probationary period/associate membership, hazings, and initiation of full membership), and living in a common dwelling exclusively with members.Fraternity & Sorority Life: Terminology Rochester Institute of Technology.'An oath of silence': The secret world of fraternity pledging and how it contributes to hazing deaths by Emily Shapiro (Oct 27, 2017, 4:36 AM ET) ABC News. The concept of hazing new members to a group (as well as the criticism of it) is not restricted to fraternities, but is ancient and culturally widespread, dating at last as far back as Plato.Wrongs of Passage: Fraternities, Sororities, Hazing, and Binge Drinking by Hank Nuwer (2001) Indiana University Press. ISBN 025321498X. Nuwer defines hazing as:
Scott Saucier, whose son died in a fraternity hazing and who then became an outspoken critic of fraternity hazing, has described fraternities as cult-like because some aspects of fraternities overlap with cults: isolation, authoritarianism as well as sexual manipulation, violence and surrender of will during initiation. There is also evidence of bait-and-switch in pledging: fraternity pledge J. B. Joynt wrote in his notebook before he died, apparently from exhaustion during a night of coerced wrestling matches:
In 2024, the United States passed a law that requires colleges that receive student aid to report statistics on hazing.President Biden signs anti-hazing bill advocated by a Virginia family: Higher education institutions with federal student aid will be required to publicly report hazing incidents. by Nicole Asbury (December 29, 2024) The Washington Post. Hazing incidents were often kept secret by fraternities and colleges to prevent bad press. The law also provides a uniform definition of hazing as:H.R.5646 - Stop Campus Hazing Act (2023-2024) United States Congress.
===Alcohol===
It's probably obvious to anyone who knows anything about college fraternities that they are intimately tied to alcohol consumption, and so is essentially every shit-hit-the fan incident at fraternities:
Although one reason for joining a fraternity is supposed to be the making men out of boys, the reality is rather different:
===Death and mayhem===
The first reported fraternity death was in 1873 from hazing at Cornell University.Hazing Deaths: 1737-2019 by Hank Nuwer There has been at least one fraternity-related school death every year from 1961 to 2019 from hazing.Hazing: Destroying Young Lives by Hank Nuwer (2018) Indiana University Press. ISBN 0253030048.
===Rapes and sexual assaults===
In 2014, there were 36 reported rapes or sexual assaults in US fraternities, roughly 3.6 per month (discounting summer break).Every Rape Reported at Fraternities This Year by Allie Jones (12/22/14 09:00AM) Gawker. In 2018, there were nationwide "337 open investigations at 243 schools for possibly mishandling reports of sexual violence." Seventy-five documented incidents of fraternity gang rape occurred within a 6-year period, but for obvious reasons, this is probably an under-reporting. One fraternity member reported that "trains" (gang rapes) occurred once or twice a month at his fraternity.Fraternity Gang Rape: Sex, Brotherhood, and Privilege on Campus by Peggy Reeves Sanday (1990) NYU Press. ISBN 0814779026.
Fraternity pledges have also been subjected to coercive, sadistic, and demeaning sexual acts during initiation, including paddling of buttocks and the "elephant walk" or "elephant drill".Shade of the Raintree: The Life and Death of Ross Lockridge, Jr. by Larry Lockridge (1994) Viking. ISBN 0670854409.Frat accused of forcing pledges to do the 'elephant walk' by Jackie Salo (February 7, 2019 | 4:37pm) New York Post. An official song ("Yo-Ho") at one fraternity even included lyrics of death by fellatio.
A study of all first-year men at a public university looked at the effectiveness of a sexual assault intervention program known as The Men's Program (MP).Behavior Differences Seven Months Later: Effects of a Rape Prevention Program] by John D. Foubert et al. (2007) NASPA Journal 44(4):728-749. Effectiveness of the program was judged using results of The Sexual Experiences Survey (SES). The study found that men who joined fraternities were more likely to commit sexually coercive acts during their first year in college (8%) than those who did not join fraternities (2.5%). Men who joined fraternities during their first year and who did not participate in MP were more likely to commit sexually coercive acts (10%) than those who joined fraternities and did participate in MP (6%) during their first year, which was attributable to those fraternity men who did not participate in MP. The study also found that men who participated in MP experienced a long-term decline in rape myth acceptance (the myth that women want to be roughed up, that women pretend not to want sex, or that sexually liberated women are promiscuous). Unlike many previous intervention programs, The Men's Program was effective in reducing the incidence of sexually coercive behavior. The authors of the study attributed the effectiveness of MP compared to previous programs to it being theory-based, data-based, peer-reviewed, and flexible. A limiting factor for changing the sexual behavior of fraternity members is that there is evidence that the most sexually aggressive men tend to self-select towards joining fraternities."An Examination of Sexual Aggression as a Response to Sexual Frustration" by Eugene J. Kanin (1967) Journal of Marriage and Family 29(3):428. DOI:10.2307/349577.
===Bigotry===
White fraternities have been racially exclusionary — even segregationist — for much of their history. They have included racist, antisemitic, homophobic, and sexist elements into their initiation processes, and have long held racist theme parties.
One of the more perplexing aspects of fraternities is the often homoerotic aspects of initiation rituals but the expression of homophobia elsewhere."Afterword" by Nicholas L. Syrett (2018) In: The American Fraternity: Psi Rho Ritual Book by Andrew Moisey Daylight Books. ISBN 1942084552.The Company he Keeps: A History of White College Fraternities by Nicholas L. Syrett (2009) Chapel Hill University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0807832537. The reason for this may have been because some fraternities before the 1920s were havens for closeted gay men, but after the arrival of larger numbers of women on college campuses in the 1920s, the men felt obliged to aggressively express heterosexuality lest they be outed from their closets. Anthony James has argued that the homoerotic aspects of fraternities increased following World War II because of increased public awareness of homosexualityThe Defenders of Tradition: College Social Fraternities, Race and Gender, 1945-1980 by Anthony W. James (1998) Ph.D. dissertation, University of Mississippi. (e.g., the founding of in 1950 and in 1955). The increased homoeroticism was an attempt to humiliate pledges as much as possible, but at the same time it required compensation with more aggressive expressions of heterosexuality in social life.
===Litigation===
Something that pledges, most fraternity members, and parents of fraternity members probably do not know until the shit hits the fan is that there are effectively no individual college fraternities, there is but a single college fraternity under a giant liability umbrella. This started in 1996 after individual fraternities became uninsurable after a series of lawsuits. Thirty-two fraternities now belong to the Fraternity Risk Management Trust (FRMT), a self-insurance fund.About FRMT, Ltd. (archived from 26 May 2019 05:21:47 UTC). It doesn't sound very glamorous or exclusive to say that one belongs to the FRMT, so the fraternities have kept their names and one can still claim that one belongs to Kappa Alpha or whatever. A consequence of the establishment of the FRMT is that it is all about self-preservation as a trust, not preservation of individual fraternity members or even individual chapter houses. Just like any insurance fund, they don't want to have to pay out if they don't have to, and that means finding blame somewhere else. In 1987, the Fraternal Information and Programming Group (FIPG) was also created to minimize risk.FIPG Risk Management Manual (January, 2013) FIPG, Inc. (archived from 26 May 2019 05:45:12 UTC). The FIPG produces a 50-page manual for individual fraternity houses to follow. Two of consequences of this are 1) that parents of a dead or injured child are likely to be notified of the incident by a coroner or hospital 2) national consultants show up and tell the fraternity members to each fill-in questionnaires about the incident and to be completely honest and forthcoming. This second part basically means that — without the presence of a lawyer — frat bros are encouraged to either self-incriminate or rat on their fellow bros depending on their involvement. This often enough lets FRMT off the hook for financial damages, and can put parents on the hook. One lawyer who specializes in fraternity law said, "I've recovered millions and millions of dollars from homeowners' policies."
The combination of pledging secrecy and the initiation process has traditionally acted as an implicit blackmail threat for members not to reveal misdeeds of their fraternity brothers. For example, pledges and alumni are sometimes required to sign "vile, sexist pledge books".
==Goats==
As with the Freemasons, fraternities have occasionally been associated with goats. Tom Earp, a Lambda Chi alumnus, wrote for the fraternity newsletter about this association. Earp concluded, perhaps with some bias, with a rather benign explanation that it is based on , which describes the scapegoat as the bearer of sins.A Look into the Background of the Fraternal Goat by Tom Earp (2012 June) Cross & Crescents (archived from March 5, 2016). Fraternities' relationships with goats have not always been benevolent, however, as there has been at least one case of cruelty toward a goat by a fraternity.WKU Fraternity Suspended for Hazing, Animal Cruelty Reinstated (November 21, 2007) AP via Diverse: Issues In Higher Education. Goat-related fraternity suspensions lifted at RU by Robby Korth (Dec 22, 2016) The Roanoke Times.
==See also==
*Proud Boys — a fraternity'They are coming for us' | Private Telegram messages show Proud Boys scrambling after Capitol riot: An attorney for Proud Boy leader Ethan Nordean submitted dozens of private messages between members of the group in court this week. by Jordan Fischer et al. (Published: 12:28 PM EDT June 16, 2021; Updated: 7:03 PM EDT June 16, 2021) WUSA9. "I understand where we’re at in the frat." — Ethan Nordean, Proud Boys leader minus the edumacation
*Rape culture
*Secret society
*Skull and Bones
==External links==
*Title IX: Tracking Sexual Assault Investigations
*Know Your IX: Empowering Students to Stop Sexual Violence
*FRMT Ltd.
*FIPG
*The Men's Program
==Notes==
==References==
Category:Crime
Category:Goats
Category:Homophobia
Category:Organizations
Category:Rape
Category:Rape culture
Category:Racism
Category:Sexism
Category:Machismo