Archaeological Conservation

Back to the Main Page
Back to the Objects Page
Back to the Architecture Page
Image: oc logo.gif‎ Objects Specialty Group Conservation Wiki 
Contributors: 
Claudia Chemello, Nichole Daub, Suzanne Davis, Michell Gilman, LeeAnn Barnes Gordon, Susanne Grieve, Cricket Harbeck, Dawn Lohnas, Vanessa Muros, Ida Pohorlijakova, Carrie Roberts, Julie Unruh, Jessica Walthew, Emily Williams
Your name could be here! Please contribute.
Copyright . The Archaeological Conservation Wiki pages are a publication of the Archaeological Heritage Network of the American Institute for Conservation. Publication does not endorse nor recommend any treatments, methods, or techniques described herein. This information is published as a convenience for the members of the Archaeological Heritage Network, and is intended to be used by conservators, museum professionals, and members of the public for educational purposes only. It is not designed to substitute for the consultation of a trained conservator.
The Archaeological Heritage Network welcomes suggestions for new content or changes to existing content to this wiki. Please contribute!
Cite this page:
Archaeological Heritage Network. . Archaeological Conservation Wiki. American Institute for Conservation (AIC). Accessed , . https://www.conservation-wiki.com/wiki/Archaeological_Conservation
----
== Find an archaeological conservator ==
Please follow this link to the Find a Professional tool on the AIC website.
#Click on "Find a Professional." 
#Click on the "Search" button under "Location and Specialty."
#Check the relevant boxes under Archaeological Fieldwork, Architecture, or Objects.
#Click on "Search" at the bottom of the page.
==About archaeological conservation==
Archaeological conservation is a profession devoted to the preservation of the archaeological record. That record exists as landscapes, sites, buildings, structures, and artifacts, as well as less tangible aspects of cultural heritage: religious, ceremonial, or cultural functions; sightlines; or ancient roadways, pathways and waterways. Working with other archaeological professions (e.g. bioarchaeologists, paleobotanists, architects, materials scientists, imaging specialists, art historians, etc.), archaeological conservators investigate how structures and artifacts were made, used, and disposed; and stabilize and preserve the material remains of the past, their scientific value, and their cultural significance.200px|thumb|left|Conservator working in the lab to clean finds after excavation. Courtesy Archaeological Exploration of Sardis (Harvard University)‎
Archaeological conservation is guided by ethical principles that derive from the understanding that these materials are primary resources for understanding and interpreting the past. Because the goal of archaeological conservation is to facilitate understanding and interpretation of the archaeological record, treatment goals and methodologies for archaeological material may differ from goals for non-archaeological material. (As one example, the goal may be the preservation of molecular information rather than artifact morphology.) The appropriate approach to preservation can require direction from, and collaboration with, living communities that have connections to ancient cultures and sites. In some cases, the correct course of action may be to avoid intervention.
Scientific archaeological investigations uncover sites and artifacts in wide-ranging geographical areas of past and current human habitation, including dense urban settings, deep under the sea,Uluburun Late Bronze Age Shipwreck Excavation. Institute of Nautical Archaeology. Accessed January 17, 2025. https://nauticalarch.org/projects/uluburun-late-bronze-age-shipwreck-excavation/BBC. "'World's oldest champagne' found on Baltic seabed." 2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-10673322 and in the most extreme environments that humans have explored."Ross Sea Heritage Restoration Project." Accessed January 17, 2025. https://nzaht.org/conserve/ross-sea-heritage-restoration-project//Small, Zachary. 2025. "World Monuments Fund Puts Moon on List of At-Risk Sites." January 15. https://www.nytimes.com/2025/01/15/arts/world-monuments-fund-moon-endangered.htmlHolcomb, J.A., B.L. O’Leary, A.G. Fairén, R.D. Mandel, and K.W. Wegmann. 2024. “The Emerging Archaeological Record of Mars.” Nature Astronomy 8 (12) (December 1):1490–2. doi:10.1038/s41550-024-02439-w. Accordingly, archaeological conservators work all over the globe, in the field and in archaeological repositories, museums, and in private practice.
==Archaeological context, loss of context, and the illegal antiquities market==
At many archaeological sites, structures such as buildings, floor mosaics, walls and wall paintings, altars, and other monuments are left in situ to preserve their contexts – their relationships to each other and to the site – while smaller objects are removed from the site to facilitate study, and for safer storage in secure depots. The movement of archaeological materials and resulting dissociation from contexts can be highly contentious subjects, and conservators should be aware of the deep literature on the political, historical and sociological ramifications of archaeological practice. In the past, foreign excavations routinely made legal arrangements with governments to remove archaeological materials from sites in order to accession them into museum or university collections in other countries. Today, most moveable archaeological materials remain in the countries where they are excavated, in local storage depots or local or national museums. Unfortunately, the legal and illegal trade in antiquities continues to separate movable objects from their archaeological contexts, sometimes with permanent loss of information critical to their correct interpretation and analysis.
Archaeological conservators are bound by professional ethics to preserve archaeological remains and evidence of their contexts. For that reason, professional conservators may decline to work on material with an unknown archaeological provenience or with movement histories that do not conform to legal code.Balachandran, Sanchita. 2007. “Edge of an Ethical Dilemma.” Archaeology 60 (6): 18, 20, 65.Tubb, Kathryn Walker, ed. 1995. Antiquities: Trade or Betrayed: Legal, Ethical and Conservation Issues. London: Archetype in conjunction with UKIC Archaeology Section. Individual cases may raise additional ethical questions.
===Codes and legislation===
====Ethics codes and guidelines====
*AIA code of ethics
*AIC code of ethics
*ASOR code of conduct
*SAA principles of archaeological ethics
*SHA ethics statement
====Legislation====
*1954: Hague Convention: Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict 
*1964: Venice Charter: International Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Sites
*1966: Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation Act 
*1970: Convention of the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property
*1990: Charter for the Protection and Management of the Archaeological Heritage
*1990: Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act
*2013: The Burra Charter: The Australia ICOMOS Charter for the Conservation of Places of Cultural Significance
*ICOMOS: International Charters for Conservation and Restoration 
===Resources regarding the illegal antiquities trade===
====Databases of stolen archaeological objects====
*The Art Loss Register
*Association of Art Museum Directors (AAMD) Object Registry of New Acquisitions of Archaeological Material and Works of Ancient Art
*Commission for Looted Art in Europe
*Provenance Index Databases, Getty Research Institute
*International Foundation for Art Research
*Lost Treasures from Iraq, Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures, University of Chicago
*National Stolen Art File Search, The Federal Bureau of Investigation
*Stolen Works of Art Database, Interpol
*Red Lists Database, ICOM
====National and international efforts to stop the illegal trade of antiquities====
*The Antiquities Coalition
*Association for Research into Crimes Against Art 
*Cultural Antiquities Task Force, US Department of State
*The Federal Bureau of Investigation Art Crime Program 
*The International Council of Museums (ICOM) International Observatory on Illicit Traffic in Cultural Goods
*ICOM Object ID
*SAFE: Saving Antiquities for Everyone
*UNESCO Fight Illicit Trafficking, Return, and Restitution of Cultural Property
==Theoretical approaches and ethical considerations==
[Contributions sought for this section] 
Generally, archaeological conservators try to use the least interventive approach possible with the goal of stabilizing the site or object to enable analysis, study, safe handling, and long-term preservation.
==Burial environment, preservation, and deterioration==
===Preservation in burial=== 
Burial environment determines the deterioration and preservation of archaeological remains. In general, moisture, oxygen, heat, pressure, and agents of biodeterioration accelerate deterioration, via a combination of processes that include chemical alterations, structural damage, and decomposition. In terrestrial environments, soil moisture, pH, salinity, ground water penetration, soil microbiome, and soil turbidity have a large effect on the types of materials that are preserved. In waterlogged environments, water temperature, oxygen content, pH, water flow, and specific biological organisms have a great effect on preservation. 
Inorganic materials are better preserved in a wider variety of conditions than organic materials, but inorganic materials do alter in burial: metals corrode, porous materials like stone and ceramic absorb destructive groundwater salts, glass delaminates, calcareous materials dissolve, and all materials fracture. Organic materials are usually best preserved in hot, dry environments such as deserts; in colder, wetter, or waterlogged environments with relatively constant temperatures and low oxygen content; or in frozen environments. For the most part, organic materials do not survive well in burial conditions that subject them to moisture cycles and biological attack, but exceptions are known.
===Deterioration post-excavation===
Excavation allows us to learn a great deal about the past through studying archaeological remains and their context, but exposing structures or artifacts that have stabilized in burial can cause rapid and irreversible deterioration on both macroscopic and microscopic levels, impacting our ability to retrieve information about the past. Underground, objects are given structural support from surrounding soil, and are held at a fairly stable temperature and relative humidity. When excavated, objects loose their underground structural support, and immediately are exposed to different temperatures, moisture levels, and oxygen levels. The stress of going from a supportive, controlled environment underground to a radically different and variable environment in the open air can be extremely destructive. For this reason, artifacts that have survived millennia in burial may deteriorate rapidly post-excavation unless preservation steps are taken. Components of buildings or monuments in situ have different preservation needs from smaller objects that can be relocated to a controlled environment. Even if backfilled (reburied), in situ excavated remains must be protected not only from exposure to the elements, but also from visitor traffic, vandalism, and iconoclasm. Visitor traffic, vandalism, and iconoclasm may also impact artifacts in interior settings; but artifacts relocated to interior environments also have a different set of preservation needs specific to how they are stored, utilized for study, and displayed.
== Archaeological conservation in the field ==
[Contributions sought for this section] 
Field conservation can differ significantly from conservation in an institutional setting. All conservation in the field is informed by the excavation and research goals; for that reason, field conservators must be familiar with basic excavation principles and archaeometry techniques, with the specific excavation procedures and recording systems in use at the site, and with the excavation's planned programs of analysis.Renfrew, C., and P. Bahn. 2000. Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice. 3rd ed. London: Thames & Hudson.
Hester, T.R., H.J. Shafer, and K.L. Feder. 2016. Field Methods in Archaeology. 7th ed. New York: Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315428413.Pollard, A.M., R.A. Armitage, and C.A. Makarewicz, eds. 2023. Handbook of Archaeological Sciences. 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119592112. Clarification of site stratigraphy or materials analysis may take precedence over conservation treatment. Additional, and diverse, factors can drive or limit treatment in the field, including climate, community involvement, publication timelines, government bureaucracy, and the availability of solvents, reliable electricity, or clean water. An extended discussion of relevant considerations can be found in Pedeli and Pulga, pp. 5 - 8. Pedelì, Corrado, and Stefano Pulga. 2014. Conservation Practices on Archaeological Excavations: Principles and Methods. Translated by Erik Risser. Los Angeles: The Getty Conservation Institute.
===Preparing for fieldwork===
Prior to beginning a field season, it is recommended that the conservator become familiar with the following aspects of the site and the work needed.
* Recent publications about the site and comparable sites
* Excavation goals and research agendas
* Role of the conservator
* Roles of other specialists
* Occupation levels expected
* Burial environment:
# Dry, damp, waterlogged, frozen, marine
# pH
# Salinity
* Site environment
# Annual rainfall
# Cycles of wet/dry
# Cycles of freeze/thaw
* General climatic conditions
# Affecting newly excavated materials
# Affecting storage/preservation
* Recovered objects and structures
# Types expected
# Materials expected
# Conditions expected
* Long-term strategy for objects and structures
# Analysis (manufacturing techniques, material composition, dating)
# Display, reburial, storage or removal/disposal
# Reconstructions, reproductions, impressions, specialized imaging, or other specialized documentation necessary
* Physical work location
# Space requirements for the work expected
# Available facilities, equipment, chemicals and supplies
# Water/drainage
# Site cover
# Electricity
# Ventilation
# Light
# Security
# Storage, including chemical storage
# Work surfaces 
# Clean/dirty work areas
* Local Resources
# Universities, museums, hospitals for collaborative treatment/analysis projects (e.g. analytical equipment)
# Stores/companies for supplies and equipment
* Regional Resources
# Universities, museums, hospitals for collaborative treatment/analysis projects (e.g. analytical equipment)
# Stores/companies for supplies and equipment
===Setting up a field lab===
[Contributions sought for this section] 
==Archaeological objects==
The Archaeological Objects page contains information that pertains specifically to the excavation and treatment of archaeological objects.
Below is a list of wiki pages relevant to the treatment of archaeological objects. Additional articles covering a wide range of object materials and conservation treatments can be found in Object Materials and Types.
*Archaeological textiles
*Basketry
*Ceramics
*Copper alloy
*Desalination
*Glass
*Gold
*Horn
*Ivory
*Iron
*Metals (general)
*Microclimates
*Silver
*Skeletal Materials
*Stone
*Wood
== Archaeological sites ==
[Contributions sought for this section]
==References Cited==
==Further reading==
Archaeological conservation manuals
Cronyn, J.M. 1990. The elements of archaeological conservation. New York: Routledge. 
Pedelì, C., and S. Pulga. 2014. Conservation Practices on Archaeological Excavations: Principles and Methods. Translated by Erik Risser. Los Angeles: The Getty Conservation Institute.
Sease, C. 1992. A conservation manual for the field archaeologist. 2nd ed. In Archaeological research tools, vol. 4. Los Angeles: Institute of Archaeology, University of California.
Scott, Rosalie and Tara Grant. 2007. Conservation Manual for Northern Archaeologists. Prince of Wales Northern Heritage Center. Revised 3rd ed. Yellowknife, NT, Canada. https://www.ece.gov.nt.ca/sites/ece/files/resources/conservation_manual_for_northern_archaeologists.pdf
Society of Historical Archaeology. Conservation FAQ's and Facts. Accessed January 17, 2025. https://sha.org/conservation-facts/
Watkinson, D. and V. Neal. 1988. First aid for finds. 3rd ed. Hertford, Hertfordshire: British Archaeological Trust/UKIC Archaeology Section.
General archaeological conservation publications
Agnew, N. and J. Bridgland, eds. 2006. Of the past, for the future: integrating conservation and archaeology. Proceedings of the Conservation Theme at the 5th World Archaeological Congress, Washington, D.C., 22-26 June 2003. Los Angeles, The Getty Conservation Institute.
Bourque, B.J. et al. 1980. Conservation in archaeology: moving toward closer cooperation. American Antiquity 45(4): 794-799.
Caldararo, Niccolo Leo. 1987. “An Outline History of Conservation in Archaeology and Anthropology as Presented through Its Publications.” Journal of the American Institute for Conservation 26 (2): 85–104. https://doi.org/10.2307/3179458.
Caple, C. 2010. Conservation: Concepts and Reality. In The Conservation of Archaeological Materials: Current Trends and Future Directions, ed. Emily Williams and Claire Peachey, 1–10. Oxford: Archaeopress.
Gilberg, M. 1987. Friedrich Rathgen: The Father of Modern Archaeological Conservation. Journal of the American Institute for Conservation 26 (2): 105-120. http://cool.conservation-us.org/jaic/articles/jaic26-02-004_4.html
Hodges, H.W.M. and Corzo, M.A. 1987. In situ archaeological conservation. Proceedings of the Instituto Nacional de Anthropologia e Historia de Mexico and the Getty Conservation Institute Meetings, Mexico City, Mexico, 6-13 April 1986. Los Angeles: The Getty Conservation Institute. 
Lipe, W.D. 1974. A conservation model for American archaeology. The Kiva 39(3-4): 213-45.
Matero, F. 2008. Heritage, conservation, and archaeology: an introduction. 
http://www.archaeological.org/news/hca/89
Meister, Nicolette B. 2019. “A Guide to the Preventive Care of Archaeological Collections.” Advances in Archaeological Practice 7 (3): 267–73. https://doi.org/10.1017/aap.2019.7.
Nardi, R. 2010. Conservation in archaeology: case studies in the mediterranean region. https://www.archaeological.org/conservation-in-archaeology-case-studies-in-the-mediterranean-region/ 
Roy, A. and P. Smith, eds. 1996. Archaeological conservation and its consequences. IIC preprints. International Institute for Conservation Congress, Copenhagen, Denmark, 26-30 August 1996. London: IIC. 
Rozeik, C., A. Roy, and D. Saunders, eds. 2010. Conservation and the Eastern Mediterranean, contributions to the Istanbul Congress, 20-24 September 2010. London: IIC. 
Rotroff, S. 2001. Archaeologists on conservation: how codes of archaeological ethics and professional standards treat conservation. Journal of the American Institute for Conservation 40: 137-146.
Sease, Catherine. 1996. “A Short History of Archaeological Conservation.” Studies in Conservation 41 (sup1): 157–61. https://doi.org/10.1179/sic.1996.41.Supplement-1.157.
Society for American Archaeology. 2018. “SAA Statement on Collaboration with Responsible and Responsive Stewards of the Past.” Society for American Archaeology. 2018. https://www.saa.org/quick-nav/saa-media-room/news-article/2018/08/01/statement-on-collaboration-with-responsible-and-responsive-stewards-of-the-past.
Stanley Price, N., ed. 1995. Conservation on archaeological excavations: with particular reference to the Mediterranean area. 2nd ed. Rome: ICCROM.
Wharton, Glenn. 2010. “Collaboration and Community Involvement in Archaeological Conservation.” In The Conservation of Archaeological Materials: Current Trends and Future Directions, edited by Emily Williams and Claire Peachey, 201–4. BAR International Series 2116. Oxford: Archaeopress.
Williams, E. and C. Peachey. 2010. The conservation of archaeological materials, current trends and future directions. Oxford: British Archaeological Reports, International Series 2116.
Archaeology methodology
Archaeological Institute of America. Archaeology 101. 
http://www.archaeological.org/pdfs/education/Arch101.2.pdf
Archaeological Institute of America. "Archaeology Books for Adults." 
http://www.archaeological.org/pdfs/education/biblios/AIAadult_books.pdf. Accessed January 17, 2025.
Heritage management
Cleere, H., ed. 1989. Archaeological heritage management in the modern world. In One world archaeology, vol.9. London and Boston: Unwin Hyman.
Sebastian, L. and W.D. Lipe, eds. 2009. Archaeological and cultural resource management: visions for the future. Santa Fe: School for Advanced Research Press.
Teutonico, J.M. and G. Palumbo, eds. 2002. Management planning of archaeological sites. International Workshop Organized by the Getty Conservation Institute and Loyola Marymount University, 19-22 May 2000. Los Angeles: The Getty Conservation Institute. 
Legislation commentary and resources
Archaeological Institute of America. 1973. “Resolution on the Acquisition of Antiquities by Museums.” https://www.archaeological.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Resolution-on-the-Acquisition-of-Antiquities-by-Museums.pdf
Archaeological Institute of America. 1970. “Resolution on the Importation of Antiquities.” https://www.archaeological.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Resolution-on-the-Importation-of-Antiquities.pdf.
International Foundation for Art Research (IFAR). n.d. "Art Law and Cultural Property.” Accessed April 20, 2019. http://ifar.org/art_law.php
Toman, Jiri. 1996. The protection of cultural property in the event of armed conflict : commentary on the Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and its Protocol. Paris: UNESCO. https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/195557
Wegener, Corine. 2010. "The 1954 Hague Convention and Preserving Cultural Heritage." https://www.archaeological.org/the-1954-hague-convention-and-preserving-cultural-heritage/
Site conservation
Ashurt, J., ed. 2007. Conservation of ruins. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd.
De la Torre, M., ed. 1997. The conservation of archaeological sites in the Mediterranean region: report on an international conference. Los Angeles: The Getty Conservation Institute.
Demas, M. 2003. Conservation and management of archaeological sites. A select annotated bibliography. The Getty Conservation Institute Project Bibliography Series. https://www.getty.edu/conservation/publications_resources/pdf_publications/pdf/archaeology_bib.pdf
Kavazanjian, E., Jr. 2004. The use of geosynthetic for archaeological site reburial. Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites 6(3&4): 377-393.
Matero F. 2006. Making archaeological sites: conservation as interpretation of an excavated past. In Of the past, for the future: integrating archaeology and conservation, proceedings of the conservation theme at the 5th World Archaeological Congress, Washington, D.C., 22-26 June 2003, The Getty Conservation Institute symposium proceedings series, ed. N. Agnew and J. Bridgeland. Los Angeles: The Getty Conservation Institute. 55-63.
Mertens, D. 1995. Planning and executing anastylosis of stone buildings. In Conservation on archaeological excavations, ed. N. Stanley-Price. 2nd ed. Rome: International Center for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property. 121-133
Nixon, T., ed. 2004. Preserving archaeological remains in situ? Proceedings of the 2nd Conference, 12-14 September 2001. London, United Kingdom.
Roby, T., L. Alberti and E. Carbonara. 2011. Technician Training for the Maintenance of In Situ Mosaics: 2011 Edition. Los Angeles: The Getty Conservation Institute. https://www.getty.edu/conservation/publications_resources/pdf_publications/pdf/tech_training_en.pdf
Stanley-Price, N. 2009. The reconstruction of ruins: principles and practice. In Conservation: principles, dilemmas and uncomfortable truths, ed. A. Richmond and A. Bracker. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd. 32-46. https://www.archaeological.org/pdfs/sitepreservation/N_S-P_Article_Dec_2009.pdf
Stanley-Price, N. and R. Burch, eds. 2004. Special issue on site reburial. Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites. 6(3-4). London: James and James.
Stanley-Price, N. and F. Matero, eds. 2001. Special issue on protective shelters. Conservation and management of archaeological sites. 5(1-2). London: James and James.
Stewart, J. 2012. The stabilization and protection of archaeological sites from natural processes. In Selected readings from a course in the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property ATHAR Programme (Conservation of Cultural Heritage in the Arab Region): Issues in the Conservation and Management of Heritage Sites, ed. International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property. Sharjah: International Center for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property. 83-91.
Sullivan, S. and R. Mackay, eds. 2012. Archaeological sites: conservation and management. Readings in conservation series. Los Angeles: Getty Publications, J. Paul Getty Trust.
Underwater cultural heritage
Pearson, C. 1987. Conservation of marine archaeological objects. London and Boston: Butterworth & Co. Ltd.
Williams, E. and K. Straetkver, eds. 2010. Proceedings of the 11th ICOM-CC Group on Wet Organic Archaeological Materials conference, Greenville, 2010. Greenville.
Archaeological conservation and archaeology blogs
American Schools of Oriental Research
Antarctic Heritage Trust
Chasing Aphrodite: The Hunt for Looted Antiquities in the World's Museums
Colonial Williamsburg
Gordion, Turkey
Illicit Cultural Property
National Trust – Chedworth Roman Villa
Websites of professional organizations and committees
American Schools of Overseas Research (ASOR)
Archaeological Institute of America (AIA)
Blue Shield International
AIA Conservation and Site Preservation Committee
AIA Cultural Heritage Policy Committee
International Committee for the Conservation of Mosaics (ICCM)
International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS)
The Institute of Conservation (ICON), Archaeology Group
The MOSAIKON Initiative (the Getty Conservation Institute, the Getty Foundation, ICCROM, and ICCM)
Society for Historical Archaeology (SHA)
Society for American Archaeology (SAA)
----
Back to the Main Page
Back to the Objects Page
Back to the Architecture Page
Category: Objects Category: Archaeological Conservation