nyuuzyou/wikis huggingface dataset:
Homeopathy and Its Kindred Delusions

Homeopathy and Its Kindred Delusions: Two Lectures Delivered Before the Boston Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge is an essay by Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr., the noted American author and poet, and father of Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., Associate Justice of the United States Supreme Court. Written in 1842, it is one of the earliest criticisms of homeopathy, which was widely popular at the time.
It is an epic takedown of not only homeopathy but all forms of quackery, and an eloquent and powerful exposition of the placebo effect and the dangers of anecdotal evidence. Today it remains one of Holmes’ best known essays and is considered a seminal work in the history of skepticism. Boyle, Eric W. (2013). Quack Medicine: A History of Combating Health Fraud in Twentieth-Century America. Praeger. p. 8. ISBN 031338567X.
==Elisha Perkins' cure-all tractors==
One of the subjects discussed by Holmes is a 19th century doctor named Elisha Perkins, who promoted some instruments called "tractors". These "tractors" were a pair of metal rods, which Perkins claimed could cure virtually every condition merely by being waved over the affected spot "very lightly for about twenty minutes"http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2700/2700-h/2700-h.htm#link2H_4_0004 because they were made of a "rare alloy". These rods for a while enjoyed immense popularity, though they were opposed by mainstream opinion, there being endorsements from many credentialed and distinguished individuals (doctors, priests, politicians, government officials, and others) as well as hundreds of anecdotes in their favor. A few of the conditions they could supposedly treat included "rheumatism, local pains, inflammations, and even tumors". Holmes describes one amusing case involving a treatment session:
One doctor tried to debunk them by applying tractors of various substances ("wood; with nails, pieces of bone, slate pencil, and tobacco-pipe") to many patients and found that no matter what they were made of, they had exactly the same effect as the real metallic ones patented by Perkins.http://phisick.com/item/perkins-tractors-1790s/ Clearly, this does not mean that waving an object, no matter what, can cure everything. Holmes describes a case of a patient treated by these "sham tractors":
Eventually, for some reason or other, the tractors fell out of use. Holmes notes:
== External links ==
* Homeopathy and Its Kindred Delusions on Wikisource
==Notes==
==References==
Category:Homeopathy
Category:Books
Category:Skepticism
category:Assessing pseudoscience
Homeostasis

Homeostasis (Latin: homeo-, "similar to"; stasis, "a standing still")https://www.etymonline.com/word/homeostasis is a steady state (a system that does not stray away from a range of favorable conditions, maintaining a relative constancy) in which processes exert positive and negative control over the variables in a system. In other words, it is a system that remains in a certain range of stability, with certain factors affecting it while also responding to the changes in order for the system to remain more or less the same. A prominent example of such would be our body temperature: for the most part, humans maintain a fairly constant temperature of 37° C (98.6° F for Americans). If it is cold outside, the body generates heat in order to preserve that temperature internally; if it is a hot day outside, sweat is produced which later evaporates and thus cools the body.
In biology, there are four categories of homeostatic control.
==Physiological==
These processes regulate and maintain the internal environment of a cell or an organism. Each process involves:
:1) A sensory device that monitors the value of a variable
:2) An input from the sensor to an effector whenever the value changes beyond a set threshold
:3) An effector that restores the value of the variable to normal and stops the original input (negative feedback)
Examples of physiological homeostasis include the control of blood sugar levels, heart rate, and body temperature.
==Developmental==
These are the processes that control disturbances in developmental conditions, ensuring that the fitness of the organism is not impaired.
==Genetic==
This describes the tendency for species to resist the effects of artificial selection, in order to maintain genetic composition.
==Ecological==
There are some ecological processes that are considered homeostatic, such as the regulation of population density and diversity.
==Notes==
==References==
Category:Science Category:Biology
Homeschoolers Anonymous

Homeschoolers Anonymous is an online project run by a community of former homeschooling students. While not opposed to homeschooling in general, the group advocates on behalf of people who were "hurt by certain oppressive groups and ways of thinking" in the homeschooling movement, including the Quiverfull movement, , and the dominionism of the .
The group's stated objectives include:
# To bring awareness to the suffering many children experience through aspects of certain homeschooling subcultures
# To educate the public about the inner workings and politics of some homeschooling communities
# To provide a voice against some of the extreme positions from within certain homeschool ideologies
# To inspire others to speak up about abuse and control
# To give hope to those who currently suffer from abuse and control
# To bring healing to those who have escaped an abusive or controlling home environment and provide new survivors with resources for developing independence
# To create a community of shared experience program 
Homeschoolers Anonymous is a member of the Minerva Coalition.
==External links==
*Homeschoolers Anonymous
* - Daily Beast article on Homeschoolers Anonymous
* - by a Homeschoolers Anonymous contributor
==References==
Category: Homeschooling
Hominid

"Hominid" is the informal name for any member of the zoological taxonomic family It is widely used in two contexts:
# Paleoanthropology traditionally used the term to refer to modern humans and their ancestors and relatives back to the split from the ancestry of chimpanzees, and other modern non-humanshominid like Neanderthals.This museum exhibit on hominids does not include gorillas. More recently, the term "hominin" has been gaining in popularityChart of comparative usage-frequency for these human relatives, as the informal term for a member of the taxonomic tribe Hominini. In this version, the Hominidae are divided into the Pongini, representing the orangutans; and the Hominini, containing the , chimpanzees, and humans, and their extinct relatives. (Wikipedia prefers "hominan", the informal term for a member of the subtribe Hominina, for Wikipedia includes chimpanzees and bonobos in the same tribe with humans.)
# In taxonomy, "" can refer to humans, as well as to the , including chimpanzees, , orangutans, and to their evolutionary ancestors back to the split from the ancestry of (the ""). Biologists prefer this technical definition, as per the Linnaean System of Classification - which groups organisms together by their ancestry. In older taxonomies, the only modern representatives of the Hominidae were humans, and a distinct subfamily (Pongidae) dealt with the great apes.
==Hominini==
Hominini is a subtribe of the Hominids which contains the genera , , Pan, and Homo. In other words, it contains the group of all bipedal apes. The genus first emerged some seven million years ago. The only currently living members of Hominini are Homo sapiens, Pan troglodytes, and Pan paniscus.
==References==
Category:Hominids
Category:Evolution
Category:Biology
Homo

==Species==
*Homo sapiens (human)
*Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthals)
*Homo erectus
*Homo ergaster
*Homo floresiensis
*Homo habilis
*Homo heidelbergensis
*Homo rudolfensis
===Related topics===
*Hominid
*:Category:Hominids
==Homosexuality==
*Homosexuality
*Homophobia
*:Category:Homosexuality
==Other==
*Homo economicus — a theoretical ideal human used in economics: real people don't behave this way
Homo ergaster

thumb|right|Partial reconstruction of an H. ergaster fossil skull
Homo ergaster was similar to Homo erectus and might have been an African subspecies of H. erectus or a distinct species; palaeontologists are not sure. H. ergaster lived less than two million years ago.
==Comparison with other homo types==
H. ergaster had several features found in modern humans and might have been a direct ancestor.Homo heidelbergensis has also been suggested as our direct ancestor The pelvis of H. ergaster was narrow as in modern humans and the rib cage had a modern human shape. The narrow pelvis caused problems for mothers giving birth. The brain of the newborn evolved to be undeveloped so the head was small enough to pass through the narrow pelvis and the nuclear family might have come into being as mothers needed additional support caring for their undeveloped infants. One specimen of H. ergaster had ‘narrow cheek teeth’ and ‘a smaller dental arcade’, suggesting that food was processed with stones and needed less chewing. The brain of H. ergaster was larger than that of typical H. erectus and tools found with H. ergaster were more advanced.
==See also==
*Hominid
==Sources==
*Homo ergaster
*Leaving home - 2 million years ago, Homo ergaster
==References==
__NOTOC__
Category:Evolution
Category:Hominids
Category:History
Category:Biology
Category:Transitional fossils
Homo floresiensis

Homo floresiensis (nicknamed the Hobbit) was an ancient species of hominid or archaic human that inhabited the small island of Indonesia around 50,000 years ago. Due to the surprising find of a primitive human more akin to Homo habilis or even Australopithecus it was assumed by some, refusing to come to terms with such a shocking revelation, that the Hobbits of Flores were mere "pygmies" no different from the that currently inhabit the region, even though Homo floresiensis possessed a hodgepodge of traits that showed that it was even more basal than Homo erectus, still possessing features found in earlier hominids but lost by later, more derived species of humans, and yet H. floresiensis possessed features that were more derived than H. habilis as well."Clarifying the Various Human Species" - AronRa Indeed, with the discoveries of primitive, archaic humans such as H. erectus georgicus or Homo luzonensis outside of Africa, it is likely that the Hobbits of Flores evolved from a very early human migration out of Africa, and this is buoyed by the discovery of ancient stone tools found in China dating back to more than two million years of age."Stone Tools in China Could be Earliest Evidence of Human Life Outside of Africa" - The Guardian Given that even back when Flores was still separated from the Asian mainland by miles of ocean, it is likely that the Hobbits reached Flores by boat, pushing evidence of boat usage back by at the very least several hundreds of thousands of years.
==Modern humans?==
As mentioned earlier, some people contend that the Hobbits of Flores were nothing more than modern humans exhibiting features of similar to the aforementioned Negritos already found in the region. This is regardless of the fact that Negritos, aside from their unusually small stature, are still fully modern humans, while the Hobbits weren't, for one no Negrito has a brain the size of a chimpanzee's, while the Hobbits did. Some others have put forward the suggestion that the Hobbits were nothing more than an isolated population of modern humans suffering from endemic cretinism, something that is still found among modern Indonesians to this day, but Groves (2010) puts this claim to rest.
==Notes==
==References==
Category:Anthropology
Category:Biology
Category:History
Category:Hominids
Category:Indonesia
Homo habilis

Homo habilis ("handy man") is one of the earliest pre-human/human species in the genus homo.
==Description==
It was so named because tools were found associated with its bones (though tool making is now thought to pre-date homo habilis). Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History: Homo habilis Habilis mayHomo habilis or may notMacroevolution.net: Homo habilis - A large-brained precursor of modern humans have used fire.The use of fire might have been developed 1.6 million years ago when Habilis and Homo erectus were around together.Homo erectus was pretty smart already judging by evidence that fire had been discovered over 1.6 million years ago Habilis still shows some adaptations for climbing trees.
The brain size, stature, and diet of Homo habilis were more like the australopithecines than later hominids, though the brain was 20% bigger and differently shaped and dentition was different. Despite this, there is controversy over whether they should be included in homo or rather be considered australopithecines.Who was Homo habilis?Becoming Human: Homo habilis There is even uncertainty as to whether or not the specimen discovered was an australopithecine or an atypical Homo erectus, as it is similar to both.archaeologyinfo.com: Homo habilis
==Homo rudolfensis==
Recent fossil finds show Homo rudolfensis might have been a distinct species from homo habilis.New human species identified from Kenya fossils
==Realist view==
Late australopithecines and early Homo erectus were so similar that assigning Homo habilis to one or the other is difficult. There is no clear distinction between what creationists call the ape "kind" and the human "kind." This is because austalopithecines changed slowly over time and each generation was just slightly different than the one before, meaning there was no day when an australopithecine gave birth to a Homo habilis. Any protohuman fossils from a borderline period such as this would be difficult to categorize because the exact dividing lines between the categories are, ultimately, arbitrary: in a given series of bones that look gradually less like one species and more like another one over time, there isn't necessarily one obvious spot to pick as a divider.
==See also==
*Hominid
*Homo erectus
==External links==
*Homo habilis — EvoWiki article
*EA-CCC-04, Homo habilis — Data from a 3D scan of an H. habilis fossil skull
*EA-CCC-05, Homo habilis — Data from a 3D scan of an H. habilis fossil mandible
*EA-DCC-08, Homo habilis — Data from a 3D scan of H. habilis fossil left foot bones
==Notes==
==References==
Category:Hominids
Category:History
Category:Biology
Category:Transitional fossils
Homo heidelbergensis

Homo heidelbergensis was a member of the genus Homo that lived throughout the Old World and an ancestor of Homo sapiens.
==Intelligence==
Homo heidelbergensis are considered to be quite clever for their time. They hunted large animals with hand axes and wooden sticks, butchered meat, and used fire. Homo heidelbergensis also knew how to build simple shelters and may have made tools for some type of ritual which could have included ritually disposing of their dead.BBC:The first Europeans - one million years ago H. heidelbergensis is typically listed as the common Homo ancestor of Homo neanderthalensis and modern humans. H. heidelbergensis was possibly a descendant of Homo erectus, or H. antecessor, or H. ergaster, depending on who you ask. Scientists argue over the fine points.Homo heidelbergensis, What does it mean to be human?Homo heidelbergensisTalk Origins on Homo heidelbergensis
==Fossils and anatomy==
Homo heidelbergensis fossils are found throughout what is called the Old World with some differences between regions. Their bodies were intermediate between late Homo erectus and early modern humans. European Homo heidelbergensis were more compact than others which reduced heat loss in a relatively cold climate. There was a slight sexual dimorphism with males on average just under 6 feet tall while females were not much over 5 feet in height. Homo heidelbergensis brains were smaller than modern human brains and their heads were more like Homo erectus, with a more prominent jaw and brow ridge.
==Temporal range==
The transition between Homo heidelbergensis and modern humans happened gradually and progressed faster in some areas, notably Southern Europe and East Africa, while other areas did not catch up till later. Creationists can argue about this as they argue about "how come there are still monkeys?" though presumably selective pressures were stronger in those areas where evolution was faster. A population in what is now Kenya apparently became modern humans 150,000 years ago while others in Europe remained as Neanderthals till they died out around 28,000 years ago. So it goes.Is there a parallel here with the way some modern human cultures have become modern and scientific while other human cultures have progressed relatively little and still insist that Bronze and Iron Age mythology must be completely accurate? No wonder the Neanderthals died out. Let's just hope the creationists destroy themselves in their stupidity soon and without destroying the rest of us.Homo heidelbergensis
==External links==
*EA-DCC-03, Homo heidelbergensis — Data from a 3D scan of an H. heidelbergensis fossil skull
==Notes==
==References==
Category:Biology
Category:History
Category:Hominids
Category:Transitional fossils
Homo rudolfensis

Homo rudolfensis is a true transitional form linking australopithecines and humans; examples date from 1.8 million years ago or earlier. Researchers have found very primitive stone tools contemporary with H. rudolfensis, but we cannot prove which species made them.
==Morphology==
H. rudolfensis might have been a type of australopithecine with a larger brain, Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History: Homo RudolfensisHomo rudolfensis the exact point of transition between Australopithecus and Homo being inevitably arbitrary. H. rudolfensis had a larger brain than Homo habilis handprint.com: Homo rudolfensis and some development of Broca’s area, later associated with speech though we do not know whether H. rudolfensis could talk. Furthermore, the areas of the brain which modern humans use for logical thinking, future planning and decision making were developed in H. rudolfensis. It was taller than a typical australopithecine, about as tall as modern humans.Homo rudolfensis: A New Kind of Animal As soft tissue does not fossilise readily, it is not currently known if H. rudolfensis had a very shiny nose. 
==Homo habilis and rudolfensis compared==
Homo rudolfensis is very similar to Homo habilis and some scientists see H. rudolfensis as a type of H. habilis. One might have been the male and the other the female. archaeologyinfo.com: Homo rudolfensis Comparing patterns of dental wear for H. rudolfensis and H. habilis suggest the two had different diets and may indicate different species. Becoming Human: Homo rudolfensis Essay Recent fossil finds suggest that Homo rudolfensis was a distinct species and not a different type of Homo habilis. New human species identified from Kenya fossils
==See also==
*Homo erectus
*Homo ergaster
*Homo heidelbergensis
*Homo neanderthalensis
*Cro-Magnon
==Notes==
==References==
Category:Hominids
Category:History
Category:Biology
Category:Transitional fossils
Homology

Homology, also known as comparative anatomy, in biology is the occurrence and study of shared traits between different taxa due to common descent. The term homology was coined by the infamous British paleontologist and anatomist Richard Owen in 1845, and was later explained as a result of Darwin's theory of evolution after the publication of the Origin in 1859.
==Definition==
Homology, as stated above, refers to the occurrence of shared traits or structures in different but related taxa that is a result of shared ancestry. Homology therefore implies divergent evolution from a common ancestor, for example, many insects share two sets of wings, this shared feature among insects is a result of common ancestry, and therefore is considered to be a homologous structure.
Aside from the aforementioned double pair of wings found in insects, other examples of homology include the forearm structure of tetrapod limbs, this is perhaps the most famous example of homology, and is featured in many textbooks. The flippers of dolphins, the wings of bats and birds, and the arms and grasping hands of humans are all homologous to each other, each resulting from a shared ancestor akin to something like Acanthostega gunnari or the famous "fishapod" Tiktaalik.
===Difference between homology and analogy===
While homology and analogy both concern themselves with similarities, the former differs from the latter in that homology refers to any similar structure found in related taxa that has been inherited as a result of common descent, whereas analogy refers to similar structures that have been derived independently of one another in different, unrelated taxa."Homologous and analogous structures: What's the difference?"
==Science==
The field of evolutionary developmental biology can identify homologous structures found present during the development of the fetus in the womb. While it's not true that "ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny" as so famously put it, it is true that similar stages of development can be found during embryonic genesis among various closely related taxa. These include the presence of budding limbs in snake embryos and the presence of budding teeth in the embryos of baleen whales. 
In addition, it has been found that there are deep homologies present in the very genomes of disparately related taxa, these genes are highly ancient, and determine growth patterns for many different taxa, demonstrating that structures once thought to be purely analogous turn out to be homologous to some extent after all. These genes also demonstrate that the highly diverse range of eye morphology present in the animal kingdom come from a single common ancestor dating back many hundreds of millions of years, and that eye formation is dictated by one of these ancient genes, the gene in question being called Pax6 and its variants.
==References==
Category:Biology
Category:Anatomy