nyuuzyou/wikis huggingface dataset:
Grain direction

Contributors: Allison Miller
__NOTOC__
(Wood) In wood, grain direction refers to the longitudinal, or vertical, axis of the trunk, along which the structural cells are elongated (Cronyn 1990). It is the texture seen on the cut surface of a piece of wood.
Grain direction can also refer to The direction in which the greater number of fibers are oriented in paper or board. As applied to cloth, the term refers to the way the fibers are woven. In any case, the orientation of fibers tends to make the material stiffer in the direction parallel to those fibers, and more flexible and likelier to curl in the direction perpendicular to them. The former is the grain direction; the latter is the cross direction. http://www.indiana.edu/~libpres/manual/glossary.html Grain direction can be considered either short or long, depending on whether it runs parallel to the long or short side of the paper dimensionhttp://www.universityproducts.com/resources.php?m=glossary 
With regards to book-making Grain direction in all materials used in bookbinding should run parallel to the spine of a volume http://www.library.illinois.edu/prescons/services/education_training/glossary_terms_pres_cons.html#Tailcap
--TFann (talk) 21:38, 26 October 2015 (CDT)
==Related Terms==
rays, vessels, figure, growth rings
=== Synonyms in English ===
wood grain
=== Translation ===
English 	grain direction
French 	direction du grain
Spanish 	dirección de la fibra
Portuguese 	direção das fibras
Italian 	direzione delle fibre
German 	Faserrichtung
Russian 	
Arabic 	
Chinese (Traditional)	紋理方向/纖維方向
==Discussion==
The tree fibers may grow straight up and down in a tree, or they may encircle the trunk in a spiral pattern. In woodworking, the most common features used to determine the grain direction of a piece of wood are rays, vessels, and figure. Figure is the more specific term used in woodworking for what is generally called grain, which are the alternating darker and lighter lines and ovals formed from the tree’s growth rings. Grain direction is most commonly heard in phrases such as “going against the grain”, which results in what is called tear-out, when the wood fibers have been lifted up causing a rough surface (Gochnour 2004). When performing a visual examination of archaeological wood, it is important to record the grain direction, along with other construction and technological details.
==References==
 Cronyn, J.M. 1990. The Elements of Archaeological Conservation. New York: Routledge.
 Gochnour, Chris. 2004. “Determining Grain Direction.” Fine Woodworking, September/October. http://www.startwoodworking.com/post/determining-grain-direction.
Category:Lexicon
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Green Task Force Beginning

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=Green Task Force=
This article was originally published in the July 2008 Vol. 33, No. 4 issue of AIC News
During the AIC Annual Meeting in Denver, Paul Himmelstein presented a proposal signed by an extensive list of AIC supporters to develop a Green Task Force that will assist members and the AIC in implementing environmental sustainability actions.The AIC Board of Directors and attendees at the annual business meeting approved the following revised motion:
“We therefore propose that the Board of the American Institute for Conservation of Historic & Artistic Works (AIC) create a task force to investigate implementing green practices for AIC itself and the conservation profession. Such a study should be complete within two years from this meeting date. The task force will report to the Board through official channels.”
AIC is seeking up to seven members to serve on the new task force, charged with investigating the implementation of green practices for AIC itself and the conservation profession.The task force will regularly report to the AIC Board through the Director of Committees and Task Forces and will submit its recommendations within two years.The Green Task Force will communicate through email and conference calls and should consider including corresponding members who can provide additional expertise.
To be considered for service, please send a letter of interest to Cathy Hawks at [email removed] by August 1, 2008.
=The Green Task Force=
This article was originally published in the September 2008 Vol. 33, No. 5 issue of AIC News.
Thank you to all who inquired about working on the new task force to promote “green” conservation solutions.
The following individuals have agreed to work on this new initiative: 
:Sarah Melching
:Sarah Nunberg
:Beth Richwine
:Victoria Montana Ryan
:Patricia Silence
:Denise Stockman
:Jennifer Wade
:Ryan Winfield
Patricia Silence will serve as Chair. Ryan Winfield will serve as liason to the AIC office.
Guideline 10.3

Back to STANDARD 10: Use and Design of Exhibit Enclosures
== Guideline 10.3: The design for the exhibit cases utilizes object-safe materials ==
 
=== What materials can be used to construct object-safe exhibit cases? ===
Please contact the AIC e-Editor if you wish to contribute content to this page.
Category:Exhibition
Category: Exhibit Design
Category: Standards & Guidelines
Guideline 11.1

Back to STANDARD 11: Exhibit Mounts and Supports
== Guideline 11.1: The mounting requirements of exhibit objects are planned early in the design phase. ==
=== Why is it important to plan mounts early in the design phase? ===
Many exhibit design decisions will have an impact upon the style, requirements and cost of the exhibit mounts, the most critical being whether to display objects in an open format or within exhibit cases. The exhibit team must therefore make the initial decisions about object presentation early in the design phase. Furthermore, there are many different preservation-responsible methods to support and mount any object, and discussing options with a conservator early will help with making a selection.
The curator, conservator, and other relevant team members should discuss mounting options with the designer, preparator, and installer. Broad decisions to be made include:
* To mount or not to mount
* If mounting, whether to use generic or custom mounts
* The particular design and style to be used, especially for custom mounts
* Methods of attaching object to mount and mount to exhibit structure
Several issues common to custom mounts can have an impact on conservation and must be addressed. Discussions should resolve the following questions:
* The acceptable viewing angle, appearance and the geometry of the object on display 
* Whether the objects should be displayed in a vertical or a shelf-supported position
* How highly-vulnerable objects such as textiles and documents will be mounted 
* Size of the mount 
* Materials used to construct the mount 
* Finishing of the mount 
* Method of holding the object 
* Method of attachment to the structure or exhibit furniture 
* Whether a mounting system will be used—such as support wires suspended from the ceiling or an attachment system for the walls or floor
Proper mounting can take considerable time and resources to produce. There may not be enough time to mount all objects safely. In which case alternative objects could be selected or generic rather than custom mounting could be used.
Category:Exhibition
Category: Exhibit Design
Category: Standards & Guidelines
Guideline 11.3

Back to STANDARD 11: Exhibit Mounts and Supports
== Guideline 11.3: Object-safe materials are used to construct mounts == 
=== Why is it essential to use object-safe materials to construct mounts? ===
Object mounts come into direct contact with an object and therefore should be made from chemically-stable and non-abrasive materials. Even when an object is only on short-term exhibit, its mount is commonly retained for the object’s long-term storage. Therefore even for short-term exhibits, a mount should be constructed from tested and stable materials that will not deteriorate over time or expose the object to off-gassing.
=== What materials can be used to construct object-safe mounts? ===
Rigid acrylic or polycarbonate, brass rod and straps, high-density polyethylene foam, conservation-grade paper products or textiles are appropriate for conservation use. 
* Metal mounts (and other reactive materials) must always be covered with an inert fabric or foam or coated with a barrier such as an acrylic resin or silicon rubber to prevent reactions between an object and the metal. Cushioning material may also be used to provide a smooth contact surface, and it may be required to pad the object. 
* Padding and cushioning materials: Only use high-quality padding and cushioning materials, such as polyethylene foam, polyester batting and felted material, 100% cotton fabrics, and acid-free buffered tissue paper. 
* Mannequins and forms that support garments must be made from inert materials, such as polyester batting or polyethylene foam. As an alternative, use cotton fabric to buffer the textile from direct contact with material of unidentified composition, such as sealed wood and certain foams. 
[For more information on object-safe materials see Materials Standard*.]
Category:Exhibition
Category: Exhibit Design
Category: Standards & Guidelines
Guideline 12.1

Back to STANDARD 12: Exhibit Furnishing Design
== Guideline12.1: Furniture and assemblies intended for the display of exhibit objects are designed to be object-safe ==
=== What design features will promote object safety? ===
To promote object safety, and minimize damage from hazards such as pests, dusts or bumping, include the following features in the design of all display furnishings:
* Stability: When in position, furniture must not allow movement and should adjust to uneven floors. Shelving, pedestals and case furniture in general should be sufficiently anchored to the floor or wall surfaces to withstand the stress and weight of the objects being supported. 
 
* Bulk: Furnishing must have sufficient bulk and inherent strength to remain anchored if accidentally knocked and should be firmly secured to the floor or wall. 
 
* Pest deterrence: Furnishing should be designed without undercuts and gaps that collect dust and make cleaning difficult. Build a solid kick-plate along the bottom edge so that dust cannot accumulate below furnishings. 
=== What materials are object-safe for use in constructing display furniture? ===
Furnishings that are intended to display objects must be constructed of materials that are robust enough to support objects without risk of collapse. Because they will be in close proximity to exhibit objects they should also be constructed from materials that are chemically stable (will not off-gas, etc.). [See Standard * for information on materials that are safe for use in construction of display furniture.]
Category:Exhibition
Category: Exhibit Design
Category: Standards & Guidelines
Guideline 12.2

Back to STANDARD 12: Exhibit Furnishing Design
== Guideline 12.2: Furnishings and non-display exhibit furniture, such as panels, seating, and carpeting, do not compromise object safety ==
=== What hazards can non-display furniture and furnishings create in the exhibit space? ===
Non-display furnishings may seem incidental to promoting object safety. However, non-display furnishings can play an active role in introducing hazards to the exhibit space and therefore should be selected carefully. Following are some of the hazards to be on the alert for:
* Furniture: Improperly secured or wobbly pieces of furniture such as information panels and screens present a physical hazard, and furnishings designed with nooks and crannies can harbor pests. 
 
* Carpets and textiles: Synthetic fabrics can off-gas VOCs that are harmful to objects, especially when a large expanse of the material is present—usually the case with carpeting. And carpets made from organic materials such as wool may harbor pests. [For more information on exhibit construction materials see Standard*] 
 
*Flowers and plants: While arrangements of flowers and foliage are useful decorative items, they can introduce biological hazards such as molds and insect pests to the exhibit area. 
=== What precautions should be taken in the design and selection of non-display exhibit furniture and furnishings? ===
Furniture Design: To deter pests and avoid physical hazards, the same design features are recommended for non-display furnishings as for display furnishings:
*Stability: Furnishing, when in position, must not allow movement and should adjust to uneven floors. Shelving, pedestals and screens should be anchored to the floor or wall surfaces. 
*Bulk: Furnishing should have sufficient bulk and inherent strength to remain anchored if accidentally knocked.
*Pest deterrence: Furnishing should be designed without undercuts and gaps that collect dust and make cleaning difficult. Build a solid kick-plate along the bottom edge so that dust cannot accumulate below furnishings. 
Material Choice: The choice of materials for furnishings that will not come into direct contact with objects is less stringent than for furnishings that will house or support objects. However, when considering materials that will be used in large quantities, such as materials for carpeting, acoustic tiles, wood paneling, etc. it is important to choose materials that do not pose a hazard to objects through the release of emissions. Materials should be chemically stable and should not attract pests. [See Standard* for Safe Materials.]
Flowers and plants: All organic materials must be inspected before being brought into the museum or gallery. Artificial flowers and plants avoid the problems of insect pests and molds.
Category:Exhibition
Category: Exhibit Design
Category: Standards & Guidelines
Guideline 14.2

Back to STANDARD 14: Exhibit Layout
== Guideline 14.2: Object placement and layout is compatible with and promotes object safety == 
=== What are the general guidelines for safe placement of exhibit objects? ===
As with other aspects of design planning, the decisions on where to place and how to group objects must balance the diverse requirements of interpretation, the museum budget and object protection.
The decision on how to position specific exhibit objects should ultimately be made with reference to the particular vulnerabilities of those objects and their Conservation Requirements. However, there are some general precautions to follow that will promote object safety and decrease the risks of damage from the hazards of exhibition. Below are recommendations for safe placement of objects:
Do not crowd objects too close to each other
* Each object in an exhibit should be readily removable without having to remove or disturb adjacent objects. 
Group similar objects
*Grouping together those objects with similar Conservation Requirements can make it easier and less expensive to meet preservation goals.
Place sensitive objects in the most stable exhibit environments
*Reserve locations within the exhibit area that are least prone to climate instability (such as humidity and temperature fluctuations) and excessive light exposure (such as in front of windows) for the most vulnerable objects. 
Do not place temperature or moisture sensitive collections near sources of temperature or humidity fluctuation
*Avoid placing objects in the path of direct sunlight, against external walls, near doorways, windows, air vents, exposed pipes, or heat sources such as lamps.
*To prevent damage from desiccation and dimensional change, do not overheat objects by placing them too close to a lighting source. 
Ensure objects are located at appropriate distances from lights
*Objects should be placed at least 24 inches from fluorescent lamps.
*Objects should be placed at least 36 inches from incandescent or tungsten halogen light because of heat buildup and illumination levels.
*Avoid locating an object too far from a fixture, or the conical beam of light will be spread too wide to provide effective illumination. This may lead to light levels being increased in order to compensate. 
Do not place light-sensitive objects that require restricted light levels in exhibit areas near points of bright light
*Group light-sensitive objects away from exhibit entrances, windows, and brightly-illuminated areas of the exhibit to allow visitors to view objects at lower light levels.
Do not place objects in the paths of fire sprinkler heads
*Particularly if objects are water sensitive, avoid placing them under fire sprinkler heads.
*Where possible, the exhibition plan can specify the relocation of detectors and sprinkler heads to maintain optimum system effectiveness.
Display objects at least 10 cm above the floor
*Objects placed too close to the floor are vulnerable to bumping and to water damage from flooding.
*Low placement also interferes with visibility.
Category:Exhibition
Category: Exhibit Design
Category: Standards & Guidelines
Guideline 15.2

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Back to STANDARD 15: Light Exposure
== Guideline 15.2: The exhibit design excludes sunlight ==
=== Why is it important to exclude sunlight from the exhibit space? ===
All light sources produce some amount of visible light, Ultraviolet (UV) radiation, and Infrared (IR) radiation, but sunlight is particularly dangerous because it includes high levels of all three. Direct sunlight should never fall on light-sensitive objects.
In addition, daylight in an exhibit space provides light of inconsistent quality and quantity, changing with the time of day, season, and weather conditions. The complete elimination or tight control of sunlight not only serves a preservation function, it is also easier on the viewer.
=== What methods can be used to exclude sunlight from the exhibit space? ===
The most dependable way to exclude sunlight is to block any windows or skylights in the exhibit space.
However, when daylight is necessary to create a desired effect (e.g. historical accuracy in a historic room) or when it is not possible to block out daylight, then mitigate or control its effects:
* Eliminate UV light by covering windows with glazing and films that contain UV filters. (For more information on eliminating UV light see Guideline*.)
* Use curtains, shades, shutters, and light-filtering blinds to block windows when sunlight is entering the exhibit space.
* Use exhibit panels to control sunlight
* Redirect natural light entering the space from an atrium or adjacent area [Needs further explanation]
* In those particular spaces, objects less susceptible to light damage should be chosen for exhibition.
Category:Standards & Guidelines
Guideline 15.4

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== Guideline 15.4: The lighting plan controls Infrared Radiation ==
=== Why should infrared radiation be controlled? ===
 
Infrared radiation (IR) should be controlled because it does not contribute to visibility and yet can seriously interfere with efforts to regulate the museum environment. 
IR has a wavelength just greater than the light at the red end of the visible light spectrum. Although human beings cannot see IR, we experience it as the main source of heat in sunlight and incandescent lights. Heat can be very damaging to objects. It can cause an exponential rise in the rate of object deterioration by speeding chemical reactions and drying out organic materials. It can also influence relative humidity and the moisture content of objects on display. Research also attributes up to 40% of color loss in dyes to IR radiation.
In fact, more than 90% of the energy from an incandescent lamp is heat, and every watt of light adds 4.15 BTUs (British Thermal Units) to the heat load of the building. The IR produced by lighting is therefore an important consideration in efforts to control temperature and relative humidity in an exhibit. It is also a budgeting consideration: some exhibitions incur air-conditioning expenses year-round as a result of the heat produced by poorly designed lighting systems.
=== What methods can be used to control Infrared Radiation? ===
* Utilize lighting systems that do not generate heat: LED lighting, compact fluorescents. [More information required]
* Dissipate heat generated from exhibit lights to prevent buildup in confined spaces within, above, or next to exhibit cases or objects. [How exactly?]
* Locate objects at distance from lights: position objects at least 24 inches from fluorescent lights and at least 36 inches from incandescent or tungsten halogen lights.
* Insulate light box in cases to prevent heat building up inside the case where objects are housed.
[For more information on cases see Standard *]
Category:Standards & Guidelines
Guideline 15.7

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Back to STANDARD 15: Light Exposure
== Guideline 15.7: Lighting mock-ups are used to assess the light exposure produced by the proposed lighting plan == 
=== Why are lighting mock-ups an important step in fulfilling the Conservation Requirements for lighting? ===
A mockup of the proposed lighting, especially case lighting, allows a scheme to be assessed and adjusted before final installation. The lighting plan for exhibits often involves a complex combination of light fixtures and controls: lamps of a specific wattage and beam angle, particular lamp placements in relation to exhibit objects, lights modified by filters or diffusers. An important consideration is the interaction between all these different elements of the plan.
Constructing a simple mockup of the proposed lighting design—including the fixtures, the various lamps, and the anticipated distances between the objects and lamps—allows light levels to be measured and the amount of light falling on objects to be assessed. Interactions between different elements of the plan—such as overlapping beams from two different lamps—can also be evaluated. And the amount of radiation emitted during the trial will indicate the need for UV filters. The designer, lighting specialist, conservator, curator, and other exhibition team members can also evaluate the quality as well as the quantity of lighting.
=== How are lighting mock-ups constructed? ===
[Brief instructions needed or relevant link]
Guideline 15.8

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== Guideline 15.8: Museum policies help protect objects from light exposure ==
=== What policies can protect objects from light exposure? ===
[Placeholder text] 
Ensuring maintenance staff are trained to use service lights only as needed.
Limiting the amount of time the most vulnerable collections are displayed.
Adequate budget and training to ensure correct relamping in exhibits.
Blocking exterior windows.
Guideline 16.1

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Back to STANDARD 16: Security Measures
== Guideline 16.1: Museum policies and procedures promote object security ==
[The following subject headings and information are placeholders.]
=== What institutional practices promote security? ===
* Security staffing: The presence of a guard or other trained personnel is the best deterrent to theft and vandalism 
* Controlled access to the exhibit space 
* Inclusion of security training in the budget and scheduling 
* A daily walk-through by trained staff to check building security as well as maintenance and pest problems 
* A visitor sign-in book and identity badges 
* Limited access to keys 
=== When should extra personnel be hired to provide security? ===
* The security risk assessment may indicate that extra staffing is needed 
* The Conservation Requirements may indicate that extra staffing is needed for a particular exhibit