nyuuzyou/wikis huggingface dataset:
Proton

A proton is a positively charged subatomic particle found in the nuclei of atoms. It has a mass of 1.0073 atomic mass units (amu) and along with the neutron, makes up the vast, vast majority of the mass of an atom - yet only a tiny fraction of the physical space. The number of protons in the nucleus is characteristic of a particular element.
==Subatomic makeup==
Protons consist of three quarks, making them baryons. Two of these are "up" quarks and one is "down". The +2/3 electrical charge of the two up quark and the -1/3 electrical charge of the lone down quark add up to +1 elementary charge for the proton. These quarks are held together by the strong force, a highly powerful attractive force that only extends as far as the nucleus of the atom - which is represented by particles called gluons. With this, one begins to see why particle physics and botany have a lot in common.
==Chemistry==
The "proton" is a key concept in the world of chemistry, particularly acidity. An acid is something with a lot of "free" protons lying around in solution, while a base (the opposite of an acid) mops up these additional "free" protons and reduces their concentration.Actually, acids steal electrons instead of donating protons, while bases donate electrons instead of stealing protons. This is how SiO2 or BF3 solutions can be acidic without starting a nuclear reaction. The term "free" here is placed in quotes because the protons aren't actually free as in hanging around completely naked; such a situation would be extremely unstable. They are usually chemically bonded to other molecules present, like the solvent. In water, the protons chemically bond to H2O to form H3O(+).
As any high-school physics or chemistry student knows, protons are red.
==Interesting tidbits==
In the alternate reality of extreme parodist Sisyphus, protons are actually demons incarnate - while orbiting electrons are angels. This view was taken as serious by many bloggers and readers, and confusion over whether Sisyphus was real or parody (or even if people out there genuinely hold similar views ) remains to this day.
In the alternate reality of some Malaysian politicians, a Proton is a huge national success story in the Malaysian automotive industry, building high quality, innovative cars that put the country on the world map, making the population of the left-hand drive world green with envy that the chance to own such a fine brand of automobile is denied them.
==See also==
*Neutron
*Electron
==Notes==
category:chemistry
Category:physics
Category:Fundamental particles
Protoscience

Protosciences are fields of study that existed before the modern scientific method was establishedWe can't say for sure when exactly, but a good guess would be 1620 with Francis Bacon's Novum Organum. before developing into proper science. They were often concerned as much with occultism or religion as with natural phenomena. Continuing to hold belief in a protoscience that has been discredited in favor of a modern scientific field is considered pseudoscience. In a broader sense, much of science could also fall under the term "protoscience". If a field of study is consistent with existing science, but has not yet been tested rigorously by the scientific method, because it is still in its formative years, then that protoscience (read: not-yet-science) is to be distinguished from pseudoscience (read: never-science). Technically speaking, all science could be a protoscience: you never know if tomorrow, something new will be found which utterly shakes the foundations of science and creates a paradigm shift (kind of like what radium did a century ago).
Examples of past protosciences include:
*alchemy, which developed into chemistry
*astrology, which developed into astronomy
*heroic medicine, which was supplanted by modern medicine
*herbalism and folk remedies, which developed into pharmacology
*alienism, which developed into psychology (although Thomas Kuhn would argue that psychology is still a protoscience)
The theory of hypnotism or "animal magnetism" was, for instance, never developed into a science (although modern neurologists do study hypnosis).
Modern protosciences may or may not include things such as artificial intelligence, ball lightning, quantum computing, string theory, astrobiology, and memetics. By definition, we can only speculate on what these will lead to, as future scientific discoveries must be unknown in the present. Stay tuned.
==See also==
* Philosophy
==Notes==
==References==
Category:Protoscience
category:Science
Category:History
Category:Pseudoscience
Providence Lost: A Critique of Darwinism

Providence Lost: A Critique of Darwinism is an anti-evolution book written by philosopher Richard Spilsbury and published by the Oxford University Press in 1974. The book offers a philosophical critique of the neo-Darwinian view of evolution which Spilsbury equates with materialism. The book claims that the neo-Darwinian view has turned into a scientific dogma and that naturalistic evolutionary theories fail to explain consciousness, free will, pain, love, language, and the behaviour of humans.The Library journal book review R.R. Bowker., 1 Jan 1977, p. 345 The book advocates human exceptionalism and uses arguments very similar to creationists. It has been quote mined by intelligent design advocates.Providence Lost - And Found? by M.D. Aeschliman
==See also==
*Mind and Cosmos: Why the Materialist Neo-Darwinian Conception of Nature Is Almost Certainly False
==References==
Category:Books
Category:Creationism
Category:Intelligent design creationism
Category:Philosophy
Pseudostatistics

Pseudostatistics is the use of statistical language, calculations, and numbers to reinforce an argument when the actual statistics used are inappropriate, misapplied, miscalculated, or even completely made up. Pseudostatistics can take many forms, ranging from the obvious "95 percent of all people" clichés that get dropped in random bar conversations, to complex and subtle misapplications in purportedly scientific works. Many forms of pseudoscience, woo, and denialism use pseudostatistics to bamboozle their audience into accepting otherwise obviously flawed arguments and logical fallacies.
==Signs of pseudostatistics==
*Confuses correlation with causation
*Cherry-picks data
*Makes category mistakes
*low or non-representative sample size
*Selection bias
*Ignores margin of error 
*Attempts to measure something 
==Examples==
*Andrew Schlafly loves making nonsense statistics so stupid its almost unbelievable.
==See also==
*Bullshit
*Fox News
==References==
Psiram

Psiram is a mainly German Internet project founded in 2007 under the name EsoWatch with a purpose similar to that of RationalWiki. The platform has wikis for various European languages, a blog, and a discussion forum. The German wiki holds the largest compilation in that language of cranks and bullshitters with over 3,700 articles dedicated to quackery, esotericism, conspiracy theories, pseudoscience, fake news, and lots of other crap. The second largest language on Psiram is French (over 600 articles), followed by English (over 100 articles). Wikis for some other European languages also exist, but with few articles and little activity. In general, the German articles are the most current and best maintained.
==Anonymity==
All authors use anonymous nicknames; the operator is unknown. This is due to the fact that several stalker pages have appeared in the Internet, throwing all kinds of accusations and mud against assumed authors and members of Psiram in mostly very familiar and unoriginal ways.
A common claim by the anonymous(!) stalker pages is that Psiram is operated anonymously and thus not trustworthy. The operators were accused of being right wing, left wing, Nazis, Jews, child pornographers, convicted of various crimes, and more.Psiram disclaimer Just like people at RationalWiki, they've also been accused of shilling for the military-industrial complex, government agencies,Internationales Wahrheits-Abwehrzentrum „esowatch” (Archived) Big Pharma,Esowatch und die Pharmalobby (Archived) and the other usual suspects.
New authors (in various languages) are always welcome and can edit the English wiki as usual, but all edits have to be reviewed by staff members of Psiram before they become visible.
== Public reception ==
Psiram received some favorable media coverage for its work exposing fraudsters and cranks. Several German newspapers wrote about it or referenced it in articles. The article on Prahlad Jani at psiram.com an Indian guru who claims to have lived without food and water since 1940 was even referenced by PZ MyersPhysiology explains it all, Pharyngula, May 2010 and their article on night milk crystalsNight Milk Crystals, at psiram.com was referenced by The Guardian.German night milk may aid insomniacs, The Guardian
A German court based a decision (in part) on arguments collected by Psiram/EsowatchVG Saarlouis verdict on 9/9/2010, 3 K 573/09 and an inquiry in the Austrian parliament was based on the information collected in the wiki.6639/J XXIV. GP, Inquiry to the Austrian parliament
==See also==
* HoaxWiki – a Dutch wiki devoted to describing hoaxes, conspiracy theories, quackery, and other false information.
== External links==
*Psiram main page
**German (active), French (active), English (inactive) sections of the wiki
**Forum
** Blog
* Psiram on the German Wikipedia (and on the French Wikipedia)
==References==
Category:Blogs
Category:Skepticism
Category:Wikis
Psychic surgery

Psychic surgery is a form of spiritual woo commonly practiced in Brazil and the Philippines in which a "doctor" performs typically unsterilized, invasive surgery on a patient without any surgical instrument whatsoever, and leaves no visible scar. It can be summed up as a non-doctor performing non-surgery.
==What it is==
In reality, psychic surgery involves fraud that makes extensive use of sleight of hand to deceive wealthy Western customers. The material supposedly removed from the patient's body is usually from an animal, and the blood is released from a vial — not from the patient's body — with palming or some other trick. The practice received publicity in 1984 when comedian paid for psychic surgery in a misguided attempt to remove a tumor. Negative attention caused psychic surgery to be widely abandoned in favor of other alternative medicines.
Psychic surgery is relatively side-effect-free other than possible staining with chicken guts, and loss of earnings… however, the main danger is when seriously ill people such as Andy Kaufman take it seriously. Then it gives false hope and may stop them from getting proper medical attention. Placebo effects may apply.
==See also==
*Gary Mannion
==External links==
*Therapies.com Offering trips for psychic surgery and training courses
*psychic "surgery", entry in The Skeptic's Dictionary
*Highly pro-woo biography of woo-meister general Alex L. Orbito
*James Randi "performing" psychic surgery on the Tonight Show with Johnny Carson
==References==
Category:Alternative medicine
Category:Brazil
Category:Philippines
Category:Pseudoscience
Category:Woo
Psychomagic

Psychomagic is the name of an alternative therapeutic practice used by filmmaker Alejandro Jodorowsky.
The technique is alleged to be useful in psychotherapy. It combines art, Eastern philosophies (particularly Zen Buddhism), mysticism and modern psychotherapy to allegedly heal patients with emotional problems.
The principle relies on the belief that the unconscious mind takes a symbolic act as a fact. So a symbolic act could accordingly help solve some types of non-rational conflicts. These acts are prescribed by the therapist after having studied the patient's personality and family tree.
This practice is shown in the documentary film Quantum Men, starring Cristobal (Axel), son of Alejandro, and directed by Carlos Serrano Azcona.
==References==
Category:Living people
Psychosomatic

Psychosomatic illnesses or symptoms refer to physical conditions which are psychologically induced. If a person's mind believes strongly enough that they are unwell, their body may create physical symptoms in response. Note that this does not imply that the person is faking the illness.
It is often difficult for doctors to determine which conditions are psychosomatic and which are genuine. Often, psychosomatic illness is proposed as a hypothesis when there is no identifiable cause for a patient's condition.
Some theories about the human body's psychosomatic abilities assert that in extreme cases, the body can even produce the appearance of wounds. This is proposed as one possible explanation for the phenomenon of stigmata.
Psychosomatic effects can be positive as well as negative, as demonstrated in the placebo effect. Placebos can be used successfully to treat psychosomatic conditions, as well as other minor or temporary illnesses.
According to Wikipedia, a psychosomatic ailment is more correctly called a unless it's related to high blood pressure, stress, etc..
==Multiple chemical sensitivity==
Widespread chemophobia, coupled with the fact that some volatile compounds smell nauseatingly bad, has led a number of folks to believe that they have severe, allergy-like physical reactions to a wide variety of chemicals. When tested, many of these patients have no symptoms at all if their nose is plugged up and they're not aware that they're being exposed to one of the chemicals they're "sensitive" to.Das-Munshi et al., Multiple chemical sensitivities: A systematic review of provocation studies, Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, vol. 118 no. 6 (Dec 2006), pp. 1257-1264
==Baudrillard==
Pyschosomatic illness is one topic of discussion for French philosopher Jean Baudrillard in his book Simulacra and Simulation.Simulacra and Simulation by Jean Baudrillard (2020). The University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0472065211. The book quotes Émile Littré speaking on psychosomatic illness and simulation: "Someone who feigns an illness can simply go to bed and make believe he is ill. Some[one] who simulates an illness produces in himself some of the symptoms."http://www.naturalthinker.net/trl/texts/Baudrillard,Jean/simulations.html To Baudrillard, such illness is a form of simulation which denies treatment by medicine.
==See also==
*Placebo effect
*Mind over body
*Illness anxiety disorder — a similar yet distinct condition
==References==
Category:Medicine
Category:Mental health
category:Psychology
Ptolemy

Claudius Ptolemy was an astronomer a long time ago, although in the modern sense of astronomy his designation as an astronomer may be a topic of controversy. In his time, he did some good work, keeping in mind the level of prevailing scientific knowledge, and his research also included astrology, geometry, music theory, geography, and optics.
His most famous work is Almagest in which he presented a geocentric model of the solar system. He explained the erratic path of the planets in the sky through a postulate that planets traveled in circles around a central point, in turn, orbiting the Earth (called an "epicycle"), as moderns would conceive the path of a moon without a planet. In this regard, his cosmological model differed from Aristotle. The latter imagined the Sun, Moon, and planets each embedded within its crystalline sphere of perfectly hard "aether" or quintessence.
Ptolemy did pioneering work in trigonometry and geometry. Ironically, his contributions to trigonometry helped Copernicus verify his heliocentric and counter-Ptolemaic theory.
Ptolemy's theorem remains a useful theorem of geometry. It states that for any cyclic quadrilateral(a four-sided polygon for which all four points are on the circumference of one circle), the product of the lengths one set of opposite sides plus the product of the other set of opposite sides equals the product of the diagonals. In the case of an exact rectangle(all rectangles being cyclic quadrilaterals), this reduces to the more familiar Pythagorean theorem.
There is a crater named in his honor on both the Moon and Mars.
==References==
Category:Astronomers
Category:History of science
Public domain

Public domain refers to information, data, textual or artistic work that is available to the public. In copyright terms, it means the information is freely available for copying and distribution. In broad terms, works that are not covered by copyright, patent or other form of legal protection are considered to be in the public domain and may be accessed, used, copied and distributed by anyone, with public domain status typically being due to the copyright/patent having expired (with patents lasting fewer years than copyright) or the copyright/patent holder having released it into the public domain intentionally, such as with the CC0 license from Creative Commons (see below). (Note that copyright is automatic in most countries in modern times, so a recent work can be assumed to be copyrighted even if there is no copyright notice (typically a © symbol and the publishing year) present).
==Copyright==
Since copyright and patent laws vary from nation to nation, what is or is not public domain can be confusing. Most of the contents of Project Gutenberg, for example, are in the public domain in most countries; however, due to differences in copyright regulations across national borders, Gutenberg Australia, though related, has much material that is in the public domain in Australia that is still covered under United States copyright. (Remember to consult your local copyright authorities before loading up on George Orwell bootlegs.)
Much software, including many free software packages and virtually everything produced by the United States government (see ImageJ for one example, a high-quality image editing program written in Java), is public domain; however, most freely distributable software is copyrighted, usually under an open source license that asserts the creator's copyright while explicitly giving the user many, but not all, of the rights associated with public domain distribution.
Creative Commons, which mostly makes licenses that still use copyright but with less restrictions, has the CC0 public domain dedication for those who want to dedicate their work to the public domain without having to go through longer and more formal procedures. The dedication also provides a loose fallback license for when works that use it cannot be dedicated to the public domain.
==Other legal meanings==
In a broader sense, information or knowledge is "in the public domain" (as opposed to being unknown, a trade secret or whatever) if it is known to or available to the public at all, even if under copyright or other restrictions.
==See also==
*Creative Commons
==External links==
*Summary of public domain from Wikimedia Commons
Category:Copyright
Public relations

Public relations (PR for short; euphemistically, spin or optics(February 2017). "A New Meaning of 'Optics'". Merriam-Webster Dictionary.) is the art of making the unacceptable and obnoxious into a fragrant and desirable thing. It can also be described as a refutation of the old saying "you can't polish a turd."
Mythbusters proves you can indeed polish a turd
The concept and the term "public relations" originated in the business world — hence the definition of an industry: a gang of extortionists with a gimmick and a PR agency. (Keen operators acting outside the capitalist nexus had to rely more on clientage/protégés, on private armies or on patrons ("friends in high places") for support where it mattered.) But PR has evolved such that much of politics and monarchy these days is pure public relations. Noted masters include Lady Diana Spencer, Bill Clinton, Ronald Reagan, and almost any other President of the United States (Jimmy Carter being a possible exception to this rule).
As mentioned above, a division of PR is spin. The UK Tony Blair government provided a prime example of spinning out of control.
Politicians don't lie any more, they just engage in public relations. And they don't change policies any more; they just "spin" them to look more acceptable. 
PR has two main objectives: promotion and damage limitation:
* Promotion is in effect advertising; whether of a product, person or organisation. A hitherto unknown person can become famous (and possibly wealthy) purely through the intervention of a PR firm.
* Damage limitation often occurs when a "celebrity" is caught out in some misdemeanor. The PR firm can then spin the reporting of the event or circumstance to place their client in a less bad, or even positive, light
As of 2017 countries such as Saudi Arabia pay public-relations firms millions to improve their image in the United States.
==See also==
* Edward Bernays (1891-1995), who invented the term "public relations" as a euphemism for propaganda
* Frank Luntz
* Framing
* Style over substance
==External links==
* "A Song About A Train" by Rob Balder at thefump.com
Category:Political strategery
Category:Propaganda
Category:Business
==References==
Category:Advertising
Pulpit Freedom Sunday

Pulpit Freedom Sunday -- which is scheduled for the last Sunday of September/first Sunday in October — is the day when right wing fundy batshit crazy American pastors decide to flout their churches' tax-exempt status by making political speeches during their Sunday services, despite the fact that the Bible repeatedly commands Christians to obey secular law. The first Pulpit Freedom Sunday occurred on 28 September 2008, when it looked more and more likely that One Of Those People was about to win the presidency.
==Tax exempt==
In 1954, the federal government exempted not-for-profit entities, like charities, from all taxation. In exchange for tax-exempt status, nonprofits are prohibited from campaigning for politicians and/or political causes. Unfortunately, the feds lumped religious organizations — which will, way too often, place the will of God before their legal obligations — in with other actual charities. 
The simple solution to this, of course, is to yank the tax-exempt status of any church that violates the law. But, because this event occurs just a few weeks before the November elections, it is intended to be a hot-button issue meant to provoke outrage if the IRS upholds the law. Besides, given the insanely privileged position of religion in society (as evidenced by them being lumped in with nonprofits wholesale in the first place), it's virtually impossible to enforce such a regulation. When an organization with privilege and power is inclined to favor its political agenda over injunctions from its own scriptures such as "render to Caesar the things that are Caesar's", you're automatically facing an uphill battle.
==Origin==
Pulpit Freedom Sunday is the brainchild of the Alliance Defense Fund, a "family values" group founded in 1994 to combat the ACLU.
==See also==
*Religious right
==External Links==
*ABC News story posted before the first Pulpit Freedom Sunday.
*ABC News story posted before the 2010 Pulpit Freedom Sunday.
*"Pulpit Freedom Sunday" is a slap in the face of law - will IRS act?
==References==
 
Category:Christian fundamentalism