TSG Chapter V. Analysis and Testing Methods for Textiles - Section H. Identification and Characterization of Materials Associated with Textiles

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Contributors: Abby Cottier, Annalise Gall, Heather Hodge, Janet Lee, Jackie Peterson-Grace, Kat Sarris, Katherine Shark, and Karri Vaughn 
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Copyright: . The Textile Wiki pages are a publication of the Textile Specialty Group of the American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works. The Textile Wiki pages are published for the members of the Textile Specialty Group. Publication does not endorse or recommend any treatments, methods, or techniques described herein. 
== Introduction == 
This page is designed to provide references for identifying, determining the condition of, and considering treatment for materials that are often associated with textiles. These materials may be found in the form of closure mechanisms on garments like buttons or zippers, embellishments like beads, or they may comprise entire objects like contemporary garments. 
== Metal ==
Examples:
* Metal buttons, hook-and-eyes, zippers
* Metal threads
** Metal wire or flattened strips
** Metal wire or strips wound around fiber core
** Metallic surface applied (with adhesive) to organic wrapping around fiber core
**Metallic surface applied (with adhesive) to organic stripsNorman Indictor and Mary Ballard, “The Effects of Aging on Textiles That Contain Metal,” International Restorer Seminar, 1989, 67. 
* Metal sequins
* Metal beads
Identification techniques:
* Metal Threads:
The most commonly used method for identifying metal materials in metal threads is Scanning Electron Microscopy equipped with Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy (SEM-EDS). This produces a magnified image and provides quantitative and qualitative analysis. Additionally, it is nondestructive, though a sample small enough to fit into the chamber must be taken. However, getting reliable quantitative results is complicated and therefore not always accurate.Dale E. Newbury and Nicholas W. M. Ritchie, “Is Scanning Electron Microscopy/Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectrometry (SEM/EDS) Quantitative?,” Scanning 35, no. 3 (May 1, 2013): 141, https://doi.org/10.1002/sca.21041.The following analytical techniques are frequently paired with SEM-EDS:
* AAS: Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy
* AES: Auger Electron Spectroscopy
* AFM: Atomic Force Microscopy
* DTA: Differential Thermal Analysis
* EBSD: Electron Backscatter Diffraction
* EDXRF: Energy Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence
* EPMA: Electron Probe Microanalysis
* ESCA: another word for XPS, Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis
* FESEM-EDX: Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy
* FESESM-FIB-EDX: Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy Focusing Ion Beam Energy Dispersive X-Ray Spectroscopy
* FEG-SEM: Field Emission Gun Scanning Electron Microscopy
* IBA: Ion Beam Analysis
* ICP-AES: Inductively Coupled Plasma- Atomic Emission Spectroscopy
* ICP-OES: Inductively Coupled Plasma- Optical Emission Spectroscopy
* ICP-MS: Inductively Coupled Plasma- Mass-Spectrometry
* LA-ICP-MS: Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass-Spectrometry
* LIBS: Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy
* MA-XRF: Scanning Macro-X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy
* PIXE: Proton Induced X-Ray Emission
* RBS: Rutherford Backscattering Spectrometry
* SIMS: Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry
* SR-XRF: Synchrotron Radiation X-Ray Fluorescence
* TEM : Transmission Electron Microscopy
* TGA : Thermogravimetric Analysis
* ToF-SIMS: Time-of-Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry
* VIMP: Voltammetry of Immobilized Microparticles Methodologies
* WDS: Wavelength Dispersive Analysis
* XPS: X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy
* XRD: X-Ray Diffraction
* XRF: X-Ray Fluorescence
* XRS: X-Ray Spectroscopy
Condition concerns to look for:
* Rust/corrosion
*Corrosion products damaging fabric substrate or other associated materials
*Metal threads: Corrosion occurs as the metal of the thread are oxidized. For gold gilded threads, this typically occurs because the metals in the substrate migrate to the surface. Corrosion products are most often oxides, sulfides, and chlorides.D. Howell et al., “X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) and Time-of-Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) Study of the Tarnishing of Metal-Coated Textiles,” Journal of the Textile Institute 90, no. 3 (1999): 55, https://doi.org/10.1080/00405009908659478.
Considerations for treatment:
* Metal Threads: Metal threads are difficult to treat as nearly everything used to treat metals will damage textiles and vice-versa. More recently traditional cleaning methods (either physical by using abrasives, or chemical through acids, alkalis, or chelating agents) have been discovered to cause damage to the metal thread itself.Ingrid Jimenz-Cosme and Jannen Contreras-Vargas, “Gilded Silver Threads; Corrosion and Cleaning,” in Incompatible Partners? : The Challenges of Composite Objects : Forum of the ICON Textile Group, ed. Alison Fairhurst (London: The Victoria and Albert Museum, 2011), 28–35. Lasers can remove the oxidation products without damaging the thin gold gilding of a metal thread and numerous papers have been written about the process.Bojana Radojković et al., “Preliminary Investigation on the Use of the Q-Switched Nd:YAG Laser to Clean Corrosion Products on Museum Embroidered Textiles with Metallic Yarns,” Journal of Cultural Heritage 23 (2017): 128–37, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2016.07.001.
Links for other Wiki pages that have relevant information:
* Metals (Objects Specialty Group)
== Leather and skin ==
Examples:
*Clothing fully constructed from leather
*Fur coats made from pelts
*Leather binding on 18th century corsetry
*Gelatin sequins (made from collagen)
Identification techniques:
Condition concerns to look for:
*Stiffening and/or brittleness
*Mold
*Water damage (tidelines)
*Red rot
Considerations for treatment:
Links for other Wiki pages that have relevant information: 
* Animal Skin and Leather (Book and Paper Group) 
* Leather and Skin (Objects Specialty Group) 
== Keratin materials (hair, fur, feathers, horn, quills, baleen, etc.) and beetle wings (chitin) ==
Examples:
* Quill embroidery
* Hair jewelry
* Baleen boning
* Feathered hats
Identification techniques:
Condition concerns to look for:
* Insect damage
* Mold
* Fading and/or yellowing from light damage
* For fur and feathers, damage from pesticides and preservatives, including arsenic (also potentially toxic to people handling the object)
* For fur, loss of hairs
Considerations for treatment:
Links for other Wiki pages that have relevant information: 
* Feathers (Objects Specialty Group)
* Horn (Objects Specialty Group)
* Baleen (Wooden Artifacts Group)
== Wood ==
Examples:
* Wooden button molds 
* Beads/other embellishments 
* Reed boning
Identification techniques:
Condition concerns to look for:
* Warping from temperature and humidity fluctuations
* Mold
* Splintering
Considerations for treatment:
Links for other Wiki pages that have relevant information:
* Wooden Artifacts (Wooden Artifacts Group) 
* Wood (Objects Specialty Group) 
== Shell, bone, pearls, ivory (calcium-based materials) ==
Examples:
* Buttons, button molds 
* Eyelets in historical costume pieces 
* Beads and other embellishments 
Identification techniques:
Condition concerns to look for:
* Cracking
* Yellowing
Considerations for treatment:
* Osseous materials are very sensitive to temperature and humidity (they may crack similarly to wood), which may be a concern for both preventive and interventive conservation
* Minimizing handling with bare skin, as oils can speed up yellowing
Links for other Wiki pages that have relevant information:
* Skeletal Materials (Objects Specialty Group) 
* Ivory (Objects Specialty Group) 
== Glass ==
Examples:
* Beads, buttons 
Identification techniques:
Condition concerns to look for:
* Glass disease
* Cracking
* Dissociation from substrate due to broken threads
Considerations for treatment:
Links for other Wiki pages that have relevant information 
* Glass (Objects Specialty Group)
== Plastics ==
Examples:
* Sequins
* Buttons and other closures
* Coatings on synthetic and non-synthetic fabrics
* 20th century costume and accessories (faux leather shoes, PU leather, etc.) 
* Vulcanized rubber (modified natural plastic)
Identification techniques:
Condition concerns to look for:
* Visible migration of plasticizers to the surface
* Tackiness
* Droplets of plasticizer “weeping”
* Cloudy appearance
* Brittleness
* Powdering of PU foam
* Delamination of coatings from fabric substrates
* Yellowing or darkening (esp. Bakelite/phenol formaldehyde)
Considerations for treatment:
* Off-gassing of deteriorating plastics in storage
* Cellulose acetate–vinegar syndrome, which is self-perpetuating
* Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) offgasses HCl, which can damage associated materials
Links for other Wiki pages that have relevant information
== Amber, jet, and other stones ==
Examples:
Identification techniques:
Condition concerns to look for:
Considerations for treatment:
== Further Reading ==
=== General ===
CAMEO Materials Database
Douglas, Janet G., Gwénaëlle Kavich, Chika Mori, Dawn Wallace, Richard Barden. 2018. "Materials characterization of the Ruby Slippers from the 1939 classic film, The Wizard of Oz." Heritage Science. Vol. 6, No. 49. (repository.si.edu)
Florian, Mary-Lou E. 2007. Protein Facts, Fibrous proteins in cultural and natural history artifacts. London: Archetype Publications.
Francis Jr., Peter. 1999. Beads of the World. 2nd ed. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing Ltd.
Hanano, June, Mary Wildman, and Philip Yurkiewicz. 1990. “Majorica Imitation Pearls.” Gems & Gemology. 26 (3): 178-188.
Mills, John S. and Raymond White. 2011. The Organic Chemistry of Museum Objects. London: Routledge.
Montegut, Denyse, ed. 1994. Textile Conservation Group preprints. 2nd Bi-Annual Symposium: The Treatment and Handling of Textiles with Associated Problematic Materials. New York: Textile Conservation Group. 
O'Connor, Sonia, Mary M. Brooks. 2005. "Making the invisible visible: the potential of X-radiography as an investigative technique for textile conservation decision making." ICOM-CC 14th Triennial Meeting. (icom-cc)
O'Connor, Sonia, Mary M. Brooks. 2007. X-Radiography of Textiles, Dress and Related Objects. London: Routledge.
O'Connor, Sonia, Mary M. Brooks, Michael J. Fagan, Susanne Bouret. 2008. "Innovation in the X-radiography of textiles: using computed tomography imaging techniques." ICOM-CC 15th Triennial Meeting. pgs. 995-1001. (icom-cc)
Opper, Marie-José and Howard Opper. 1996. “Imitation Pearls in France.” Beads: Journal of the Society of Bead Researchers.” 8 (6): 23-34.
Paulocik, Chris and R. Scott Williams. 2010. “The Chemical Composition and Conservation of Late 19th and Early 20th Century Sequins.” Journal of the Canadian Association for Conservation. 35: 46-61.
Riedo, C., et al. 2010. "Advances in identification of plant gums in cultural heritage by thermally assisted hydrolysis and methylation." Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. Vol. 396. pp. 1559-1569.
Tulloch, A.P.. 1970. "The composition of beeswax and other waxes secreted by insects." Lipids. Vol. 5 No. 2, pgs.247-258.
=== Metal ===
Ferrari, Martina, Kate Duffy, Sara Lynn Reiter, and Bernice Morris. 2017. "Philadelphia's Opulent Embroidery: The Study of Needlework Painted Picture of the Philadelphia Museum of Art Collection." In Embellished Fabrics: Conserving Surface Manipulation and Decoration, 11th North American Textile Conservation Conference Preprints. 210-224. 
Guzman, Maria Olvido Moreno and Melanie Ruth Korn. 2017. “All That Glitters is Gold: Metallic Embellishments on the Plume of Ancient Mexico.” In Embellished Fabrics: Conserving Surface Manipulation and Decoration, 11th North American Textile Conservation Conference Preprints. 72-84. (Spanish). 
Járó, Márta, Tamás Gál, Attila Tóth, Marta Jaro, Tamas Gal, and Attila Toth. 2000. “The Characterization and Deterioration of Modern Metallic Threads.” Studies in Conservation 45: 95-105. 
Muros, Vanessa, Sebastian K.T.S. Wärmländer, David A. Scott, and Joanna Maria Theile. 2007. "Characterization of 17th-19th Century Metal Threads from the Colonial Andes." Journal of the American Institute for Conservation. Vol. 46, pgs. 229-244. 
Ŝimić, Kristina, Ivana Zamboni, Stjepko Fazinić, Domagoj Mudronja, Lea Sović, Sabrina Gouasmia, Ivo Soljačić. 2018. "Comparative analysis of textile metal threads from liturgical vestments and folk costumes in Croatia." Nuclear Instruments and Method in Physics Research B. Vol 417, pgs. 115-120. 
Toth, Márta. 2012. "Lessons learned from conserving metal thread embroidery in the Esterházy Collection, Budapest, Hungary." Contributions to the Vienna Congress, The International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works. pgs. S305-S312. 
Vaughn, Karri. "A Survey and Annotated Bibliography Focusing on Publications Related to the Technical Analyses Of Metal Thread, 1995-2022" Qualifying Paper. State University of New York, Fashion Institute of Technology, 2023. 
Werner, Ute, Lyndisie S. Selwyn, Tom Stone, W. Ross McKinnon, Anne MacKay, Tara Grant. 2012. The removal of metal soaps from brass beads on a leather belt." Studies in Conservation, Vol. 57, No. 1, pgs. 20-3. 
=== Leather and Skin ===
Alaska Fur ID project.
Cameron, Esther, Ed. 1998. Leather and Fur, Aspects of Early Medieval Trade and Technology. London: Archetype Publications Ltd.
Carrlee, Ellen, and Lauren Horelick. 2011. "The Alaska Fur ID Project: A virtual resource for material identification." Objects Specialty Group Postprints Volume 18, American Institute for Conservation. Pages 149-171. (resources.culturalheritage.org)
Calnan, Christopher, and Betty Haines, eds. 1991. Leather: Its composition and changes with time. Northampton: The Leather Conservation Centre.
European Commission, Ed. René Larsen. 1997. Environment Leather Project: Deterioration and Conservation of Vegetable Tanned Leather. Protection and Conservation of The European Cultural Heritage Research Report No 6. Denmark: L.P. Nielsen Offset Desktop Bogtryk.
Florian, Mary-Lou E. 2007. Protein Facts: Fibrous proteins in cultural and natural history artifacts. London: Archetype.
Jackman, James, ed. 1982. Leather Conservation: A Current Survey. London: The Leather Conservation Centre.
Kite, Marion, and Roy Thomson, eds. 2006. Conservation of Leather and Related Materials. Oxford: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.
Sturge, Theodore. 2000. The Conservation of Leather Artefacts: Case Studies from the Leather Conservation Centre. Northampton, England: The Leather Conservation Centre.
Thomas, Sue, L. A. Clarkson, and Roy Thomson. 1983. "Leather Manufacture through the Ages." Proceedings of the 27th East Midlands Industrial Archaeology Conference. Northampton, England: Northamptonshire Industrial Archaeology Group.
Wills, Barbara, ed. 2001. Leather Wet and Dry: Current Treatments in the Conservation of Waterlogged and Desiccated Archaeological Leather. London: Archetype Publications Ltd.
Wright, Margot M., ed. 2002. The Conservation of Fur, Feather and Skin. London: Archetype.
=== Keratin Materials ===
Lauffenburger, Julie A. 1993. "Baleen in Museum Collections: Its Sources, Uses, and Identification." Journal of the American Institute for Conservation 32 (3): 213-230. 
Pearlstein, Ellen, M. Hughs, J. Mazurek, K. McGraw, C. Pesme, and M. Garcia-Garibay. 2014. "Correlations between Photomechanical Damage and UV Fluorescence of Feathers." Preprints: ICOM-CC 17th Triennial Conference, Melbourne, Australia, September 15-19th.
Pearlstein, Ellen, ed. 2017. The Conservation of Featherwork from Central and South America. London: Archetype Publications.
Renée, Riddler, Christel Pesme, James Druzik, Molly Gleeson, Ellen Pearlstein. 2014. "A Review of Color-Producing Mechanisms in Feathers and Their Influence on Preventive Conservation Strategies." Journal of American Institute for Conservation 53 (1): 44-65.
UCLA/Getty Conservation. 2024. The Art & Science of Feathers, Biology, Persistence, and Meaning. Symposium May 10–11, 2024. (conservation.ucla.edu)
Wright, Margot M., ed. 2002. The Conservation of Fur, Feather, and Skin. London: Archetype.
=== Wood ===
Florian, Mary-Lou E., Dale Paul Konkright, and Ruth E. Norton. 1990. The Conservation of Artifacts Made from Plant Materials. Los Angeles: Getty Conservation Institute.
Hoadley, R. Bruce. 2000. Understanding Wood, A Craftsman's Guide to Wood Technology. Newtown, CT: The Taunton Press.
=== Shell, Bone, Pearls and Ivory ===
Baker, Barry W., Rachel W. Jacobs, Mary-Jacque Mann, Edgar O. Espinoza, and Giavanna Grein. 2020. Identification Guide for Ivory and Ivory Substitutes. 4th ed. Edited by Crawford Allan. CITES Secretariat and World Wildlife Fund. (worldwildlife.org) 
Hornbeck, Stephanie E. 2016. "Elephant Ivory: An Overview of Changes to Its Stringent Regulation and Considerations for Its Identification." In Objects Specialty Group Postprints Volume Twenty-Two, 2015. Washington, DC: American Institute for Conservation. 
Krzyszkowska, Olga. 1990. Classical Handbook 3: Ivory and Related Materials. Bulletin Supplement 59. London: Institute of Classical Studies. 
Landman, Neil H., Paula M. Mikkelsen, Rüdiger Bieler, and Bennet Bronson. 2001. Pearls: A Natural History. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. 
Matsuda, Yasunori. 1987. "Fluorescence from Pearls and Shells of Black Lip Oyster, Pinctada Margaritifera, and Its Contribution to the Distinction of Mother Oysters Used In Pearl Culture." Japanese Journal of Applied Physics. Vol 26, No. 7, pgs. 1069-1072. (researchgate.net) 
Parrodi, Dra. Maria de Lourdes G. Gallardo. 2017. “Pre-Hispanic Mesoamerican Garments Made Out of Shell: A Proposal for Research and Conservation.” In Embellished Fabrics: Conserving Surface Manipulation and Decoration, 11th North American Textile Conservation Conference Preprints. 58-69. (Spanish). 
Penniman, T. K. 1952. Pictures of Ivory and other Animal Teeth, Bone and Antler. 1984 reprint. Oxford: Pitt Rivers Museum. 
St. Aubyn, Fiona, ed. 1987. Ivory: An International History and Illustrated Survey. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. 
=== Glass ===
Jargstorf, Sibylle. 1998. Hidden Artistry in Glass. 2nd ed. Atglen, PA: Schiffer Publishing Ltd. 
Koob, Stephen P. 2006. Conservation and Care of Glass Objects. London: Archetype. 
Moss, Kathlyn, and Alice Scherer. 1992. The New Beadwork. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. (Note: the glossary of this book is more useful for conservators than the main text.) 
Newton, Roy, and Sandra Davison. 1989. Conservation of Glass. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd. 
Saulesleja, Indra and Indra Tuna. 2017. “Ethnographic Crowns: Variety of Materials and the Importance of Storage Conditions”. In Embellished Fabrics: Conserving Surface Manipulation and Decoration, 11th North American Textile Conservation Conference Preprints. 355-358. 
Strahan, Donna. 2001. "Uranium in Glass, Glazes and Enamels: History, Identification and Handling." Studies In Conservation. Vol. 46, no. 3, pgs. 181-195. 
Wright, Margot M., ed. 2001. Ethnographic Beadwork: Aspects of Manufacture, Use and Conservation. London: Archetype Publications Ltd. 
=== Plastics ===
Haldane, Elizabeth-Anne. 2017. "Shiny Surfaces: The Conservation of Cellophane and Related Materials." In Embellished Fabrics: Conserving Surface Manipulation and Decoration, 11th North American Textile Conservation Conference Preprints. 117-128. 
Lauer, Keith, and Julie Robinson. 1999. Celluloid: Collector's Reference and Value Guide. Paducah, KY: Collector Books. 
Littlejohn, D., et al. 2013. "Investigation of the degradation of cellulose acetate museum artefacts." Polymer Degradation and Stability 98: 416-424. 
POPART- Preservation Of Plastic ARTefacts in museum collections. http://popart-highlights.mnhn.fr
Quye, A. et al. 2011. "Investigation of inherent degradation in cellulose nitrate museum artefacts." Polymer Degradation and Stability 96: 1369-1376. sciencedirect.com 
Shashoua, Y. 2008. Conservation of Plastics: Materials science, Degradation and Preservation. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. 
Tonkin, Leanne and Adriana Rizzo. 2017. "Manipulation of Early Plastics and the Variable Fabrication of Cellulose Acetate: Assessing Opposite Ends of the Spectrum of Two Identical Belts Designed by Elsa Schiaparelli ca. 1938." In Embellished Fabrics: Conserving Surface Manipulation and Decoration, 11th North American Textile Conservation Conference Preprints. 129-141.
=== Amber, Jet and Other Stones ===
Gleason, Sterling. 1968. Ultraviolet Guide to Minerals. San Gabriel, CA: Ultra-violet Products, Inc.
Grimaldi, David A. 1996. Amber: Window to the Past. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc.
Robbins, Manuel. 1994. Fluorescence: Gems and Minerals Under Ultraviolet Light. GeoScience.
Ross, Andrew. 2009. Amber: The Natural Time Capsule. London: Natural History Museum.
Thickett, David, Pippa Cruickshank, and Clare Ward. 1995. "The Conservation of Amber." Studies in Conservation 40 (4): 217-226. DOI: 10.2307/1506496
Warren, Thomas S., Sterling Gleason, Richard C. Bostwick, e Verbeek. 1999. Fluorescent Minerals: Understanding, Collecting and Displaying Fluorescent Minerals. Gem Guide Book Company.
== References ==