nyuuzyou/wikis huggingface dataset:
Philosopher's stone

The elusive Philosopher's stone is believed to be the object of medieval alchemists' quest for the transmutation of base metals such as lead into gold. We now have the science and even the technology to achieve this sort of thing,Turning Lead into Gold though it costs rather more to build and operate than the difference in price between lead and gold.
The phrase "Philosopher's stone" may also be used to refer to any general goal that is currently unattained but if achieved, would allow for major breakthroughs in science/energy-production/wealth-accumulation/etc.See, e.g., Cold fusion. It can also be a metaphor for enlightenment and reaching the pinnacle of human abilities.TV Tropes:Philosophers Stone Various esoteric teachings use the term to refer to this or that fantastic thing which may potentially be achieved.
Interestingly enough, Asian Taoist philosophers spent a lot of effort seeking the elixir of life in a quest for immortality. Viewed from a great distance, the two are not dissimilar. Another close analogue would be the wish-fulfilling jewel Cintamani, featured in Hinduism and Buddhism.René, Guénon; Symbols of Sacred Science; Page 277
==See also==
*Harry Potter
*Holy Grail
==Notes==
==References==
Category:Esotericism
Category:Pseudoscience
Category:Magic
Category:Medieval_history
Category:Mythology
Philosophical intuition

Philosophical intuition is what philosophers use to work out what assumptions to start their arguments with and to judge the result at the end. It's basically introspecting and checking your feelings to see if what you just said makes sense to you and hence (since humans are more or less cognitively similar) your readers.
It has been conventional for centuries to assume philosophical intuition is a reliable black box. However, the trouble with treating the output of introspection as a reliable source of useful knowledge is that it doesn't work. The ancient Greek philosophers were quite sure that knowledge was better if unsoiled by real-world interactions; this is why they didn't invent science, which involves a step where you test your idea against the real world. Introspection leads to things like asserting that the philosophical zombie thought experiment proves dualism.
With the burgeoning study of cognitive biases, it turns out we can (a) analyse philosophical intuitions (b) see that they're frequently provably full of shit.Janet Levin, 2004. "The evidential status of philosophical intuition." Philosophical studies 121 3, pp193-224 Our intuition remains what we have to perceive philosophical relationships; we do, however, need to apply due caution and correction to the output of our stupid brains.
This has particular application to apologetics, which tends to try to prove the existence of a god with arguments that reduce to either god of the gaps or stimulating philosophical intuition with an intuition pump. The latter frequently reduces to coming up with arguments that feed their own cognitive biases.
A development over the last few years of the realization that philosophical intuition is crap is in the creation of "experimental philosophy". Basically, an individual philosopher will go "it seems like the reason I should save a child drowning in a kiddie pool in the yard that I happen to be walking by is because I have a moral obligation to those near me". The philosopher will then use this as a premise leading up to a philosophical argument in favor of a social contract theory of ethics. But, do people actually feel this way? A person delving in experimental philosophy would through some means (generally surveys) try to find out if people actually accept that we would save the child because of a moral obligation. If not, you may have found a theory of ethics that no one agrees with or is willing to follow.
==See also==
*Common sense
*Folk science
*God of the gaps
==External links==
*One More Take On the Role of Intuition in Philosophy, Massimo Pigliucci
==References==
Philosophy of language

Philosophy of language is the philosophical study of the nature of language. Fundamental questions in philosophy of language involve the nature of linguistic meaning, the relation between meaning and truth, and the ways in which language is used in communication. It is distinct from linguistics, although the two disciplines overlap significantly.
The term linguistic philosophy is used for approaches to philosophy that hold that all philosophical problems are reducible to problems of language, and that philosophical problems can thus be resolved either by attending to ordinary linguistic practices (so-called "ordinary language philosophy") or by reforming language to eradicate the inconsistencies inherent in ordinary language, as some logical positivists suggested. Linguistic philosophy is distinguished from the philosophy of language, yet the two are closely related — and in some cases the two terms are used in a largely synonymous way. Kanti Lal Das writes:
:"We think that the distinction between linguistic philosophy and the philosophy of language is so subtle that it would be difficult to explore a sharp distinction between these two. In fact we can hardly mention the name of a few philosophers who have done this distinction... As we have already stated the distinction is so subtle that it would be difficult to draw a clear border line in between the two..."Kanti Lal Das, "Philosophical Revelance of Language", p. 4, Northern Book Centre, 2006
==Issues in the philosophy of language==
* What is the nature of linguistic meaning? It seems clear that some linguistic expressions are meaningful. We talk about meanings as if they were objects; we talk, for instance, of the meaning of a sentence. Two expressions can share the same meaning (synonymy). What, if anything, underwrites judgments like these?
* What is the relation between meaning and truth? In particular, are there sentences that are true by virtue of their meaning alone (analytic sentences)?
* How does meaning relate to language use? Some philosophers, such as the later Wittgenstein, suggest that the meaning of a sentence is the set of conditions under which the sentence can be appropriately used. Others disagree.
* What is the role of context in determining meaning? Consider the English word "I". It normally picks out the speaker in the context in which it is used. That is, when Alice says "I went to the store," she expresses the proposition that Alice went to the store; when Bob utters the same sentence, it expresses the proposition that Bob went to the store. "I" is thus context-sensitive. How pervasive is this property?
* What is the relation between meaning and reference? The referent of an expression is what the expression picks out. Not all expressions are referring expressions, but for those that are, it is unclear to what extent their reference determines their meaning.
==See also==
*Linguistics
==References==
Category:philosophy
Category:language
Phlegon

Phlegon of Tralles, generally just Phlegon (unknown lifespan, 2nd century CE) was a Greek writer during the rule of the emperor Hadrian.
Phlegon recorded a great earthquake in Bithynia, on the coast of the Black Sea in what is today Turkey. Intrepid Christian apologist (184/185 – 253/254 CE) decided that because Phlegon wrote about an earthquake and an eclipse, this must have been a reference to the darkness and earthquake following the crucifixion of Jesus:
However, judging from the quote of Phlegon contained in a work by later apologist (260/265 – 339/340 CE), this is simply wrong:
How anyone could take a reference to an earthquake and eclipse in Nicea, 900 kilometres from Jerusalem, as evidence for the earthquake described in (and only there) is more a sign of the shaky state of the "evidence" for the fantastic events in the New Testament, even in the age of the Church Fathers than anything else.
==See also==
*Evidence for the historical existence of Jesus Christ
*Jesus myth
*Josephus
*Tacitus
*Pliny the Younger
*Suetonius
*Thallus
*Lucian
*Hadrian
*Serapion
==External links==
*
*"Josh McDowell's "Evidence" for Jesus", Internet Infidels
==References==
Category:Historians
Category:Jesus
Category:Romans
Photon

A photon is the particle, wave packet, or "wavicle" by which energy in the form of electromagnetic rays is transmitted; it is a type of boson.
==Electromagnetism==
Electromagnetic rays or electromagnetic waves that scientists study range from radio waves with very long wavelength through to very short wave gamma rays or X-rays. A small subset of electromagnetic waves are what humans can see and what we call visible light. Photons are characterised by their (notional) frequency which is directly related to their energy. Paradoxically more energetic photons have shorter wavelength while less energetic photons have longer wavelength. There is no theoretical upper limit or lower limit on the frequency of electromagnetic rays.
Electromagnetic waves are also called electromagnetic radiation.
==Energy of a photon==
The amount of energy carried by a photon depends entirely on its frequency ν:
:E = hν
The constant h, known as Planck's constant, is an extremely small number — only 6.6×10-34 Joule-seconds. This means a single photon's energy is really tiny. A single photon of frequency 5.4×1014 Hz, the frequency of visible yellow light, has a paltry 3.6×10-19 Joules of energy. You'd have to have 2.8×1018 such photons hitting you every second just to receive 1 Watt of light.
==Speed of light==
The speed of a photon, in a vacuum, is constant (generally denoted c) and is the limiting speed of information transfer in the Universe. The theory of relativity was largely inspired by contradictions implicit in the invariance of the photon's speed in thought experiments.
==See also==
*Higgs boson
*Quantum physics
*Subatomic particles
*Radiation
==External links==
*What is a Photon?
*How Light Works
Category:science
Category:Fundamental particles
Photonic water

Photonicwater.com makes devices containing glass balls which supposedly "revitalise" water, making it better for plants, animals, and industrial processes.A link to the unbelievably wide-range of alleged applications for 'photonic water' Their spiel is sprinkled with a random mixture of actual, but irrelevant, scientific terms such as "biophotons", (which are actually the light faintly emitted from living-things such as animals and plants). They allege that water has "memory", à la homoeopathy. They claim muscle tissue is "99% water".A link to an archive copy of the "photonicwater.com" page which incorrectly states muscle is "99% water". In reality, the content of your bladder isn't even that watery. 
Photonic-water devices are promoted by the advocate of all things alternative, Adam Abraham.A link to Adam Abraham's listing on the website "Encyclopedia of American Loons" He is an anti-vaccinationist, who, when he's not urging people to drink "MMS" bleach, suggests that they drink urine.A link to Adam Abraham's article on "urine therapy"
==See also==
*Photon
==References==
==External links==
*Photonicwater.com
Category:Water woo
Phylogeny

Phylogeny is a biological term describing the relationships between groups of animals according to their evolutionary heritage, as best understood by information from genetics, paleontology, embryology and anatomy. 
The pattern of evolutionary relationships within and between groups can be depicted in the form of a branching diagram called cladograms, which are like genealogies of species.
Not only is phylogeny important for understanding paleontology, but paleontology in turn contributes to phylogeny. Many groups of organisms are now extinct, and without their fossils we would not have as clear a picture of how modern life is interrelated.
Genetics has been the single most important part of modern plylogeny, reorganizing where some animals go based on genes and ignoring superficial characteristics that suggest closer relationships. For example, the common bat is actually two distinct phylogenic groups traditionally classified just as "bats", but genetics suggests these bats evolved side by side rather than sharing a common 'bat' ancestor. Karyotypic evolution in bats: evidence of extensive and conservative chromosomal evolution in closely related taxa 
==Phylogenetics==
:Main article: Phylogenetics
Phylogenetics, the genetic science of phylogeny, is one part of the larger field of systematics, which also includes taxonomy. Taxonomy is the science of naming and classifying the diversity of organisms. While they share similar results, the methods used to create their classification systems are quite different. 
Phylogenetics, starts with the mapped gene, and compares how closely it resembles other animal's genes. The more mapping that is done, the more precise the phylogenetic tree becomes. 
Taxonomy on the other hand, generally begins with the living (or fossilized) animal and compares biological structures, habits, diet, etc., to create relationships.
Because evolution is a fact, both trees look remarkably similar.
==See also==
*Linnaean taxonomy
*Cladistics
==References==
Category:Biology
Category:Evolution
Physical science

Physical science usually refers to the branches of science that deal with observable, measurable, non-sentient systems, events, phenomena, and properties. This usually 
means chemistry, physics, and related fields such as engineering, but not biology, which is considered special.
==See also==
:Some related articles that are encompassed in Physical Science
*Science
*Scientific method
*Chemistry
*Physics
*Astronomy
*Big Bang
*Geology
Category:Science
Physics envy

Physics envy (cf. "penis envy") is a phrase used to criticize procrustean attempts to make a discipline more "scientific" (or perhaps just more "sciencey") by aping the form of the physical sciences, usually through what is claimed to be excessive use of formal logic or mathematicization.
The term was coined by biologist Joel E. Cohen in a 1971 issue of Science.Physics Envy is the Curse of Biology, Data Deluge
A rather literal example of this is the borrowing of equations from contemporary physics by the "marginalist school" of economists during the 19th century.Philip Morowski. Physics and the "Marginalist Revolution". Cambridge Journal of Economics, 1984, 8, 361-379.
__NOTOC__
==See also==
*Jacques Lacan — the conflation of physics envy with penis envy
*Power plus prejudice
*Scientism
*Sokal affair
==Further reading==
*
==External links==
*Lo, Andrew W. and Mueller, Mark T., Warning: Physics Envy May be Hazardous to Your Wealth! (March 12, 2010).
*Physics vs. Physics Envy
==References==
Category:Neologisms
Category:Philosophy of science
Category:Physics
Pie and Mash Squad

The Pie and Mash Squad (formerly Casuals United) is a British anti-Islam protest group set up by Jeff Marsh in 2009.http://www.searchlightmagazine.com/archive/the-fringe-of-the-fringe Officially, it is non-racist and peaceful; in practice, it is ultimately just the English Defence League all over again.
The group is closely tied to football fandom, identifying itself as "uniting the UK’s football tribes against the Jihadists".http://www.hopenothate.org.uk/news/article/1761/edl-rejects-barnbrook-approach Its name derived from the which is associated with football hooliganism.
The Casuals United blog praises Enoch Powell: "Who still thinks Enoch Powell was wrong? Only left wing anti white morons", it says.<capture>http://casualsunited.wordpress.com/2013/01/24/who-still-thinks-enoch-powell-was-wrong-only-left-wing-anti-white-morons-edl-manchester/</capture> Beyond this, the outfit's dubious racial views extend to its support for a white pride event run by a family of Welsh neo-Nazis.http://edlnews.co.uk/index.php/featured-stories/derek-fender-corner/1022-casuals-united-promote-swansea-nazi-fest
The group had a falling out with the EDL's LGBT divisionWait … the EDL has one of those? after the Casuals United blogger Zoe Marsh (also known as Zoe Smith) posted homophobic comments.http://edlnews.co.uk/index.php/featured-stories/derek-fender-corner/816-jeff-marsh-his-17-year-old-blogger-and-homophobic-abuse
From 2014, the group renamed themselves on Twitter and Facebook as the Pie And Mash Squad.http://edlnews.co.uk/2014/07/24/all-change-at-casuals-united-jay-butler-brighton/
==See also==
*Combined Ex Forces
*English Shieldwall
*Football Lads Alliance
==External links==
*EDLNews: Casuals United and their paedophile division
==Notes==
==References==
__NOTOC__
Category:Racism
Piero Calvi-Parisetti

Piero Calvi-Parisetti is a Scottish/Italian crank author, parapsychologist, spiritualist and pseudoscience promoter.
Calvi-Parisetti is a member of the Society for Psychical Research and of the International Association for Near-Death Studies. He is also a retired psychotherapist and now works as a "grief counselor". He trained with the parapsychologist Raymond Moody.Biography for Piero Calvi-Parisetti 
Calvi-Parisetti who refers to himself as "Dr. Parisetti" is a convinced spiritualist, and he claims to reduce the pain of bereavement of his clients by giving them hope that science has proven life after death.For the bereaved He charges $49.95 for his online pseudoscience course "Transforming the Fear, Healing the Pain" which is basically a collection of parapsychology woo and debunked reports of fraudulent mediums that Calvi-Parisetti pretends to his clients are all factual. 
Calvi-Parisetti is the author of the book 21 Days into the Afterlife which claims to offer evidence for human personality beyond death. However, in reality, the entire book is dishonest quackery. The book says that everything from ectoplasm, levitation, mediumship, psi, and remote viewing have all been proven by science whilst all critical or skeptical material is ignored.21 Days into the Afterlife Calvi-Parisetti believes the best evidence for an afterlife is ectoplasm and materialization mediumship. This seriously undermines his credibility as all investigations into ectoplasm materializations have proven fraud, with the "ectoplasm" having been discovered to be made from cheesecloth, muslin, or other perfectly-non-supernatural materials. Calvi-Parisetti does not report any evidence of fraud in the mediums he writes about.
Calvi-Parisetti has written that Helen Duncan was a genuine psychic medium. He says Duncan communicated with spirits, and her ectoplasm was real. He does not mention that her ectoplasm was exposed by psychical researchers, such as Harry Price, as being made from a doll made from a painted papier-mâché mask draped in an old sheet and in other cases from cheesecloth. He also claims the materializations by the notorious medium Eva Carriere were genuine and not the result of fraud. He says other fraudulent mediums such as Leslie Flint and Gladys Osborne Leonard communicated with spirits. His book and course offer no evidence for an afterlife at all. 
The only supporters of Calvi-Parisetti are other spiritualist cranks such as Michael Prescott.Spiritualist Michael Prescott supporting the quackery of Calvi-Parisetti
Calvi-Parisetti posts woo on the Mind-Energy forum.Reaching out
==References== 
Category:Living people
Category:Paranormal
Category:Pseudoscience promoters
Category:Psychics
Pierre Bayle

Pierre Bayle (18 November 1647 – 28 December 1706) was a French philosopher of the early Enlightenment. He is probably best known for his defense of universal toleration as an end in itself, in contrast to better-known liberals such as John Locke who believed that toleration was justified for theological reasons and should be restricted to Christian churches. Bayle is notorious for writing one thing and meaning another, a practice he picked up in France before he fled to the Netherlands. His Dictionnaire, for example, included seemingly quite mild articles on controversial topics, while he inserted radical arguments in innocuous places. He claimed to be a fideist aligned with orthodox Calvinism, and made the strident claim on this basis that religion is impossible to justify by reason. He took this argument through to its conclusion, saying that all religions must therefore be treated equally. He defended atheism, saying that "‘l'athéisme ne conduit pas nécessairement à la corruption des mœurs"—"atheism does not necessarily lead to a corruption of morals"—along with claiming that an atheist society could be well-regulated and that atheism was a far lesser evil than what he termed "superstition". All of these claims were radical propositions in his time, and he was ostracized as a "crypto-Spinozist". He lost his university chair and was condemned by an ecclesiastical council, and most of his original allies and friends disowned him after the radical implications of his thought became clear.
==Further reading==
* Israel, J. I. (2006) Enlightenment Contested: Philosophy, Modernity, and the Emancipation of Man, 1670–1752. Chapters 6 and 11.
==External links==
*Works of Pierre Bayle in French on Wikisource
==References==
Category:Philosophers
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

Pierre Teilhard de Chardin was a French Jesuit priest, an archaeologist, and a scholar. A Catholic for his entire life, he faced, at times, exile (first to China, then to New York) and punishment for disagreeing with the Catholic church on two central points: first, he believed in evolution, and second, he rejected the doctrine of original sin.
Teilhard is an uncommon figure in the matter of the role of religion in science (and especially evolution), because he saw religion and science as eminently compatible. His ideas went beyond the toleration expressed in non-overlapping magisteria, or the idea that religion and science need not conflict: Teilhard's union went far deeper than that. Rather, he believed that religion and evolution were inextricably linked, such that Christianity did not make sense without evolution. He first propounded the "Omega Point" theory — that mankind evolves towards Godhood, abetted by Jesus Christ, making evolution, Hegel-style, a theological as well as physical transition in forms. 
Teilhard was instrumental in the discovery during World War II of "Peking Man", a transitional form of pre-historic humanity (homo erectus) found in China. He was also involved in the excavations that produced the notorious hoax Piltdown Man, and some people have theorised that he was responsible.Study reveals culprit behind Piltdown Man, one of science's most famous hoaxes, Michael Price, Science, August 9, 2016Tinkering, John Maynard Smith, London Review of Books vol 3 no 17, 17 September 1981, p 9
==Sources==
*Amir D. Aczel, The Jesuit and the Skull
==References==
category:Biologists
Category:Catholics
Category:New York
Pierre d'Ailly

Pierre d'Ailly was a logician and cardinal of the Catholic Church in the 14th century. d'Ailly is known for his skeptical writings which, building on the nominalism of William of Ockham, criticized the philosophical proofs for God's existence made by Thomas Aquinas. d'Ailly was neither an agnostic nor atheist, but believed that religious faith is supported only by scripture and the authority of the institution, rather than being a question of logic. d'Ailly's best known syllogism tackles Aquinas' Aristotelian Argument from Motion for the existence of God and runs as follows:
#It is not self-evident that an object has been moved; this movement may be only apparent.
#Assuming that the object is actually in motion, it is not self-evident that this motion was caused by another object.
#Assuming that all motion in an object is derived from another object and assuming that there cannot be a series of movers that continues ad infinitum, a first "unmoved mover" can still not be inferred, because the first mover may be unmoved only at present.
#It is entirely possible that that there is a cycle of causes and effects (i.e. A causes B, B causes C, C causes A.)
#The possibility of an infinite number of essentially ordered (God-created?) causes cannot be ruled out. 
#The mere fact an object exists anew does not require that the object was produced.
#A satisfactory explanation has never been given for what it means for an object to be effected/produced by another object.
d'Ailly concludes that it is impossible to use logic to substantiate truth, although logic may be used to calculate an argument's probability.
Category:Catholicism
Category:Christians