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  Several perspectives have been established within < which the theories of learning used in educational psychology are formed and contested.
  They include behaviorism, cognitivism, < social cognitive theory, and constructivism.
  This section summarizes how educational psychology has researched < and applied theories within each of these perspectives.
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  Although theories of intelligence have been discussed by philosophers since Plato, < intelligence testing is an invention of educational psychology, and is coincident with the development of that discipline.
  For example, educational psychologists have researched the instructional applicability of Jean Piaget's theory of development, < according to which children mature through four stages of cognitive capability.
  Each person has an individual profile of characteristics, abilities < and challenges that result from predisposition, learning and development.
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  Several perspectives have been established within < which the theories of learning used in educational psychology are formed and contested.
  They include behaviorism, cognitivism, < social cognitive theory, and constructivism.
  Continuing debates about the nature of intelligence revolve on whether intelligence can be characterized by a single factor known < as general intelligence, multiple factors (e.g., Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences), or whether it can be measured at all.
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  Problem solving, regarded by many cognitive psychologists < as fundamental to learning, is an important research topic in educational psychology.
  A student is thought to interpret a problem < by assigning it to a schema retrieved from long-term memory.
  When the problem is assigned to the wrong schema, the student's attention is < subsequently directed away from features of the problem that are inconsistent with the assigned schema.
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  The critical step of finding a mapping between the problem < and a pre-existing schema is often cited as supporting the centrality of analogical thinking to problem solving.
  The spaced learning effect, a cognitive phenomenon strongly supported by psychological research, < has broad applicability within education.
  For example, students have been found to perform better on a test of knowledge about a text passage < when a second reading of the passage is delayed rather than immediate.
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  A student is thought to interpret a problem < by assigning it to a schema retrieved from long-term memory.
  When the problem is assigned to the wrong schema, the student's attention is < subsequently directed away from features of the problem that are inconsistent with the assigned schema.
  Among current educational psychologists, the cognitive perspective is more widely held than the behavioral perspective, < perhaps because it admits causally-related mental constructs such as traits, beliefs, memories, motivations and emotions.
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  The spaced learning effect, a cognitive phenomenon strongly supported by psychological research, < has broad applicability within education.
  For example, students have been found to perform better on a test of knowledge about a text passage < when a second reading of the passage is delayed rather than immediate.
  Cognitive theories claim that memory structures determine < how information is perceived, processed, stored, retrieved and forgotten.
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  Psychologists are concerned < with a wide variety of problems.
  Some are of broad concern: what child-rearing methods produce happy and effective; < how can mental illnesses be prevented, and the like.
  Perhaps the spirit of behaviourism is best seen in Watson's belief that he could take any healthy infant at random and, < given his own specified world to bring him up in, bring him up to be anything he wished — doctor, lawyer, criminal and so forth.
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  This aporoach is often referred to as stimulus-response < or S-R psychology.
  Just as there are different ways of describing any act of behaviour, < there are also different approaches to psychology.
  The view that behaviour should be the sole subject-matter of psychology < was first advanced by the American psychologist John B.Watson in the early 1900s.
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  How can people be persuaded < to give up smoking?
  What is the most effective method < for teaching children to read?
  The view that behaviour should be the sole subject-matter of psychology < was first advanced by the American psychologist John B.Watson in the early 1900s.
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