nyuuzyou/kompy huggingface dataset:
MULTIMEDIA LI TARMOQLARNI LOYIHALASHTIRISH

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MULTIMEDIA LI TARMOQLARNI LOYIHALASHTIRISH
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Bog'liq R. I. Isayev, D. X. Ibatova multimеdiali aloqa tarmoqlari toshke10.
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MULTIMEDIA LI TARMOQLARNI LOYIHALASHTIRISH.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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235
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10.1.
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Telekommunikatsiya tarmoqlarini loyihalashtirish uslubiyotlari . . . . . . .
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235
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10.2.
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Ulanish tarmog‘ini loyihalashtirish.. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . .
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243
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10.3.
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Transport tarmog‘ini loyihalashtirish . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .
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246
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11.
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MULTISERVISLI ALOQA TARMOQLARINING AXBOROT XAVFSIZLIGINI TA’MINLASH. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ... .. . . . . . . .
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255
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11.1.
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Axborot xavfsizligini ta’minlash zarurati. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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255
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11.2.
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Axborot xavfsizligiga taxdidni amalga oshirish oqibatlari va manbalari. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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256
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11.3.
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Multiservisli aloqa tarmoqlarida axborot xavfsizligini ta’minlash vazifalari, vositalari va usullari. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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269
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11.4.
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Ochiq tizimlarning o‘zaro bog‘lanish etalon modelini

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Ochiq tizimlarning o‘zaro bog‘lanish etalon modelini
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Bog'liq R. I. Isayev, D. X. Ibatova multimеdiali aloqa tarmoqlari toshkeOchiq tizimlarning o‘zaro bog‘lanish etalon modelini xavfsizlik arxitekturasi. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
272
|
11.5.
| Xavfizlikni ta’minlash xizmatlari va usullari. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
278
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11.6.
| Internetda xavfsizlik arxitekturasi tamoyillari. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
289
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11.6.1.
| ISO xavfsizlik arxitekturasi tamoyillari. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
290
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11.6.2.
| DOD xavfsizlik arxitekturasi tamoyillari. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
292
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11.6.3.
| Internet (IETF) xavfsizlik arxitekturasi tamoyillari. . . . . . . . . . |
303
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11.7.
| Internet tarmoqda AX ta’minlash usullari va vositalarini qo‘llash bo‘yicha IETF tavsiflari. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . |
307
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11.8.
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TBTning informatsion arxitekturasi

TBTning informatsion arxitekturasi
TBTning informatsion arxitekturasi o‘zida quyidagi asosiy tushunchalarni mujassam etgan:
Obyektlar — boshqariladigan kommutatsion stansiyalar, uzatish tizimlari va boshqalarni ta’riflash vositasi. Muayyan tarmoq dementi haqidagi informatsiya obyekti sifatida TBTning ma’himotlar bazasida saqlanadi.
Bu arxitekturaning asosini amaliy boshqarish funksiyasi (ABF) — TBT elementini amaliy boshqarish jarayoni tashkil etadi. ABF agent (boshqariluvchi) va menedjerdan tashkil topgan. Har bir tarmoq elementi va operatsion tizim yoki O‘MQ siga juda bo‘l- maganda bir agent kirgan ABFsini qo‘llab-quwatlashi kerak.
345
www.ziyouz.com kutubxonasi
Menedjer (M) — dasturli logika (boshqaravchi dastur) yoki tarmoqni boshqarish funsiyasini bera oladigan (masalan: avariya haqidagi xabarlarni ajratishni, chegaraviy qiymatlarni o'rnatishni amalga oshirish) va avariya va ishchi xarakteristikalar haqidagi axbo- rotlarni qabul qila oladigan, ABFning bir qismi. RUTning tarmoq elementlariga menedjer kirishi ham, kirmasligi ham mumkin.
Operatsion tizim yoki 0‘MQga juda bo'lmaganda bitta menedjer kiradi va u quyidagi ikki funksiyani bajarishi kerak:
Boshqaruvchi komanda generatsiyasi («o'rnatish», «ajratish», «rekonfiguratsiyalash», «taqiqlash»).
Boshqaruvchi komandaning bajarilishi haqidagi xabardor qiluvchi hujjatlarni qabul qilish va qayta ishlash.
Agent (A) — dasturiy mantiq (holatning monitoring dasturlari va resurs nazorati) ABFning bir qismini namoyon etadi, u menedjer tomonidan beriladigan, tarmoqni boshqarish operatsiyalariga chaqiriqni amalga oshirish imkoniyatiga ega va boshqariluvchi obyektlar nomidan xabarlarni berib, boshqariluvchi obyektlar bilan operatsiyalarni bajaradi. Bu mantiq quyidagi imkoniyatlarga ega:
Menedjerdan olingan komandalarning muvofiq obyekt imkoniyati/resurslariga ta’sir etish qobiliyati.
Boshqariluvchi obyekt holatini doimiy nazorat (monitoring) qilish.
Xabardor qilish.
Turli sathlarning boshqariluvchi obyektlari o‘rtasida axborot almashinuviga yordam berish.
Agent va Menedjer o'rtasidagi barcha axborot almashinuvlari . o‘zaro munosabat protokoli vositasida ro‘y beradi, u boshqaruvchi komandalar ketma-ketligi va almashinuv ko'rinishini aniqlaydi. Bu o‘zaro munosabat protokoli CMIP (Common Management Informatsion Protocol) deb ataladi.
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Nazorat savollari - Optik aloqa asoslari

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Optik aloqa asoslari
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Bog'liq Optik aloqa asoslari (N.Yusupov, R.Isayev)Nazorat savollari
Ekspluatatsiya so ‘zining ma ’nosini tushintiring.
Texnik ekspluatatsiya (ТЕ) tizimini ta ’riflang.
«Ekspluatatsiya nazariyasi» nimani o'rgatadi?
ТЕ o'zida nimani namoyon etadi va TEdan maqsad nima?
Texnik xizmat ko‘rsatish deganda nimani tushinasiz?
ТЕ jarayoni qanday tashkil etiladi?
346
www.ziyouz.com kutubxonasi
ТЕ jarayoni qanday tadbirlarni o'zida namoyon etadi?
TEO deganda nimani tushinasiz?
Texnik xizmat ko'rsatish deganda nimani tushunasiz?
Texnik xizma ko'rsatish qanday tadbirlarni o‘ziga birlashtiradi?
Texnik xizmat ko'rsatishning qanday usullarini bilasiz?
Texnik xizmat ko'rsatishni qanday optimallashtirish mumkin?
Tizim yoki elementlarni rad etish deganda nimani tushunasiz?
Nazorat qilish deganda nimani tushunasiz?
Ekspluatatsion nazorat tushunchasini ta’riflang.
Nazorat qilishning qanday turlarini bilasiz?
Nazorat qilinuvchi obyektlar qaysi holatlar orqali baholanadi?
Norma, buzilish, avariya tushunchalarini ta’riflang.
ТЕ tizimi qanday tashkil etiladi?
TEOning qanday ishonchlilik ko'rsatkichlarini bilasiz?
TEOning rad etmasdan ishlash ehtimolligi qaysi miqdoriy munosabatdan aniqlanadi?
Telekommunikatsiyalarni boshqarish tarmog'i (TBT)ning vazifasi nimadan iborat?
TBT qanday boshqarish sathlaridan tuzilgan?
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| |
| Chapter 1: Foundations of Kali Linux

Figure 1-5. Xfce desktop showing applications menu
While Xfce is based on the GNOME Toolkit (GTK), it is not a fork of GNOME. It was
developed on top of an older version of GTK. The intention was to create something
that was simpler than the direction GNOME was going in.
It was intended to be
lighter weight and, as a result, have better performance. The feeling was that the desk‐
top shouldn’t get in the way of the real work users want to do.
Cinnamon and MATE
Two other
desktops, Cinnamon and MATE, owe their origins to GNOME as well.
The Linux distribution, Linux Mint, wasn’t sure about GNOME 3 and its GNOME
shell, the desktop interface that came with it.
As a result, it developed
Cinnamon
,
which was initially just a shell sitting on top of GNOME. With the second version of
Cinnamon, it became a desktop environment in its own right. One of the advantages
to Cinnamon is that it bears a strong resemblance
to Windows in terms of where
things are located and how you get around. You can see that there is a Menu button at
the bottom left, much like the Windows button, as well
as a clock and other system
widgets at the right of the menu bar or panel. You can see the panel as well as the
menu in
Figure 1-6
. Again, the menu is just like the one you see in GNOME and
Xfce.
Desktops | 13
Figure 1-6. Cinnamon desktop with menu
As I’ve
suggested above, there were concerns about GNOME 3 and the change in the
look and behavior of the desktop. Some might say this was an understatement, and
the reversion of some distributions to other looks might be considered proof of that.
Regardless, Cinnamon was one response to GNOME 3 by creating a shell that sat on
top of the underlying GNOME 3 architecture.
MATE
,
on the other hand, is an out‐
right fork of GNOME 2. For anyone familiar with GNOME 2, MATE will seem famil‐
iar. It’s an implementation of the classic look of GNOME 2. You can see this running
on Kali in
Figure 1-7
. Again, the menu is shown so you can see that you will get the
same easy access to applications in all of the environments.
The choice of desktop environment is entirely personal.
One desktop that I have left
off here but that is still very much an option is the K Desktop Environment (KDE).
There are two reasons for this. The first is that I have always found KDE to be fairly
heavyweight, although this has evened out some with GNOME 3 and the many pack‐
ages it brings along with it. KDE never felt as quick as GNOME and certainly Xfce.
However, a lot of people like it. More particularly, one reason for omitting an image
of it is that it looks an awful lot like Cinnamon. One
of the objectives behind KDE
always seemed to be to clone the look and feel of Windows so users coming from that
platform would feel comfortable.
«Оtrеzоk» - Kesma - Pedagogika fakulteti

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Pedagogika fakulteti
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__ «Оtrеzоk» - Kesma tugmasi.
__ «Pryamaya» - To’g’ri nur o’tkazish tugmasi.
__ «Pоliliniya» - Xususiyatli chiziq tugmasi.
__ «Mnоgоugоlnik» - Ko’pburchak chizish tugmasi.
__ «Pryamоugоlnik» - To’g’ri to’rtburchak chizish tugmasi.
__ «Duga» - Yoy chizish tugmasi.
__ «Krug» - Aylana chizish tugmasi.
__ «Оblakо» - Bulut chizish tugmasi.
__ «Splayn» - Lekalo egri chiziqlar chizish tugmasi.
__ «Ellips» - Ellips chizish tugmasi.
__ «Elliptichеskaya duga» - Ellips yoy chizish tugmasi.
__ «Blоk» - Qism tugmasi.
__ «Sоzdat blоk» - Qism yaratish tugmasi.
__ «Tоchka» - Nuqta qo’yish tugmasi.
__ «Shtriхоvka…» - Strixlash tugmasi.
__ «Pеrехоd…» - Rang berish tugmasi.
__ «Оblast» - Hudud tanlash tugmasi.
__ «Tablitsa…» - Jadvalz… tuzish tugmasi.
__ «Mnоgоstrоchniy…» - Ko’pqatorli… matn yozish tugmasi.
«Оtrеzоk» - Kesma tugmasi.
Tugma bosilganda sichqoncha kursori kesmaning dastlabki nuqtasini, tanlangandan so’ng esa keyingi nuqtani joyini so’raydi. Ikki nuqta tutashtirilib kesma hosil qilinadi.
Bundan tashqari kesmani belgilangan uzunlikda berish ham mumkin. Buning uchun ikkinchi nuqtaninig yo’nalishi ko’rsatilib sichqoncha tugmasi bosilmasdan, klaviaturadan sonli qiymat kiritiladi va “Enter” tugmasi bosiladi. Kesmani yana davom ettirish uchun sichqoncha kursori keyingi nuqtalar vaziyatini kutib turadi. Ushbu buyruqdan chiqish uchun klaviaturadan “Esc” tugmasi bosiladi
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| |
| Chapter 1: Foundations of Kali Linux

• Information Gathering
• Vulnerability Analysis
• Web Application Analysis
• Database Assessment
• Password Attacks
• Wireless Attacks
• Reverse Engineering
• Exploitation Tools
• Sniffing & Spoofing
• Post Exploitation
• Forensics
• Reporting Tools
• Social Engineering Tools
Alongside the Applications menu is a Places menu, providing shortcuts to locations
you may want to get to quickly. This includes your Home directory, Desktop direc‐
tory, Computer, and Network. Next to the Places menu is a menu associated with the
application with a focus on the desktop. If no program is running, there is no menu
there. Essentially, it’s similar to the taskbar in Windows, except that running applica‐
tions don’t line up in the menu bar at the top of the screen. The only one you will see
there is the application in the foreground.
As in other modern operating systems, you’ll have a little collection of icons in the far
right of the menu bar, which GNOME calls a
panel
, including a pull-down that brings
up a small dialog box providing quick access to customizations, logout, power func‐
tions, sound, and network settings.
Figure 1-3
shows this dialog box and the features
supported through it. Mostly, it provides quick access to system functions if you want
to use menu actions to perform them.
«Effеkti» - Effektlar - Pedagogika fakulteti

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Pedagogika fakulteti
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«Effеkti» - Effektlar bo’limida «Pеrеvеrnutiy» - To’ntarilgan belgilagichi belgilansa harflar to’ntariladi. «Sprava na lеvо» - O’ngdan chapga belgilagichi belgilansa matn so’zlari teskari tomonga yo’naladi. «Vеrtikalniy» - Vertikal belgilagichi ayrim shrift turlarida faol emas. «Stеpеn rastyajеniya» - Kenglik darajasi oynachasida kerakli son kiritilsa shriftning kengligi o’zgaradi. «Ugоl naklоna» - Og’ish burchagi oynachasiga burchak kattaligi berilsa harflar shu burchak kattakigida og’adi.
«Оbrazеts» - Namuna bo’limining pastki chap oynachasiga biron bir matn kiritilib, «Pоkazat» - Ko’rsat tugmasi bosilsa, yuqori namuna oynasida matn tanlangan parametrlarga asoslanib namoyish etiladi.
«Masshtab» – Masshtab.
Ushbu faol tugma tanlanganda sichqoncha kursori ob’ekt tanlash rejimiga otadi va matnli ob’ekt tanlanishi lozim. Ob’ekt tanlangach klaviaturadan “Enter” tugmasi bosiladi, va ekranda qaysi nuqtadan kattalashtirish lozimligi haqida axborot menu oynasi ochiladi. Undan kerakli band tanlanadi va klaviaturadan harf balandligi parametri son bilan kiritiladi, “Enter” tugmasi orqali tasdiqlanadi.
Izoh: Mashg’ulotlar davomida axborot menu oynasidagi barcha bandlarni o’rganib chiqish kerak.
|
| |
| Chapter 8: Web Application Testing

This is just a sample, but it contains the elements you may run across and gives us
something to talk about. Starting at the top left is the person with the browser. The
cloud suggests the open internet, which will pass you through
whatever route will get
you to the application.
Firewall
A firewall is a common component of most network architectures. The word
firewall
,
though, is ambiguous at best. It could mean anything from a set of access controls on
a router all the way up to what are called
next-generation firewalls
, which can not only
perform static blocking based on rules configured on the
firewall but also perform
dynamic blocking based on any intrusions that may have been detected. A next-
generation firewall may also watch for malicious software (malware) in any commu‐
nication passing through it.
This point will also be noted again, but it’s worth mentioning a few times. What is
being described here is a set of functionality rather than a specific device.
A firewall
may be a single device that incorporates one or several security functions, but it may
also be a set of functions that could live on another device. As an example, the fire‐
wall functions may be incorporated
into the load balancer, which is the next device in
our architecture.
Load Balancer
On the front end of a larger network design,
you may find a
load balancer
. The load
balancer is intended to take a lot of traffic in order to pass it through to the web
servers behind. The point of a load balancer is that it is a simple device that doesn’t do
anything but keep track of usage of the servers behind the scenes.
Requests coming in
will be redirected to those servers, based on an algorithm the load balancer knows. It
may be simply round-robin, meaning request 1 goes to server 1, request 2 goes to
server 2, request 3 goes to server 3, before starting all over again at server 1. There is
no sense of the complexity of the request in this scheme
or the time it may take to
fulfill the request.
| Chapter 7: Wireless Security Testing

CHAPTER 8
Web Application Testing
Think about the applications that you use by way of a web interface. Your banking.
Your credit cards. Social networking sites like Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, and so
many others. Job search sites. Your information is stored
by a lot of companies with
accessible portals available on the open internet. Because of the amount of data that is
available and the potentially exposed pathways to that data, web attacks are common
vectors. As a result, web application testing is a common request from companies. At
times, you will find that web application testing may be all that you are asked to do.
Kali, not surprisingly, is loaded with web application testing tools.
To make effective
use of them, though, it’s helpful to understand what you are up against. This includes
understanding what the potential targets are in order to better identify the risk. It also
includes knowing the potential architecture you may be looking at—the systems you
may need to pass through and the way they may be arranged,
including the security
mechanisms that may be in place to protect the elements.
Web Architecture
A web application is a way of delivering programmatic functionality using common
web-based technologies between a server and a client, where the client is a web
browser.
A simpler way of saying this, perhaps, is that programs that may otherwise
have run natively on your computer are, instead, running in your browser, with com‐
munication to a remote server. The remote server you are interacting with likely has
other systems it communicates with in order to provide the
functionality or data you
are trying to get to. You are likely familiar with web applications and probably even
use them on a daily basis.
241
Even mobile applications are often web applications in the sense
that the mobile application you are interacting with is communi‐
cating with a web server remotely using web-based protocols and
technologies.
When we talk about web-based technologies, we are talking about protocols and lan‐
guages like HTTP, HTML, XML, and SQL. This also suggests that we are communi‐
cating
with a web server, meaning a server that communicates using HTTP, which
may be secured using TLS for encryption. Much of this is what happens between the
server and the client, but doesn’t necessarily describe what may be happening with
other systems within the network design.
To help you fully understand, we’ll talk
about the systems you may run into within a web application architecture. We will
start at the customer-facing end and then work our way inward to the most sensitive
components.
Figure 8-1
will be a reference point for us going forward. To simplify it a
little, some of the connection lines are missing. In reality,
the load balancers would
cross-connect with all of the web servers, for example. However, at some point all of
the cross-connections start to clutter the image.
Figure 8-1. Sample web architecture
Other Bluetooth Testing - Learning Kali Linux

NEUTRAL
214/255
Range
------------------------------------
| *
------------------------------------
If you go to the Kali website and look at the tools available in the
distribution, some of those tools aren’t available. Because of the
nature
of open source, projects come and go from distributions
because they may not work with the latest distribution’s libraries or
kernel. The software may have stopped being developed at some
point and may not be relevant any longer. This may be especially
true with the protocols we are looking at here. It’s
worth checking
in on the website from time to time to see whether new tools have
been released and are available.
One last Bluetooth tool we’re going to look at is
bluelog
. This tool can be used as a
scanner, much like tools we’ve looked at before. However, the point of this tool is that
it generates a log file with what it finds.
Example 7-21
shows
the run of
bluelog
. What
you see is the address of the device used to initiate the scan, meaning the address of
the Bluetooth interface in this system. You can keep running this to potentially see
Bluetooth devices come and go.
Example 7-21. Running a bluelog scan
root@savagewood:/# bluelog
Bluelog
(
v1.1.2
)
by MS3FGX
---------------------------
Autodetecting device...OK
Opening output file: bluelog-2018-03-05-1839.log...OK
Writing PID file: /tmp/bluelog.pid...OK
Scan
started at
[
03/05/18 18:39:44
]
on 00:1A:7D:DA:71:15.
Hit Ctrl+C to end scan.
Once
bluelog
is done, you will have the list of addresses in the file indicated. The one
listed in
Example 7-21
is
bluelog-2018-03-05-1839.log
. The output from this scan
shows the same address repeated because it’s the only device that is responding close
by.
Zigbee Testing
Zigbee testing requires special equipment. Whereas many systems will have WiFi and
Bluetooth radios in them, it’s uncommon to find either Zigbee or Z-Wave. That
doesn’t mean, however, that you can’t do testing of Zigbee devices.
Kali does include
the KillerBee package that can be used to scan for Zigbee devices and capture Zigbee
Zigbee Testing | 239 - Learning Kali Linux

traffic.
The challenge with this, though, is that you have to have specific interfaces.
According to the KillerBee website, the only devices that are supported are River
Loop ApiMote,
Atmel RZ RAVEN USB Stick, MoteIV Tmote Sky, TelosB mote, and
Sewino Sniffer.
The project page does indicate an intention to continue adding
support for additional
hardware devices. However, the majority of the source code hasn’t been touched in
three years as of this point in time. If you have the right devices, you can use the Kill‐
erBee package to scan for Zigbee devices. This may provide
you some insight into
building automation that may be used.
Summary
Wireless takes multiple forms, especially as more and more people and businesses are
using home automation. More and more, the wires are going away from our world.
Because of that, you will likely have to do some wireless testing somewhere.
Some key
ideas to take away from this chapter are as follows:
• 802.11, Bluetooth, and Zigbee are types of wireless networks.
• 802.11 clients and access points interact by using associations.
• Kismet can be used to scan for 802.11/WiFi networks to identify both the SSID
and BSSID.
• Security
issues with WEP, WPS, WPA, and WPA2 can lead to decryption of mes‐
sages.
• You need to enable monitor mode on wireless network interfaces in order to cap‐
ture radio headers.
•
aircrack-ng
and its associated tools can be used to scan and assess WiFi networks.
• Kali includes tools to scan for Bluetooth devices and identify services being
offered on devices that were found.
• Kali includes tools that can be used to scan Zigbee devices.
Useful Resources
•
KillerBee’s
GitHub Page
• Ric Messier’s
“Professional Guide to Wireless Network Hacking and Penetration
Testing” video
(Infinite Skills, 2015)
• United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team,
“Using Wireless Technol‐
ogy Securely”
(US-CERT, 2008)
Linux Filesystem Structure

/boot
Boot
files are stored here, including the configuration of the boot loader, the ker‐
nel, and any initial ramdisk files needed to boot the kernel.
/dev
A pseudofilesystem that contains entries for hardware
devices for programs to
access.
/etc
Configuration files related to the operating system and system services.
/home
The directory containing the user’s home directories.
/lib
Library files that contain shared code and functions that any program can use.
/opt
Optional, third-party software is loaded here.
/proc
A pseudofilesystem that has directories containing files related to running pro‐
cesses, including memory maps, the command
line used to run the program, and
other essential system information related to the program.
/root
The home directory of the root user.
/sbin
System binaries that also need to be available in single-user mode.
/tmp
Temporary files are stored here.
/usr
Read-only user data (includes bin, doc, lib, sbin, and share subdirectories).
/var
Variable data including state information about running processes,
log files, run‐
time data, and other temporary files. All of these files are expected to change in
size or existence during the running of the system.
You can also see the owner (user)
and group, both of which are root in these cases.
This is followed by the file size, the last time the
file or directory was modified, and
then the name of the file or directory. You may notice at the top that there are files
that
start with a dot, or period. The dot files and directories store user-specific set‐
tings and logs. Because they are managed by the applications that create them, as a
general rule, they are hidden from regular directory listings.
Course description - Linux Fundamentals Course specifications

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Linux Fundamentals Course specifications
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bet | 2/4 | Sana | 21.03.2017 | Hajmi | 12,68 Kb. | | #580 |
Course description
Overview: Students will install Linux, configure the X Window System, and learn to navigate the Linux command-line shell. Students will also learn fundamental concepts common to Linux: the kernel, Linux filesystem, boot process and runlevels, shell scripting, and editing text files.
Prerequisites: Students should have 6-12 months experience with Linux. Familiarity with the Linux or Unix command line is required.
Delivery method: Instructor-led, group-paced, classroom-delivery learning model.
Benefits: Students will quickly gain general knowledge of Linux installation, navigation and system features.
Target Student: Students who have had some experience with Linux, but want to focus their learning by gaining an overview of the features of Linux, perhaps prepare for certification
What's next: 079-934, Linux Fundamentals is the first course in the Linux series.
Following Linux Fundamentals is the second course, 079-935, Linux System Administration, which will help students gain hands-on experience with kernel customization, package management, process and disk management, as well as user and group management.
After completion of the second course in this series, the final course in this series is 079-933, Linux Networking. Linux Networking will help students gain a comprehensive overview of the TCP/IP functionality and networking features and daemons available for the Linux platform.
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Linux Fundamentals - Linux Fundamentals Course specifications

Linux Fundamentals
Course content
Chapter 1: What is Linux?
Linux Network Operating System
Multiple Users and Multitasking
User Interfaces
Linux Sessions
Chapter 2: Installing Linux
Knowledge
Preparation
Disk Allocation
Booting
Partitioning36
Copying Software
Normal Finish
Superuser
Administration Shells
Configuration
Troubleshooting an Install
Chapter 3: Configuring and Troubleshooting X
The X Window System
Running X Applications
Resources
Chapter 4: Installing Red Hat Linux
Installing Red Hat Linux 6.0
Installing Red Hat Linux 6.1
Chapter 5: Installing TurboLinux 4.0
Preparing for Installation
Starting an Installation
Continue the Installation
Configure Network and Hardware Options
Partition Disks
Package and System Installation
Chapter 6: Runlevels and Troubleshooting
The Boot Process (LILO)
Linux Runlevels
The init Control file: /etc/inittab
Run Command Scripts (Red Hat)
Chapter 7: File System Fundamentals
The File Hierarchical System
Device Management
Chapter 8: Navigation and the Linux Shell
The bash Shell
The Shell Environment
Power Tools
Chapter 9: Shell Processing and Scripting
The Shell
Command Input and Output
Pipes and Filters
Shell Scripts
Chapter 10: Editing Text Files
The vi Editor
vi Concepts
The vi Command
vi Modes
Alternatives to vi
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| Chapter 1: Foundations of Kali Linux

Each of these streams can be redirected. Normally, STDOUT and STDERR go to the
same place (typically, the console). STDIN originates from the console. If you want
your output to go somewhere else, you can use the
>
operator. If, for instance, I
wanted
to send the output of
ps
to a file, I might use
ps auxw > ps.out
. When you
redirect the output, you don’t see it on the console anymore. In this example, if there
were an error, you would see that, but not anything going to STDOUT.
If you wanted
to redirect input, you would go the other way. Rather than
>
, you would use
<
, indi‐
cating the direction you want the information to flow.
Understanding the different I/O streams and redirection will help you down the path
of understanding the
|
(pipe) operator. When you use
|
, you are saying, “Take the out‐
put from what’s on the left side and send it to the input for what’s on the right side.”
You are effectively putting a coupler in
place between two applications, STDOUT →
STDIN, without having to go through any intermediary devices.
One of the most useful uses of command chaining or piping is for searching or filter‐
ing. As an example, if you have a long list of processes from the
ps
command, you
might use the pipe operator to send the output of
ps
to another program,
grep
, which
can be used to search for strings. As an example, if you want to find all the instances
of
the program named
httpd
, you use
ps auxw | grep httpd
.
grep
is used to search an
input stream for a search string. While it’s useful for filtering information, you can
also search the contents of files with
grep
. As an example, if
you want to search for the
string
wubble
in all the files in a directory, you can use
grep wubble *
. If you want to
make sure that the search follows all the directories, you tell
grep
to use a recursive
search with
grep -R wubble *
.
User Management
When you start up Kali, you have the root user in place. Unlike other Linux distribu‐
tions, you won’t be asked to create another user. This is because much of what you
may be doing in Kali will require superuser (root) permissions. As a result, there’s no
reason to create another user, even though it’s not good practice to stay logged in as
the root user. The expectation is that someone using Kali probably knows enough of
what they are doing that they wouldn’t be as likely to
shoot themselves in the foot
with the root permissions.
However, it is still possible to add and otherwise manage users in Kali, just as it is
with other distributions. If you want to create a user, you can just use the
useradd
command. You might also use
adduser
. Both accomplish the same goal. When you
are
creating users, it’s useful to understand some of the characteristics of users. Each
user should have a home directory, a shell, a username, and a group at a minimum. If
I want to add my common username, for instance, I would use
useradd -d /home/
kilroy -s /bin/bash -g users -m kilroy
. The parameters given
specify the home directory,
the shell the user should execute when logging in interactively, and the default group.
«Viravnivaniе - Pedagogika fakulteti

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Pedagogika fakulteti
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bet | 19/54 | Sana | 24.03.2021 | Hajmi | 5,98 Mb. | | #13476 |
«Viravnivaniе» - Tekislash.
Ushbu faol tugma tanlanganda sichqoncha kursori ob’ekt tanlash rejimiga otadi. Matnli ob’ekt tanlanadi va “Enter” tugmasi bosiladi. Axborot menu oynasi ekranga chiqariladi va undan kerakli band tanlanadi. Natijada matn chap yoki o’ng, yuqori yoki pastki chegarga tekislab olinadi.
Izoh: Mashg’ulotlar davomida axborot menu oynasidagi barcha bandlarni o’rganib chiqish kerak.
«Prеоbrazоvat v еdinitsi drugоgо prоstranstva» - Boshqa muxit o’lchov birligiga o’tkazish.
Ushbu buyruq tugmasi «Mоdеl» - Model oynasida faol emas. Boshqa ko’rinish oynalarida, aytaylik «List» - Varaq oynasida faollashadi. Bunda kerakli parametr klaviatura orqali kiritiladi.
2.3. «Risоvaniе» - Chizish asboblar paneli.
«Risоvaniе» - Chizish asboblar panelida, bevosita chizish, yozish, jadval tuzish kabi ishlar amalga oshiriladi.
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Pedagogika fakulteti - bet 23

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Pedagogika fakulteti
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bet | 23/54 | Sana | 24.03.2021 | Hajmi | 5,98 Mb. | | #13476 |
«Pоliliniya» - Xususiyatli chiziq tugmasi.
Bu buyruq ancha murakkab xususiyatlarga ega bo’lgan chiziqlarni bajarish uchun qo’llaniladi. Aytaylik, chizqning yoyga o’tib ketishi, chiziqning trapesiyasimon qiymatlarda yo’g’onlashuvi yoki ingichkalashib borishi nazarda tutiladi. Qisqa qilib aytganda murakkab parametrlarga ega bo’lgan xususiyatli chiziqlarni bitta ob’ekt deb qabul qiladi.
Izoh: Keyinchalik tahrirlash panelidan foydalanib xususiyatli chiziqni tahrirlash mumkin.
Dastlab buyruq tugmasi tanlanganda «Оtrеzоk» - Kesma buyrug’i singari ketma ket to’g’ri chiziqlarni chizish mumkin. Agarda, boshlang’ich nuqta tanlanib, so’ngra klaviaturadagi ↓ - ko’rsatkichi bosilsa ekranga yordamchi menu oynasi chiqariladi. Ushbu yordamchi menudan «Duga» - Yoy tanlanganda Bevosita turli radiuslarga ega bo’lgan yoylarni bajarish mumkin.
Aniq qiymatlarga ega bo’lgan yoylarni bajarish uchun esa yana klaviaturadagi ↓ - ko’rsatkichi bosiladi va yordamchi menu chaqiriladi.
Ushbu yordamchi menu «Ugоl» - Burchak, «Tsеntr» - Markaz, «Napravlеniе» - Yo’nalish, «Pоlushirina» - Yarim enli, «Linеyniy» - To’g’ri, «Radius» - Radius, «Vtоraya» - Ikkinchi, «Оtmеnit» - Rad etish, «Shirina» - Kengligi kabi buyruqlarga ega-ki ularning har biri bilan bevosita mashg’ulotlar jarayonida tanishib, o’qituvchi yordamida o’rganib boriladi.
Izoh: Mashg’ulotlar davomida axborot menu oynasidagi barcha bandlarni o’rganib chiqish kerak.
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«Pryamaya» - To’g’ri nur o’tkazish tugmasi

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«Pryamaya» - To’g’ri nur o’tkazish tugmasi
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bet | 21/54 | Sana | 24.03.2021 | Hajmi | 5,98 Mb. | | #13476 |
«Pryamaya» - To’g’ri nur o’tkazish tugmasi.
Tugma bosilganda sichqoncha kursori nur o’tkazilishi lozim bo’lgan nuqtani so’raydi. Nuqta tanlangach, ikkinchi yo’naltiruvchi nuqta so’raladi. Ikkinchi nuqta tanlangandan so’ng yo’nalish bo’yicha har ikki tomonga yo’nalgan cheksiz nur o’tkaziladi va sichqoncha kursori birinchi tanlangan nuqtani asos qilib ikkinchi yo’nalish nuqtani vaziyatini so’raydi.
Bundan tashqari, nurni bevosita gorizontal, vertikal, burchak kattaligida, bissektrisa, ma’lum uzoqlikda bajarish mumkin. Buning uchun to’g’ri nur buyrug’i tanlanganda klaviaturadagi ↓ - ko’rsatkichi bosiladi va ekranda yordamchi menu oynasi chiqariladi. Unda «Gоr» - Gorizontal, «Vеr» - Vertikal, «Ugоl» - Burchak, «Bissеkt» - Bissektrisa va «Оtstup» - Ma’lum uzoqlikda bandlari mavjud. Kerakli band sichqoncha yordamida tanlanadi.
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«Mnо - Pedagogika fakulteti

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Pedagogika fakulteti
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bet | 24/54 | Sana | 24.03.2021 | Hajmi | 5,98 Mb. | | #13476 |
«Mnоgоugоlnik» - Ko’pburchak chizish tugmasi.
Aniq parametrlarga ega ko’p burchakni bajarish tartibi quyidagicha:
«Mnоgоugоlnik» - Ko’pburchak chizish tugmasi tanlanadi.
Ekranga «Chislо stоrоn» - Tomonlar soni degan axborot chiqadi. Odatda ushbu qiymat eng kam parametr – 3 ni ko’rsatib turadi. Klaviaturadan tomonlar soni qiymat bilan beriladi va “Enter” tugmasi bosiladi. So’ng ko’p burchakning markazi joylashadigan nuqta so’raladi. Sichqoncha yordamida markaz tanlangach, ekranga «Zadaytе оptsiyu razmещеniya» - Joylashtirish shartini bering degan axborot chiqadi. «Vpisanniy v оkrujnоsti» – Doira ichida yoki «Оpisanniy vоkrug оkrujnоsti» - Doira tashqarisida shartlari mavjud bo’lib, shartlardan biri tanlanadi. Ekranga «Radius оkrujnоsti» - Aylana radiusi degan axborot chiqadi.
Aylana radiusi klaviaturadan qiymat asosida kiritiladi va “Enter” tugmasi yordamida tasdiqlanadi.
Izoh: Keyinchalik tahrirlash panelidan foydalanib ko’pburchakning tomonlari vaziyati o’zgartirilishi yoki tahrirlanishi mumkin.
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Massiv... – Massiv… ko’paytirish buyrug’i

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Massiv... – Massiv… ko’paytirish buyrug’i
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bet | 30/54 | Sana | 24.03.2021 | Hajmi | 5,98 Mb. | | #13476 |
__ Massiv... – Massiv… ko’paytirish buyrug’i
__ Pеrеnеsti – Ko’chirish buyrug’i
__ Pоvеrnut – Burish buyrug’i
__ Masshtab – Masshtab buyrug’i
__Rastyanut – Cho’zish buyrug’i
__ Оbrеzat – Qirqish buyrug’i
__ Udlinit – Uzaytirish buyrug’i
__ Razоrvat v tоchkе – Bir nuqtada uzish buyrug’i
__ Razоrvat – Uzish buyrug’i
__ Sоеdinit – Tutashtirish buyrug’i
__ Faska – Faska berish buyrug’i
__ Sоpryajеniе – Tutashma berish buyrug’i
__ Raschlеnit – Qismlarga bo’lish buyrug’i
Stеrеt – O’chirish buyrug’i
Ushbu buyruq tugmasi tanlangan ob’yektni o’chirishni nazarda tutadi.
Taxrirlash ketma-ketligi:
I usul:
Ob’yekt sichqoncha yordamida tanlanadi.
Stеrеt – O’chirish buyruq piktogrammasi bosiladi.
II usul:
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«Pryamо - Pedagogika fakulteti

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Pedagogika fakulteti
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bet | 25/54 | Sana | 24.03.2021 | Hajmi | 5,98 Mb. | | #13476 |
«Pryamоugоlnik» - To’g’ri to’rtburchak chizish tugmasi.
Odatda usbu tugma tanlanganda sichqoncha ko’rsatkichi ikkita parametrni – to’g’ri to’rtburchakning bosh nuqtasi va diagonali bo’yicha to’g’ri to’rtburchak tugatiladigan nuqtasini belgilab berishni so’raydi.
To’gri to’rtburchakni qo’shimcha o’lcham parametrlari – faska, tutashma burchaklar asosida bajarish ham mumkin. Buning uchun buyruq tugma tanlangandan so’ng klaviaturadagi ↓ - ko’rsatkichi bosiladi va yordamchi menu oyna chaqiriladi.
Yordamchi menuda «Faska» - Faska, «Urоvеn» - Nisbat, «Sоpryajеniе» - Tutashma, «Visоta» - Balandlik, «Shirina» - Kenglik buyruqlari mavjud.
Sichqoncha ko’rsatkichi yordamida «Faska» - Faska bandi tanlansa ekranda «Dlina pеrvоy faski pryamоugоlnika» - To’gri to’rtburchak birinchi faskasining uzunligi degan axborot chiqadi. Bunda klaviaturadan kerakli qiymat kiritiladi va “Enter” tugmasi bosiladi. Song «Dlina vtоrоy faski pryamоugоlnika» - To’g’ri to’rtburchak ikkinchi faskasining uzunligi degan axborot chiqadi. Bunda ham kerakli qiymat klaviaturadan kiritilib, “Enter” tugmasi bosiladi. Har safar to’g’ri to’rtburchakni bajarishda kiritilgan parametrlar saqlanib, avtomatik ravishda berilgan qiymatlarga asoslangan holda to’g’ri to’rtburchak chizilaveradi.
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Certification Study Guides

Certification Study Guides:
079-933 Linux Networking, 079-934 Linux Fundamentals and 079-935 Linux System Administration can be used with the following study guides for supplemental training materials that directly focus on exam criteria.
· 079-931,Sair Linux & GNU Certification Study Guide
· 079-936, Linux Professional Institute Certification Study Guide
· 079-932, Linux Certification Study Guide – Preparing Students for the Red Hat Certified Engineer Exam.
A certification matrix is included in each of the study guides. This matrix maps the applicable study guide materials and courseware materials from Linux Fundamentals, Linux Administration, and Linux Networking to exam objectives for one of the following certification programs:
· Linux Professional Institute Certification
· Red Hat Certified Engineer Certification
· Sair Linux & GNU Certification
Objectives
This courseware will provide you with the information you need to complete the following:
· Describe the structural components of Linux and what distinguishes a distribution of Linux.
· Describe Open Source Software and distinguish between GNU and GPL.
· Create installation boot diskettes.
· Install Linux distribution(s).
· Install and configure XFree86.
· Describe how to get online help.
· Configure fundamental system hardware.
· Use fdisk or cfdisk to create, edit, and delete disk partitions.
· Use LILO to manage boot options.
· Boot the system, change runlevels, and shut down or reboot the system.
· Describe the Linux hierarchical file system and the role of key directories in organizing system files.
· Work effectively on the Linux command line using common shell commands, streams, pipes, filters, and redirection.
· Use shell scripting to quickly perform repetitive tasks.
· Open, edit, and save text documents using the vi editor.
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Ayrim xorijiy davlatlarda ishlatiladigan dizel

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Ayrim xorijiy davlatlarda ishlatiladigan dizelBog'liq K. J. Matkarimov b. J. Mahmudov a. A. Norqulov avtomobillarda isAyrim xorijiy davlatlarda ishlatiladigan dizel
yonilg‘ilarining asosiy xossalari
Ko‘rsatkichlar nomi
Buyuk Britaniya
AQSH
A1
A2
1–D
2–D
Tashqi ko‘rinishi
och rangda
va tiniq
och rangda
va tiniq
och rangda
va tiniq
och rangda
va tiniq
Fraksiya tarkibi, °C:
qay nashning boshlanishi
10% bug‘lanish harorati
50% bug‘lanish harorati
90% bug‘lanish harorati
187,8
210,0
272,2
357,2
181,1
222,2
267,2
357,2
165,6–198,9
187,8–221,1
210,0–248,9
237,8–271,1
171,1–204,4
204,4–237,8
243,3–282,2
287,8–321,1
Qaynashning oxiridagi
harorat
364,4
367,2
260–293,3 304,4–348,9
15,6°C haroratdagi zich-
ligi, kg/l
0,838
0,865
0,806–0,826 0,840–0,860
Oltingugurt miqdori, %
Ko‘pi
bilan 0,5
Ko‘pi
bilan 1,0
0,05–0,20
0,2–0,05
Chaqnash harorati, °C
Kamida 54 Kamida 54 Kamida 49 Kamida 54
37,8°C dagi qovushoqli-
gi, mm/s
1,6–6,0
1,6–6,0
1,6–6,0
2,0–3,2
Setan soni
Kamida 50 Kamida 45
48–54
42–50
Nazorat savollari:
1. Dizel dvigatellari yonilg‘isiga qanday talablar qo‘yiladi?
2. Yonilg‘i qovushoqligi deganda nimani tushunasiz va u dvigatelning
ishiga qanday ta’sir ko‘rsatadi?
3. Xiralashish va qotish haroratlari deganda nimani tushunasiz?
4. Setan soni deb nimaga aytiladi va u yonilg‘ining qanday xos salarini
belgilaydi?
5. Dizel dvigatelining taqillab ishlashiga nimalar sabab bo‘ladi?
6. Dizel dvigatellarida qurum hosil bo‘lishi yonilg‘ining qanday
xossalariga bog‘liq?
7. Dvigatel detallarining korroziyalanishi nimalarga bog‘liq?
8. Yonilg‘ining kimyoviy turg‘unligi haqida gapirib bering.
84
9. Yod soni deb nimaga aytiladi?
10. Yonilg‘i tarkibida mexanik aralashmalar bo‘lishiga ruxsat etil -
masligining sabablarini ayting.
11. Yonilg‘i tarkibida suvning bo‘lishi qanday zararlar keltiradi?
12. Yonilg‘ining o‘z-o‘zidan alangalanishi deganda nima tushuniladi?
13. Yonilg‘ining filtrlanuvchanligi haqida aytib bering.
14. Yonilg‘ining kul hosil qilishi haqida gapirib bering.
15. Dizel yonilg‘ilari qanday ko‘rsatkichlariga ko‘ra markalanadi?
IV BOB. GAZSIMON AVTOMOBIL YONILG‘ILARI,
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Pedagogika fakulteti - bet 43

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Pedagogika fakulteti
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bet | 43/54 | Sana | 24.03.2021 | Hajmi | 5,98 Mb. | | #13476 |
Pеrеnеsti – Ko’chirish buyrug’i
Ushbu buyruq tugmasi ob’yektlarni tuzilishini o’zgartirmasdan bir nuqtadan ikkinchi nuqtaga ko’chirishni nazarda tutadi.
Tahrirlash ketma – ketligi:
I usul:
Ob’yekt (Ob’yektlar) sichqoncha yordamida tanlanadi.
Tahrirlash panelidagi «Pеrеnеsti» - Ko’chirish buyruq piktogrammasi tanlanadi.
Ekranga «Bazоvaya tоchka ili ↓» - Bazaviy nuqta yoki ↓ axboroti chiqariladi.
Sichqoncha yordamida ob’yekt (ob’yektlar)ning biron bir nuqtasi ko’chirish uchun asos qilib tanlanadi.
Tanlangan nuqta asosida ob’yekt boshqa nuqtaga ko’chiriladi va sichqoncha yordamida o’rnatiladi.
II usul:
Tahrirlash panelidagi «Pеrеnеsti» - Ko’chirish buyruq piktogrammasi tanlanadi. Sichqoncha ko’rsatkichi ob’yekt tanlash rejimiga o’tadi.
Ob’yekt (ob’yektlar) sichqoncha yordamida tanlanadi va “Enter” tugmasi orqali tasdiqlanadi. Ekranga «Bazоvaya tоchka ili ↓» - Bazaviy nuqta yoki ↓ axboroti chiqariladi.
Sichqoncha yordamida ob’yekt (ob’yektlar)ning biron bir nuqtasi ko’chirish uchun asos qilib tanlanadi.
Tanlangan nuqta asosida ob’yekt boshqa nuqtaga ko’chiriladi va sichqoncha yordamida o’rnatiladi.
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Gazlar uchun ko‘rsatkichlarning - K. J. Matkarimov b. J. Mahmudov a. A. Norqulov avtomobillarda ishlatiladigan ashyolar

96
Karburatorli dvigatellarni ko‘plab ishlab chiqish va foydalanish
davom etayotgan bir paytda neft yonilg‘isini tejashning dastlab-
ki tadbiri sifatida benzin-spirt aralashmalarini qo‘llash maqsad-
ga muvofiq. Oz miqdorda (metanoldan 5 foizgacha va etanoldan
10 foizgacha) spirt qo‘shilganida, dvigatelga hech qanday o‘zgarti-
rishlar kiritishga zarurat bo‘lmaydi hamda bunda ish ko‘rsatkichlari
sezilarli o‘zgarmaydi. Suvli spirtlardan foydalanilganida yonilg‘i
aralashmalarini turg‘unlashtirish maqsadida ularga 2 foizgacha
miqdorda izobutil spirti qo‘shiladi. Bularning hammasi benzinni
3–5 foiz tejashga imkon beradi.
Benzinga ko‘p miqdorda spirtlar (metanolni 15 foizgacha, eta-
nolni 20 foizgacha) qo‘shish aralashma hosil qilish va kiritish tizim-
larini ma’lum darajada o‘zgartirishni talab qiladi, dvigatel ning ish
ko‘rsatkichlariga sezilarli ta’sir ko‘rsatadi.
Sof holdagi spirtlar dizellarda foydalanishga unchalik yaramay-
di, chunki ularning setan soni kichik (metanolniki 3–4 ga, etanolni-
ki 6–8 ga teng) va bug‘lanuvchanligi yuqori bo‘ladi. Bu hol katta va
o‘rtacha yuklanishlarda dvigatelning taqillab ishlashiga olib keladi.
Dizel yonilg‘isi o‘rniga spirt ishlatilganida, detallarda lok,
qurum va koks hosil bo‘lishi kamayadi, natijada moy toza ishlaydi
hamda yeyilish kamayadi. Shu bilan birga, spirtlar oksidlanganida,
oraliq kislotalar va tuzlar yuzaga kelib, ular detallarning yeyilishi
hamda korroziyalanishini jadallashtiradi. Bu kamchiliklarni bar-
taraf etish maqsadida AQSH, Braziliya, Germaniya, Shvetsiya kabi
mamlakatlarda faol ishlar olib borilmoqda.
NEFTMAS YONILG‘ILARNING YARATILISHI

86
Yuqorida ta’kidlab o‘tilgan fikrlardan ko‘rinib turibdiki, gazsi-
mon yonilg‘ilar kompleks xususiyatlariga ko‘ra yonuvchi aralash-
ma silindr tashqarisida hosil qilinadigan va uchqun bilan yondiri-
ladigan dvigatellar uchun ancha mos keladi, shuningdek, dizellarda
foydalanilishi ham mumkin.
Portlovchanlik xususiyatining yuqoriligi ko‘pgina gazsimon
yonilg‘ilar (tabiiy gazlar, vodorod, metan)ning asosiy kamchili-
gidir. Yonuvchi gazlarning eng kichik nozichliklardan ham chiqib
ketishi ulardan ehtiyot bo‘lib foydalanishni talab qiladi. Agar xavf-
sizlik texnikasi hamda yong‘inga qarshi xavfsizlik qoidalariga rio-
ya qilinsa, shuningdek, tavsiya qilingan tadbirlar bajarilsa, gaz qu-
rilmalaridan ishonchli va xavfsiz foydalanish mumkin.
Shuningdek, gazsimon yonilg‘ilar qo‘llanilganida, silindrni
to‘ldirish koeffitsiyenti kamligi suyuq yonilg‘ilarga nisbatan dvi-
gatel quvvatining kamayishiga olib keladi. Masalan, benzin o‘rni-
ga suyultirilgan gaz qo‘llanilganida, dvigatel quvvati 6 – 8 foizga,
siqilgan gaz ishlatilganida, 18–20 foizga kamayadi.
Gazsimon yonilg‘ilarning kelib chiqishi turlicha bo‘ladi: tabiiy
gaz (gaz konlaridan olinadi), yo‘ldosh gaz (neftni qazib olish va
qayta ishlashda), sanoat gazi (domna, koks, yorituvchi, kanalizatsi-
ya gazlari), generator gazi (qattiq yonilg‘ilarni gazga aylantirishda)
va boshqalar. Ularning tarkibi va xossalari, shu jumladan, yonish
issiqligi keng ko‘lamda o‘zgaradi. Odatda, ular turli xildagi yonuv-
chi va inert gazlarning aralashmasidan iborat. Ularning tarkibiga
yonuvchi gazlar: metan, propan, butan, C
n
H
m
formulali boshqa ug-
levodorodlar, vodorod, is gazi va sh. k., shuningdek, inert gazlar
va ifloslantiruvchi moddalar (karbonat angidrid, azot, namlik, smo-
lasimon moddalar, mexanik zarralar, oltingugurtli birikmalar va
boshq.) kiradi. Respublikamizda ishlatilayotgan asosiy gazsimon
yonilg‘ilarning tarkibi va asosiy xususiyatlari 4. 1- jadvalda kel-
tirilgan.
Barcha gazsimon yonilg‘ilar yonish issiqligiga ko‘ra uch guruh-
ga bo‘linadi:
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