nyuuzyou/kompy huggingface dataset:
o'laroq .
Teskari naslchilik

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o'laroq .
Teskari naslchilikBog'liq explanatory note new techniques agricu tcm30-512313o'laroq .
Teskari naslchilik
Mutatsion naslchilik
Intragenez
Ekzogen DNKsiz va genom ketma-ketligi deyarli ota-ona chizig'iga o'xshash mikroorganizmlar
- ba'zi cheklangan maqsadli o'zgarishlar bundan mustasno - induktsiyalangan mutagenez
natijasida olingan shtammlardan farqli o'laroq , ular ko'plab qo'shimcha o'zgarishlarni o'z
ichiga olishi mumkin.
Induktsiya qilingan
Mikroorganizmlar
Tanlash
Tanlash
Jinsiy xochlar yordamida olingan ko'plab boshqa genlarning qo'shimcha
tabiiy allellari bo'lgan o'simliklardan farqli o'laroq, bir yoki bir nechta
yangi sun'iy ravishda qurilgan allellar yoki jinsiy mos keladigan turlarga
ega bo'lgan o'simliklar .
dan bir yoki bir nechta yangi allellarga ega o'simliklar
Ko'p (hatto yuzlab yoki minglab) yangi genlarni o'z ichiga olishi mumkin
bo'lgan protoplast sintez shtammlaridan farqli o'laroq , genomning aniq
pozitsiyasiga maqsadli tarzda kiritilgan yangi allel (gen varianti) bo'lgan
o'simliklar .
Tushuntirish eslatmasi
SDN1
An'anaviy naslchilik yo'li bilan olingan genom bo'ylab ko'plab boshqa
genlarning allellari (gen variantlari) bo'lgan hayvonlardan farqli o'laroq,
genomning aniq pozitsiyasiga maqsadli tarzda kiritilgan yangi allel (gen
varianti) bo'lgan hayvonlar .
Transgenlar oraliq
bosqichda kiritiladigan texnikalar
Sisgenez
O'simliklar
Ekzogen DNKsiz va an'anaviy naslchilik yo'li bilan olingan genomda ko'plab boshqa genlarning
allellari (gen variantlari) bo'lgan hayvonlardan farqli o'laroq , ma'lum bir genning cheklangan,
maqsadli o'zgarishi (lar)i bo'lgan hayvonlar.
Tegishli deb hisoblanmaydi
NBT
CBT
Transduktsiya yoki
Ekzogen DNKsiz va genom ketma-ketligi deyarli ota-ona chizig'iga o'xshash mikroorganizmlar
- ba'zi cheklangan maqsadli o'zgarishlar bundan mustasno - ba'zi yangi genlarni o'z ichiga
olishi mumkin bo'lgan konjugativ/transduktsiyalangan/transformatsiyalangan shtammlardan
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Kesib o'tish - Biotexnologiya Qishloq xo'jaligi

Teskari naslchilik
95
Transgenlar oraliq
bosqichda
kiritiladigan
texnikalar
Qishloq xo'jaligi biotexnologiyasida yangi texnikalar
SAM Oliy darajadagi ilmiy maslahatchilar guruhi
2017 yil aprel
Bir xil yoki jinsiy jihatdan mos turlardan genetik materialni kiritish usullari
CBT
Mikroorganizmlar
ODM
SDN1
Tushuntirish eslatmasi
SDN2
SDN3
Jadval 2A - NBT CBT bilan solishtirganda - Ko'zda tutilmagan effektlar
Hayvonlar
Sisgenez
NBT
General
O'simliklar
Genom tahrirlash*
Intragenez
Jinsiy aloqada yuzlab yoki hatto minglab donor genlarining allellari qabul qiluvchiga kiritiladi.
Genomga integratsiyalangan mo'ljallanmagan
ekzogen DNK mavjudligi
tegishli analitik usullar bilan aniqlanishi mumkin
(masalan, PCR, WGS,
texnik cheklovlar uchun 4.1-bo'limga qarang). Agar ekzogen DNK
aniqlansa, organizm yakuniy mahsulot sifatida ishlatilmaydi.
Ekzogen DNKning ko'zda tutilmagan integratsiyalashuvi
holatlarida uni bir
avlod ichida bekkrossing orqali olib tashlash mumkin.
Agar maqsadli ravishda bir yoki bir nechta yangi allellar kiritilgan
bo'lsa,
kam sonli yoki kutilmagan ta'sirlarning
to'liq yo'qligi .
Nukleaza etkazib berish usulidan qat'i nazar, maqsadli joyda
katta o'chirishlar va qo'shilishlar kamdan-kam hollarda bo'lishi
mumkin, lekin turli xil molekulyar mexanizm (HDR) tufayli SDN1
bilan solishtirganda kamroq.
Ko'zda
tutilmaganlarning soni ancha past yoki to'liq yo'qligi Nukleazaning hujayraga etkazib berish usuliga qarab (3.2.3-ga qarang, ko'zda tutilmagan ta'sirlar)
ancha kam son
yoki ta'sirlar (maqsaddan tashqari, ifodaga ko'zda
tutilmagan ta'sirlar ko'zda tutilmagan ta'sirlarning
to'liq yo'qligi ( Maqsaddan tashqari, boshqa genlarning ifodalanishiga va natijada boshqa genlarning va natijada pleiotropik ta'sirga, pleiotropik ta'sirga),
kichik genom hajmi tufayli
o'simliklarnikiga qaraganda kamroq tez-tez uchraydi. kichik genom hajmi tufayli o'simliklarga qaraganda kamroq.
Taqsimlangan teskari aloqali yarimo‘tkazgichli
lazer diodlari

|
Taqsimlangan teskari aloqali yarimo‘tkazgichli
lazer diodlari
|
bet | 55/160 | Sana | 13.01.2024 | Hajmi | 1 Mb. | | #136728 |
Bog'liq Optik aloqa asoslari (N.Yusupov, R.Isayev)Taqsimlangan teskari aloqali yarimo‘tkazgichli
lazer diodlari
Taqsimlangan teskari aloqali yarimo‘tkazgichli lazer diodi (TTA — LD, DFB) Fabri-Pero yassi rezonatorining takomillashgan turi bo‘lib, uning ikki qatlami (odatda, n-InP va n-InGaAsP qatlamlari) o‘rtasida davriy difraksiya panjarasi joylashtiriladi (3.23-rasm).
119
www.ziyouz.com kutubxonasi
Bu bilan sindirish ko‘rsatkichining fazo bo‘yicha davriy ravishda o‘zgarib turishiga erishiladi, bu esa to‘lqin tarqaladigan aktiv soha qalinligining davriy ravishda o'zgarishiga olib keladi.
Teskari aloqa rezonatorlar yuzasiga tegishli uzunlik bo‘yicha taqsimlangan bo‘ladi. Bu turdagi lazerlarning tuzilishi teskari aloqa mexanizmi evaziga to‘lqin uzunligini tanlash imkonini yaratadi.
Injeksiya toki
Davriy
difraksiya
panjarasi
I
Chiqishdagi
nurlanish
—►
3.23-rasm. Taqsimlangan teskari aloqali yarimo‘tkazgichli
lazer diodi
Bunda difraksiya panjarasining qadami bilan aniqlanadigan, qayd etilgan to‘lqin uzunliklaridagina teskari aloqa hosil bo‘ladi, ya’ni faqatgina panjara davridan qisqa bo‘lgan to‘lqin uzunliklar qoladi. Bu bilan rezonatorlarda qo‘zg‘aladigan modalar sonining kamayishiga erishiladi va faqat yuqori quwatli, qisqa spektrli asosiy modaga tegishli signalnigina uzatishga imkoniyat yaratiladi.
Difraksion panjara lazer diodi ichida joylashgan bu turdagi lazerlarning ishlab chiqarish texnologiyasi murakkabdir.
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Tanlash
Ko'zda tutilmagan ta'sirlar soni kamroq

|
Tanlash
Ko'zda tutilmagan ta'sirlar soni kamroqBog'liq explanatory note new techniques agricu tcm30-512313Tanlash
Ko'zda tutilmagan ta'sirlar soni kamroq , chunki faqat bitta yoki
bir nechta o'ziga xos gen(lar) maqsadli tarzda kiritilgan.
Nukleazni etkazib berish usulidan qat'i nazar, maqsadli joyda katta o'chirishlar va
qo'shilishlar kamdan-kam hollarda (kerakli mahalliy o'zgarish o'rniga) sodir bo'lishi
mumkin, lekin mutatsiyalarni ko'paytirishga qaraganda kamroq. Bundan tashqari,
maqsadli ta'sirlarni aniqlash nukleaza uchun mos keladigan yoki shunga o'xshash
aniq nomzod ketma-ketligini tahlil qilish orqali sezilarli darajada osonlashadi.
SDN oqsillari va yo'naltiruvchi RNKlarning barqaror yoki
vaqtinchalik ifodalanishini ta'minlaydigan transgen ketma-ketliklari
kiritilgan taqdirda, bu DNK ketma-ketliklari genomga birlashtirilishi
mumkin (SDN1 kabi).
SDN oqsillari va yo'naltiruvchi RNKlarning barqaror yoki
vaqtinchalik ifodalanishini ta'minlaydigan transgen ketma-ketliklari
kiritilgan taqdirda, bu DNK ketma-ketliklari genomga birlashtirilishi
mumkin (SDN1 kabi).
SDN3 vs Crossing in Plants (chapda)da bo'lgani kabi, xuddi shu tur
yoki o'zaro o'tish mumkin bo'lgan turlarning DNKsidan foydalangan holda
faqat bir yoki bir nechta yangi sun'iy ravishda qurilgan allellar kiritilgan.
Ko'zda tutilmagan ta'sirlarning soni ancha past yoki to'liq yo'q , chunki
bir yoki bir nechta mutatsiyalar maqsadli tarzda kiritilganda, protoplastda
yuzlab yoki hatto minglab donor genlaridan olingan allellar qabul qiluvchiga
kiritiladi.
Transduktsiya yoki
Tegishli deb hisoblanmaydi
& Tanlash
Hujayraga nukleaza etkazib berish usuliga qarab (3.2.1, ko'zda
tutilmagan ta'sirlar) juda kam sonli yoki kutilmagan ta'sirlarning
to'liq yo'qligi (maqsaddan tashqari ta'sirlar, boshqa genlarning
ifodalanishiga kutilmagan ta'sirlar va natijada pleiotrop ta'sirlar) .
Genomga integratsiyalangan mo'ljallanmagan ekzogen DNK mavjudligi tegishli
analitik usullar bilan aniqlanishi mumkin (masalan, PCR, WGS, texnik cheklovlar
uchun 4.1-bo'limga qarang). Agar ekzogen DNK aniqlansa, organizm yakuniy
mahsulot sifatida ishlatilmaydi.
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IP tarmoqlarda turli ilovalar uchun taqsimot

|
IP tarmoqlarda turli ilovalar uchun taqsimot
|
bet | 34/118 | Sana | 17.05.2024 | Hajmi | 8,17 Mb. | | #240348 |
Bog'liq R. I. Isayev, D. X. Ibatova multimеdiali aloqa tarmoqlari toshkeIP tarmoqlarda turli ilovalar uchun taqsimot
Odatda tarmoq yadrosiga oqimlarni kelib tushish jarayoni katta sonli bir-biriga bog‘liq bo‘lmagan seanslarni super holatini o‘zida namoyon etadi. IP tarmoqlarda oqimlar xarakteri haqidagi statik ma’lumotlar shundan dalolat beradiki, kiruvchi oqim va xizmat ko‘rsatish vaqti keltiradigan taqsimlashning ko‘pgina holatlarini eksponensial hisoblash mumkin.
Shu o‘rinda elastikli trafikni statik tadqiq qilish shuni ko‘rsatadiki, oddiy taqsimlash bilan bir qatorda, kelib tushish hamda xizmat ko‘rsatish jarayonlari sekin so‘nuvchi taqsimlanishlar bilan tasvirlanishi mumkin. Shuningdek, ko‘pgina ilovalarda oqimli trafik va haqiqiy vaqtdagi trafikning tuzilishi sekin so‘nuvchi taqsimlanishlarga kiradi. Bunday taqsimlanishlarda dispersiya katta bo‘lishi mumkin.
Sekin so‘nuvchi taqsimlanishli tasodifiy jarayonlar o‘ziga o‘xshash jarayonlar sinfiga kiradi. Ko‘rsatilgan turni taqsimlanishini keng tarqalgani Pareto, Vebulla va mo‘tadilli taqsimlanish hisoblanadi.
3.3-jadvalda IP tarmoqlarda turli ilovalar uchun statik tadqiq qilishni umumlashtirilgan natijalari keltirilgan. Bu yerda A orqali kiradigan oqimlarni taqsimlanishi, V orqali bloklarning uzunligini taqsimlanishi belgilangan.
Jadvaldan ko‘rinadiki pochta trafigi (SMTP protokoli) eksponensial taqsimlash sifatida ifodalanadi, u holda taniqli IP ilovalarning katta soni sekin so‘nuvchi taqsimlanishga mos keladi.
3.3-jadval.
IP tarmoqlarda turli ilovalar uchun statik tadqiq qilishni umumlashtirilgan
natijalari
Trafik turi
|
IETF modeli sathi
|
Taqsimlanish
|
A
|
V
|
VoIP/UDP
|
Ilovali / transportli
|
P
|
P
|
FTP/TCP
|
Ilovali / transportli
|
P
|
W va LN
|
SMTP/TCP
|
Ilovali / transportli
|
M
|
M
|
HTTP/TCP
|
Ilovali / transportli
|
P
|
LN va P
|
IP
|
Tarmoqli
|
P
|
P
|
Ethernet
|
Ma’lumotlar zvenosi
|
P
|
P
|
Ilova: P – Pareto taqsimlanish;
M – eksponensial taqsimlanish;
W – Veybulla taqsimlanish;
LN – mo‘tadilli taqsimlanish.
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Sug'urta hududi(Территория страхования)

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Sug'urta hududi(Территория страхования)Bog'liq [14.06.2024 19 39] ТАШКЕНТ ЮЖНЫЙ КУМКУРГАНSug'urta hududi(Территория страхования):
chiptadagi yo'nalish bo'yicha(маршрут по билету)
Sug'urta puli(Страховая сумма):
30,000,000.00 so'm
Berilgan sana (Дата выдачи):
06 июня 2024 y.
Sug'urta hodisasi (Страховой случай):
Sug'urtalangan shaxsning baxtsiz hodisa oqibatida shikastlanishi va (yoki) sog'ligini vaqtincha yoki uzil-kesil ishdan chiqishi
(nogironlik) yoki o'limi (Травматические повреждения и(или) временная или постаянная (инвалидность) утрата здоровья или смерть Застрахованного
лица)
«TEMIRYO'L-SUG'URTA» AJ
Bosh direktor
___________________________________
S.A.Umarov
O'zbekiston Resp. Toshkent sh. Oloy bozori berk ko'chasi, 64 uy, Tel.: (+998 71-207-19-01)
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Ro'yxatdan o'tish sanasi va vaqti

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Ro'yxatdan o'tish sanasi va vaqtiBog'liq [14.06.2024 19 39] ТАШКЕНТ ЮЖНЫЙ КУМКУРГАНRo'yxatdan o'tish sanasi va vaqti
Дата и время оформления
Date and Time of Booking
06/06/2024 14:20
Tashuvchi
Перевозчик
Carrier
УТИ
To'lov shakli
Форма оплаты
Payment method
Bank kartasi
Банковская карта
Credit Card
Internet orqali buyurtma qilingan elektron chipta bilan sayohat qilish, shuningdek, foydalanilmagan
elektron chiptani ro'yxatdan o'tkazish, to'lash, qaytarish qoidalari va xususiyatlari bilan tanishganligimni
tasdiqlayman.
Men sayohat tafsilotlariga roziman va yo'lovchilarning shaxsiy ma'lumotlari to'g'ri ekanligini tasdiqlayman.
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ATTENTION!
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Elektron chipta raqami - Акционерное общество o’zbekiston temir yo’llari

|
Акционерное общество o’zbekiston temir yo’llariBog'liq [14.06.2024 19 39] ТАШКЕНТ ЮЖНЫЙ КУМКУРГАНElektron chipta raqami
Электронный билет (номер)
E-ticket number
74195298476761
Buyurtma raqami
Номер заказа
Order number
74195298476750
ELEKTRON CHIPTA
ЭЛЕКТРОННЫЙ БИЛЕТ
ELECTRONIC TICKET
Safar amalga oshirilgan yil / Год совершения поездки
Year of travel:
2024
DАVLАТОVА МАFТUNА ВАХТIYОRQIZI
ПУАВ7699122
Yo'lovchilar soni / Кол-во пассажиров / Number of passengers:
01
Poyezd
Поезд
Train
080ФА
СКОРЫЙ
Vagon
Вагон
Coach
05
ЛЮКС
O'rin
Место
Seat
016
Н
KETISH
ОТПРАВЛЕНИЕ / DEPARTURE
KELISH
ПРИБЫТИЕ / ARRIVAL
14/06/24
19:39
12:35
SAFAR MUDDATI
ЧАСОВ В ПУТИ
HOURS ON THE ROAD
15/06/24
08:14
TOSHKENT JANUBIY
ТАШКЕНТ ЮЖНЫЙ
QUMQURGON
КУМКУРГАН
Xizmat ko'rsatish turi
Класс обслуживания
Service class
1Л
ЛЮКС
С кондиционером
With air conditioner
Konditsionerli
TO'LIQ / ПОЛНЫЙ / FULL
Narxi (so’m) / Цена (cум) / Price (som)
462,600.00
YO'LOVCHILARNI RO'YXATDAN O'TKAZISH POYEZD JO'NASHIDAN 30 DAQIQA OLDIN TUGAYDI
РЕГИСТРАЦИЯ ПАССАЖИРОВ ЗАКАНЧИВАЕТСЯ ЗА 30 МИНУТ ДО ОТПРАВЛЕНИЯ ПОЕЗДА
PASSENGER REGISTRATION ENDS 30 MINUTES BEFORE THE DEPARTURE OF THE TRAIN
Elektron chiptaning holati
Статус электронного билета
E-ticket status
Пройдена электронная регистрация
Registered
Ro'yxatdan o'tgan
06.06.2024 14:20
Chiptani elektron tarzda qaytarilish muddati
Дата и время окончания возврата онлайн
Ticket can be returned online till
14/06/2024 18:39
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Moddiy zaxiralar - M. L. Tursunxodjayev Tashkent davlat texnika universiteli

Moddiy oqim
— bu vaqt oralig‘iga keltirilgan va har xil logistik
am ailarni joriy etish. jarayonida ko ‘rib chiqilayotgan tovar —
moddiy boyliklarning yig‘indisi.
Moddiy oqim
-
yuklar, detallar, tovar-m oddiy qiym atlar
yig‘indisidan iborat b o lib , qator logistik — yuk tashish, omborga
joylashtirish va texnologik operatsiyalar bilan ko ‘rib chiqiladi.
M oddiy oqim bir qator yuk tashish, yuklash va yuk tushirish
operatsiyalari, m ahsulotga ishlov berish, om borga joylash va
saqlash jarayonlaridan iborat.
M oddiy oqim larni boshqarish tizim i
—
bu ichki ishlab
chiqaruvchi logistik tizim doirasida moddiy oqimlarni nazorat qilish
va re ja la s h tiris h n i s h a k lla n tirish n in g ta sh k iliy m e x an izm i
tushuniladi.
Navoiy erkin industrial-iqtisodiy zonasi
—
jahon standartlariga
javob beradigan va jahon bozorlarida talab qilinadigan m ahsulot
ishlab chiqarishni ta ’minlaydigan, zamonaviy yuqori texnologiyaga
a so slan g an ish lab c h iq a rish n i ta sh k il etish u c h u n x orijiy
investitsiyalami, birinchi galda to ‘g‘ridan-to‘g‘ri investitsiyalami
jalb etish b o ‘yicha qulay shart-sharoitlar yaratish, shuningdek,
Navoiy viloyatining sanoat salohiyatini, ishlab chiqarish, transport-
tra n z it va ijtim oiy in fratu zilm asin i riv o jlan tirish m aqsadida
0 ‘zbekiston Respublikasi birinchi Prezidenti LA. Karimovning
2008-yil 3-dekabrdagi «Navoiy viloyatida erkin industrial-iqtisodiy
zona tashkil etish to ‘g ‘risida»gi qarori asosida tashkil etilgan.
Navoiy erkin industrial-iqtisodiy zona hududida xo‘jalik yurituvchi
subyektlar faoliyatining asosiy yo'nalishi — zam onaviy xorijiy
yuqori unum li asbob-uskunalar va texnika, texnologik liniyalar
va m odullar, innovatsiya texnologiyalarini joriy etish hisobiga
yuqori texnologiyaU, jahon bozorlarida raqobatbardosh m ahsulot-
lami keng k o ia m d a ishlab chiqarishdan iborat.
To‘lqin uzunligi bo‘yicha marshrutizatsiyalashga ega bo‘lgan tarmoqlar

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To‘lqin uzunligi bo‘yicha marshrutizatsiyalashga ega bo‘lgan tarmoqlar
|
bet | 37/118 | Sana | 17.05.2024 | Hajmi | 8,17 Mb. | | #240348 |
Bog'liq R. I. Isayev, D. X. Ibatova multimеdiali aloqa tarmoqlari toshkeTo‘lqin uzunligi bo‘yicha marshrutizatsiyalashga ega bo‘lgan tarmoqlar.
To‘lqin uzunligi bo‘yicha marshrutizatsiyalashga ega bo‘lgan tarmoqlar (WR)da, tarmoqning ikkita yakunlovchi bog‘lamalari orasida to‘liq optik to‘lqinli yo‘l yaratiladi. Bu optik yo‘l yorug‘lik yo‘li (lightpath) deb ataladi va 3.9-rasmda ko‘rsatilganidek yo‘l bo‘ylab har bir zveno uchun to‘lqinli kanalni zahiralash yo‘li orqali yaratiladi.
3.9-rasm. Yorug‘lik yo‘lini hosil bo‘lishi
Barcha ma’lumotlar uzatilganidan keyin yorug‘lik yo‘li bo‘shaydi. WR tarmoqlari, bir-biri bilan ihtiyoriy topologiyalar orqali, optik tolali liniyalar bilan ulangan optik kross-konnektor (OXS)lardan tashkil topgan. OXS qurilmalari, ma’lumotlar oqimini qaysi kirish portiga tushganini va ular qanday to‘lqin uzunliklariga egaligini farqlash qobiliyatiga ega. Natijada yorug‘lik yo‘lining ikkita oxirgi nuqtalari orasidagi oraliq bog‘lamalarda birorta qayta ishlashni, ya’ni elektro-optik E/O o‘zgartirishni yoki ma’lumotlarni buferlashni amalga oshirish zarurati tug‘ilmaydi.
Biroq WR tarmoqlarda, kanallarni kommutatsiyalashga ega bo‘lgan tarmoq turlari kabi resurslarni statik taqsimlash qo‘llanilmaydi, bu esa mumkin bo‘lgan chastota oralig‘ini juda past qo‘llashga olib keladi.
Paketlarni optik kommutatsiyalashga ega bo‘lgan tarmoqlar.
Paketlarni optik kommutatsiyalashga (OPS) ega bo‘lgan tarmoqlarda IP-trafik, «paket ketidan paket» prinsipi bo‘yicha har bir marshrutizatorda qayta ishlanadi va kommutatsiyalanadi. IP-paket sarlavhadan va foydali yuklamadan iborat. Paket sarlavhasi marshrutlash uchun zarur bo‘lgan axborotdan iborat va foydali yuklama kabi haqiqiy ma’lumotlarni taqdim etadi.
OPS tarmog‘ining kelajakdagi eng oliy maqsadi - optik muhit ichida paket sarlavhasini qayta ishlash. Texnologiyaning mazkur sathida bu mumkin emas. Bunday muammoning yechimi, optik muhitda foydali yuklamani saqlagan holda elektron muhitda sarlavhani qayta ishlash hisoblanadi.
OPSning asosiy afzalligi, chastotalar oralig‘ini taqsimlash uchun statik zichlashtirishni qo‘llash yo‘li bilan chastota diapazonini qo‘llashni oshirish imkonidir.
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s 
) — - M. L. Tursunxodjayev Tashkent davlat texnika universiteli

bilan bir xil b o ‘lganda q o ‘l!aniladi. S huning u c h u n k o 'rib
chiqilayotgan tizimda buyurtm alar belgilangan vaqt oraliqlaridan
keyin emas, balki ombordagi zaxiralar m inim al darajaga teng yoki
kamroq bo‘lish sharti bajarilganda beriladi.
Buyurtma berilganda
uning miqdori shunday hisoblanadiki, kelib tushayotgan materiallar
zaxiralami maksimal darajada to ‘ldirishi kerak.
Mahsulot zaxiralari
— ishlab chiqaruvchi korxonaiarda tayyor
mahsulot zaxiralaridan hamda mahsulotni
yetkazib beruvchidan
iste’molchiga qaratilgan harakatidagi zaxiralardan, ya’ni ulguiji
va
chakana savdo korxonalarida, tayyorlov tashkilotlarida va
y o ‘ldagi zaxiralardan iborat. U lar iste’m olchilarning m oddiy
resurslar bilan uzluksiz ta ’minlanishi uchun zarur.
Mahsulotni tashish (transportirovka)
—
transport
turini tan -
lash, rejalash tirish va m ah su lo tn i yetkazib berish b o ‘yicha
m onitoring o ‘tkazish.
Mavsumiy zaxiralar
— ishlab chiqarish yoki iste’mol hajmining
m avsum iy o ‘zgarishlari bilan asoslanadi. Bu zaxira bashorat
qilinayotgan (mavsumiy) talabning o ‘sishini
qondirishga hamda
d am o lish lar d av rid a k o rx o n an in g quvvatining pasayishiga
mo'ljallangan.
Mezologistika
- tarm oqning bir necha korxonasini bir tizimga
integratsiya qilish sohasi.
Mikrologistika
— lokal masaialarni alohida bo‘g‘in
va logistika
element lari darajasida hal etib, moddiy va axborot oqimlarini icliki
ishlab chiqarish darajasida hal etadi.
Bu korxona ichida amalga
oshiriladi.
AO «TEMIRYO'L-SUG'URTA» - Акционерное общество o’zbekiston temir yo’llari

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Акционерное общество o’zbekiston temir yo’llariBog'liq [14.06.2024 19 39] ТАШКЕНТ ЮЖНЫЙ КУМКУРГАНAO «TEMIRYO'L-SUG'URTA»
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AO «TEMIRYO'L-SUG'URTA»
«TEMIRYO'L-SUG'URTA» AJ
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по страхованию пассажиров
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baxtsiz hodisadan sug'urtalash bo'yicha
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yo'lovchining yo'lda bo'lish vaqti(на время поездки)
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Lazer diodining nurlanish quwatiga tashqi
omillarning ta’siri

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Lazer diodining nurlanish quwatiga tashqi
omillarning ta’siri
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bet | 53/160 | Sana | 13.01.2024 | Hajmi | 1 Mb. | | #136728 |
Bog'liq Optik aloqa asoslari (N.Yusupov, R.Isayev)3.3.4. Lazer diodining nurlanish quwatiga tashqi
omillarning ta’siri
Shuni alohida aytish kerakli, lazer chegaralangan pik quwatli nurlanish manbayi hisoblanadi. Bu damlash tokining katta qiymatlarida quwatning kamayib borishi bilan bog‘liq. Lazer diodiga xos yana bir muhim xususiyat shundaki, atrof-muhit haroratining o‘zgarishi vatt-amper xarakteristikasi ko‘rinishining o‘zgarishiga olib keladi (3.19-rasm). Bu bo‘sag‘aviy tok va chiqish quwati qiymatlarining o‘zgarishiga olib keladi. Bu kamchilikni bartaraf etish uchun kompensatsiyalashning elektr sxemalari, shuningdek, mikrosovitkichlardan foydalaniladi.
3.20-rasmda lazer diodi nurlanishining yo‘nalganlik diagrammasi ko‘rsatilgan. Rasmdan ko‘rinib turibdiki, lazer nurlanishining diagrammasi nosimmetrik quwatning yarim sathida o‘lchanganda uning kengligi o‘tishga parallel yuzada 20° dan kichik va perpen- dikulyar yuzada 40° dan katta (3.20-a rasm). 3.18-b rasmda o‘zaro perpendikulyar yo‘nalishlarda nurlanish quwatining burchakka bog‘liqligi ko'rsatilgan.
Yo‘nalganlik diagrammasi ellips konus ko‘rinishiga ega. Generatsiyalanadigan nurlanishning yetarli katta yoyilganligi, uni kichik sonli aperaturali optik tolaga samarali kiritishga to‘sqinlik
113
www.ziyouz.com kutubxonasi
rasm. Lazer diodi vatt-amper xarakteristikasining haroratga
bog'Iiq ravishda o‘zgarishi
rasm. Lazer diodi nurlanishining yo'nalganlik diagrammasi:
a — parallel va perpendikulyar yuzalardagi nurlanish kengligi;
b — о ‘zaro perpendikulyar yo ‘nalishlarda nurlanish quvvatining burchakka bog'liqligi
qiladi. Buning uchun maxsus moslashtiruvchi qurilmalarni qo'llash talab etiladi.
114
www.ziyouz.com kutubxonasi
Magistral tolali optik aloqa liniyalarida, asosan, signallar 1,3 va 1,55 mkm to‘lqin uzunliklarida uzatiladi. 1,55 mkm to‘lqin uzunligida so'nish qiymatlari kichik bo‘lganligi uchun retrans- latsiyasiz (/,= 100 km) uzun uchastkalarda ana shu to'lqin uzunlikdagi optik uzatish manbalaridan foydalanish samaralidir. Magistral aloqa liniyalari kabellari bir modali tolalardan iborat bo‘lgani uchun ham lazer diodidan foydalanish kerak. Zero, lazer diodining yo'nalganlik diagrammasi yorug'lik diodlarnikiga qararaganda tor va bu nurlanishning tolaga kiritishni osonlashtiradi.
3.3-jadvalda Rossiyaning «Nolatex» kompaniyasi tomonidan ishlab chiqarilayotgan lazer diodlarining asosiy parametrlari berilgan. 3.4-jadvalda esa 1-shaffoflik darchasida qo‘llaniladigan lazer diodlarining asosiy parametrlari keltirilgan.
3.3-jadval
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Paketlarni optik kommutatsiyalash tarmoqlarida QoS

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Paketlarni optik kommutatsiyalash tarmoqlarida QoS
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bet | 39/118 | Sana | 17.05.2024 | Hajmi | 8,17 Mb. | | #240348 |
Bog'liq R. I. Isayev, D. X. Ibatova multimеdiali aloqa tarmoqlari toshkePaketlarni optik kommutatsiyalash tarmoqlarida QoS. OPSni ko‘pgina usullari asosida yotadigan g‘oya – ma’lumotlar o‘tishi va axborotni boshqarish yo‘lini ajratishdir. Bu holda, marshrutizatsiya funksiyalari va qayta yo‘naltirish paket sarlavhasini O/E o‘zgartirishdan so‘ng elektron mikrosxemani qo‘llash bilan bajariladi. Aynan shu vaqtda foydali yuklama shaffof holda xech qanday o‘zgartirishlarsiz, optik domenda kommutatsiyalanadi. Hozirgacha OPS tarmoqlarda xizmatlarni ajratishni ta’minlashning bir necha usullari tavsiya etilgan. Bu shu bilan bog‘liqki, OPS – nisbatan yangi texnologiya va o‘zini yechimida yana ko‘pgina muammolar kutiladi. Paketlarni kommutatsiyalashni barcha usullarida nizolar yuzaga kelishi mumkin, qachonki paketlarni katta soni chegaralangan vaqt davomida kam sonli chiquvchi zvenolar orqali uzatilishi mumkin bo‘lsa. Asosan, OPS tarmoqlarda QoS texnologiyalari, nizolar yuzaga kelganda xizmatlarni ajratishni ta’minlash maqsadida, to‘lqinli ajratish algoritmini va FDLni qo‘llaydi.
Paketlarni optik kommutatsiyalashda xizmatlarni ajratish uchun ikkita algoritm mavjud. Bu algoritmlarni OPS tarmoqlarda QoSni ta’minlashni asosiy texnologiyasi sifatida ko‘rib chiqamiz.
Eltuvchilarni taqsimlash (Wavelength Allocation, WA). Bu usulda barcha erishish mumkin bo‘lgan eltuvchilar alohida ko‘pginalarga ajraladi va har bir ko‘pginalar ustunlikning turli sathlari bilan bog’lanadi, ustunlikning yuqoriroq sathi erishish mumkin bo‘lgan eltuvchilardan katta qismga ega. WA usuli xizmatlarni ajratish uchun faqat to‘lqin uzunligini qo‘llaydi va FDL buferlarini qo‘llamaydi.
Chegaraviy tashlashli eltuvchilarni kombinatsiyali taqsimlash (Combined Wavelength Allocation and Threshold Dropping, WATD). WA ga qo‘shimcha, bu usulda turli ustunliklar sinfi orasidagi farqni o‘rnatish uchun tashlab yuborish chegarasi qo‘llaniladi. Qachon FDL buferini to‘lishi o‘rnatilgan chegaradan oshsa, past ustunlikka ega paketlar tashlab yuboriladi. Bu jarayon paketning foydali yuklamasi, sarlavha to‘liq qayta ishlanmagungacha va paket sinflanmagunigacha ushlab turiladi, so‘ngra paketga eltuvchi belgilanadi. Biroq bunda kommutatsiyalash tezligini chegaralaydigan “paket paketdan keyin” prinsipi qo‘llaniladi.
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Optik IP-tarmoqlarda xizmat ko‘rsatish sifatini ta’minlash xususiyatlari

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Optik IP-tarmoqlarda xizmat ko‘rsatish sifatini ta’minlash xususiyatlari
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bet | 36/118 | Sana | 17.05.2024 | Hajmi | 8,17 Mb. | | #240348 |
Bog'liq R. I. Isayev, D. X. Ibatova multimеdiali aloqa tarmoqlari toshkeOptik IP-tarmoqlarda xizmat ko‘rsatish sifatini ta’minlash xususiyatlari
Zich to‘lqin uzunligi bo’yicha zichlashtirishga (Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing, DWDM) ega bo‘lgan texnologiya tomonidan tavsiya etilgan, yetarli chastota oralig‘i bilan birgalikda keng tarqalgan IP texnologiyasi, IP-over-DWDM kabi ma’lum va keyingi avlodning (Next Generation, NG) Internet tarmoqlarida katta masofalarga ma’lumotlarni uzatishda yetakchi hisoblanadi.
DWDM – bu zich to‘lqin uzunligi bo‘yicha zichlashtirish texnologiyasi bo‘lib, juda ko‘p chastotalarda yoki to‘lqin uzunliklarida ma’lumotlar paketlarini bir vaqtda uzatish orqali, optik tola resurslaridan samarali foydalanishga imkon beradi.
Ovozli paketlarni va videoni haqiqiy vaqt oralig’ida uzatish kabi ayrim xizmatlarni kafolatlash uchun xizmat ko‘rsatish sifatini QoS ta’minlash muammosi, optik magistrallar uchun amalda yechimini topmagan.
Optik DWDM texnologiyasi qo’llanilgan tarmoqlarda QoSni ta’minlash muammolari, elektron kommutatorlarda va marshrutizatorlarda qo‘llaniladigan QoS usullaridan bir qancha fundamental farq qiladi.
Eng asosiy farq DWDM qurilmalarida, kechiktiruvchi optik liniyalarda buferlanishi mumkin bo‘lgan paketlar navbati konsepsiyasining mavjud emasligidir. Kechikish liniyasi (Fiber Delay Line, FDL) - bu ma’lum bir vaqt oralig‘ida optik signalni kechiktirish uchun qo‘llaniladigan uzun optik tolali liniyadir.
Optik tarmoqlarda navbat alternativasi sifatida, kelgusida ma’lumotlarni optik kommutatsiyalash yo‘li orqali chastota oralig‘ini zahiralash uchun signalli axborotlarni qo‘shimcha uzatish qo‘llaniladi.
Optik kommutatsiyalash texnologiyalari
DWDM texnologiyasiga asoslangan optik tarmoq bo‘ylab IP-trafiklarni uzatish uchun uchta asosiy kommutatsiyalash texnologiyasi tavsiya etilgan. Shunga mos holda IP-over-DWDM tarmoqlari quyidagicha sinflanishi mumkin:
to‘lqinli marshtutizatsiyaga ega bo‘lgan tarmoqlar (Wavelength Routing, WR);
paketlarni optik kommutatsiyalashga ega bo‘lgan tarmoqlar (Optical Packet Switching, OPS);
bloklarni optik kommutatsiyalashga ega bo‘lgan tarmoqlar (Optical Burst Switching, OBS).
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Password Cracking on WiFi | 223

Password Cracking Guarantees
Keep in mind that you are not guaranteed to obtain a password by
using this approach. If the actual password is not in the password
list you provide, there is no way to get a match.
You will end up
with a failed crack attempt.
Fern
Fear not if you are reluctant to take multiple steps using the command line to go after
WiFi networks. You can use
Fern
, a GUI-based application that can be used to attack
different encryption mechanisms.
Figure 7-6
shows the interface that Fern presents.
You can see from the screen capture that Fern supports cracking WEP and WPA net‐
works.
Figure 7-6. Fern GUI
Once you have Fern running, you need to select the wireless interface you plan to use
and then you need to scan for networks. The selection of the interface is in the left‐
most box in the top row. Next to that is a Refresh button if you have made changes
outside the GUI in order to get them picked up in the interface. “Scan
for Access
224 | Chapter 7: Wireless Security Testing
points” is the next button down. That populates a list that Fern will provide to you.
When you select the type of network you want to crack, either WEP or WPA, you will
be presented
with the box shown in
Figure 7-7
. This gives you a list of the networks
that were found. This list is basically the same list we’ve been dealing with up to now.
Figure 7-7. Fern network selection
You may also notice that at the bottom right of the dialog box is a selection button to
provide Fern with a dictionary to use. Just like
aircrack-ng
,
Fern uses a dictionary to
run cracks with, and just as with
aircrack_ng
, you won’t be able to crack the password
if it is not provided in the dictionary that Fern is given.
To get Fern started, you select
one of the networks provided, provide it with a dictionary file,
and then click the
Attack button.
Going Rogue
Rogue APs come in two, possibly three, flavors. First, you may get an AP that just
tries to lure you in.
It may be named FreeWiFi, or it may be a variation on a legiti‐
mate AP. There is no attempt to do anything other than get people to connect. In the
second kind, an attacker attempts to take over a legitimate SSID. The attacker mas‐
querades as the real network, possibly jamming the legitimate signal. The third one is
Security Testing | 39 - Learning Kali Linux

Network Security Testing
We live by the network; we die by the network. How much of your personal informa‐
tion is currently either stored outright or at least available by way of the internet,
often referred to as
the cloud
? When we live our lives
expecting everything to be
available and accessible by the network, it’s essential that we assure that our devices
are capable of sustaining attack.
Monitoring
Before we do any testing at all, we need to talk about the importance of monitoring. If
you are doing any of the testing we are talking about
for your company or a customer,
ideally you aren’t taking anything down deliberately unless you have been asked to.
However, no matter how careful you are, there is always the possibility that some‐
thing bad may happen and services or systems may get knocked over. This is why it’s
essential to communicate with the people who own the systems so they can keep an
eye on their systems and services. Businesses are not going to want to impact their
customers, so they will often want staff to be available to restart
services or systems if
that’s necessary.
Some companies may want to test their operations staff, meaning
they expect you to do what you can to infiltrate and knock over
systems
and services, without doing any long-term or permanent
damage. In this case, you wouldn’t communicate with anyone but
the management who hired you.
In most cases, though, companies
are going to want to make sure they keep their production environ‐
ment operational.
If the operations staff is involved, they will want to have some sort of monitoring in
place.
This could be watching logs, which is generally advisable. However, logs are
not always reliable. After all, if you are able to crash a service,
the service may not
have long enough to write anything useful to the logs before failing. This does not
mean, though, that you should discount logs. Keep in mind that the purpose of secu‐
rity testing is to help improve the security posture of the company you are working
for. The logs may be essential to get hints as to what is happening with the process
before it fails. Services may not fail in the
sense that the process stops, but sometimes
the service may not behave as expected. This is where logs can be important, to get a
sense of what the application was trying to do.
There may be a watchdog in place. Watchdogs are sometimes
used to ensure that a
process stays up. Should the process fail, the PID would no longer appear in the pro‐
cess table, and the watchdog would know to restart that process. This same sort of
watchdog capability can be used to determine whether the process has failed. Even if
Going Rogue | 225 - Learning Kali Linux

less
relevant here, though still of some concern. This may be less of an issue now, but
there was a time when employees would install their own APs at their companies
because the company didn’t offer WiFi. A potentially insecure AP was then bridged to
the
corporate network, which might have allowed an attacker access to the corporate
network.
Rogue APs are a common problem because it’s so easy to create a wireless network
with an AP advertising an SSID. This may be a well-known AP. Because there is noth‐
ing that necessarily makes one clearer than another, it’s easy
to stand up a rogue AP to
attack clients. This isn’t useful in and of itself, necessarily, from the standpoint of
security testing. It’s easy enough
to determine that people, given the right location for
your rogue AP, will mistakenly attach to your network. Once they have done that, you
can collect information from them. This may provide you
a way to gain access to the
legitimate network by collecting credentials that you can then use against the legiti‐
mate network.
Hosting an Access Point
Before we get into more traditional attacks, we should look at just using Linux—
specifically, Kali—to host an AP. This requires a couple of things. The first is a wire‐
less interface. Fortunately, we have one of those. We’ll also
need the ability to feed
network addresses to our clients and then route the traffic that’s coming in. We can
do all of this with Kali Linux. First, we need to set up a configuration for
hostapd
. Kali
doesn’t include one by default, but there is an extensively
documented sample in
/usr/
share/docs/hostapd
. To get an AP up and running, we’ll use a simple configuration,
which you can see in
Example 7-10
. We’ll
be putting this into
/etc/hostapd
, but it
doesn’t much matter where it is because you tell
hostapd
where the configuration
file is.
Example 7-10. hostapd.conf
# hostapd.conf for demonstration purposes
interface
=
wlan0
bridge
=
br0
driver
=
nl80211
logger_syslog
=
1
logger_syslog_level
=
2
ssid
=
FreeWiFi
channel
=
2
ignore_broadcast_ssid
=
0
wep_default_key
=
0
wep_key0
=
abcdef0123
wep_key1
=
01010101010101010101010101
Kanal sathida konfidensiallikni ta’minlash

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Kanal sathida konfidensiallikni ta’minlash
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bet | 100/118 | Sana | 17.05.2024 | Hajmi | 8,17 Mb. | | #240348 |
Bog'liq R. I. Isayev, D. X. Ibatova multimеdiali aloqa tarmoqlari toshkeKanal sathida konfidensiallikni ta’minlash
Prinsip jihatdan, IP-sathni xavfsizlik vositalari (qurilmalari) har bir kompyuterda mos interfeyslar bo‘lganida LHTda qo‘llanilishi mumkin. Lekin, DOD g‘oyasidan kelib chiqqan xolda, bunday qurilmalar LHTni global MATlarga (masalan, Internetga) ulash uchun qulayroq. Shuning uchun kanal sathining xavfsizlik vositalari IP-sathning xavfsizlik qurilmalariga nisbatan qo‘shimcha hisoblanadi. Shu bilan birga, ular ma’lumotlar uzatishni turli rejimlari va protokollarini ishlatadigan murakkab integral tarmoqlarda ishlaganda afzalroq. Kanal sathining xavfsizlik vositalarining muhim afzalligi ko‘p sathli maxfiy LHTlarni yaratish imkoniyati hisoblanadi, keyin ular IP-sathni xavfsizlik vositalarini qo‘llash bilan qurilgan ko‘p sathli global tarmoqlarga ulanishi mumkin.
Masalan, 11.7-rasm bunday bog‘lanishning ikkita usulini ko‘rsatadi. “A” va “V” LHTlarning har ikkalasi ko‘p sathli hisoblanadi, ularning har birida “Secret” va “Topsecret”konfidensiallik darajali kompyuterlar bo‘ladi. “A” LHT, konfidensial ma’lumotlarga cheklangan ulanishda ishchi stansiyalarda ishonchli dasturiy ta’minotga tayanadi. “V” LHT, undagi trafikni bo‘lish uchun tashqi kriptografik qurilmalarni qo‘llaydi. “A” LHT, xabarlarda xavfsizlik griflari va kriptografik usullar yordamida ulanishni chegaralashni ta’minlay oladigan global tarmoqning xavfsizlik qurilmasiga ulanish uchun bitta ishonchli marshrutizatorni (“S”shlyuzni) qo‘llaydi.
“V” LHT ikkita “ishonchsiz” marshrutizatorni (“A” va “V” shlyuzlar – xar bir xavfsizlik sathiga bittadan) va global tarmoqni ikkita xavfsizlik qurilmalarini ishlatadi, ulardan har biri global tarmoqda o‘xshash ulanishlarni ta’minlash uchun faqat bitta xavfsizlik sathi bilan chegaralangan.
Prinsip jihatdan, har ikkala yondashishlar korporativ LHTlarda AXni ta’minlash uchun qo‘llanilishi mumkin.
11.7-rasm. Kanal (MAC) sathining xavfsizlik vositalari
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Barcha mavsumlarda ishlatiladigan moylarni markalash

128
qo‘shguncha moy kinematik qovushoqligining qiymatini (mm
2
/s)
bildiradi, kasr chizig‘idan keyin turgan raqam esa quyuqlashtiruv-
chi qo‘shilma qo‘shganidan keyin haqiqiy kinematik qovushoqli-
gini bildiradi.
5. 1. 9. Benzinli dvigatellar uchun moylar
Benzinli dvigatellar uchun moylar, asosan, oltingugurtli neftdan
olingan va selektiv usulda tozalangan moylar bo‘lib, tarkibiga te-
gishli qo‘shilmalar qo‘shiladi. Benzinli dvigatellar uchun 4 guruh-
dagi (А, Б, В va Г) moylar ishlab chiqariladi. ГАЗ–53, ЗИЛ–130,
Урал–375 va boshqa markadagi avtomobillar uchun barcha mav-
sumlarda ishlatiladigan nisbatan samarali moy M–8B
1
moyidir. Bu
markadagi moy bo‘lmaganida M–8B
1
moyidan ham uzoq muddat
foydalanish mumkin, M–8A moyidan esa faqat almashtiruvchi moy
sifatida foydalanishga ruxsat etiladi.
Г guruhiga uchta markadagi moylar kiradi: М–12Г
1
(yozgi),
М–8Г
1
(qishki) va М–6
3
/10Г
1
(barcha mavsumda ishlatiladigan).
Bu moylar ВАЗ markali avtomobillar uchun maxsus ishlab chiqa-
rilgan bo‘lib, hozirda bu moylardan boshqa avtomobil zavodlari-
ning zamonaviy avtomobillarida ham foydalanilmoqda.
Barcha mavsumlarda ishlatiladigan moylar jumlasiga М–6
3
/10Г,
moyidan tashqari АСП–10, M–6
3
/10B va М–6
3
/10В
1
moylari ham
kiradi. Ularning barchasi quyultirilgan neft mahsulotlari kabi juda
yaxshi qovushoqlikharorat tavsifiga ega, shuning uchun ular qish
mavsumida avtomobillarni ishga tayyorgarlik darajasini yuqori
bo‘lishini ta’minlaydi. Bu moylar ishlatilganida havo harorati mi-
nus 30°C – minus 40°C bo‘lganida ham dvigatelni qizdirmay ishga
tushirish mumkin.
M–6
3
/10B moyi texnik adabiyotlarda uzoq muddat ishlovchi
universal moy nomi bilan kiritilgan. Moyni almashtirmagan hol-
da benzinli dvigatelli avtomobillar (ВАЗ markali avtomobillardan
129
tashqari) ushbu moy yordamida 18 000 km gacha masofani bosib
o‘tishi mumkin. Bu moyning universal deyilishiga sabab, uning
kam va o‘rtacha kuchaytirilgan dizellarda ham (moyni almashtir-
may yurish masofasi 15 000 km gacha) ishlatishga yaroqli ekanli-
gidir. Benzinli dvigatellarda ishlatilayotgan asosiy motor moylari
va ularning tavsifi 5. 5 jadvalda keltirilgan.
5. 5- jadval
| Chapter 2: Network Security Testing Basics

itself, outside the context of the rest of the cake, even if we have to consume the entire
cake to get that layer.
Stress Testing
Some software, and even hardware, has a hard time handling enormous loads. There
are many reasons for this.
In the case of hardware, such as devices that are purpose
built or devices that fall into the category of Internet of Things (IoT), there may be
several reasons that it can’t survive a lot of traffic. The processor that’s built into the
network interface could be underpowered because the
design of the overall device
never expected to see a lot of traffic. The application could be written poorly, and
even if it is built into the hardware, a poorly designed application can still cause prob‐
lems. As a result, it’s important for security testers to ensure
that the infrastructure
systems they are responsible for will not simply fall over when something bad
happens.
It may be easy to think of stress testing as flooding attacks. However, there are other
ways to stress applications. One way is to send the application unexpected data that it
may not know how to handle. There are techniques to specifically
handle this sort of
attack, so we’re going to focus primarily on overwhelming systems here and deal with
fuzzing attacks, where we specifically generate bogus data, later. Having said that,
though, in some cases network stacks in embedded devices
may not be able to handle
traffic that doesn’t look like it’s supposed to. One way of generating this sort of traffic
is to use a program called
fragroute
.
The program
fragroute
, written many years ago by Dug Song,
takes a series of rules
and applies them to any packet that it sees destined to an IP address you specify.
Using a tool like
fragroute
, you can really mangle and manipulate packets originating
from your system. These packets should be put back together again, since one of the
main
functions of
fragroute
is to fragment packets into sizes you identify. However,
not all systems can handle really badly mangled packets. This may especially be true
when the packet fragments are coming in with overlapping segments. With IP pack‐
ets, the IP identification field binds all fragments together. All fragments with the
same IP identification field belong to the same packet. The fragment offset field indi‐
cates where the fragment belongs in the overall scheme of the packet. Ideally, you
would have something like bytes 0–1200 in one packet fragment and the offset in the
second fragment would start at 1201, indicating that it’s
the next one to be put back
together. You may get several more of roughly the same size and the network stack on
the receiving end puts them all together like squares in a quilt until the quilt is whole.
If, though, we have one fragment that says it starts at 1150, and we assume a trans‐
mission unit of 1200, but the next one says it starts at 1201, there is a fragment over‐
lap. The network stack needs to be able to handle that event correctly and not try to
put overlapping packets together. In some cases, dealing with
this sort of overlapping
| Chapter 7: Wireless Security Testing

7
0C:51:01:E4:6A:5C PJ NETWORK No data - WEP or WPA
8
C4:EA:1D:D3:80:19 WPA
(
0
handshake
)
9
78:28:CA:09:8E:41 WPA
(
0
handshake
)
10
94:9F:3E:0F:1D:81 WPA
(
0
handshake
)
11
00:25:00:FF:94:73 None
(
0.0.0.0
)
12
70:3A:CB:4A:41:37 Unknown
13
EC:AA:A0:4D:31:A8 Unknown
Index number of target network ?
While three of the SSIDs
that were caught belong to me, others do
not. Since they belong to my neighbors, it would be impolite, not to
mention
unethical and illegal, to attempt to crack those networks.
Always make sure you are working against either your own systems
or systems that you have clear permission to test.
Once we run
aircrack-ng
, we’ll be asked which target network we want to crack. You
will see from
Example 7-8
that only one network has a handshake that was captured.
This is one of the BSSIDs associated with the SSID CasaChien. As such, this is the
only network we can select to be able to run a crack against.
Selecting the network we
want will start up the cracking attempt, as seen in
Example 7-9
.
Example 7-9. aircrack-ng cracking WPA password
Aircrack-ng 1.2 rc4
[
00:00:06
]
11852/9822768 keys tested
(
1926.91 k/s
)
Time left:
1
hour,
24
minutes,
53
seconds 0.12%
Current passphrase: redflame
Master Key : BD E9 D4
29
6F
15
D1 F9
76
52
F4 C2 FD
36
96
96
A4
74
83
42
CF
58
B6 C9 E3 FA
33
21
D6 7F
35
0E
Transient Key : 0B
04
D6 CA FF EE 7A B9 6E 6D
90
0F 9E 4F E5 64
5B AA C0
53
18
32
F7
54
DE
46
74
D1 4D D0
31
CF
BC
57
D7 8A 5C B4
30
DB FA A9 BD F8
20
0C C9 19
35
F7
89
F6 2F 8A
25
74
3A
83
FD
50
F7 E5 C3 9B
EAPOL HMAC :
50
66
38
C1
84
A1 DD BC 7C 2F
52
70
FD
48
04
9A
Using
Kali in a VM, you can see that it will take about an hour and a half to run
through fewer than 10 million passwords. Faster machines that may be dedicated to
this task may be able to do the cracking faster. Larger lists will take longer to crack.
Network Security Testing | 41

false positives that result from the different tools that we use. Monitoring and valida‐
tion are essential to make sure that what you are presenting to your employer or cus‐
tomer is valid as well as actionable.
Remember, you are trying to help them improve
their security posture, not just point out where things are broken.
Layers
As Donkey
in the movie
Shrek
suggests, layers are important. Actually, Shrek says that
ogres
have layers, and Donkey says cakes have layers, but Shrek likens ogres to
onions, and cake is better than onions. Plus, I still hear Eddie Murphy as Donkey say‐
ing cakes have layers. None
of which is really the point, of course. Except for cake.
Cake may be the point—because when we talk about networks and communications
between systems, we usually talk about layers. If you think about a seven-layer cake,
with
thin layers of cake, you may be able to envision the way we think about net‐
works. Plus, in order to envision the best process, you’d need to envision two slices of
cake. Two slices of cake have to be
better than one slice of cake, right?
Figure 2-3
shows a simple representation of the seven layers of the OSI model and
how each layer communicates with the same layer on remote systems. You can imag‐
ine that the lines between each of the layers is really icing and maybe jam, just to
make it more interesting. Plus, the jam will help the
layers adhere to one another
since it’s sticky. Each layer on every system you are communicating with is exactly the
same, so when you are sending a message from one slice of cake to the other slice of
cake, it’s the same layer that receives it.
Figure 2-3. OSI model showing system-to-system communication
Let’s think about it this way. Our first layer at the very bottom is the
physical layer
, so
we can think of that as pistachio. Our pistachio (physical) layer is where we connect
to
the network or, in this case, the plate that the cake sits on. As with cake, nothing is