nyuuzyou/kompy huggingface dataset:
Installing Kali Linux Over the Network (PXE Boot)

In order to set up
dnsmasq, you must first configure it through
/etc/dnsmasq.conf
. A basic con-
figuration consists of only a few key lines:
# Network interface to handle
interface=eth0
# DHCP options
# IP range to allocate
dhcp-range=192.168.101.100,192.168.101.200,12h
# Gateway to announce to clients
dhcp-option=option:router,192.168.101.1
# DNS servers to announce to clients
dhcp-option=option:dns-server,8.8.8.8,8.8.4.4
# Boot file to announce to clients
dhcp-boot=pxelinux.0
# TFTP options
enable-tftp
# Directory hosting files to serve
tftp-root=/tftpboot/
With
/etc/dnsmasq.conf
configured, you will need to place the installation boot files in the
/tftpboot/
directory. Kali Linux provides a file archive dedicated to this purpose that can be
directly unpacked into
/tftpboot/
. Simply select between 32-bit (i386) and 64-bit (amd64) and
standard or graphical (gtk) install methods for your target machine and choose the appropriate
archive:
è
http://http.kali.org/dists/kali-rolling/main/installer-amd64/current/images/
netboot/gtk/netboot.tar.gz
è
http://http.kali.org/dists/kali-rolling/main/installer-amd64/current/images/
netboot/netboot.tar.gz
è
http://http.kali.org/dists/kali-rolling/main/installer-i386/current/images/
netboot/gtk/netboot.tar.gz
è
http://http.kali.org/dists/kali-rolling/main/installer-i386/current/images/
netboot/netboot.tar.gz
Once you have selected the archive, create
/tftpboot/
, download the archive, and unpack it into
that directory:
#
mkdir /tftpboot
#
cd /tftpboot
#
wget http://http.kali.org/dists/kali-rolling/main/installer-amd64/current/images/
å
netboot/netboot.tar.gz - Kali Linux Revealed

netboot/netboot.tar.gz
# tar xf netboot.tar.gz
# ls -l
total 25896
drwxrwxr-x 3 root root
4096 May
6 04:43 debian-installer
259
Chapter 10 — Kali Linux in the Enterprise
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root
47 May
6 04:43 ldlinux.c32 -> debian-installer/amd64/boot
å
-screens/ldlinux.c32
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 26507247 May
6 04:43 netboot.tar.gz
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root
33 May
6 04:43 pxelinux.0 -> debian-installer/amd64/
å
pxelinux.0
lrwxrwxrwx 1 root root
35 May
6 04:43 pxelinux.cfg -> debian-installer/amd64/
å
pxelinux.cfg
-rw-rw-r-- 1 root root
71 May
6 04:43 version.info
The unpacked files include the pxelinux bootloader, which uses the same configuration files as
syslinux and isolinux. Because of this, you can tweak the boot files in
debian-installer/amd64/
boot-screens/
as you would when generating
custom Kali Linux live ISO images
.
For example, assuming that you have picked the textual installer, you can add boot parameters
to preseed the language, country, keymap, hostname, and domain name values. You can also
point the installer to an external preseed URL and configure the timeout so that the boot happens
automatically if no key is pressed within 5 seconds. To accomplish this, you would first modify
the
debian-installer/amd64/txt.cfg
file:
label install
menu label ^Install
kernel debian-installer/amd64/linux
append vga=788 initrd=debian-installer/amd64/initrd.gz --- quiet language=en
å
country=US keymap=us hostname=kali domain= url=http://192.168.101.1/
å
preseed.cfg
Then, you would modify the
debian-installer/amd64/syslinux.cfg
file to adjust the timeout:
# D-I config version 2.0
# search path for the c32 support libraries (libcom32, libutil etc.)
path debian-installer/amd64/boot-screens/
include debian-installer/amd64/boot-screens/menu.cfg
default debian-installer/amd64/boot-screens/vesamenu.c32
prompt 0
timeout 50
Armed with the ability to boot any machine from the network via PXE, you can take ad-
vantage of all the features outlined in section
4.3
, “
Unattended Installations
” [page 95], en-
abling you to do full booting, preseeding, and unattended installation on multiple comput-
ers without physical boot media. Also, don’t forget the flexibility of the boot parameter pre-
seed/url=http://
server
/preseed.cfg (nor the use of the url alias), which allows you to set a network-
based preseed file.
260
Kali Linux Revealed
|
Navigating with the - Kali Linux Revealed

Detecting Network Hardware
In this step, the installer will try to automatically identify the network card and load the corre-
sponding module. If automatic detection fails, you can manually select the module to load. If all
else fails, you can load a specific module from a removable device. This last solution is usually
only needed if the appropriate driver is not included in the standard Linux kernel, but available
elsewhere, such as the manufacturer’s website.
This step must absolutely be successful for network installations (such as those done when booting
from a
mini.iso
), since the Debian packages must be loaded from the network.
Configuring the Network
In order to automate the process as much as possible, the installer attempts an automatic net-
work configuration using Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) (for IPv4 and IPv6) and
ICMPv6’s Neighbor Discovery Protocol (for IPv6), as shown in Figure
4.5
, “
Network Autoconfigu-
ration
” [page 71].
Step by Step Installation on a Hard Drive

4.2. Step by Step Installation on a Hard Drive In this section, we assume that you have a bootable USB drive or DVD (see section
2.1.4
, “
Copying
the Image on a DVD-ROM or USB Key
” [page 19] for details on how to prepare such a drive) and
that you booted from it to start the installation process.
4.2.1. Plain Installation
First, we will take a look at a standard Kali installation, with an unencrypted file system.
Booting and Starting the Installer Once the BIOS/UEFI has begun booting from the USB drive or DVD-ROM, the isolinux boot loader
menu appears, as shown in Figure
4.1
, “
Boot Screen
” [page 67]. At this stage, the Linux kernel is
not yet loaded; this menu allows you to choose the kernel to boot and enter optional parameters
to be transferred to it in the process.
66
Kali Linux Revealed
Using the arrow keys todo a standard installation, either choose Graphical Install or Install (for
classic text-mode), then press the Enter key to initiate the remainder of the installation process.
Each menu entry hides a specific boot command line, which can be configured as needed by press-
ing the Tab key before validating the entry and booting.
Figure 4.1 Boot Screen Once booted, the installation program guides you step-by-step through the process. We will take
a look at each of these steps in detail. We will cover installation from a standard Kali Linux live
image; installations from a
mini.iso
may look slightly different. We will also address graphical
mode installation, but the only difference from classic text-mode installation is the appearance.
The versions pose identical questions and present identical options.
Selecting the Language As shown in Figure
4.2
, “
Selecting the Language
” [page 68], the installation program begins in
English but the first step allows you to choose the language that will be used for the rest of the
67
Chapter 4 — Installing Kali Linux
installation process. This language choice is also used to define more relevant default choices in
subsequent stages (notably the keyboard layout).
partition containing - Kali Linux Revealed

• Make it a “physical volume for LVM” (not covered in this book). Note that this feature is
used by the guided partitioning when you set up encrypted partitions.
• Use it as a RAID device (not covered in this book).
• Choose not to use the partition, and leave it unchanged.
When finished, you can either back out of manual partitioning by selecting “Undo changes to
partitions” or write your changes to the disk by selecting “Finish partitioning and write changes
to disk” from the manual installer screen (Figure
4.11
, “
Validating Partitioning
” [page 79]).
Copying the Live Image
This next step, which doesn’t require any user interaction, copies the contents of the live image
to the target file system, as shown in Figure
4.14
, “
Copying the Data from the Live Image
” [page
83].
Changing the user and - Kali Linux Revealed

Rights not altered by the addition or subtraction in such a command remain unmodified. The
letter a, for all, covers all three categories of users, so that a=rx grants all three categories the
same rights (read and execute, but not write).
The (octal) numeric representation associates each right with a value: 4 for read, 2 for write, and
1 for execute. We associate each combination of rights with the sum of the three figures, and a
value is assigned to each category of users, in the usual order (owner, group, others).
For instance, the
chmod 754
file
command will set the following rights: read, write and execute
for the owner (since 7 = 4 + 2 + 1); read and execute for the group (since 5 = 4 + 1); read-only for
others. The 0 means no rights; thus
chmod 600
file
allows for read and write permissions for the
owner, and no rights for anyone else. The most frequent right combinations are 755 for executable
files and directories, and 644 for data files.
To represent special rights, you can prefix a fourth digit to this number according to the same
principle, where the setuid, setgid, and sticky bits are 4, 2, and 1, respectively. The command
chmod 4754
will associate the setuid bit with the previously described rights.
Note that the use of octal notation only allows you to set all the rights at once on a file; you cannot
use it to add a new right, such as read access for the group owner, since you must take into account
the existing rights and compute the new corresponding numerical value.
The octal representation is also used with the
umask
command, which is used to restrict permis-
sions on newly created files. When an application creates a file, it assigns indicative permissions,
knowing that the system automatically removes the rights defined with
umask
. Enter
umask
in a
shell; you will see a mask such as
0022
. This is simply an octal representation of the rights to be
systematically removed (in this case, the write rights for the group and other users).
If you give it a new octal value, the
umask
command modifies the mask. Used in a shell initial-
ization file (for example,
~/.bash_profile
), it will effectively change the default mask for your
work sessions.
TIP
Figure 4.5 - Kali Linux Revealed

Figure 4.5 Network Autoconfiguration
71
Chapter 4 — Installing Kali Linux
If the automatic configuration fails, the installer offers more choices: try again with a normal
DHCP configuration, attempt DHCP configuration by declaring the name of the machine, or set up
a static network configuration.
This last option requires an IP address, a subnet mask, an IP address for a potential gateway, a
machine name, and a domain name.
Configuration without
DHCP
If the local network is equipped with a DHCP server that you do not wish to use
because you prefer to define a static IP address for the machine during installation,
you can add the
netcfg/use_dhcp=false
option when booting. You just need to
edit the desired menu entry by pressing the Tab key and adding the desired option
before pressing the Enter key.
User Creation
The installer prompts to create a new user (Figure
4.6
, “
Create User
” [page 73]) since it automati-
cally creates a user account in the ”sudo” group. This means that the user has full administrative
privileges through the
sudo
command. This is helpful due to the fact that multiple items are only
available through administrative privileges.
The installer also asks for a username for the account as well as a password. The installer will
request confirmation of the password to prevent any input error.
72
Kali Linux Revealed
Figure 4.6 Create User
The Default User
Password
The default user’s password should be long (eight characters or more) and impossi-
ble to guess, since attackers target Internet-connected computers and servers with
automated tools, attempting to log in with obvious passwords. Sometimes attackers
leverage dictionary attacks, using many combinations of words and numbers as pass-
words. Avoid using the names of children or parents and dates of birth, because these
are easily guessed.
These remarks are equally applicable to other user passwords but the consequences
of a compromised account are less drastic for users without sudo privileges.
If you are lacking inspiration, don’t hesitate to use a password generator, such as
pwgen
(found in the package of the same name, which is already included in the base
Kali installation).
73
Chapter 4 — Installing Kali Linux
Configuring the Clock
If the network is available, the system’s internal clock will be updated from a network time proto-
col (NTP) server. This is beneficial because it ensures timestamps on logs will be correct from the
first boot.
If your country spans multiple timezones, you will be asked to select the timezone that you want
to use, as shown in Figure
4.7
, “
Timezone Selection
” [page 74].
Figure 4.7 Timezone Selection
Detecting Disks and Other Devices
This step automatically detects the hard drives on which Kali may be installed, each of which will
be presented in the next step: partitioning.
74
Kali Linux Revealed
|
setuid
and - Kali Linux Revealed

grants access to features requiring higher level permissions than those you would
usually have.
Since a
setuid
root program is systematically run under the super-user identity, it is
very important to ensure it is secure and reliable. Any user who manages to subvert
a setuid root program to call a command of their choice could then impersonate the
root user and have all rights on the system. Penetration testers regularly search for
these types of files when they gain access to a system as a way of escalating their
privileges.
A directory is handled differently from a file. Read access gives the right to consult the list of its
contents (files and directories); write access allows creating or deleting files; and execute access
allows crossing through the directory to access its contents (for example, with the
cd
command).
Being able to cross through a directory without being able to read it gives the user permission to
access the entries therein that are known by name, but not to find them without knowing their
exact name.
SECURITY
setgid
directory and sticky
bit
The
setgid
bit also applies to directories. Any newly-created item in such directories
is automatically assigned the owner group of the parent directory, instead of inherit-
ing the creator’s main group as usual. Because of this, you don’t have to change your
main group (with the
newgrp
command) when working in a file tree shared between
several users of the same dedicated group.
The
sticky bit
(symbolized by the letter “t”) is a permission that is only useful in
directories. It is especially used for temporary directories where everybody has write
access (such as
/tmp/
): it restricts deletion of files so that only their owner or the
owner of the parent directory can delete them. Lacking this, everyone could delete
other users’ files in
/tmp/
.
Three commands control the permissions associated with a file:
•
chown
user file
changes the owner of the file
•
chgrp
group file
alters the owner group
•
chmod
rights file
changes the permissions for the file
TIP
Recursive operation - Kali Linux Revealed

all the available logs in a chronological way. With the
-r
option, it will reverse the order so that
newer messages are shown first. With the
-f
option, it will continuously print new log entries
as they are appended to its database. The
-u
option can limit the messages to those emitted by a
specific systemd unit (ex:
journalctl -u ssh.service
).
3.4.6. Discovering the Hardware
The kernel exports many details about detected hardware through the
/proc/
and
/sys/
virtual
filesystems. Several tools summarize those details. Among them,
lspci
(in the
pciutils package)
lists PCI devices,
lsusb
(in the
usbutils package) lists USB devices, and
lspcmcia
(in the
pcmciau-
tils package) lists PCMCIA cards. These tools are very useful for identifying the exact model of
a device. This identification also allows more precise searches on the web, which in turn, lead
to more relevant documents. Note that the
pciutils and
usbutils packages are already installed on
the base Kali system but
pcmciautils must be installed with
apt update
followed by
apt install
pcmciautils
. We will discuss more about package installation and management in section
8.2
,
“
Basic Package Interaction
” [page 181]
Ho‘llanish issiqligi - Z. A. Sulaymonova, D. A. Hazratova, S. A. Karomatov kolloid kimyo

64
bilan qancha ko‘p miqdor suyuqlik o‘zaro ta`sirlashsa, shuncha ko‘p integral
issiqlik ajralib chiqadi. Integral ho‘llanish issiqligi bilan differentsial ho‘llanish
issiqligi orasida quyidagi bog’lanish bor:
dx
Q
Q
d
x
i
0
(28)
Agar berilgan suyuqlik miqdori sirt bilan o‘zaro ta`sirlashadigan
miqdordan ortiq bo‘lsa, bu holda kuzatiladigan integral issiqlik to‘g’ridan –
to‘g’ri ho‘llanish issiqligi deb yuritiladi. Sirtda monomolekulyar qavat hosil
bo‘lganida Q
i
to‘liq ho‘llanish issiqligiga teng bo‘ladi. Umumiy sirti katta
bo‘lgan sistemalar (kukun va g’ovak jismlarning) ho‘llanish issiqligi J/m
2
yoki
J/g bilan ifodalanadi. Ko‘pincha uning qiymatlari 5-1000 J/g atrofida bo‘ladi.
Ho‘llanish vaqtida issiqlik chiqarishi sababli suyuqlik hajmi kattalashishiga
asoslanib tajribada ho‘llanish issiqligini aniqlash mumkin. Buning uchun Dyuar
idishi olib uning ichiga kapillyar naychaga ulangan probka tushiriladi, bu
probkaga bir-biridan ajratilgan sanaladigan suyuqlik va qattiq jism joylangan
bo‘ladi.
Kapillyar naychaga hajmi issiqdan kattalashadigan suyuqlik (masalan,
toluol) solingan va naycha darajalangan bo‘ladi. Probka chayqatilganda
ho‘llovchi suyuqlikka ho‘llanuvchi qattiq jism (odatda kukun holatda) tekkanida
ho‘llanish issiqligi chiqishi tufayli kapillyar naychadagi toluolning sathi
balandlashadi. Bu balandlikni o‘lchab, ho‘llanish issiqligini hisoblab chiqarish
mumkin.
Temperatura ortishini maxsus termometr yoki termopara yordamida
o‘lchaydigan maxsus kalorimetrlar yordami bilan ham ho‘llanish issiqligini
aniqlash mumkin.
Quyidagi jadvalda floridinning turli erituvchilarda ho‘llanish issiqliklari
keltirilgan.
Z. A. Sulaymonova, D. A. Hazratova, S. A. Karomatov kolloid kimyo - bet 27

54
sirtda besh tur hodisa sodir bo‘lish imkoniyati mavjud. Bularning barchasida sirt
energiya boshqa tur energiyaga aylanishi mumkin. Energiyaning bu aylanishlari
– disperslik darajasi o‘zgargan sari moddaning kimyoviy reaksiyalarga kirishish
qobiliyatining adgeziya (yani turli xil shakldagi moddalarning molekulalari
orasidagi o‘zaro tortishuv kuchlarining namoyon bo‘lishi) va kogeziya (ya`ni
bunda bir tur fazaga oid modda molekulalari orasidagi o‘zaro tortishish kuchlari)
o‘zgarishi bilan, kappilyarlik hodisalari bilan, adsorbsiya va elektr
potensiallarning o‘zgarishi bilan birgalikda sodir bo‘ladi.
Ikki faza orasida barqaror chegara sirt mavjudligining asosiy sharti – erkin
sirt energiyasining musbat ishorali bo‘lishidir. Agar bu energiyaning qiymati
manfiy ishorali (yoki nol) bo‘lsa, chegara sirt mavjud bo‘lmaydi, bunda
tasodifiy fluktatsiyalar tufayli bir faza ikkinchi fazaga tarqalib ketadi.
Sirt qavatning umumiy xarakteristikasi

55
Suyuqlikning sirt tarangligi va to‘liq sirt energiya
Suyuqlikning ichki qismidagi molekulani boshqa molekulalar hamma
tomondan bir xilda tortib turadi va barcha kuchlar bir-birini muvozanatlaydi.
Lekin suyuqlik sirtida turgan molekulalarni suyuqlik ichidagi qo‘sh molekulalar
kuchliroq tortadi, gaz fazadagi molekulalar o‘sha molekulani juda o‘z
kuchi
bilan tortadi. Shu sababli suyuqlik sirtida turgan molekulalar mumkin qadar
suyuqlik ichiga kirishga intiladi. Boshqacha aytganda, suyuqlik o‘z
sirtini
kattalashtirish uchun ish sarf qilishi kerak. Aksincha, suyuqlik sirti kamayganida
energiya ajralib chiqadi. Demak, suyuqlik sirt qavati ma`lum energiya zahirasiga
ega. U suyuqlikning sirt energiyasi deyiladi.
Suyuqlik sirtini 1 sm
2
ga kattalashtirish uchun sarf qilish kerak bo‘lgan
energiya miqdori shu suyuqlikning sirt taranglik koeffitsienti yoki to‘g’ridan-
to‘g’ri sirt tarangligi deyiladi.
Sirt taranglikning kelib chiqish sababi suyuqlik molekulalari orasidagi
bog’lanishdir. Ayni modda molekulalari orasidagi bog’lanish qancha kichik
bo‘lsa, ularning sirt tarangligi shuncha katta qiymatga ega bo‘ladi.
Bundan
quyidagi xulosa kelib chiqadi: qutbli suyuqlikning suyuq-gaz chegarasidagi sirt
tarangligi qutbsiz suyuqliklarning sirt tarangligidan katta bo‘ladi.
Suyuqliklar ichida simob eng katta sirt taranglikka ega, undan keyin suv
va
organik moddalar turadi, siqilgan gazlar eng kichik sirt taranglik namoyon
qiladi.
Suyuqliklarda sirt taranglikning temperatura koeffitsienti
dT
d
to
kritik
temperaturagacha deyarli o‘zgarmas qiymatga ega bo‘ladi. Kritik temperaturaga
etganda suyuq va gaz fazalar orasidagi farq yo‘qolib sirt taranglik nolga teng
bo‘ladi. Suyuqlik – suyuqlik sistemada ham, kritik erish temperaturada (yani
ikkala suyuqlik bir – birida cheksiz eruvchan bo‘lib
qolgan temperaturadan
keyin) sirt taranglik nolga teng bo‘lib qoladi.
Leveraging Configuration Management

Unaccepted Keys:
kali-scratch
Proceed? [n/Y]
y
Key for minion kali-scratch accepted.
10.2.2. Executing Commands on Minions
As soon as minions are connected, you can execute commands on them from the master:
master#
salt ’*’ test.ping
kali-scratch:
True
kali-master:
True
This command asks all minions (the ’*’ is a wildcard targeting all minions) to execute the ping
function from the test execution module. This function returns a True value on success and is a
simple way to ensure that the connection is working between the master and the various minions.
You can also target a specific minion by giving its identifier in the first parameter, or possibly
a subset of minions by using a less-generic wildcard (such as ’*-scratch’ or ’kali-*’). Here is an
example of how to execute an arbitrary shell command on the kali-scratch minion:
master#
salt kali-scratch cmd.shell ’uptime; uname -a’
kali-scratch:
05:25:48 up 44 min,
2 users,
load average: 0.00, 0.01, 0.05
Linux kali-scratch 4.5.0-kali1-amd64 #1 SMP Debian 4.5.3-2kali1 (2020-05-09) x86_64
å
GNU/Linux
Podstansiyaning rele himoyasi va avtomatik uskunalari

|
Podstansiyaning rele himoyasi va avtomatik uskunalari
|
bet | 10/18 | Sana | 21.05.2024 | Hajmi | 0,7 Mb. | | #248368 |
Bog'liq AZAMJONOV OMADILLO BMI2.3. Podstansiyaning rele himoyasi va avtomatik uskunalari.
Elektr sistemalarining alоhida himоyalarining turini tanlash Elektr uskuna fоydalanish qоidalari (PUE) talablariga asоsan amalga оshiriladi. Himоyaning sxemasini va hisоbiy o‘rnatmalarini tanlash «Rele himоyasi bo‘yicha ustuvоr ko‘rsatma» ga mоs ravishda amalga оshirishadi.
Himоyaning turini tanlashga nоminal kuchlanish, tarmоq kоnfiguratsiyasi, zaminlagich neytralning rejimi, оperativ tоk manbasining turi, dоimiy hizmat ko‘rsatuvchi persоnalni mavjudligi yoki yo‘qligi, kоmmutatsiоn apparatlarining turi va h.k. ta’sir ko‘rsatadi.
PUE da ko‘rib o‘tilgan barcha hоlatlarida himоyani оddiy himоya yordamida bajarilishi kerak, agar оddiy himоyalar asоsiy talablar: selektivlik, tezkоrlik, sezgirlik talablariga javоb bermasa uni murakkab himоyasiga almashtirish kerak. Bu hоlat majburiy tartibda ushbu kurs ishida bajarilishi kerak.
SHuni alоhida ta’kidlash lоzimki, talabalariga berilgan tоpshiriqda kuchlanishi 110 kV gacha bo‘lgan оddiy tarmоqning qismi berilgan va shuning uchun оperativ tоk zanjirini ta’minоtida ko‘pincha o‘zgaruvchan оperativ tоk manbalari ishlatiladi.
Kuchlanishi 3–10 kVli bitta liniyalarda ko‘p fazali QTlardan qоidaga asоsan, ikki pоg‘оnali tоkli himоya o‘rnatiladi, uning birinchi pоg‘оnasi tоkli kesim ko‘rinishida bajariladi, ikkinchisi esa sabr vaqtga bоg‘liq bo‘lmagan va bоg‘liq bo‘lgan maksimal tоkli himоya (MTH) ko‘rinishida bo‘ladi.
20–35 kV kuchlanishili bitta liniyalarda javоbgarligi yuqоri birlashmalarda (masalan, taqsimlоvchi liniyalarning bоsh qismida) tоkli kesimning yana bir pоg‘оnasi–sabr vaqtli tоkli kesim, sezgarligi past bo‘lganda minimal kuchlanishdan himоya qo‘shimcha ravishda o‘rnatiladi. Parallel liniyalarning оhirida ko‘ndalang yo‘naltirilgan himоya yordamida bajariladi. Ta’minlash tоmоnida esa pоg‘оnali tоkli himоya qo‘llanilishi mumkin. 20–35 kV kuchlanishli liniyalarda tezkоrligi past bo‘lgan hоllarda ko‘ndalang yo‘naltirilgan differentsial himоya o‘rnatiladi. Bu hоlatda zahira sifatida pоg‘оnali tоkli himоya ishlatiladi.
Bir fazali yerga tutashuvda himоya signalga ishlashi bilan bajarilishi mumkin, ba’zi hоlatlarda, tehnika va havfsizlik talablaridan kelib chiqib u o‘chirishga ishlashi kerak.
20–35 kV li liniyaning himоyasi qоidaga asоsan, RT–40 relesi yordamida amalga оshiriladi. Huddi shu relelar 6–35 kV li liniyaning ko‘ndalang differentsial himоyasida ishlatiladi.
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Zahiradagi manbani avtomatik ulash. Avtomatik qayta ulagich

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Zahiradagi manbani avtomatik ulash. Avtomatik qayta ulagich
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Bog'liq AZAMJONOV OMADILLO BMIZahiradagi manbani avtomatik ulash. Avtomatik qayta ulagich.
Elektr ta'minotida avlomatlashtirishning asosiy vazifasi sanoat korxonasining uzluksiz ravishda ishlashini ta’minlashdan iborat. Bu esa ishlab chiqarish buzilishiga, mahsulot sifatini kamayashiga olib keladigan korxonalar uchun ayniqsa muhimdir. Ayniqsa, hozirgi zamon sanoat korxonalari yuzlab, ba’zan esa
yuz minglab kilovatt quvvat iste’mol qilishi hisobga olinsa, bunday katta quvvatli yuklamalarni o‘chirish energotizim ishiga sezilarli ta’sir ko‘rsatishi mumkin va hatto avariya holatini vujudga keltirishi mumkin. Elektr ta’minoti tizimlarida avtomatlashtirish tarmoq avtomatikasi, elektr yuritgichlarning mustaqil ishga tushish qurilmalari va dispetcherlik boshqarish qurilmalari orqali ta'minlanadi.
Tarmoq avtomatikasi qurilmalariga: avtomatik qavta ulash qurilmasi (APV); zahiradagi manbani avtomatik ravishda ulash qurilmasi. (AVR); chastota va tok bo‘yicha avtomatik yuksizlantirish qurilmalari (ACHR va ATR) kiradi.
Bundan tashqari AVR quyidagilarga imkon yaratadi:
a) Elektr ta'minoti ishonchliligini oshirish bilan bir qatorda yig‘ma shinalarni qo‘llamaslik hisobiga podstansiyalar sxemasini soddalashtirish va arzonlashtirish;
b) liniya va transformatorlarning parallel ishlash hollarini qollamaslik;
v) podstansiyalardagi navbatchi hodimlar sonini qisqartirish, ba’zi hollarda esa ulardan umuman voz kechish.
Zaxiraviy manbani avtomatik ravishda ulash qurilmasidan foydalanish, qurilma elektr ta'minotidagi uzilish natijasida ko‘rilgan zarar AVR qurilmasi qiymatidan ancha yuqori bo‘lgan barcha holatlarda foydalaniladi.
Ulanishi bo‘yicha AVR quyidagi turlarga bo‘linadi:
1. Kabel va havo liniyalarida AVR - kuchlanish yo‘qolganda yoki ta’minlovchi liniya uzilganda ishga tushadi;
2. Transformatorlarda AVR - ishchi transformatorlarni himoyasini istalgan turi yordamida o‘chirilganda yoki qo‘lda noto‘g‘ri o‘chirilganda ishga tushadi.
3. Yig‘ma shinalar AVR - berilgan seksiya yoki shinalar tizimida kuchlanish yo‘qolganda ishga tushadi.
4. Elektr yuritgichlar AVR - istalgan himoya turi yordamida o‘chirilganda ishga tushadi. AVR qurilmasi o‘zgaruvchan va o‘zgarmas operativ tok uchun mo‘ljallanadi. Operativ o‘zgaruvchan tok manbasi bo‘lib AVR qurilmasi sxemasiga qarab ishchi yoki zahira kirish qismiga yoki podstansiyalar shinalariga o‘rnatilgan kuchlanish transformatorlari xizmat qiladi.
Elektr ta’minlash tizimlarida AVR ishining samaradorligi 90-95 % ni tashkil etadi. Sxemalarining soddaligi va yuqori samaradorligi sababli, AVR qurilmalaridan elektr tarmoqlarida va energotizimlarda keng ko‘lamda qo‘llaniladi.
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Eritmadan moddaning adsorbilanishi

Eritmadan moddaning adsorbilanishi. Tajribada qattiq jism sirtiga
yutilgan erigan modda miqdorini aniqlash uchun, uning kontsentratsiyasini
kamayishi yoki adsorbent og’irligining ortishi o‘lchanib quyidagi tenglama
orqali topiladi.
1000
1
0
m V C C Г C
0
va C
1
- moddaning adsorbsiyaga qadar va adsorbsiyadan keyingi
kontsentratsiyalari, mol’/l; V – eritmaning xajmi, l; m – adsorbent og’irligi g;
1000 – perevodnoy mnojitel’ (dlya perevoda izmeryaemoy velichini v
mmol’/g).
Adsorbilanish darajasi yutuvchi va yutiluvchi moddalarning tabiatiga,
haroratga, gazning bosimiga yoki eritmaning kontsentratsiyasiga, shuningdek,
adsorbentning solishtirma sirtiga bog’liqdir. Ionlar adsorbsiyasi. Molekulyar adsorbsiya bilan bir katorda ionlar
adsorbsiyasi ham mavjud. Ionlar adsorbsiyasi ko‘pincha qaytmas protsessdir.
eritmani suyultirish bilan desorbtsiya ketmaydi, temperatura oshishi bilan
ko‘pincha ionlar adsorbsiyasi oshadi. Bu esa erigan modda zarrachalarining
14-rasm. Sirt tarangligi izotermasi orqali adsorbsiya izotermasining o‘zgarishi.
76
suyuklik sirtida va uning xajmida baravar bir tekis tarkalmaganligi natijasida
suyuq fazada sirt chegara xosil bulishiga olib keladi va eritmaning sirt kavatida
ionlar kontsentratsiyasining eritmadagiga karaganda kam bo‘lishiga sababchi
bo‘ladi. Ya`ni bu erda manfiy adsorbsiya kuzatiladi. Natijada eritmaning sirt
kavati manfiy zaryadga ega bulib qoladi. Ionlarning eritma sirtida manfiy
adsorbilanishiga sabab, ionlarning gidratatsiyasi energiyasi suv molekulalarining
bir-biri bilan birikish energiyasidan katta bo‘ladi. Bu hol sirt tarangligining
ko‘payishiga olib keladi. Sirt tarangligi katta ekan, demak manfiy adsorbsiya
bo‘ladi.
Ba`zi vaqtlarda ionlar adsorbsiyasi molekulyar xarakterga ega bo‘ladi.
elektrolit eritmasidagi ham anion va ham kation bir xil ekvivalent miqdorda
yutilsa molekulyar adsorbsiya bo‘ladi.
Ionlar adsorbsiyasining molekulyar adsorbsiyadan farqi, bunda tanlab
ketish va almashinish adsorbsiyasi ketadi. Tanlab ketish adsorbsiyada yoki
kationlar yoki anionlar adsorbilanadi. Bunda adsorbsiya yutuvchi modda
tabiatiga, ion zaryadining ishorasiga, yutiluvchi modda tabiatiga ham bog’liq
bo‘ladi (valentlik, zarrachalar radiusi, sol’vatlanish darajasi).
Kationlarning adsorbsiyasida valentlikni ta`siri katta. Kationning
valentligi qancha katta bo‘lsa, uning adsorbsiyasi shuncha ko‘p bo‘ladi. bir xil
valentlikka ega bo‘lgan ionlar xar xil adsorbilanadi, bunga sabab, ionlarning
razmeri va gidratlanish darajasining xar xil bo‘lishidir. Radius qancha katta
bo‘lsa ionlar shuncha kam gidratlanadi va adsorbsiya shuncha ko‘p bo‘ladi.
Bir xil valentli ionlar adsorbilanish jihatdan quyidagi qatorga joylashadi:
Sb
+
>Rb
+
>K
+
>Na
+
>Si
+
(kationlar uchun)
CNS
-
>J
-
>Br
-
>Cl
-
(anionlar uchun)
Bu qatorda xar bir keyingi element, o‘zidan oldin kelgan elementdan kam
adsorbilanadi. Bunday qatorni Liotrop qatori deyiladi.
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Ionlar kolloid zarracha sirtida ayniqsa yaxshi adsorbilanadi. SHuning
uchun kolloidlarda elektr zaryadining miqdori va ishorasi shu ionlarning
borligiga bog’liq bo‘ladi.
III. Grafik qism - Elektrotexnika fakulteti» «Elektrotexnika, elektromexanika va elektrotexnologiyalar

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Elektrotexnika fakulteti» «Elektrotexnika, elektromexanika va elektrotexnologiyalar
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Bog'liq AZAMJONOV OMADILLO BMIIII. Grafik qism.
3.1. Ishlab turgan «Oltin vodiy» - 110/10 kV podstansiyasi elektr ta’minotining bir chiziqli sxemasi.
IV. Xulosa va takliflar.
Ushbu diplom loyixasini kirish qismida diplom loyixasi mavzusini dolzarbligi va maqsadi bayon etildi.
Diplom loyixasini umimiy qismida podstansiyalar va tarqatish qurilmalari, podstansiyalarning turlari, podstansiyalarning o‘rnatish joylari va elektr energiya iste’molchilarining toifalari taxlil etildi va podstansiyadagi taqsimlash qurilmalari va ish jarayonidagi muammolar aniqlandi.
Diplom loyixasini maxsus qismida podstansiya qurilmalarning ish rejimlari va yuklamalarni hisoblash usullarini tahlil qildik. Rele himoyasi avtomatikasi u yerda o‘rnatilgan himoya turlari batafsil o‘rganib chiqildi. Qurilmalarni ta’mirlashni tashkil etish bo‘limida podstansiyadagi muammolarni bartaraf etish maqsadida va yopiq taqsimlash qurilmalarini ishlash holatini yaxshilash va sifatli elektr energiyasini yetkazib berish va ishonchlilikni oshirish uchun bir nechta variantlar taklif qilindi. Ularni texnik ko‘rsatkichlari va ishlash quvvati, texnik iqtisodiy ko‘rsatkichlari va o‘rnatilish va ekspluatatsiyaga tayyorlash harajatlari hisoblandi.
Rekonstruksiya qilinayotgan yopiq taqsimlash qurilmalarning iqtisodiy samaradorligi taxlil etilib uning iqtisodiy samarador ekanligi ko‘rsatildi.
Podsansiyalardagi yopiq taqsimlash qurilmalarini ishlatish va ta’mirlashda xavfsizlik texnikasi qismida elektr tokining kishi organizmiga ta’siri, elektr tokidan shikastlanish sabablari, elektr qurilmalarida qo‘llaniladigan ximoya vositalari va elektr tokidan shikastlanganlarga birinchi yordam ko‘rsatish masalalari o‘rganildi. Ish jarayonida va ekspluatatsiyaga tayyorlash mobaynida ishchi hodimlar shxasiy himoya vosiyalaridan unumli foydalanishi, foydalanishdan oldin himoya vositalari soz holda ekanini tekshirish muhim ekanligi eslatib o‘tildi.
Yopiq taqsimlash qurilmalarini o‘rnatish jarayonida PUE ga asosan texnika xavfsizligi qoidalariga rioya qilish tahlil qilindi.
Podstansiyani bir chizikli va umumiy sxemasi tuzildi, podstansiyani zaminlash va podstansiyani atmosfera o‘ta kuchlanishdan ximoyalash tizimi xisoblandi.
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DMAD texnologik tizimi bikirligi yuza g„adir – budurligiga ta‟siri

114
Ishqalanuvchi yuzalarni eyilishi ma‟lum egri chiziq bo„yicha boradi (3.13–
rasm)
qism-birlamchi eyilish davri,
qism – meyorli, ekspluatatsion eyilish davri.
U ishni to„g„ri olib borishda va moylashni yaxshi amalga oshirishda o„z oq muddat
davom etadi,
qism – halokatli eyilish davri.
3.13 – rasm.
1 – egri chiziq g„adir – budurligi yuqori bo„lgan yuza eyilishini, 2 – egri chiziq
esa g„adir – budurligi kichik bo„lgan yuza eyilishini ifodalaydi. Ko„rinib turibdiki,
ikkinchi holda birlamchi eyilish kattaligi va vaqti kamayadi, ekpluatatsion meyorli
eyilish davri esa o„zgarmay qoladi.
Detallar yuzalarining to„lqinsimonligi

107
To„lqinsimonlik balandligi
– beshtadan kam bo„lmagan haqiqiy eng katta S
w
qadamlariga teng bo„lgan o„lchash uzunligi L
w
da aniqlangan (W, W... W) o„rtacha
arifmetik qiymatidir (3.7,a- rasm).
o„lchash uzunliklari ketma-ket joylashmagan bo„lishi mumkin.
W
z
ning sonli chekka qiymatlari quyidagi qatordan tanlanishi
lozim; 0,1; 0,2; 0,4; 0,8; 1,6; 3,2; 6,3; 12,5; 25; 50; 100 200 mkm.
To„lqinsimonliknining alohida o„lchanishi L
w
uzunligining 1/5
ga teng
bo„lgan
l
wi
qismida bajariladi.
To„lqinsimonlikning eng katta balandligi W
max
– bir to„lqinda o„lchangan L
w
chegarasidagi o„lchangan profilning eng baland va eng pastdagi nuqtalar orasidagi
masofa.
To„lqisimonlikning o„rtacha qadami Sw-
to„lqinsimonlik profilining qo„shni
qismlari bilan kesishgan nuqtalari orqali chegaralangan o„rta
chiziqning kesmalari
uzunligi S
wi
ning o„rtacha arifmetik qiymatidir (3.7b- rasm).
S
w
=
1
1
n
Wi
i
n
S
o„rta chiziq m
w
ning joylashishi g„adir-budurlikning o„rta chizig„i m
joylashishi singari aniqlanadi. To„lqinlarning shakli ularning paydo bo„lishi
sabablariga bog„liq. Ko„pincha to„lqin-simonlik sinusoidal tavsifga ega bo„lib, kesish
kuchlari
bir tekis emasligi, muvozanatlanmagan masalar mavjudligi, uzatmalar
xatoliklari tufayli dastgoh-moslama-asbob-detal (DMAD)
tizimining tebranishi
natijasida hosil bo„ladi[9].
To„lqinsimonlikni chizmalarda belgilash va me‟yorlash uchun alohida shartli
belgilar joriy qilinmagani uchun ularni meyyorlashda texnikaviy talablarda tegishli
ko„rsatmalar beriladi.
Partiya detallariga avvaldan sozlangan dastgohda ishlov berishda ishlov

123
Quyumga ta‟sir qiluvchi omillarning qiymatlari texnologik ma‟lumotnomalarda
berilgan va ularning qiymati tayyorlamaning shakli va o„lchamiga, materialiga,
tayyorlamani tayyorlash usuliga va ishlov berish usuliga bog„liq.
Hisoblangan minimal quyimlar asosida maksimal quyim quyidagi formulalar
orqali hisoblanadi:
-tashqi yuzalarga ishlov berishda :
Z
imax
= Z
imin
+TD
i-1
-TD
i
-ichki yuzalarga ishlov berishda :
2 Z
imax
= 2 Z
imin
+TD
i-1
-TD
i
bu erda; TD
i-1
va TD
i
– oldingi va bajarilayotgan operatsiyalardagi o„lcham
joizligi.
R
a - O„zbekiston respublikasi oliy va o„rta maxsus ta‟lim vazirligi a. A. Safoev, E. A. Normatov, I. Ya. Rajabov

102
budurlikko„rsatkichlario„rtaqiymatlariningnominalqiymatidanjoizog„ishlari
%
hisobidako„rsatilishilozim,
masalan,
10,
20,
yoki
40
%.
og„ishlarbirtomonlamayokisimmetrikbo„lishimumkin[8].
3.2-rasm. Har xil shaklli, lekin R
a
ning bir qiymatiga ega bo„lgan yuza
notekisliklari profillarining sxemasi
Ko„rsatkichlarning nominal qiymati ko„rsatilgan g„adir-budurlikka bo„lgan
talablar faqat ma‟suliyatli detallarga joriy etilishi tavsiya qilinadi. Yuza g„adir-
budurligiga talablar joriy qilinmagan bo„lsa yuza nazorat qilinmaydi.
Notekisliklar yo„nalishiga bo„lgan talablar asoslangan hollarda va u yuzaning
sifatini ta‟minlovchi yagona usul bo„lsa, ishlov usuli (yoki usullarning ketma-ketligi)
ko„rsatiladi. Eng kichik ishqalanish koeffisienti va ishqalanuvchi detallarning eyilishi
harakati va notekisliklar yo„nalishlari bir-biriga mos kelmaganda, masalan,
superfinishlash yoki xonlash jarayonida hosil bo„lgan notekisliklarning ixtiyoriy
yo„nalishida ta‟minlanadi.
Metall yuza qatlamini plastik va elastik deformatsiyalanishi

112
3.10– rasm. Surishni yuza g„adir-budurligiga ta‟siri
Kesish chuqurligini yuza g„adir-budurligiga ta‟siri ham past.Mikronotekisliklar,
shuningdek, asbobni orqa yuzasini ishlov berilayotgan yuza bo„yicha ishqalanishidan
ham kelib chiqadi va u kesuvchi asbobni eyilishi bilan ortadi.
Yuza g„adir – budurligiga tayyorlama materialini mexanik xosalari, kimyoviy
tarkibi va tuzilishi ta‟sir ko„rsatadi.
Ishlov berilayotgan material qattiqligini ortishida yuza g„adir-budurligi
balandligi kamayadi, qovushqoqligi yuqori bo„lgan materiallarga ishlov berishda esa,
ortadi.
Ishlov berish jarayonida moyulovchi – sovutuvchi suyuqliklarni qo„llash yuza
g„adir – budurligini, ularni ishlatmagan xolga qaraganda 25-40% ga kamaytiradi.
Tatu baza kanali uchun maxsus

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Tatu baza kanali uchun maxsus
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bet | 1/33 | Sana | 11.01.2024 | Hajmi | 104,6 Kb. | | #135111 |
Bog'liq 1. struct kalit so\'zi yordamida qanday tuzilma yaratiladi A yoz-fayllar.org
1. struct kalit so'zi yordamida qanday tuzilma yaratiladi? A yozuv b birlashma c matritsa
TATU BAZA KANALI UCHUN MAXSUS
1. STRUCT kalit so'zi yordamida qanday tuzilma yaratiladi?
A) Yozuv
B) Birlashma
C) Matritsa
D) Vektor
2. C++ tilida tuzilmani yaratish uchun ishlatiladigan kalit so'zi?
A) struct
B) structure
C) record
D) object
3. Ma'lumotlar tuzilmasi nima?
A) Bu ma'lumot elementlari va ular orasidagi munosabatlar majmuasi
B) Bu ma'lumot elementlari majmuasi
C) Bu elementlar orasidagi munosabatlar amali
D) bu ma'lumot elementlari va ular orasidagi relyasion munosabatlar majmuasi
4. Qaysi kalit so'z butun sonli o'zgaruvchi faqat musbat qiymatlarni qabul qilishini ko'rsatadi??
A) unsigned
B) positive
C) extern
D) signed
5. Ma'lumotlar tuzilmasi ustida qanday to'rtta asosiy amal bajariladi?
A) yaratish, o'chirish, tanlash (ruxsat olish), yangilash
B) yaratish, o'chirish, kengaytirish, yangilash
C) yaratish, tanlash (ruxsat olish), kengaytirish, yangilash
D) yaratish, o'chirish, kengaytirish, tanlash (ruxsat olish)
6. Ma'lumotlar tuzilmasi mazmunli (matematik) bosqichda ... ?
A) konkret obyektning qayta ishlash, ularning xussusiyatlari va munosabatlarini tadqiq qilinadi
B) kompyuter xotirasida ma'lumotlarni aks ettirilishi tadqiq qilinadi
C) berilgan talabalar bo'yicha algoritmni ishlab chiqilishi tadqiq qilinadi
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§ 10. QATTIQ JISMLARNING SIRT TARANGLIGI VA TO`LIQ

57
1. Agar suyuqlik molekulalarining o‘zaro tortishish kuchi suyuqlik molekulalari
bilan qattiq jism molekulalari orasidagi tortishish kuchidan kam bo‘lsa, suyuqlik
qattiq jismni ho‘llaydi.
Suyuqlik sirtiga o‘tkazilgan urinma bilan qattiq jism sirtiga o‘tkazilgan
urinma orasidagi burchak chet burchak (yoki ho‘llanish burchagi) deb ataladi va
θ harfi bilan ifodalanadi. Agar suyuqlik qattiq jismni ho‘llasa, chet burchak
o‘tkir, ya`ni θ≤π/2 bo‘ladi. Agar θ=0 bo‘lsa, suyuqlik qattiq jismni to‘la
ho‘llagan bo‘ladi. 6-rasmda vertikal qattiq jismni ho‘llayotgan suyuqlik va
suyuqlikning gorizontal qattiq jism sirtiga tushirilgan tomchisi tasvirlangan.
Pnevmomexanik yigiruv mashinasini yigirish qurilmasini konstruktiv

8.8. Pnevmomexanik yigiruv mashinasini yigirish qurilmasini konstruktiv xususiyatlari Yigirish qurilmasi, uni sxemasi 8.15-rasmda keltirilgan, BD rusumidagi
pnevmomexanik yigiruv mashinasini asosiy elementi xisoblanadi. Qurilma tarkibiga
asosiy texnologik operatsiyalarni: piltani uzatish tolalarni ajratish va ularni
shakllantiruvchi qurilmaga tashish, kalavani shakllantirish va burama berish
kabilarni bajarilishini taiminlovchi bir qator mexanizmlar kiradi. Birlamchi materialni
(piltalarni) taiminlovchisilindr 1 bilan tolalarga bo„lish va ularni piltalash asosiy
masasida ajratishga mo„ljallangan arrachali garniturali tarovchi barabanchaga 2
uzatish amalga oshiriladi.
Barabanchalarsilindrik qobiqliklarda joylashgan podshipniklardagi vallarda
aylanadi. Markazdan qochma kuch taisirida tolalar tashuvchi kanal orqali yigiruv
kamerasi 4 ga tushadi.
Burama shakllantiruvchi mexanizm kamera podshipniklarida valida aylanuvchi
seperator 5 va ip o„tkazuvchi detallardan iborat. Shakllantirilgan kalava separator
o„qidagi teshik orqali trubaga chiqariladi va so„ngra o„rovchi mexanizmga uzatiladi.
Yigirish qurilmasini ipi uzilishi elektr datchigi 3 tomonidan nazorat qilinadi, u
yigirish qurilmasi korpusi qopqog„ida joylashgan bo„ladi.
Yigirish qurilmasi mexanizmlari va detallari mashina yuritmasini chervyakli
valini trubaqobig„ida qotirilgan korpusga montaj qilinadi.
236
8.15-rasm. Yigiruv qurilmasi
Yigirish qurilmasi ko„p miqdordagi mexanizmlar va detallarini o„z ichiga oladi
va ularni tayyorlash, sozlash va rostlash yuqori aniqligini talab etadi. Yigirish
qurilmasini eng muxim elementlari bo„lib burama shakllantiruvchi kamera, tarovchi
barabancha va separator hisoblanadi.
VII.6. Kichik guruhlardagi dinamik jarayonlar 130

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VII.6. Kichik guruhlardagi dinamik jarayonlar 130
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bet | 45/143 | Sana | 13.05.2024 | Hajmi | 3,89 Mb. | | #229196 | Turi | Учебник |
Bog'liq Darslik tayyor 2024VII.6. Kichik guruhlardagi dinamik jarayonlar 130
VII.7. Guruh o‘lchamlari va uning tizimi 131
VII.8. Jamoalarda psixologik o‘zaro moslik 132
VII.9. Guruhdagi psixologik muhit va uni o‘rganish 135
VII.10. Katta guruhlar psixologiyasi 137
VII.11. Etnik guruhlar psixologiyasi 138
Mavzuni o‘zlashtirish uchun savollar 142
Bilimlarni mustahkamlash uchun test savollari 143
1.Kimning kitobidagi klassifikatsiya guruhlarning asosiy turlari haqida ma’lumotlar berilgan? 143
2.Andreyeva har qanday kishilar guruhini qanday guruhlarga ajratadi? 143
3.Qaysi guruh o‘z ichida endi shakllanayotgan diffuz va taraqqiyotning yuksak pog‘onasiga ko‘tarila olgan jamoa turlariga bo‘linadi? 143
VIIIBOB. OLOMON PSIXOLOGIYASI 147
VIII.1. Olomonning umumiy tavsifi. Uning ruhiy birdamlik qonuni 147
VIII.2. «Olomon» tushunchasi va uning turlari 150
VIII.3. Olomonni harakatga keltiruvchi psixologik mexanizmlar 153
VIII.4. Olomon tarkibida mutaassib shaxslarni aniqlashda profayling 167
metodining ahamiyati 167
VII.5. Olomonni boshqarishning psixologik usullari 174
Ommaviy tadbirlar mazmuni va yo‘nalishiga qarab quyidagi turlarga bo‘lish mumkin: 178
Mavzuni o‘zlashtirish uchun savollar 180
Bilimlarni mustahkamlash uchun test savollari 180
1.Fikrlovchi shaxsning yo‘qolib ketishi va odamlarning his va fikrlari bir aniq yo‘nalishga kirishi qaysi fenomenni xarakterlaydigan bosh qirra hisoblanadi? 180
3.Olomon o‘z qahramonidan kuch ishlatishni talab qilgan paytda qaysi ambivalent hissiyotlar paydo bo‘ladi? 181
4.Olomon psixologiyasining eng hayron qolarli belgisi uning affektivligi, qahr- g‘azabining junbushga kelishi ekanligini kim ta’kidlagan? 181
5.Olomon atamasi sotsial psixologiyaga qachon kirib kelgan? 181
6.O‘z tabiatiga ko‘ra olomon qanday turlarga bo‘linadi? 181
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Kurs ishining dolzarbligi - Oliy talim, fan va innovatsiyalar vazirligi. Denov tadbirkorlik va pedagogika instituti...

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Oliy talim, fan va innovatsiyalar vazirligi. Denov tadbirkorlik va pedagogika instituti aniq va tabiiy fanlar
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bet | 2/9 | Sana | 29.05.2024 | Hajmi | 255,01 Kb. | | #257129 |
Bog'liq Do\'stmatov Asomiddin Kurs ishining dolzarbligi: Kvant elektronikasi - hozirgi zamon fizikasini elektromagnit to’lqinlami majburiy nurlanish vositasida yuzaga keltirish (generatsiyalash) hamda ularni kuchaytirish usullarini o‘rganuvchi muhirn qismi hisoblanadi. Bunda optik kvant kuchaytirgichlar va generatorlaming xususiyatlari hamda ulaming turli maqsadlarda qo‘llanilish vositalari o‘rganiladi. Optik kvant generatorlar (OKG) - lazerlarning, yuqori energiyaga ega bo‘lishi lazer nurining ajoyib xususiyatlari namoyon bo‘lishi bilan boģliqdir. Kvant generatorlarining yorug‘lik nurlari chiqaruvchilari optik kvant generator yoki lazer nomini olgan. Lazer so‘zi inglizcha “Light amplification by stimulated emission ofradiation ” so‘zlarining bosh harflaridan tuzilgan qisqartirilgan nom bo‘lib ‘majburiy nurlanish vositasida yoruģlik nurlanishini kuchaytirish, degan ma’noni bildiradi.
Kurs ishining maqsadi: Lazer nurlarining xususiyatlarini o`rganish va turlari va modulyasiya qilish; ularni amaliyotda qo`llash istiqbollarini izlash.
Kurs ishining vazifalari: Ushbu maqsadni amalga oshirish uchun quyidagi asosiy masalalami hal etish nazarda tutiladi:
1. Lazerlar va ularning turlari
2. Lazerlar fizikasi
3. Lazerlarning ishlash tamoyilida atomlarning o’rni
4. Yarim o’tkazgichli lazerlar va ularning foydali xususiyatlarini jamiyat hayotiga yanada kengroq tadbiq qilish istiqbollarini aniqlash va boshqalar.
Kurs ishining obyekti va predmeti: Lazerlar va ular bo’yicha izlanish olib borayotgan o’zbek va jahon olimlarining ilmiy asarlari, maqolalari, darsliklar va lazerli qurilmalar
Kurs ishining amaliy ahamiyati: Jamiyat hayotini yanada yuksaltirish, tabiiy resurslarni tejash va tabiatni asrash, muqobil energiya turlaridan yanada unumli foydalanish.
Kurs ishining tuzilishi: Kurs ishi 29 betdan iborat bo’lib, kirish, ikki bob, to’qqiz bo’lim, xulosa va foydalanilgan adabiyotlar ro’yxatidan iborat.
I BOB.YARIMO’TKAZGICHLARNING LAZER TEXNOLOGIYASI
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Yuza g„adir – budurligiga ta‟sir etuvchi omillar

110
3.8 – rasm. G„adir-budurlik hosil bo„lishini geometrik sabablari
Masalan,
surish qiymatini S
2
gacha kamaytirilganda notekislik balandligi R
z
kamayadi (b). Rejadagi burchaklar
va
1
ni o„zgarishi
nofaqat balandlikka, balki
yuza shakliga ham ta‟sir ko„rsatadi (v). CHo„qqisi dumaloqlashtirilgan keskichlarni
qo„llash yuza notekisligini kamayutiradi (d).
Dumaloqlashtirish radiusini
kattalashtirish g„adir-budurlik balandligi R
z
ni kamayutiradi.
Tokarlashdag„adir-budurliknihosilbo„lishini
geometrik
nuqtai-nazardan
yuqoridagidek
R
z
notekisliklarni
surish
qiymati
Sva
kesgich
uchidagi
dumaloqlashtirish radiusi r ga bog„liq holda aniqlash taklif etilgan ya‟ni
r
S
R
z
8
/
2
Kesuvchi asbobni tayyorlashda va u o„tmaslashib qolganda asbobni kesuvchi
qirrasida notekisliklar va o„yiqchalar xosil bo„lib, ular ma‟lum
tarzda ishlov berilgan
yuza g„adir-budurligini oshiradi. Asbob tigini notekisligini ishlov berilgan yuza
g„adir-budurligiga ta‟siri ayniqsa kichik surishlar bilan nafis tokarlashda, tig„
notekisligi R
z
kattaligi bilan yaqin teng bo„lganda, ayniqsa sezilarli bo„ladi.
Kesuvchi asbob o„tmaslashib qolganda va unda o„yiqchalar paydo bo„lganda
ishlov berilgan yuza g„adir – budurligi tokarlashda – 50-60%, frezerlashda - 30-
115%, parmalashda – 30-40% va razvertkalashda – 20-30% ortadi.
Ishlov berilgan yuza g„adir-budurligini
oshishiga, shuningdek kesish tig„ini
dumaloqlashtirish radiusini oshishi ham sabab bo„ladi, u metall yuzasidan
deformasiyalanishini oshiradi va natijada yuza g„adir-budurligi ham ortadi.
YUqoridagi salbiy sabablarini yo„qotish uchun asbob sifatli va o„z vaqtida qayta
charxlanishi kerak.
R
z
R
z
R
z
R
z