nyuuzyou/kompy huggingface dataset:
INTERNET: TA'LIM - Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining

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Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining
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bet | 60/133 | Sana | 15.01.2024 | Hajmi | 5,97 Mb. | | #137781 |
Bog'liq web education uzINTERNET: TA'LIM OLISH VA O'QITISH
Maqsadlar
Internet va ta’lim o‘rtasidagi bog‘liqlikni tushunish, buning sabab va oqibatlarini tahlil qilish
haqiqat.
Ta'lim sohasida Internetning ba'zi imkoniyatlari va cheklovlarini aniqlash.
Masofaviy ta'lim qanday tashkil etilgan
Darslik ishi
Har bir o'quv jarayonida - va Internetda ham - talaba o'z ta'limining asosiy ishtirokchisidir. • Talabalarning o'quv jarayonida ularga maslahat beradigan, hamrohlik qiladigan va yo'l-yo'riq ko'rsatadigan repetitorlari va ba'zi maslahatchilar bor
ularni o'rganish vazifasini bajarishga
yo'naltiring. • Treningda Internet tarmog'i orqali talabalar o'zlarining maslahatlari, takliflari, savollari va baholarini www.ziyouz.com kutubxonasi
elektron pochta yoki forum orqali professorning repetitorlik idorasi.
Professor-o'qituvchilar o'z yo'nalishlari va maslahatlarini elektron pochta orqali amalga
oshiradilar. • Repetitorlik idorasi kuniga 24 soat ishlaydi. Bu hamma uchun afzallik va tejamkorlikdir.
Internet orqali repetitorlik va trening
O'quv jarayonlarida repetitorlik katta ahamiyatga ega. O'qituvchi-talaba bilan bog'lanish quyidagi ishlarni osonlashtiradi: belgilangan chiziqdan yuqoriga va belgilangan maqsadlarga erishish.
Internet elektron pochta kabi boshqa xizmatlardan foydalangan holda mavjudlik munosabatlarini almashtiradi.
Xizmat tez va kafolatlash orqali masofaviy ta'limda yuz berishi mumkin bo'lgan izolyatsiya hissini bartaraf qilishi mumkin o'qituvchi bilan doimiy aloqa.
O'qituvchi uchun Internet qo'shimcha kuchli vositani taklif qiladi, chunki talaba ko'plab savollarga javob beradi Ularning javoblari Internetda bo'lishi mumkin. Bunday hollarda o'qituvchi qulay Internetni taklif qilishi kerak manzil.
Elektron pochta yozma muloqot usuli bo'lganligi sababli, savollarni yanada ob'ektiv ravishda taqdim etishga yordam beradi, ko'proq refleksli va o'ylangan usul.
Masofaviy ta'lim shakli talabasi uchun o'z ishini baholay olish juda muhimdir. Bu jarayon
talaba buni qanday qilishni bilsa, osonlashtirilishi mumkin. Shunday qilib, o'qituvchi eng muhim sohalarni ko'rsatishi kerak aniq materiallarda talabaning faolligi. Bu erda, masalan, shaxsiy baholashni osonlashtiradigan ba'zi qoidalar
yuqorida keltirilgan materiallar bo'yicha uning faoliyati:
Raqamli davrda madaniy o'zgarishlarning ma'nosini aniqlang. • Yangi davrda qaysi qadriyatlar ustunlik qilishi kerakligini ko'rsating. •
Jamiyat uchun foydalarni aniqlang, agar yangi davr qadriyatlari unga global miqyosda ta'sir qilsa, bu umumiy bo'lishi mumkin. • Internet va elektron pochta bilan ishlashda erishilgan muvaffaqiyat va xatolar sonini ko'rsating. • Olingan hujjatlar va o'zaro almashishlardan o'rgangan eng qiziqarli narsani ko'rsating
Internet.
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-MA’RUZA. BINAR ARALAShMALARNING ASOSIY FIZIK-KIMYoVIY XUSUSIYaTLARI

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-MA’RUZA. BINAR ARALAShMALARNING ASOSIY FIZIK-KIMYoVIY XUSUSIYaTLARI
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bet | 47/64 | Sana | 03.12.2023 | Hajmi | 6,57 Mb. | | #110142 |
Bog'liq Ma\'ruza matnlari (5)21-MA’RUZA. BINAR ARALAShMALARNING ASOSIY FIZIK-KIMYoVIY XUSUSIYaTLARI
Ko‘riladigan masalalar.
1. O‘zaro erimaydigan aralashmalar
2. O‘zaro eriydigan tarkibiy qismlarga ega bo‘lgan binar aralashmalar
Raul qonuni.
Muvozanat diagrammasi
Ko‘pincha qayta haydash deb ataladigan distillyatsiyalash va rektifikatsiyalash o‘zida suyuq aralashmalarning tarkibiy qismlarga ajralishining shunday termik jarayonini taqdim qiladiki, bunda qaynayotgan aralashmadan xuddi o‘sha tarkibiy qismlarni - biroq endi boshqa proporsiyada o‘z ichiga olgan bug‘lar ajraladi. Odatda bug‘larda berilgan bosimda nisbatan past qaynash temperaturasiga ega bo‘lgan yengil qaynaydigan tarkibiy qismlarning foyiz miqdori suyuq aralashmaning o‘ziga qaraganda ko‘p bo‘ladi [L. 5, 12, 34]. Aralashmani, olingan bug‘larni to‘liq kondensatsiyalash bilan qayta haydash – distillyatsiyalash, xuddi o‘sha bitta aralashmaning o‘zini bug‘larning ko‘p martalik qisman kondensatsiyalanishi va separatsiyalanishi bilan qayta haydash – rektifikatsiyalash deb ataladi.
Distillyatsion i rektifikatsion qurilmalar sanoatning oziq-ovqat, neftni qayta ishlash, kimyo va boshqa bir qator tarmoqlarida keng qo‘llanilishga ega bo‘lgan.
Aralashmalarni qayta haydash yo‘li bilan, masalan, sof yoki konsentratsiyalangan holda quyidagi mahsulotlar: etil spirti, benzol, sirka kislotasi, krekinglashdagi gazlar, neftni qayta ishlash mahsulotlari - xloropren, nitrotoluol, benzolni xlorlash mahsulotlari, anilinli suv, ammiak va boshqa ko‘plab oraliq mahsulotlar va turli-tuman sanoat chiqindilari ajratib olinadi. Qayta haydashda ko‘p tarkibiy qismli aralashmalar ham, binar (ikkita tarkibiy qismdan iborat bo‘lgan) aralashmalar ham ajratilishi mumkin. Mazkur kursda faqatgina binar aralashmalarni qayta haydash ko‘rib chiqiladi.
BINAR ARALAShMALARNING ASOSIY FIZIKAVIY-KIMYoVIY XUSUSIYaTLARI
Distillyatsiyalash va rektifikatsiyalash jarayonini o‘rganishda binar aralashmalarni uchta klassga ajratish mumkin: amalda o‘zaro erimaydigan tarkibiy qismlarga ega bo‘lgan aralashmalar, biri ikkinchisida to‘liq eriydigan tarkibiy qismlarga ega bo‘lgan eritmalar va qisman eriydigan tarkibiy qismlarga ega bo‘lgan eritmalar.
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O'QITUVCHILAR - Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining

O'QITUVCHILAR UCHUN INTERNET. AMALIY KURS
Veb-sahifalarni o'qish
Veb-sahifalarni ko'rib chiqishda foydalanuvchi ekranni belgilash uchun sozlashni tanlashi mumkin:
Matn hajmi
Matnning beshta o'lchamidan birini tanlash mumkin - eng kichikdan kattagacha. Buni Ko'rish/Matn o'lchami asosiy menyusining buyruqlari va asboblar panelidan to'g'ridan-to'g'ri Matn o'lchami tugmasi orqali amalga oshirish mumkin.
Kodlash
Elektron pochtada bo'lgani kabi, veb-sahifalarni kezishda ba'zida matn kodlash tufayli ekran matni o'qilmasligi mumkin. Foydalanuvchi Ko'rish/Kodlash buyrug'i orqali kerakli variantni tanlagan holda kodlash turini o'zgartirishi mumkin.
Matn, fon va havolalarning ranglari
Asboblar/Internet Options menyusida Ranglar tugmasini bosish mumkin . Ochilgan oynalarda foydalanuvchi Internetdan veb-sahifalarni yuklab olishda foydalaniladigan matn va fon rangi uchun sozlamalarni belgilashi mumkin. Rang sxemasi va dizaynni batafsil aniqlash uchun Windows ranglarini ishlatish bayrog'idan foydalanish mumkin.
Xuddi shu oynada foydalanuvchi giperhavolalar uchun ranglarni tanlashi mumkin - foydalanuvchi tashrif buyurgan yoki tashrif buyurmagan. Havolalar tagiga chizishni rad qilish uchun (bu kerak emas, chunki havolalar allaqachon ranglar bilan belgilangan) bayroqni o'chirish tavsiya etiladi.
Shriftlar
Veb-sahifalar foydalanuvchining kompyuterida mavjud bo'lmagan sukut bo'yicha shriftlar to'plami bilan yaratilishi mumkin. Shuning uchun bunday sahifalarni o'qish, chop etish yoki veb-sahifani saqlash uchun qanday shriftlardan foydalanish kerakligini aniqlash tavsiya etiladi. Buni Tools/Internet Options menyusidagi Shriftlar tugmasi orqali chaqiriladigan Shriftlar oynasidan amalga oshirish mumkin .
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-jadval. Xesh - Oʻzbekiston respublikasi oliy va oʻrta maxsus ta’lim vazirligi begbo’tayev

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Oʻzbekiston respublikasi oliy va oʻrta maxsus ta’lim vazirligi begbo’tayev
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bet | 200/216 | Sana | 19.07.2024 | Hajmi | 7,52 Mb. | | #267965 |
Bog'liq 5ffd2d83d9d2c (1)1-jadval. Xesh funksiyalar tahlili
MD5 xesh funksiyasi algoritmi Massachusets texnologiya instituti professori Ronald Rivest tomonidan 1992 yilda ishlab chiqilgan. Bu algoritmda kiruvchi ma’lumot uzunligi ixtiyoriy bo‘lib, xesh qiymat uzunligi 128 bit bo‘ladi. MD 5 xesh funksiyasi algoritmida kiruvchi ma’lumot 512 bitlik bloklarga ajratilib, ular 16 ta 32 bitlik qism bloklarga ajratiladi va bular ustida amallar bajariladi. Faraz qilaylik, bizga uzunligi b bit bo‘lgan, bu yerda b – ixtiyoriy nomanfiy butun son, ma’lumot berilgan bo‘lsin va bu ma’lumotning bitlari quyidagicha: m0m1…m(b-1)
SHA-1 xesh funksiyasi algoritmi. Kafolatlangan bardoshlilikka ega bo‘lgan xeshlash algoritmi SHA (Secure Hash Algorithm) AQShning standartlar va texnologiyalar Milliy instituti (NIST)
tomonidan ishlab chiqilgan bo‘lib, 1992 yilda axborotni qayta ishlash federal standarti (RUB FIPS 180) ko‘rinishida nashr qilindi. 1995 yilda bu standart qaytadan ko‘rib chiqildi va SHA-1 deb nomlandi (RUB FIPS 180-1). SHA algoritmi MD4 algoritmiga asoslanadi va uning tuzilishi MD4 algoritmining tuzilishiga juda yaqin. Bu algoritm DSS standarti asosidagi elektron raqamli imzo algoritmlarida ishlatish uchun mo‘ljallangan. Bu algoritmda kiruvchi ma’lumotning uzunligi 264 bitdan kichik bo‘lib, xesh qiymat uzunligi 160 bit bo‘ladi. Kiritilayotgan ma’lumot 512 bitlik bloklarga ajratilib qayta ishlanadi.
Xesh qiymatni hisoblash jarayoni quyidagi bosqichlardan iborat:
bosqich. To‘ldirish bitlarini qo‘shish.
Berilgan ma’lumot uzunligi 512 modul bo‘yicha 448 bilan taqqoslanadigan (ma’lumot uzunligi 448 mod 512) qilib to‘ldiriladi. To‘ldirish hamma vaqt, hattoki ma’lumot uzunligi 512 modul bo‘yicha
448 bilan taqqoslanadigan bo‘lsa ham bajariladi. To‘ldirish quyidagi tartibda amalga oshiriladi: ma’lumotga 1 ga teng bo‘lgan bitta bit qo‘shiladi, qolgan bitlar esa 0 lar bilan to‘ldiriladi. Shuning uchun qo‘shilgan bitlar soni 1 dan 512 tagacha bo‘ladi.
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Sorbin kislota - «oziq-ovqat mahsulotlari texnologiyasi» kafedrasi 5321000-«Oziq-ovqat texnologiyasi» bakalavr ta’lim...

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«oziq-ovqat mahsulotlari texnologiyasi» kafedrasi 5321000-«Oziq-ovqat texnologiyasi» bakalavr ta’lim yо‘nalishi uchun
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bet | 75/107 | Sana | 21.12.2023 | Hajmi | 1,58 Mb. | | #125754 |
Bog'liq portal.guldu.uz-ma`ruzalar kursiSorbin kislota CH3–CH=CH-CH2–COOH va uning kaliyli, natriyli va kaltsiyli tuzlari meva, sabzavot, baliq va go’sht mahsulotlari, margarin ishlab chiqarishda konservant sifatida qo’llaniladi. Sorbin kislota oziq-ovqat mahsulotlari joylanadigan materiallarga ishlov berish uchun ishlatiladi.
Benzoy kislota CH3–COOH va uning tuzlari (benzoatlar).
U ko’pgina rezavorlar tarkibiga kiradi va keng tarqalgan tabiiy konservant hisoblanadi. Benzoy meva-rezavor mahsulotlarni tayyorlashda, natriy benzoati esa baliq konservalari, margarin, ichimliklar ishlab chiqarishda qo’llaniladi.
Formaldegid va urotropin C6H12N4 mahsulotlarning chegaralangan qismini konservalashda qo’llaniladi. Rossiyada losos baliqlarining ikrasini konservalashda ishlatiladi.
Organik kislotalar va ularning tuzlari: chumoli kislota H2CO-OH; protion kislota CH3-CH2-COOH; limon kislota. Chumoli kislota tuzlari ta‘m beruvchi modda sifatida (tuz o’rnini bosuvchi) qo’llaniladi. Propion kislota qandolat va nonvoylik sanoatida, limon kislota esa qandolat va margarin mahsulotlari ishlab chiqarishda qo’llaniladi.
Aromatizatorlar - ta‘m va xushbo’ylikni kuchaytiruvchi moddalar bo’lib, oziq-ovqat mahsulotlariga ularning organoleptik xossalarini yaxshilash maqsadida qo’shiladi. Ular shartli ravishda tabiiy va sintetik moddalarga bo’linadi. Birinchilari mevalardan, sabzavotlardan va o’simliklardan sharbatlar, essentsiyalar yoki kontsentratlar ko’rinishida, ikkinchilari esa sintetik va noan‘anaviy usulda olinadi. Oxirgi guruh birikmalarini olish usullari turlicha bo’lishi mumkin. Mamlakatimizda sintetik mahsulotlardan foydalanishga va ularni bolalar ovqatlanish mahsulotlariga ishlatishga ruxsat etilmaydi. Aromatizatorlarning kimyoviy tabiati turlicha bo’lishi mumkin. Ular tarkibiga ko’p sonli komponentlar kirishi mumkin. Ularning orasida efir moylari, aldegidlar, spirtlar va murakkab efirlar va hokazolar mavjud.
Xushbuylikka va ta‘mni kuchaytiruvchi ta‘m beruvchi moddalardan kontsentratorlar, birinchi va ikkinchi ovqatlarni ishlab chiqarishda qo’llaniladigan L-glutamin kislota va uning tuzlariga to’xtalamiz:
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Bosh sahifa
Aloqalar
Bosh sahifa
«oziq-ovqat mahsulotlari texnologiyasi» kafedrasi 5321000-«Oziq-ovqat texnologiyasi» bakalavr ta’lim yо‘nalishi uchun
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Ko‘pik so‘ndirgichlar - «oziq-ovqat mahsulotlari texnologiyasi» kafedrasi 5321000-«Oziq-ovqat texnologiyasi» bakalavr...

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«oziq-ovqat mahsulotlari texnologiyasi» kafedrasi 5321000-«Oziq-ovqat texnologiyasi» bakalavr ta’lim yо‘nalishi uchun
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bet | 64/107 | Sana | 21.12.2023 | Hajmi | 1,58 Mb. | | #125754 |
Bog'liq portal.guldu.uz-ma`ruzalar kursiKo‘pik so‘ndirgichlar
Bu funksional guruh o‘zida ma’lum bir gazlarning suyuq dispers muhitda stabillash-ko‘pik hosil bo‘lishini kamaytirish yoki uni oldini olish xossasiga ega bo‘lgan qo‘shimchalarni birlashtirgan.
Ko‘p hollarda ko‘pik hosil bo‘lishi texnologik jarayonlarning borishida jiddiy muammolarni keltirib chiqarishi, oxir oqibat tayyor mahsulot sifatiga salbiy ta’sir ko‘rsatishi mumkin. Qisman, ko‘piklar jihozning ish unumdorligini pasaytirishi, texnologik davomiylik va sarflarni oshirishi mumkin. Ular filtrlash, sentrifugalash, bug‘latish, distilyasiya bilan bog‘liq texnologik jarayonlarni o‘tkazishda halaqit beradi. Bunday hollarda ko‘pik so‘ndiradi. Xuddi shu maqsadlarda kimyoviy bo‘lmagan usullar ya’ni mexanik va fizik usullar (aralashtirish, isitish, sovitish)dan foydalaniladi. Biroq, kimyoviy ko‘pik so‘ndirgichlardan foydalanish samarali hisoblanadi.
Oziq-ovqat mahsulotlari ishlab chiqarishda ruxsat etilgan ko‘pik so‘ndirish xossasiga ega bo‘lgan oziqaviy qo‘shimchalar
Raqami
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Nomlanishi
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Texnologik funksiyasi
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E 404
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Kalsiy alginat
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Quyultiruvchi (zagustitel), stablizator
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E 570
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Yog‘ kislotalari
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Ko‘pik stablizatori, glazurlagich
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E 900a
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Polidimetiloksan
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Emulgator, qumoqlanishini olini oluvchi qo‘shimcha
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E 1521
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Polietilengligol
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Dispergator, plastifikator
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Samarali qo‘pik so‘ndirgich bir qator talablarga javob berishi kerak:
qo‘shilayotgan qo‘shimchaning tortilish yuzasi qo‘shilishi lozim bo‘lgan tizim yuzasiga ko‘ra past bo‘lishi (ko‘pik so‘ndirgichga nisbatan yuqori yuza faolligiga ega bo‘lishi);
tizimda yaxshi tarqalishi;
tizimda quyi eruvchan bo‘lishi;
inert bo‘lishi;
sezilarli cho‘kma va xid qoldirmasligi;
xavfsizlik me’yoriga mos kelishi;
YUqoridagi to‘rtta jadvalda ko‘pik so‘ndirgich sifatida foydalaniladigan oziqaviy qo‘shimchalar keltirilgan.
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Bosh sahifa
Aloqalar
Bosh sahifa
«oziq-ovqat mahsulotlari texnologiyasi» kafedrasi 5321000-«Oziq-ovqat texnologiyasi» bakalavr ta’lim yо‘nalishi uchun
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Oziq-ovqat mahsulotlarining kimyoviy tarkibi

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Oziq-ovqat mahsulotlarining kimyoviy tarkibi
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bet | 70/107 | Sana | 21.12.2023 | Hajmi | 1,58 Mb. | | #125754 |
Bog'liq portal.guldu.uz-ma`ruzalar kursiOziq-ovqat mahsulotlarining kimyoviy tarkibi. Oziq-ovqat mahsulotlarining kimyoviy tarkibiga noorganik va organik moddalar kiradi.Noorganik moddalarga suv va mineral moddalar, organik moddalarga esa uglerodlar, yog‘lar, oqsillar, fermentlar, vitaminlar, organik kislotalar, fenol birikmalari, rang, hid beruvchi moddalar va boshqalar kiradi. Shuning uchun xam oziq-ovqat mahsulotlari shu moddalarning qanday miqdorda, qanday holatda uchrashiga qarab bir- biridan keskin farq qiladi.Ularda yuqorida ko‘rsatilgan kimyoviy moddalarning miqdori standart bilan belgilanadi.
Oziq-ovqat mahsulotlarining biologik qiymati. Taom iste’mol qilinganda inson tanasining doimiy va uzluksiz yangilanib turadigan to‘qima, hujayra va boshqa tuzilmalari uchun zarur moddalarga bo‘lgan talabi qondiriladi.
Inson organizmida sintezlanmaydigan yoki kam miqdorda, sekin sintezlanadigan, biroq modda almashinuvi uchun zarur bo‘lgan moddalarga alohida e’tibor qaratilishi lozim. Essensial deb ataladigan bunday moddalarga ayrim aminokislotalar, to‘yinmagan yog‘ kislotalari, vitaminlar, fermentlar va shunga o‘xshaganlar kiradi.
Oqsilli muvozanatni saqlashda va yangi hujayra hamda to‘qimalarni qurishda organizmga barcha aminokislotalar yetkazilishi kerak. Odam organizmi ayrim aminokislotalarni sintez qila oladi. Organizmda sintezlanmaydigan aminokislotalar (triptofan, fenilalanin, leysin, metionin, valin, treonin, mezin, izoleysin) almashtirib bo‘lmaydigan aminokislotalar deyiladi va ular ovqat tarkibida bo‘lishi shart.
Ovqat oqsilining biologik qimmati unda almashtirib bo‘lmaydigan aminokislotalarning muvozanati bilan aniqlanadi. Almashtirib bo‘lmaydigai aminokislotalarning saqlash miqdori va tarkibiga ko‘ra hayvonot mahsulotlari oqsili yuqori qimmatli hisoblanadi, ularning 90-100 % organizmning oqsilini yaratishda foydalaniladi. Aksariat mahsulotlar oqsillari tarkibida mezin. metionin va triptofanning kam miqdorda saqlanishi ularning biologik qimmatini pasaytiradi. Bu oqsillarning tarkibi hayvonot mahsulotlari oqsillari bilan yaxshilashi mumkin. Bu borada o‘simlik va hayvonot mahsulotlarini qo‘shib oziq-ovqat tayyorlash maqsadga muvofiqdir.
Yog‘larning biologik qimmati, yuqori kaloriyalikdan tashqari, ular tarkibida yog‘da eruvchan vitaminlar (A, D, E) va to‘yinmagan yuqori molekulyar yog‘ kislotalarining mavjudligi bilan aniqlanadi. To‘yinmagan yuqori molekulyar linolen va araxidon yog‘ kislotalari almashtirib bo‘lmaydigan hisoblanadi, chunki ularning organizmda sintezlanishi nihoyatda cheklangan.
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Quvvatdan foydalanish koeffitsientini aniqlash

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Quvvatdan foydalanish koeffitsientini aniqlash
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bet | 34/71 | Sana | 18.01.2024 | Hajmi | 3,27 Mb. | | #140050 |
Bog'liq Ma\'ruzalar matni-2021Quvvatdan foydalanish koeffitsientini aniqlash
Iste’molchilarning aktiv quvvatdan foydalanish koeffitsienti deb o’rtacha aktiv quvvatni nominal quvvatga nisbati tushuniladi:
Ki.a= (5.3)
Bu koeffitsient va o’rtacha quvvat Ro’rt yuklamasi eng katta bo’lgan smena uchun aniqlanadi.
Aktiv quvvatli yuklama grafigi uchun (5.4–rasm)
Ki.a= (5.4)
bunda, Wa–smena davomida iste’mol etilgan energiya; Wa.nom–o’zgarmas nominal qiymatga ega bo’lgan yuklama tomonidan iste’mol etilishi mumkin bo’lgan energiya.
Reaktiv quvvatdan foydalanish koeffitsienti Ki.r shunga o’xshash aniqlanadi.
5.4.–rasm. Aktiv quvvatli yuklama grafigi
Yuklamalar grafigini to’lish koeffitsienti
Yuklama grafigining to’lish koeffitsienti o’rtacha quvvatni maksimal quvvatga nisbati bilan aniqlanadi:
Kto’l = (5.5)
yoki
Kto’l= (5.6)
Bu yerda: Wa – kunlik grafikning yuzasiga teng keladigan, kun davomida iste’mol etilgan elektr energiyasi;
Rmaks – 30 minutlik maksimal quvvat, ya’ni 30 minutdan kam bo’lmagan vaqt davomida o’zgarmay turuvchi maksimal yuklama.
6-mavzu: Issiqlik va elektr energiyalarni uzatish va iste’mol qilish. Issiqlik energiyasini uzatish
Reja:
Issiqlik energiyasini uzatish
Elektr energiyani uzatish
Tayanch so’z va iboralar: Issiqlik ta’minot tizimi, issiqlik tashuvchiga issiqlikni uzatish, issiqlik tashuvchini transportda tashish va issiqlik tashuvchining issiqlik potentsialidan foydalanish, markazlashgan, markazlashmagan, issiqlik tarmoqlari, asosiy elementlari, quvur, issiqlik yo’qotishlari, o’tuvchi, yarim o’tuvchi, va o’tib bo’lmas kanallar, elektr tizimi, elektr uzatish liniyalari, nimstantsiyalar, taqsimlovchi liniyalar, Havo elektr uzatish liniyalari
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Ikkilamchi energiya resurslarining chiqishi

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Ikkilamchi energiya resurslarining chiqishi
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bet | 52/71 | Sana | 18.01.2024 | Hajmi | 3,27 Mb. | | #140050 |
Bog'liq Ma\'ruzalar matni-2021Ikkilamchi energiya resurslarining chiqishi – bu mazkur qurilmada ma’lum vaqt birligida hosil bo’ladigan va shu vaqt davrida ishlatishga yaroqli bo’lgan IER lar miqdoridir.
Ikkilamchi energiya resurslar miqdoriga ishlab chiqarish deb, utilizatsiya qurilmasida IER hisobiga olingan, issiqlik miqdori, suyuqlik, elektr energiyaga aytiladi. IER hisobiga ishlab chiqarish quyidagilarga ajratiladi: mumkin bo’lgan ishlab chiqarish, ya’ni qurilma ishlab turganda olish mumkin bo’lgan maksimal energiya miqdori; iqtisodiy maqsadga qaratilgan muvofiq ishlab chiqarish, ya’ni bir qator iqtisodiy omillar (tannarx, mehnat xarajatlari va h.k.) hisobiga olingandagi ishlab chiqarish: rejalashtirilayotgan ishlab chiqarish – ma’lum davrda mavjud utilizatsiya qurilmalarni modernizatsiya qilish, yangilarini kiritib olishda mo’ljallangan energiya miqdori: haqiqiy ishlab chiqarish – hisobiy davrda real olingan energiya.
Ikkilamchi energetik resurslardan foydalanish – bu mazkur agregatlarda IER foydalanilgan miqdorni boshqa qurilma va tizimlarda ishlatilganligidir. Iste’molchi tomonidan IER ni ishlatish energiya tashuvchi turini bevosita o’zgartirmasdan, yoki uni energiyani boshqa turiga aylantirish hisobiga yoki utilizatsiya qurilmalarda mexanik ish, sovuqlik issiqlik ishlab chiqarish sifatida amalga oshirilishi mumkin.
Issiqlik IER – bu chiqarayotgan gazlar asosiy va qo’shimcha mahsulotlar issiqligi, kul va shlaklar, texnologik qurilmalarda ishlatib bo’lingan issiq suv va bug’ issiqligi, texnologik qurilmalarni sovutish tizimi, ishchi organlarining issiqligi.
Yonuvchi IER – boshqa qurilmalarda bevosita yoqilg’i sifatida qo’llanilishi mumkin bo’lgan va keyinchalik mazkur texnologiyalarda yaramaydigan yonuvchi gazlar va chiqindilar: yog’ochni qayta ishlash sanoati chiqindilari (yog’och mahsulotlarining chiqindi va qirindilari), imorat va inshootlar konstruktsiyasining yonuvchi elementlari, tsellyuloza qog’oz ishlab chiqaruvchi yonuvchi elementlari va boshqa qattiq xamda suyuq yoqilg’i chiqindilari.
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O’zbekiston Respublikasi Prezidenti Sh.MIRZIYOYEV

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O’zbekiston Respublikasi Prezidenti Sh.MIRZIYOYEV
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bet | 51/71 | Sana | 18.01.2024 | Hajmi | 3,27 Mb. | | #140050 |
Bog'liq Ma\'ruzalar matni-2021O’zbekiston Respublikasi Prezidenti Sh.MIRZIYOYEV
Toshkent shahri, 2017-yil 26-may
Nazorat uchun savollar
O’zbekiston respublikasining energiyadan oqilona foydalanish to’g’risidagi Qonuni qachon qabul qilingan?
Mazkur Qonunning maqsadi nimalarga qaratilgan?
Energiyadan oqilona foydalanishning davlat boshqaruv asoslari bobida nechta modda ko’rsatilgan?
Energiyadan oqilona foydalanishning iqtisodiy mexanimlari bobida nechta modda ko’rsatilgan?
2017-2021-Yillarda qayta tiklanuvchi energetikani yanada rivojlantirish, iqtisodiyot tarmoqlari va ijtimoiy sohada energiya samaradorligini
11-mavzu: Ikkilamchi energiya resurslari klassifikatsiyasi. Ikkilamchi energiya resurslaridan foydalanish orqali energiyani tejash masalalari
Reja:
11.1. Ikkilamchi energiya resurslari turlari.
11.2. Ikkilamchi energiya resurslaridan foydalanish.
Tayanch iboralar: texnologik jarayon, elektr energiyasi, issiqlik energiyasi, ikkilamchi energitik resurs, texnologok agregat, resurs, energetik potensial.
11.1. Ikkilamchi energiya resurslari turlari.
Haqiqiy texnologik jarayonlar ma’lum yoqilg’i, elektr va issiqlik energiyasini sarf etishni talab qiladi: kimyoviy reaktsiya, mexanik ta’sir natijasida yonayotgan gazlar, issiqlik tashuvchilar, gaz va suyuqliklar ortiqcha bosim ostida issiqlik ajratib chiqaradi. Bu energiya resurslaridan odatda, to’la hajmda ishlatilmaydi yoki umuman foydalanilmaydi. Mazkur texnologik jarayonda yoki qurilmada foydalanilmaydigan energetik chiqindilar ikkilamchi energetik resurslar nomini oldi(IER).
Uzoq vaqt IER dan foydalanishga etarli darajada e’tibor qaratilmadi. Ularning mohiyati to’laligicha ochilmadi, hisoblash uslublari yo’q bo’lgan.
Ikkilamchi energetika resurslar (IER) mahsulotlarning, chiqindilarning, o’tkinchi mahsulotlarning, texnologik agregatlar (qurilmalar)da hosil bo’ladigan energetik potentsiallardir. Ular mazkur agregatlarda foydalanilmasligi mumkin, lekin boshqa iste’molchilarni energiya ta’minoti uchun qisman yoki to’liq ishlatilishi mumkin.
Yoqilg’i qayta ishlovchi qurilmalar (neftni qayta ishlash, gaz generatorlari, koks qiluvchi, ko’mirni to’yintiruvchi va h.k.) mahsulotlarning kimyoviy bog’langan issiqligi, agregatga tushadigan hamda oqimlarni qizdirish uchun foydalaniladigan chiqindilarning issiqlik energiyasi – IER manbai ikkilamchi resurslarga kiritilmaydi.
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fIgURe 6.6 - Tyner indb

The earth’s graticule and Projections 99
framework for the map, and therefore it is necessary to decide which projection will
be used early in the planning stages of the map. There are an infinite number of pro-
jections possible, and more than 400 projections available, although only a relative
few are employed regularly.
The key terms in the definition are “systematic” and “orderly.” One does not cre-
ate a “projection” simply by peeling the globe or tearing off pieces. The graticule is
transformed or projected in a systematic manner onto a flat surface, and the positions
of continents and seas then plotted onto the transformed graticule.
The shape of the earth was discussed in the preceding section. Here we will not
be involved with the geoid or spheroid, but will consider the earth to be a sphere for
ease in understanding. Although for large-scale maps, such as topographic maps,
the exact shape of the earth must be taken into account, for most thematic maps the
earth can be considered a perfect sphere.
Before analyzing projections, the properties of the globe should be reviewed:
1. All parallels are parallel.
2. Meridians are half great circles and converge at the poles.
3. The meridians are evenly spaced along any parallel.
4. Quadrilaterals formed by the same two parallels and having the same longi-
tudinal dimensions will have the same areas.
Table of contents Organizers - bet 109

Assessment of coupling of the autonomic regulatory circuits of the cardiovascular system is normal, with arterial coronary diseases and after coronary artery bypass surgery Viktoriia V. Skazkina1, Yu.M. Ishbulatov1,2, V.A. Shvartz3, A.S. Karavaev1,2,4, E.I. Borovkova1,2, O.L. Bockeria3, A.R. Kiselev2,1, 1Saratov State University; 2Saratov State Medical University; 3Bakulev Scientific Center for Cardiovascular Surgery; 4Saratov Branch of the Institute of RadioEngineering and Electronics of RAS, Russia
Synchronization and coherence of the low-frequency components of the signals of the cardiovascular system in newborns Viktoriia V. Skazkina1, A.S. Karavaev1,2,3, J.V. Popova3, E.N. Mureeva3, O.S. Panina3, V.S. Khorev1, T.A. Galushko1, A.R. Kiselev3,1, Yu.V. Chernenkov3, 1Saratov State University; 2Saratov Branch of the Institute of RadioEngineering and Electronics of RAS; 3Saratov State Medical University, Russia
Calcium waves in a sponge astrocyte network modulated by the sodium-calcium exchangers Darya V. Verveyko1, A.R. Brazhe2, A.Yu. Verisokin1, D.E. Postnov3, 1Kursk State University; 2Moscow State University; 3Saratov State University, Russia
Hyperspectral imaging and classification of skin structural elements in case of urticariaO.V. Polschikova1, A.S. Machikhin1,2, S.V. Shirokov1, Ekaterina D. Lovchikova1,3, I.V. Danilycheva4, M.V. Danilychev5, A.M. Borbat6, O.R. Katunina6, 1Scientific and Technological Center of Unique Instrumentation of the RAS; 2Moscow Power Engineering Institute; 3Bauman Moscow State Technical University; 4Institute of Immunology of Federal Medical Biological Agency; 5Institute of Radio-engineering and Electronics of the RAS; 6Burnasyan Federal Medical Biophysical Center of Federal Medical Biological Agency, Russia
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sUggestIons foR fURtheR ReAdIng

sUggestIons foR fURtheR ReAdIng
Bielstein, Susan M. (2006). Permissions, a Survival Guide: Blunt Talk about Art as Intellec-
tual Property. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Buttenfield, Barbara, and McMaster, Robert B. (1991). Map Generalization: Making Rules
for Knowledge Representation. Harlow, UK: Longman Scientific and Technical.
Fitzsimons, Dennis E. (1985). Base Data on Thematic Maps. American Cartographer, 12,
57–61.
McMaster, Robert B., and Shea, K. S. (1992). Generalization in Digital Cartography. Resource
Publications in Geography. Washington, DC: Association of American Geographers.
Monmonier, Mark. (1996). How to Lie with Maps (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Steward, H. J. (1974). “Cartographic Generalisation: Some Concepts and Explanation.” Car-
tographica, Monograph 10.
91
chapter 6
The earth’s graticule
and Projections
“. . . but then I wonder what Latitude or Longitude I’ve got to?”
(Alice had not the slightest idea what Latitude was, or Longitude
either, but she thought they were nice grand words to say.)
—L
ewis
C
arroll
, Alice in
Wonderland (1865)
the eARth’s gRAtIcUle
the size and shape of the earth
Many aspects of mapmaking would be greatly simplified if the earth were a plane
surface. However, the earth is not flat, as was realized early in the history of cartog-
raphy. Attempts were made even by the early Greeks to represent the actual surface
with as little distortion as possible.
The true figure of the earth is not a regular shape like a sphere or an ellipsoid, but
a lumpy solid called a geoid, which simply means “earth-shaped figure.” As Table 6.1
shows, the polar radius is roughly 13 miles less than the equatorial radius. This does
not seem like a great difference (on a 12-inch globe the difference is only 0.019 inches
or 0.05 centimeter) but for large-scale maps, such as topographic maps or navigation
charts, the difference is significant. In addition to flattening of the poles there are
other smaller irregularities.
Geodesists, who deal mathematically with the shape of the earth, must consider
actual earth measurements, as must surveyors and cartographers who make topo-
graphic maps and GIS specialists who make large-scale city maps and the like. For
most thematic mapping, however, we are not concerned with the irregularities of the
earth’s shape, since we commonly make maps of very small areas or small-scale maps
for which geodetic accuracy is not a major issue.
92 THe geOgRaPHiC anD CaRTOgRaPHiC FRaMeWORK
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fIgURe 5.9 - Tyner indb

fIgURe 5.9.
The amount of generalization depends on the topic, purpose, and scale.
scale, Compilation, and generalization 89
Reader’s abilities
In all cartographic activities the reader must be considered. Although the cartogra-
pher does not always know the specific skills of the audience, some perceptual abili-
ties are considered universal. For example, the normal human eye cannot distinguish
more than six shades of gray between black and white on a map. Therefore, it is
pointless to use 12 different shades of gray to illustrate 12 different categories on a
statistical map. Either a different method of symbolization must be found or the data
must be grouped to form fewer categories.
The eye cannot perceive very fine lines or read lettering smaller than about 0.04
inch; therefore, to use such fine lines or small letters defeats the communication pur-
pose of the map.
Environmental factors must also be considered. As discussed in Chapter 2,
the requirements for a map that is to be viewed in the low-light conditions of an
airplane cockpit are different from those for maps that will be viewed in a brightly
lighted room; a map designed for an automobile GPS screen has different require-
ments than those of a paper road map. These factors affect the degree of simplifica-
tion, the number of categories, or the type of symbolism. Sometimes it is necessary
to perform tests with focus groups to determine the amount and kind of generaliza-
tion needed.
Cartographer’s equipment and skills
Although most professional maps and many amateur maps are produced with the
assistance of computers, the kind of equipment used and the skills of the mapmaker
are still important. Screen, printer, and scanner resolution all affect the amount of
detail that can be shown or printed. Software capabilities are an important factor.
Programs vary widely in their design and generalization usefulness. Much software
is updated on a nearly annual schedule, so the mapmaker needs to be aware of its
current status.
While drafting skills aren’t important for working with GIS, illustration, or
CADD programs, skill at using the programs is. It takes time to master any software
program. While one might produce a simple map without having complete mastery of
a program, one requires more advanced skills to create more sophisticated maps.
Quality of Data
The quality and nature of the data must also be taken into account. Imprecise or
poor data do not permit one to make a precise map. The data may not be proper
for the kinds of symbols the cartographer wants to use. For example, a quantitative
map cannot be made from qualitative data. If the data form is inappropriate, it is
necessary either to find suitable data or to change the map type. One must also be
aware of bias. Unless he or she is making a map designed to persuade, the cartogra-
pher should strive to be objective. One must realize that data from special-interest
organizations might be highly subjective. Bias can also enter the map through selec-
tion of the phenomena to be mapped, the data used from a set, or the control points
used.
90 THe geOgRaPHiC anD CaRTOgRaPHiC FRaMeWORK
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fIgURe 6.5 - Tyner indb

The earth’s graticule and Projections 97
tem because the zones are smaller. Because the zones are small and because they are
based on states the SPCS is not useful for national and regional mapping.
The SPCS, like the UTM, is based on zones, but these generally follow political
boundaries so the map of zones appears more irregular. The number of zones in a
state depends upon the size of the state; the boundaries within a state follow county
lines except in Alaska. The SPCS uses about 120 zones to cover the United States.
Like the UTM, eastings and northings are used, which are distances east and west of
the origin. The origin is usually 2,000,000 feet west of the zone’s central meridian.
U.s. Public Land survey system
The U.S. Public Land Survey System (PLSS) was first proposed by Thomas Jefferson
and implemented shortly after the end of the Revolutionary War. Two ordinances,
the Land Ordinance of 1785 and the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, provided for
systematic rectangular survey of federal lands so that those lands could be trans-
ferred to private citizens. The PLSS is a
cadastral or property-mapping system. Not
all states are covered in the PLSS because it provided for survey before settlement.
Thus, the original colonies are not covered, and Texas has its own system (Figure
6.7). The PLSS was initially begun in Ohio, but because the system was not yet fully
developed, the surveys in Ohio and Indiana are different from those of other covered
states. There are also some areas where other cadastral systems were in use, such as
Louisiana, which used the French
arpent system, or long lots; New England, which
used the New England town system; and areas of the Southwest, which used Spanish
systems.
The PLSS is based on 37 named principal meridians and base lines, as shown
in Figure 6.7 that provide origins. True north–south lines (meridians) and east–west
lines are drawn from these origins at 6-mile intervals called “tiers and ranges” (while
I
II
III
IV
V
VI
California State
Plane Coordinates
Deep learning tool for skin tumors images and spectra classification

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Deep learning tool for skin tumors images and spectra classification
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bet | 107/138 | Sana | 22.12.2020 | Hajmi | 492,9 Kb. | | #12926 |
Deep learning tool for skin tumors images and spectra classification Dmitry S. Raupov, O.O. Myakinin, I.A. Bratchenko, V.P. Zakharov, Samara National Research University, Russia
Mobile system for early diagnostics the parameters of pigmented skin lesions Elena N. Rimskaya1,2, A.N. Briko1, V.A. Zhelnov1, P.U. Berezhnoy3, I.A. Deshin1, I.A. Apollonova1, A.P. Nikolaev1, K.G. Kudrin4, I.V. Reshetov2, K.I. Zaytsev5, V.V. Tuchin6, 1Bauman Moscow State Technical University; 2Sechenov Moscow State Medical University; 3Plekhanov Russian University of Economics; 4Institute for Advanced Studies of the Federal Medical Biological Agency of Russia; 5Prokhorov General Physics Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences; 6Saratov State University, Russia
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Principal
Meridian - Tyner indb

100 THe geOgRaPHiC anD CaRTOgRaPHiC FRaMeWORK
5. Parallels are equally spaced along the meridians (assuming the earth to be a
sphere).
6. Area scale is uniform; that is, 1 square inch of the globe in the high latitudes
and 1 square inch in the low latitudes covers the same earth area.
7. Distance scale is uniform.
Only a globe can combine all these properties because its shape is virtually the
same as the earth’s. When the spherical graticule is transformed onto a plane, which
radically changes its geometry, unavoidable distortions are introduced. Therefore the
only true representation of the earth’s surface geometry is a globe (Figure 6.9).
It must not be assumed, however, that because flat maps have distortions they are
merely poor substitutes for globes or that globes are without disadvantages. Globes
are limited by their practical size. A globe 14 inches in diameter has a scale of 1 inch
to 566 miles, hardly feasible for navigation or showing roads. Globes permit only
one-half of the earth to be seen at a time. Many thematic maps illustrate global pat-
terns; in such cases, it is desirable to view the entire earth at once. A climate map, for
example, is more useful if the entire world pattern can be seen at once and regions
compared. Finally, to show all of the thematic maps in even a small atlas would
require many globes, which would present storage and handling problems.
Projections can be problem-solving tools and should not be considered nega-
tive devices. The distortions of flat maps can be used to advantage. Phenomena that
cannot be shown on a globe can be presented on a flat map by exploiting projec-
tion properties. For example, the gnomonic projection shows all great circle arcs as
straight lines so it can be used for plotting the shortest distance between two points.
The Mercator projection shows loxodromes as straight lines and can be used to plot
PRIM
E
ME
R
IDIA
N
EQUATO
R
150°E
180°
120°E
150°W
90°E
120°W
60°E
90°W
30°E
60°W 30°W 0°
80°N
90°N
60°N
40°N
20°N
0°
20°S
40°S
The space-time skeleton method for analyzing EEG data

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The space-time skeleton method for analyzing EEG data
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bet | 106/138 | Sana | 22.12.2020 | Hajmi | 492,9 Kb. | | #12926 |
The space-time skeleton method for analyzing EEG data Maksim O. Zhuravlev1, A.E. Runnova2, R.R. Parsamyan2, 1Saratov State University; 2Saratov State Medical University, Russia
Biomarkers detection of age-related changes in human cognitive functions based on EEG studying Maksim O. Zhuravlev1, A.E. Runnova2, R.R Parsamyan2, A.R. Kiselev2, 1Saratov State University; 2Saratov State Medical University, Russia
Restoration of endodontically treated teeth: biophysical approaches, computational simulation, and clinical observation Vladimir S. Senkin, N.O. Bessudnova, S.B. Venig, Saratov State University, Russia
Detecting best lag of embedding for modeling spike-wave discharges from experimental data A.A. Grishchenko1,2, M.V. Sysoeva2,3, I.V. Sysoev1,2, 1Saratov State University; 2Saratov Branch of Kotel'nokov's Institute of Radioengineering and Electronics of RAS; 3Saratov State Technical University, Russia
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Monte Carlo simulation of the fiber probe coupled with lens for depth-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy of skin tissue

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Monte Carlo simulation of the fiber probe coupled with lens for depth-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy of skin tissue
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bet | 108/138 | Sana | 22.12.2020 | Hajmi | 492,9 Kb. | | #12926 |
Monte Carlo simulation of the fiber probe coupled with lens for depth-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy of skin tissue Anastasia A. Shatskaya, D.N. Artemyev, I.A. Bratchenko, Samara National Research University, Russia
Low-frequency oscillations in photoplethysmographic waveform variability and heart rate variability in a patient with recent heart transplantation Ekaterina I. Borovkova1,2, V.A. Shvartz3, A.S. Karavaev1,2,4, S.A. Mironov3, O.L. Bockeria3, A.R. Kiselev1,2,3, 1Saratov State Medical University; 2Saratov State University; 3Bakulev National Medical Research Center for Cardiovascular Surgery; 4Saratov Branch of the Institute of Radio Engineering and Electronics of RAS, Russia
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Bosh sahifa
Aloqalar
Bosh sahifa
Monte Carlo simulation of the fiber probe coupled with lens for depth-resolved fluorescence spectroscopy of skin tissue
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JOINT POSTER/INTERNET SESSION AND INTERNET DISCUSSION

JOINT POSTER/INTERNET SESSION AND INTERNET DISCUSSION
(Building 3, 3rd floor Hall)
Chair (N): Timofey E. Pylaev, IBPPM RAS, Saratov, Russia
17.30 – 19.30
Nanoparticles fabricated by pulsed laser ablation of porous silicon in liquids for bioimaging applications A.V. Kolchin, Lomonosov MSU, Physics Department, Russia A.V. Skobelkina, Lomonosov MSU, Physics Department, Russia F.V. Kashaev, Lomonosov MSU, Physics Department, Russia S.V. Zabotnov, Lomonosov MSU, Physics Department, Russia P.D. Agrba, Lobachevsky State University of Nizhny Novgorod,Nizhny Novgorod, Russia; Lomonosov MSU, Physics Department, Russia D.A. Kurakina, Institute of Applied Physics RAS, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia E.A. Sergeeva, Institute of Applied Physics RAS, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia; Lomonosov MSU, Physics Department, Russia M.Yu. Kirillin, Institute of Applied Physics RAS, Nizhny Novgorod, Russia L.A. Golovan, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia P.K. Kashkarov, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, Russia
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latitude and longitude - Tyner indb

The earth’s graticule and Projections 93
distance (latitude) from the equator.
Parallel and latitude are not synonyms; a paral-
lel is a specific line, and latitude is a distance.
An infinite number of parallels can be drawn, since degrees can be divided into
minutes, seconds, and fractions of seconds. This allows
us to locate any place on
earth precisely with respect to the equator. If the earth were truly spherical, the dis-
tance in miles between each degree of latitude would be the same. However, as we
have seen, the earth is not a perfect sphere, and thus there is some variation in the
length of a degree of latitude.
For most small-scale mapping, this variation is too
small to be significant.
The system of parallels is only one-half of the earth’s reference system. There are
360° along each parallel, and to pinpoint a location, we must also specify where it lies
on the parallel. Unfortunately, there is no fixed point or line on the earth comparable
to the poles or the equator that can be used as a convenient origin for measurement
along the parallels. For many years each country used a true north–south line pass-
ing through its capital or some other significant location. Distances were measured
from this line in degrees and called
longitude. When maps of only one country were
used there were few problems; but with faster travel around the earth and the use of a
variety of maps, this system became cumbersome. Many atlases in the United States
during the 19th century contained maps on which the longitude from Washington
was printed along one border and the longitude from London along the opposite bor-
der to eliminate tedious comparisons and calculations.
In 1884, the International Meridian Conference established
the line through the
transit instrument at the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, England, as the starting
line for east–west measurement; this line is called the
prime meridian. The angular
distance east or west of the prime meridian to some other point, measured from 0° to
180°, is the longitude. If a series of lines is drawn at right angles to the parallels and
connecting the poles (by passing planes through the poles), the lines are true north–
south lines and are arcs of great circles. These lines are called
meridians. A meridian
is a line that joins all points having the same longitude (Figure 6.2). Note that each
meridian is one-half of a great circle. Also note that like parallel and latitude, merid-
ian and longitude are not synonymous. Meridians are lines, longitude is angular dis-
tance. The grid formed by parallels and meridians is the
graticule.
Tarring Files Together - L in u X ba sics for h acke rs g e t t I n g s t a r t e d w I t h

Compressing and Archiving
95
hackersarise2
hackersarise3
Listing 9-1: Creating a tarball of three files
Let’s break down this command to better understand it. The archiving
command is
tar
, and we’re using it here with three options. The
c
option
means create,
v
(which stands for verbose and is optional) lists the files that
tar
is dealing with, and
f
means write to the following file. This last option
will also work for reading from files. Then we give the new archive the file-
name you want to create from the three scripts:
HackersArise.tar.
In full, this command will take all three files and create a single file,
HackersArise.tar, out of them. When you do another long listing of the direc-
tory, you will see that it also contains the new
.tar file, as shown next:
kali >
ls -l
--
snip
--
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root 40960 Nov 27 2018 13:32 HackersArise.tar
--
snip
--
kali >
Note the size of the tarball here: 40,960 bytes. When the three files are
archived,
tar
uses significant overhead to perform this operation: whereas the
sum of the three files before archiving was 35,094 bytes, after archiving, the
tarball had grown to 40,960 bytes. In other words, the archiv ing process has
added over 5,000 bytes. Although this overhead can be significant with small
files, it becomes less and less significant with larger and larger files.
We can
display those files from the tarball, without extracting them, by
using the
tar
command with the
-t
content list switch, as shown next:
kali >
sed s/mysql/MySQL/2 snort.conf > snort2.conf

Text Manipulation
25
Viewing Files with more and less
Although
cat
is a good utility for displaying files and creating small files, it
certainly has its limitations when displaying large files. When you use
cat
with
snort.conf, the file scrolls through every page until it comes to the end,
which is not very practical if you want to glean any information from it.
For working with larger files, we have two other viewing utilities:
more
and
less
.
Controlling the Display with more
The
more
command displays a page of a file at a time and lets you page down
through it using the
enter
key. Open
snort.conf with the
more
command, as
shown in Listing 2-7.
kali >
more /etc/snort/snort.conf
--
snip
--
# Snort build options:
# Options: --enable-gre --enable-mpls --enable-targetbased
--enable-ppm --enable-perfprofiling enable-zlib --enable-active
-response --enable-normalizer --enable-reload --enable-react
--enable-flexresp3
#
--More--(2%)
Listing 2-7: Using
more
to display terminal output one page at a time
Notice that
more
displays only the first page and then stops, and it tells us
in the lower-left corner how much of the file is shown (2 percent in this case).
To see additional lines or pages, press
enter
. To exit
more
, enter
q
(for
quit).
Displaying and Filtering with less
The
less
command is very similar to
more
, but with additional functionality
—hence, the common Linux aficionado quip, “Less is more.” With
less
, you
can not only scroll through a file at your leisure, but you can also filter it for
terms. As in Listing 2-8, open
snort.conf with
less
.
kali >
cat /etc/snort/snort.conf | grep output

Text Manipulation
23
Hacker Challenge: Using grep, nl, tail, and head
Let’s say you want to display the five lines immediately before a line that
says
# Step #6: Configure output plugins
using at least four of the commands
you just learned. How would you do it? (Hint: there are many more options
to these commands than those we’ve discussed. You can learn more com-
mands by using the built-in Linux command
man
. For example,
man tail
will
show the help file for the
tail
command.)
There are many ways to solve this challenge; here, I show you which
lines to change to do it one way, and your job is to find another method.
Step 1
kali >
Finding the Head - L in u X ba sics for h acke rs g e t t I n g s t a r t e d w I t h

Text Manipulation
21
kali >
head -20 /etc/snort/snort.conf
#-------------------------------------------------
# VRT Rule Packages Snort.conf
#
# For more information visit us at:
--
snip
--
# Options : --enable-gre --enable-mpls --enable-targetbased
--enable-ppm --enable-perfprofiling enable-zlib --enable-act
live-response --enable-normalizer --enable-reload --enable-react
Listing 2-2: Displaying the first 20 lines of
snort.conf
in the terminal window
You should see only the first 20 lines of
snort.conf displayed in your
terminal window.
Finding the Tail
The
tail
command is similar to the
head
command, but it’s used to view the
last lines of a file. Let’s use it on
snort.conf:
kali >
tail /etc/snort/snort.conf
#include $SO_RULE_PATH/smtp.rules
#include $SO_RULE_PATH/specific-threats.rules
#include $SO_RULE_PATH/web-activex.rules
#include $SO_RULE_PATH/web-client.rules
#include $SO_RULE_PATH/web-iis.rules
#include $SO_RULE_PATH/web-miscp.rules
#Event thresholding and suppression commands. See threshold.conf
Notice that this command displays some of the last
include
lines of the
rules files, but not all of them, because similar to
head
, the default for
tail
is to show 10 lines. You can display more lines by grabbing the last 20 lines
of
snort.conf. As with the
head
command, you can tell
tail
how many lines
to display by entering a dash (
-
) and then the number of lines between the
command and the filename, as shown in Listing 2-3.
kali >