nyuuzyou/kompy huggingface dataset:
I - topshiriq. Quyidagi bandlarda berilgan amaliy vazifalarni bajaring

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I - topshiriq. Quyidagi bandlarda berilgan amaliy vazifalarni bajaring
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bet | 34/47 | Sana | 31.05.2024 | Hajmi | 1,33 Mb. | | #258177 |
Bog'liq Информатика амалий машгулотларI - topshiriq. Quyidagi bandlarda berilgan amaliy vazifalarni bajaring:
1. Kompyuterni ishga tushirish tartibi bo’yicha ishga tushiring.
2. Windows tizimida Avp Kasperskiy yoki Nod 32 antivirus dasturlaridan birini ishga tushiring.
3 Windows tizimida Avp Kasperskiy yoki Nod 32 antivirus dasturlaridan birining ish oynasi ochilgach unga izoh bering.
4. Windows tizimida ishga tushgan antivirus dasturining bazasi qachon almashtirilganligini aniqlang.
5.Kompyuterda ishni yakunlab kopyuterni o’chiring.
II - topshirq. Quyidagi variantlar bo’yicha berilgan topshiriqlarga javob tayyorlang:
1. Kompyuter virusi nima va uning insonga qanday ta’siri bor?
2. Kompyuter viruslarining qanday turlari bor?
3. Kompyuter viruslaridan qanday saqlanish mumkin?
4. Viruslar mavjudligini kompyuterning qanday belgilaridan bilish mumkin?
5. Virusdan ko’riladigan zararlarga nimalar kiradi?
Qo’shimcha topshiriqlar.
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AMALIY MASHG’ULOT № 34
МАVZU: Kompyuter viruslaridan saqlanish.
Darsning maqsadi: O’quvchilarga kompyuter viruslaridan saqlanish to’g’risida amaliy ko’nikma va malakalarini shakllantirish.
Identiv o’quv maqsadlari:
1. Kompyuter viruslaridan himoyalanish uchun antivirus dasturlarining turlari bilan tanishadilar.
2. Kompyuter viruslaridan himoyalanish uchun antivirus dasturlaridan foydalanib viruslardan himoyalanish usullarini o’rganadilar.
3. Kompyuter viruslaridan himoyalanish uchun antivirus dasturlaridan foydalanib viruslardan himoyalanishda virus turlari bilan tanishadilar.
Ishning bаjаrilish jоyi: коmpyutеr o’quv хоnasi
Ishning bаjаrilishi uchun аjrаtilgan vаqт: 80 daqiqa.
Kerakli jihoz va materiallar: Shaxsiy kompyuter, Windows operatsion tizimlari, antivirus dasturlar, aidstest, Doctor Web, ADINF, AVP, Drweb antivirus dasturlari, ma’ruza matnlari, har xil adabiyotlar, ma’ruza daftari.
Техnikа хаvfsizligi: Ish jаrаyonida uchraydiganbarcha хаvfsizlik техniкаlаriga rioya qilish.
a) kompyutеr va uning qurilmalarini elеktr tarmog’iga ruhsatsiz ulash yoki undan uzish:
b) kompyutеr va uning boshqa qurilmalari ustiga turli buyumlarni va kiyimlarni qo’yish:
v) tugmalarni ishlatishda kuch ishlatmaslik:
Тоpshiriqlar:
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ELEKTRON PATTA - Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining

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Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining
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bet | 78/133 | Sana | 15.01.2024 | Hajmi | 5,97 Mb. | | #137781 |
Bog'liq web education uzELEKTRON PATTA
Elektron pochta
Elektron pochta (E-mail) asosiy tarmoq xizmatidir. Ma'lumki, provayder ofisida ro'yxatdan o'tishda foydalanuvchi o'z tarmoq nomini oladi - login, undan keyin shaxsiy "pochta qutisi" ochilishi (lizing). Pochta qutisi
Bu erda provayderning kompyuterida ochilgan papka mavjud bo'lib, u arxivlarni ma'lumotlar bilan saqlash va boshqalar uchun ishlatiladi maqsadlar. Pochta qutisi faqat foydalanuvchiga ma'lum bo'lgan parol bilan ruxsatsiz kirishdan himoyalangan. ISP beradi
foydalanuvchi Internetning boshqa foydalanuvchilari bilan elektron pochta almashish uchun foydalaniladigan pochta qutisining manzili.
Internetda tarmoq manzillari lotin alifbosidagi harflar, raqamlar yoki belgilar (masalan, “!” yoki “%”) bilan yoziladi. Manzil formati har doim bir xil:
nomi>@
Shunday qilib, foydalanuvchi tarmoqda ro'yxatdan o'tgan login (taxallus) @ belgisidan chapga yoziladi (bu
ism va manzilning o'zi) va tarmoq serveri (kompyuter) nomini ajratuvchi sifatida ishlatiladi, bu erda foydalanuvchi pochta qutisi o'ng tomonda joylashgan, masalan:
nccom@pest.msk.su
mois@glasnet.ru victor@urc.ac.ru
Kompyuterning nomi nuqtalarga (nuqta) bo'lingan bir necha so'z yoki qisqartmalardan iborat. Elektron pochtani o'qish uchun manzil to'g'ri bo'lsa, uni an'anaviy pochta manzili kabi chapdan o'ngga o'qish kerak.
Elektron pochta yordamida siz quyidagilarni amalga oshirishingiz mumkin:
shaxsiy elektron pochta almashinuvini ushlab turish (birga);
xabaringiz nusxalarini tarmoqning boshqa foydalanuvchilariga yuborish (birdan ko'pga);
onlayn (real vaqt) va oflayn (kechiktirilgan) rejimlarda muhokamalar, tarmoq forumlarini o'tkazish;
maxsus manfaatlar guruhlari doirasida yangiliklarni tarqatish;
kerakli ma'lumotlarni so'rab, masofaviy axborot serverlarini boshqarish;
faks yuborish va h.k.
Elektron xabar (xat) faqat matn emas. Bu grafik, ovoz, animatsiya bo'lishi mumkin - siz yubormoqchi bo'lgan har qanday fayl.
Ro'yxatga olingan manzillarning qaysi biri manzili ekanligini aniqlashga harakat qiling:
Xususiy kompaniyalar yoki tashkilotlar
Ta'lim muassasalari
Quyidagi manzillarning geografik mansubligini aniqlang (quyidagi ro'yxatdan).
Quyida ko'rsatilgan elektron pochta manzillaridan qisqartmalarni o'qing va ularning kelib chiqishini (ularning ma'nosini) tushuntiring.
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-modda. Qayta tiklanadigan energiya manbalaridan foydalanish

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-modda. Qayta tiklanadigan energiya manbalaridan foydalanish
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bet | 49/71 | Sana | 18.01.2024 | Hajmi | 3,27 Mb. | | #140050 |
Bog'liq Ma\'ruzalar matni-2021 20-modda. Qayta tiklanadigan energiya manbalaridan foydalanish
Energiya ta’minoti tashkilotlari hamda elektr va issiqlik energiyasi uchun mavsumiy tariflar, shuningdek, elektr energiyasi uchun sutkaning turli vaqtlarida bo’yicha tabaqalashtirilgan tariflar joriy etiladi.
21-modda. Energiyadan nooqilona foydalanganlik uchun javobgarlik
Energiya xosil qilish va uni sarflash sohasida shug’ullanayotgan yuridik va jismoniy shaxslar bevosita energiya nobudgarchiligini va energetika jixatidan samarasiz maxsulotlar ishlab chikarilishini istesno etadigan ishlab chiqarish, maxsulot, ishlar va xizmatlarning belgilangan energiya jixatidan samaradorligini ta’minlashlari shart. Bu talablar buzilgan taqdirda yuridik shaxslarga nisbatan:
energiyaning sifat ko’rsatgichlari buzilgan;
energiyaning bevosita noburdgarchiligi asoboblar yordamida yoki normativ usul bilan aniqlangan;
energiya sarflanishini asboblar yordamida xisobga olish buzilgan;
mavjuv ikkilamchi energiya resurslaridan foydalanishning belgilangan ulishi ta’minlanmagan hollarda qonun xujjatlarida muvofiq iqtisodiy jazo choralari qo’llaniladi;
Iqtisodiy jazo choralari qo’llanilishi yuridik shaxslarni o’zlariga yetkazgan zararni qoplashdan ozod qilmaydi.
Energiyadan nooqilona foydalanganlik uchun jismoniy shaxslar javobgarligi qonun xujjatlarida belgilangan.
Energiya yetkazib beruvchtlarning kelishmasdan energiya ta’minotini to’xtatib qo’yishi natijasida energiyadan foydalanuvchilarga yetkazilgan zarar qonun xujjatlarida belgilangan tartibda qoplanadi.
IV. Yakunlovchi qoidalar
22-modda. Energiyadan oqilona foydalanish sohasidagi xalqaro hamkorlik
Quyidagilar xalqaro hamkorlikning asosiy yo’nalishlaridir:
Energiya jixatidan samarali texnologiyalarni chet el va xalqoro manfatli ayriboshlash;
Energiyadan oqilona foydalanishni ta’minlovchi qo’shma davlatlararo loyixalarni respublikada ro’yobga chiqarish;
Energiya jixatdan samaradorlik ko’rsatkichlari xalqaro standartlarning talablariga moslash, shuningdek, sertifikatlash natijalari o’zaro e’tirof etish.
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Xushxo‘rlagichlar va ularning ekstraktlari

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Xushxo‘rlagichlar va ularning ekstraktlari
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bet | 69/107 | Sana | 21.12.2023 | Hajmi | 1,58 Mb. | | #125754 |
Bog'liq portal.guldu.uz-ma`ruzalar kursiXushxo‘rlagichlar va ularning ekstraktlari
Ishlab chiqarilayotgan oziq-ovqat maxsulotlarining assortimentining kengayishi, xushxo‘rlagichlar ishlab chiqarish ko‘lamini oshishiga olib keldi. Bularning ishlab chiqarishning oldingi usullaridan voz kechib, xushxo‘rlagichlarni va aromatik modda hosil qiluvchi o‘tlarni yangicha texnologik usullarda ishlab chiqarish keng miqyosda yo‘lga qo‘yildi. Ma’lumki, xushxo‘rlagichlar tabiatdan olinadi, ular mavsumiy ko‘katlar bo‘lib, ularni saqlash va qayta ishlash uchun izlanishlar olib borilib, ularning yangidan – yangi turlari yaratilmoqda. Shuni ham e’tiborga olish lozimki, aloxida turdagi xushxo‘rlagichlar farmalogik faollikka ega bo‘lib, tibbiyotda ham ishlatiladi.
Xushxo‘rlagich aralashmalar – bular turlicha kombinatsiyali maxsulotlar bo‘lib ularni sabzavotlarni konservalashda ta’m va hid beruvchi, maxsulotlarni mustaxkamligini (o‘z xolatini saqlab turuvchi) saqlash uchun ishlatiladi.
Xushxo‘rlagichlar ekstraktlari ham ikki turga bo‘linadi: spirtli va yog‘li bo‘lib efir-yog‘lidir.Ekstraktlarni ko‘proq kulinariya maxsulotlari, qaylalari shlab chiqarishda qo‘llaniladi.
Sigareta, tabak maxsulotlarini aramatini, o‘ziga xos spetsifik xidini xosi lqilish uchun ekstraktlarning maxsus retseptlari asosida tabak maxsulotlari ishlab chiqarishda qo‘llaniladi. Shuningdek turli mamlakatlarda tabak-sigareta maxsulotlaring keng assortimenti ishlab chiqarilib, ektrakt xushxo‘rlagichlaridlan unumli foydalaniladi. (Masalan: Turkiya, Kaliforniya, Kuba,Morshanskiy va boshqa davlatlarda) shuningdek maxsus aramatizatorlar va qaylalar (souslar) bir nechta turdagi xushbo‘y hidli o‘tlarning ekstraktlaridan , murakkab jarayonlar bilan tayyor ekstraktlar olinadi va ko‘rsatilgan maxsulotlar ishlab chiqariladi. Ko‘pgina ishlab chiqarilayotgan aramatizatorlar murakkab jarayonlarni o‘z ichiga oladi, tarkibi jixatidan ham qiyin, shuning uchun ular hartli (kommercheskiy)- xususiy nomga ega bo‘ladi.
Nazorat savollari?
Oziq ovqat mahsulotlarini ishlab chiqarish turlari tasnifi?
Oziq ovqat mahsulotlar tarkibini begona moddalardan kamaytirish yo’llari nimadan iborat?
Oziq ovqat mahsulotlari sifatiga ta’sir qiluvchi omillar qaysilar?
Xushxo‘rlagichlar va ularning ekstraktlari?
Oziq-ovqat mahsulotlari ishlab chiqarishda ruxsat etilgan ko‘pik so‘ndirish xossasiga ega bo‘lgan ozuqaviy qo‘shimchalar tasnifi?
8-MAVZU. TAYYOR MAHSULOT TURLARI VA ULARNING OZUQAVIY QIYMATI
Reja:
Oziq ovqat mahsulotlarining kimyoviy tarkibi.
Oziq ovqat mahsulotlarining biologik qiymati.
Oziq ovqat mahsulotlarining energetik qiymati.
Tayyor mahsulot turlari.
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-modda. Standartlash - «elektr texnikasi, elektr mexanikasi va elektr texnologiyalari»

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«elektr texnikasi, elektr mexanikasi va elektr texnologiyalari»
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bet | 45/71 | Sana | 18.01.2024 | Hajmi | 3,27 Mb. | | #140050 |
Bog'liq Ma\'ruzalar matni-2021 4-modda. Standartlash.
Energiya xosil qiladigan va energiya sarflaydigan abob uskunalar xamda maxsulotga qonun xujjatlarida nazarda tutilgan tartibda energiya jixatidan samaraldorlik ko’rsatkichlari belgilab qo’yiladi.
Normativ xujjatlarda energiya xosil qilish va uni sarflash chog’ida energiyadan samarli foydalanish ko’rsatkichlari, shuningdek, ishlab chiqarish jarayonlarida energiya sarflanishi, xududlar, binolar va inshoatlarni isitish, xarorati va namligini bir xilda saqlab turish xavosini saqlab turish issiqlik, suv, gaz va elektr bilan yoritish uchun energiya sarflashlarni belgilab qo’yiladi.
Energiyaning sarfi tegishli normativ xujjatlarda belgilangan talablarga muvofiq bo’lishi lozim.
5-modda. Standartdlash ob’ektlari va predmetlari
Energiya, energiya xosil qiladigan va uni sarflaydigan yoki energiyani bir turdan boshqa turga aylantirib beradigan asbob uskunalar va maxsulotlar trasport vositalari yo’lsozlik va qishloq xo’jalik mashinalari yorishish texnikasi qurilmalari, isitish xarorat va namlikni bir xilda saqlab turish xamda xavoni almashtirish tizimlari xalq iste’moli mollari shuningdek, issiqlik o’tkazmaydigan materiallar va qurilish konstruktsiyalari energiyadan oqilona Foydalanish soxasidagi standartlashtirish predmetlaridir.
6-modda. Energiya jixatidan samaradorlik xamda energiya sifati ko’rsatkichlariga rioya etilishi ustidan davlat tekshiruvi va nazorati.
Energiya jixatidan samaradorlik xamda energiya sifatining normativ xujjatlarida belgilangan ko’rsatkichlarga rioya etilishi ustidan davlat tekshiruvi va nazorati O’zbekiston Respublikasi vazirlar maxkamasi xuzuridagi Zbekiston davlat standartlash, metrologiya va sertifikatsiya markazi (matnda bundan buyon O’zdavstandart deb yuritiladi) xamda boshqa organdlar zimmasiga qonun xujjatlarida belgilangan tartibda yuklanadi.
7- modda. Energiya sarflan normativlari
Ushbu qonun 5-moddasining birinchi qismida sanab o’tilgan ob’ektlar uchun energiya sarflash normativlarini O’zbekiston Respublikasi Xukumati yoki vakolat bergan organlar belgilaydi.
Energiya sarflash normativlari energiya xosil qiluvchi asbob-uskunalar hamda mahsulotlarining texnik pasportlariga, tuzatish ta’mirlash va rejim varaqalariga ulardan foydalanish yo’riqnomalariga kiritiladi. Binolar va inshoatlarni isitish, ularning havosini almashtirish xarorati va namligini bir xilda saqlab turish uchun energiya sarflash normativlari, qurilish normativlari va qoidalarida belgilab qo’yiladi. Energiya sarflash normativlari har besh yilda qayta qo’rib chiqiladi av ilg’or texnologiya yutuqlarini hisobga olgan holda o’zgartirilishi lozim.
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Mehnatning quvvat bo’yicha energiya qurollangan

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Mehnatning quvvat bo’yicha energiya qurollangan
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bet | 43/71 | Sana | 18.01.2024 | Hajmi | 3,27 Mb. | | #140050 |
Bog'liq Ma\'ruzalar matni-2021Mehnatning quvvat bo’yicha energiya qurollanganligi (Этм, ming kVt.s/inson) – bu korxonadagi barcha tok qabul qiluvchilarning o’rnatilgan quvvati (Эn) ni korxona ishlab – chiqarish xodimlarining o’rtacha ro’yxatdagi soni (Чппп) ga nisbati:
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Elektrlashtirish koeffitsienti (Ээ, ming kVt.s/t.sh.yo.) – rejalashtirilayotgan davrda korxonada barcha iste’mol etilgan elektr energiya (Э) ni, to’g’ridan – to’g’ri umumlashtirilgan energiya sarflar (Aтэр)ga nisbati:
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10-mavzu: Energiya tejamkorligining O’zbekistondagi huquqiy asoslari. Asosiy qonunlar.
Reja:
10.1. O’zbekiston respublikasining Qonuni energiyadan oqilona foydalanish to’g’risida
10.2. 2017-2021-yillarda qayta tiklanuvchi energetikani yanada rivojlantirish, iqtisodiyot tarmoqlari va ijtimoiy sohada energiya samaradorligini oshirish chora-tadbirlari dasturi to’g’risida
O’zbekiston respublikasi prezidentining Qarori
Tayanch so’z va iboralar: Qonun, qonuniy aktlar, energetik effektivlik, energiya isteomoli normativlari, O’zdavstondart, Bosh dasturlar, ifloslanish, ifloslovchi jismlar, energetik kuzatish
10.1. O’zbekiston respublikasining Qonuni energiyadan oqilona foydalanish to’g’risida
Ushbu qonun 4 ta bob 24 ta moddadan iborat bo’lib 25.04.1997 yilda tasdiqlangan. Qonun quydagi boblarni o’z ichiga oladi.
I.Umumiy qoidalar
Ushbu bob 1-9 moddalarni o’z ichiga oladi
II. Energiyadan oqilona foydalanishning davlat boshqaruv asoslari
Ushbu bob 10-20 moddalarni o’z ichiga oladi
III. Energiyadan oqilona foydalanishning iqtisodiy mexanimlari.
Ushbu bob 17-21 moddalarni o’z ichiga oladi
IV. Yakunlovchi qoidalar
Ushbu bob 22-24 moddalarni o’z ichiga oladi
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-modda. Aniq maqsaga qaratilgan milliy, tarmoq va mintaqaviy dasturlar hamda loyixalar

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-modda. Aniq maqsaga qaratilgan milliy, tarmoq va mintaqaviy dasturlar hamda loyixalar
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bet | 47/71 | Sana | 18.01.2024 | Hajmi | 3,27 Mb. | | #140050 |
Bog'liq Ma\'ruzalar matni-2021 12-modda. Aniq maqsaga qaratilgan milliy, tarmoq va mintaqaviy dasturlar hamda loyixalar
Energiyadan oqilona foydalanish sohasida aniq maqsadaga qaratilgan milliy, tarmoq va mintaqaviy dasturlar hamda loyixalar energiyadan oqilona foydalanish bo’yicha davlat siyosatini amalga oshirishda majburiydir.
Quyidagilar tegishlicha aniq maqsadga qaratilagan milliy, tarmoq, mintaqaviy dasturlar va loyixalarni ishlab chiqish tashabbuskori bo’ladilar.
O’zbekiston Respublikasi Hukumati;
vazirlar va idoralar;
Qoraqolpog’iston Respublikasi Hukumati, viloyatlar va Toshkent shaxar davlat xomkimyati organlari.
Aniq maqsadga qaratilagn milliy, tarmoq va mintaqaviy dasturlar hamda loyixalarbesh yil va undan uzoqroq muddat uchun yoki uzoqroq muddat uchun ishlab chiqariladi. O’zbekiston Respublikasi Hukumati tomonidan tasdiqlangan va ustivor xisoblanadi. Ularni ro’yobga chiqarish ma’ulyati tegishincha O’zbekiston Respublikasi Hukumati vazirliklar va idoralar,maxalliy davlat xokimyati organlari zimmasiga yuklatiladi.
13-modda. Energetika tekshiruvlari
Energetika tekshiruvlari energiya xosil qlish va uni sarflash samaradorligini baxolash maqsadidi o’tkaziladi.
Har yili umumiy xajmi olti ming tonnadan ortiq shartli yoqilg’i yoki bir ming tonnadan ortiq motor yoqilg’isiga teng energiya resurslarini sarflaydigan korxonalar, muassasalar va tashkilotlar majburiy energetika tekshiruvi o’tkaziladi.
Energetika tekshiruvlarini o’tkazish tartibi va muddatini O’zbekiston Respublikasi Hukumati belgilaydi.
14-modda. Energiyani xisobga olish.
Hosil qilinadigan va sarflanadigan energiya jami hajmi albatta hisobga olinadi.
Energiyani xisobga olish tartibi va uni asboblar bilan taminlash qoidalari, elektr va issiqlik energiyasidan, tabiy gazdan, neftni qayta ishlash maxsulotlaridan foydalanish qoidalari O’zbekiston Respublikasi Hukumati tomonidan belgilanadi.
Energiya hisobi to’g’ri yuritilishi uchun javobgarlik korxonalar, muassasalar va tashkilotlar rahbarlariningyoki shunga vakolat berilagan boshqa shaxslaring zimmasiga yuklatiladi.
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YOER me’yorlash bo’yicha energo iqtisodiy ko’rsatkichlar

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YOER me’yorlash bo’yicha energo iqtisodiy ko’rsatkichlar
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bet | 42/71 | Sana | 18.01.2024 | Hajmi | 3,27 Mb. | | #140050 |
Bog'liq Ma\'ruzalar matni-20219.2. YOER me’yorlash bo’yicha energo iqtisodiy ko’rsatkichlar
YOER iqtisodiy zaxirasini aniqlash energo iqtisodiy ko’rsatkichlar tizimi yordamida amalga oshiriladi. Korxonalarda energiyadan foydalanishning asosiy majmuaviy ko’rsatkichlari bo’lib, yoqilg’i, issiqlik va elektr energiyaning ishlab chiqarayotgan mahsulot birligiga solishtirma sarfni hisoblanadi.
To’g’ridan to’g’ri umumlashtirilgan energiya sarflar, m.sh.yo.
,
Bu erda V – korxonaga tashqaridan iste’mol etilgan yoqilg’i miqdori m.sh.yo.; KeKq – mos ravishda elektr va issiqlik energiyasini ishlab chiqarish va iste’mol joylariga uzatish uchun zarur bo’lgan va shartli yoqilg’i miqdorida o’lchangan, yoqilg’i ekvivalenti; E – korxonaning tashqaridan olgan elektr energiya miqdori mVt.s; Q – korxonaning tashqaridan olgan issiqlik energiyasining miqdori, Gkal.
Mahsulot, ish, xizmatlarning energiya sig’imi (An m.sh.yo./dona (t, kg va h.k.)) to’g’ridan – to’g’ri umumlashtirilgan energiya xarajatlarni (Aтэр ) mahsulot hajmi (П) ga nisbatini ko’rsatadi va bu tahlil etilayotgan davr ichida bo’lishi kerak:
.
Mahsulot energosig’imliligi (Эn, ming kVt.s/dona, (t, kg va x.k)) tahlil etilayotgan davrda hamma iste’mol etilgan elektr energiyani (Э) mahsulot hajmiga nisbati bilan o’lchanadi:
.
Mahsulotning issiqlik sig’imi (Qn , Gkal/dona, (t, kg va h.k.)) tashkil etayotgan davrda barcha iste’mol etilayotgan issiqlik energiyasi (Q) ni mahsulot hajmi(П)ga nisbati bilan aniqlanadi:
.
Mehnatning energiya qurollanganligi (Aм ming sh.yo./dona (t, kg va x.k)) – taxmin etilayotgan davrda, to’g’ridan-to’g’ri umumlashtirilgan energiya sarflar (Aтэр) ni, sanoat ishlab chiqarish xodimlarining o’rtacha ro’yxatdagi soniga (Чппп) nisbati:
.
Mexnatning elektr qurollanganligi (Эn, ming kVt.s/inson) – tahlil etilayotgan davrda korxonada hamma iste’mol etilayotgan elektr energiyani sanoat ishlab chiqarish xodimlarining o’rtcha ro’yxatidagi soni CHppp ga nisbati:
.
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I.Umumiy qoidalar - «elektr texnikasi, elektr mexanikasi va elektr texnologiyalari»

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«elektr texnikasi, elektr mexanikasi va elektr texnologiyalari»
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Bog'liq Ma\'ruzalar matni-2021I.Umumiy qoidalar
1-modda. Ushbu qonunning maqsadi.
Ushbu qonunning maqsadi milliy energetika resurslari saqlanishini, energiyadan va ishlab chiqarish imkoniyatlaridan samarali foydalanishni ta’minlaydigan umumiy xuquqiy asoslarni shakllantirishdan iboratdir.
2-modda. Energiyadan oqilona foydalanish to’g’risidagi qonun xujjatlari.
Energiyadan oqilona foydalanish soxasidagi munosabatlar ushbu qonun va O’zbekiston Respublikasining boshqa qonun xujjatlari bilan tartibga solinadi.
Qoraqalpog’iston Respublikasida energiyadan oqilona foydalanish soxasidagi munosabatlar Qoraqalpog’iston Respublikasining qonun xujjatlari bilan ham tartibga solinadi.
3-modda. Ushbu qonun amal qiladigan soha.
Yuridik va jismoniy shaxslarning yoqilg’i qazib olish, yoqilg’i, issiqlik va elektr energiyasi (matnda bundan buyon energiya deb yuritiladi) hosil qilish, ularni qayta ishlash, saqlash, tashish taqsimlash va sarflash (matnda bundan buyon energiya hosil qilish va uni sarflash deb yuritiladi) bilan bog’liq faoliyati ushbu qonun amal qiladigan soha hisoblanadi.
Energiyadan oqilona foydalanish sohasida huquqiy tartibga solish:
Energiya xosil qilish va uni sarflash chog’ida energiyadan samarali va ekologik jixatdan xavfsiz foydalanishini ta’minlashga;
Energiya jixatidan samarali va texnologiyalar ishlab chiqish va joriy etishni, arzonroq neft maxsulotlari , tabiy gaz, ko’mir va boshqa turdagi tabiy yoqilg’ilarni (matnda bundan buyon energiya hosil qilish va uni yoqilg’i deb yuritiladi) qazib olish va xzosil qilishni rag’batlantirishga;
Energiya xosil qilish va uni sarflash miqdori xamda sifatini o’lchash va xisobga olish aniq, to’g’ri bir xil bo’lishga ta’minlashga;
Energiyaning samarali xosil qilishni va sarflanishini xamda uning sifati ustidan, energetika asboblarning energiya bilan ta’minlash va energiyani sarflash tizimlarining texnikaviy xolati ustidan davlat tekshiruvi xamda nazoratini amalga oshirishga qaratilgan.
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A Simple Scanner - L in u X ba sics for h acke rs g e t t I n g s t a r t e d w I t h

88
Chapter 8
Now let’s use the
nmap
command to request a TCP scan
w
on our LAN,
looking for port 3306
x
. (Note that your IP addresses may differ; in your
terminal, use the
ifconfig
command on Linux or the
ipconfig
command on
Windows to determine your IP address.) The redirect symbol
>
tells the
standard nmap output, which usually goes to the screen, to instead go to
/dev/null, which is simply a place to send output so that it disappears
y
.
We’re doing this on a local machine, so it doesn’t matter so much, but if you
were to use the script remotely, you’d want to hide the nmap output. We then
send the output of the scan to a file named
MySQLscan in a grep-able format
z
, meaning a format that grep can work on.
The next line displays the
MySQLscan file we stored the output in and
then pipes that output to
grep
to filter for lines that include the keyword
open
{
. Then we put those lines into a file named
MySQLscan2
|
.
Finally, you display the contents of the file
MySQLscan2. This final file
should only include lines of output from nmap with hosts that have port 3306
open. Save this file as
MySQLscanner.sh and give yourself execute permissions
with
chmod 755
.
Execute the script, like so:
kali >
Adding Repositories to Your sources.list File

44
Chapter 4
the Kali repositories in my
sources.list file; that way, when I request to down-
load a new software package, if it isn’t in the Kali repository, my system may
find it in the Ubuntu repository.
You can find the
sources.list file at
/etc/apt/sources.list and open it with any
text editor. I’ll again be using Leafpad. To open the
sources.list file, enter the
following into your terminal, replacing
leafpad
with the name of your editor:
kali >
leafpad /etc/apt/sources.list
After entering this command, you should see a window like the one in
Figure 4-1, with a list of Kali’s default repositories.
Figure 4-1: Kali’s default repositories in
sources.list
Many Linux distributions divide repositories into separate categories.
For instance, Debian breaks out its repository categories as follows:
dig hackers-arise.com mx - L in u X ba sics for h acke rs g e t t I n g s t a r t e d w I t h

Analyzing and Managing Networks
35
will open the
resolv.conf file in the
/etc directory in my specified graphical
text editor, Leafpad. The file should look something like Figure 3-1.
Figure 3-1: A typical
resolv.conf
file in a text editor
As you can see on line 3, my nameserver is set to a local DNS server at
192.168.181.2. That works fine, but if I want to replace that DNS server with,
say, Google’s public DNS server at 8.8.8.8, I could place the following line in
the
/etc/resolv.conf file to specify the nameserver:
nameserver 8.8.8.8
Then I would just need to save the file. However, you can also achieve the
same result exclusively from the command line by entering the following:
kali >
leafpad /etc/hosts - L in u X ba sics for h acke rs g e t t I n g s t a r t e d w I t h

|
L in u X ba sics for h acke rs g e t t I n g s t a r t e d w I t hBog'liq linuxbasicsforhackersleafpad /etc/hosts
You should now see your hosts file, which will look something like
Figure 3-3.
Figure 3-3: A default Kali Linux
hosts
file
By default, the hosts file contains only a mapping for your localhost, at
127.0.0.1, and your system’s hostname (in this case, Kali, at 127.0.1.1). But you
can add any IP address mapped to any domain you’d like. As an example of
how this might be used, you could map www.bankofamerica.com to your local
website, at 192.168.181.131.
127.0.0.1 localhost
127.0.1.1 kali
192.168.181.131 bankofamerica.com
# The following lines are desirable for IPv6 capable hosts
::1 localhost ip6-localhost ip6-loopback
ff02::1 ip6-allnodes
ff02::2 ip6-allrouters
Make certain you press
tab
between the IP address and the domain
key—not the spacebar.
As you get more involved in your hacking endeavors and learn about
tools like
dnsspoof
and Ettercap, you’ll be able to use the hosts file to direct
any traffic on your LAN that visits www.bankofamerica.com to your web server
at 192.168.181.131.
Pretty easy, right?
Analyzing and Managing Networks
37
Summary
Any hacker needs some basic Linux networking skills to connect, analyze,
and manage networks. As you progress, these skills will become more and
more useful for doing reconnaissance, spoofing, and connecting to target
systems.
E XERCISES
Before you move on to Chapter 4, try out the skills you learned from this chapter
by completing the following exercises:
1. Find information on your active network interfaces.
2. Change the IP address on
eth0
to 192.168.1.1.
3. Change your hardware address on
eth0
.
4. Check whether you have any available wireless interfaces active.
5. Reset your IP address to a DHCP-assigned address.
6. Find the nameserver and email server of your favorite website.
7. Add Google’s DNS server to your
/etc/resolv.conf
file so your system
refers to that server when it can’t resolve a domain name query with
your local DNS server.
|
| |
echo "nameserver 8.8.8.8"> /etc/resolv.conf

36
Chapter 3
Mapping Your Own IP Addresses
A special file on your system called the
hosts file also performs domain name–
IP address translation. The
hosts file is located at
/etc/hosts, and kind of as with
DNS, you can use it to specify your own IP address–domain name mapping.
In other words, you can determine which IP address your browser goes to
when you enter
www.microsoft.com (or any other domain) into the browser,
rather than let the DNS server decide. As a hacker, this can be useful for
hijacking a TCP connection on your local area network to direct traffic to a
malicious web server with a tool such as
dnsspoof
.
From the command line, type in the following command (you can sub-
stitute your preferred text editor for
leafpad
):
kali >
Checking Wireless Network Devices with iwconfig

Analyzing and Managing Networks
31
Using the terminal, let’s take a look at some wireless devices with
iwconfig
(see Listing 3-2).
kali >
iwconfig
wlan0 IEEE 802.11bg ESSID:off/any
Mode:Managed Access Point: Not Associated Tx-Power=20 dBm
--
snip
--
lo no wireless extensions
eth0 no wireless extensions
Listing 3-2: Using
iwconfig
to get information on wireless adapters
The output here tells us that the only network interface with wireless
extensions is
wlan0
, which is what we would expect. Neither
lo
nor
eth0
has
any wireless extensions.
For
wlan0
, we learn what 802.11 IEEE wireless standards our device is
capable of:
b
and
g
, two early wireless communication standards. Most wire-
less devices now include
n
as well (
n
is the latest standard).
We also learn from
iwconfig
the mode of the wireless extension (in this
case,
Mode:Managed
, in contrast to monitor or promiscuous mode). We’ll need
promiscuous mode for cracking wireless passwords.
Next, we can see that the wireless adapter is not connected (
Not Associated
)
to an access point (AP) and that its power is 20 dBm, which represents the
strength of signal. We’ll spend more time with this information in Chapter 14.
Analyzing Networks with ifconfig - L in u X ba sics for h acke rs g e t t I n g s t a r t e d w I t h

|
L in u X ba sics for h acke rs g e t t I n g s t a r t e d w I t hBog'liq linuxbasicsforhackersAnalyzing Networks with ifconfig
The
ifconfig
command is one of the most basic tools for examining and
interacting with active network interfaces. You can use it to query your
active network connections by simply entering
ifconfig
in the terminal.
Try it yourself, and you should see output similar to Listing 3-1.
30
Chapter 3
kali >
ifconfig
u
eth0: flags=4163 mtu 1500
v
inet addr:192.168.181.131 netmask 255.255.255.0
Bcast:192.168.181.255
--
snip
--
lo Linkencap:Local Loopback
inet addr:127.0.0.1 Mask:255.0.0.0
--
snip
--
wlan0 Link encap:EthernetHWaddr 00:c0:ca:3f:ee:02
Listing 3-1: Using
ifconfig
to get network information
As you can see, the command
ifconfig
shows some useful informa-
tion about the active network interfaces on the system. At the top of the
output is the name of the first detected interface,
eth0
u
, which is short for
Ethernet0 (Linux starts counting at 0 rather than 1). This is the first wired
network connection. If there were more wired Ethernet interfaces, they
would show up in the output using the same format (
eth1
,
eth2
, and so on).
The type of network being used (
Ethernet
) is listed next, followed by
HWaddr
and an address; this is the globally unique address stamped on every
piece of network hardware—in this case, the network interface card (NIC),
usually referred to as the media access control (MAC) address.
The second line contains information on the IP address currently
assigned to that network interface (in this case, 192.168.181.131
v
); the
Bcast
, or broadcast address, which is the address used to send out informa-
tion to all IPs on the subnet; and finally the network mask (
netmask
), which is
used to determine what part of the IP address is connected to the local net-
work. You’ll also find more technical info in this section of the output, but
it’s beyond the scope of this Linux networking basics chapter.
The next section of the output shows another network connection
called
lo
, which is short for loopback address and is sometimes called
localhost. This is a special software address that connects you to your own
system. Software and services not running on your system can’t use it. You
would use
lo
to test something on your system, such as your own web server.
The localhost is generally represented with the IP address 127.0.0.1.
The third connection is the interface
wlan0
. This appears only if you
have a wireless interface or adapter, as I do here. Note that it also displays
the MAC address of that device (
HWaddr
).
This information from
ifconfig
enables you to connect to and manipu-
late your local area network (LAN) settings, an essential skill for hacking.
|
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Changing Your Network Information

32
Chapter 3
Then, when you again check your network connections with
ifconfig
,
you should see that your IP address has changed to the new IP address you
just assigned.
Changing Your Network Mask and Broadcast Address
You can also change your network mask (netmask) and broadcast address
with the
ifconfig
command. For instance, if you want to assign that same
eth0
interface with a netmask of 255.255.0.0 and a broadcast address of
192.168.1.255, you would enter the following:
kali >
ifconfig eth0 192.168.181.115 netmask 255.255.0.0 broadcast 192.168.1.255
kali >
Once again, if you’ve done everything correctly, Linux responds with a
new command prompt. Now enter
ifconfig
again to verify that each of the 
parameters has been changed accordingly.
Spoofing Your MAC Address

Analyzing and Managing Networks
33
get a new DHCP-assigned IP address. To do this, you can always reboot your
system, but I’ll show you how to retrieve a new DHCP without having to shut
your system down and restart it.
To request
an IP address from DHCP, simply call the DHCP server
with the command
dhclient
followed by the interface you want the address
assigned to. Different Linux distributions use different DHCP clients, but
Kali
is built on Debian, which uses
dhclient
. Therefore, you can assign a
new address like this:
kali >
dhclient eth0
The
dhclient
command sends a
DHCPDISCOVER
request from the network
interface specified (here,
eth0
). It then receives an offer (
DHCPOFFER
) from the
DHCP server (192.168.181.131 in this case) and
confirms the IP assignment
to the DHCP server with a dhcp request.
kali >
ifconfig
eth0Linkencap:EthernetHWaddr 00:0c:29:ba:82:0f
inet addr:192.168.181.131 Bcast:192.168.181.131 Mask:255.255.255.0
Depending on the configuration of the DHCP server, the IP address
assigned in each case might be different.
Now when you enter
ifconfig
, you should see that the DHCP server has
assigned a new IP address,
a new broadcast address, and new netmask to
your network interface
eth0
.
Xesh funksiya - Oʻzbekiston respublikasi oliy va oʻrta maxsus ta’lim vazirligi begbo’tayev

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Oʻzbekiston respublikasi oliy va oʻrta maxsus ta’lim vazirligi begbo’tayev
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bet | 196/216 | Sana | 19.07.2024 | Hajmi | 7,52 Mb. | | #267965 |
Bog'liq 5ffd2d83d9d2c (1)
Xesh funksiyalar – ixtiyoriy uzunlikdagi kirish ma’lumotini chiqishda belgilangan uzunlikdagi xesh qiymatga aylantirib beruvchi bir tomonlama funksiyalarga aytiladi. Xesh funksiyalar kriptografiya va zamonaviy axborot xavfsizligi sohasida ma’lumotlarni to’laligini tekshirishda foydalaniladi. Elektron to’lov tizimlari protokollarida ham istemolchi kartasi ma’lumotlarini bank-emitentga to’liq yetkazish uchun foydalaniladi. [16]
Xesh funksiya- ixtiyoriy uzunlikdagi M-ma’lumotni fiksirlangan uzunlikga siqish yoki ikkilik sanoq sistemasi ifodalangan ma’lumotlarni fiksirlangan uzunlikdagi bitlar ko‘rinishidagi qandaydir konbinatsiyasi deb ataluvchi funksiya.
Ta’rif. Xesh-funksiya deb, har qanday h: X Y
oson hisoblanuvchi va M –ma’lumot uchun h(M) = H fiksirlangan uzunlikga ega bo‘lgan funksiyaga aytiladi.
Berilgan M-ma’lumotning h(M) –xesh qiymatini topish uchun avvalo ma’lumot biror «m» -uzunlikdagi bloklarga ajratilib chiqiladi. Agar M-ma’lumot uzunligi «m» -ga karrali bo‘lmasa, u holda oxirgi to‘lmay qolgan blok «m»- uzunlikga olindan kelishib olingan maxsus usulda biror simvol yoki belgi (masalan “0” yoki “1”) bilan to‘ldirilib chiqiladi. Natijada hosil qilingan M-ma’lumot bloklariga:
M= { M1, M2 , Mn)
quyidagicha siqishni (svertkani) hisoblash protsedurasi qo‘llaniladi: H0 = ,
Hi = f ( Mi , Hi-1) , i =1,2,. n
h(M)= Hn ;
bu yerda -qandaydir fiksirlangan boshlang‘ich vektor. Misol sifatida quyidagi keng tarqalgan:
f ( Mi , Hi-1) = E k( Mi Hi-1) i =1,2, n
xesh-funksiyani keltirib o‘tish mumkin.
Bu yerda E-simmetrik shifrlash algoritmi (masalan DES, GOST 28147-87, AES –FIPS 197 va hakoza), k- esa shifrlash algoritmi maxfiy kaliti, H0 = 0, - XOR (mod 2 bo‘yicha mos bitlarni qo‘shish) amali.
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Recognition of EEG patterns during mental intentions: a comparative study

Recognition of EEG patterns during mental intentions: a comparative study Daria S. Grishina1, N.M. Kupriyashkina2, O.N. Pavlova2, A.E. Runnova3, A.N. Pavlov1,2, A.E. Hramov4, 1Saratov State Technical University; 2Saratov State University; 3Saratov State Medical University; Innopolis University, Russia
Studying of human's mental state during bistable visual stimuli processing with combined EEG and FNIRS V.V. Grubov, ArtemBadarin, V.A. Maksimenko, A.E. Hramov, Innopolis University, Russia
Analysis of real and imaginary motor activity with combined EEG and FNIRS V.V. Grubov, ArtemBadarin, N.S. Frolov, E. Pitsik, Innopolis University, Russia
Control of dynamics of bistable neural network by an external pulse Andrey Andreev1, N.S. Frolov1, A.N. Pisarchik2, 1Innopolis University, Russia; 2Technical University of Madrid, Spain
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Cognitive interaction via a brain-to-brain interface

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Cognitive interaction via a brain-to-brain interface
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bet | 104/138 | Sana | 22.12.2020 | Hajmi | 492,9 Kb. | | #12926 |
Cognitive interaction via a brain-to-brain interfaceV.A. Maksimenko, Vadim V. Grubov, V. Nedaivozov, Innopolis University, Russia
Spatio-temporal activity in cortical network during cognitive activity Alexander Kuc1, V. Maksimenko2, 1Saratov State Technical University; 2Innopolis University, Russia
Neural activity during maintaining a body balance Vladimir Horev, V. Maksimenko, V. Grubov, Innopolis University, Russia
Network analysis of electrical activity in brain motor cortex during motor execution and motor imagery Elena Pitsik, N.S. Frolov, Innopolis University, Russia
Features of motor-related brain activity revealed via recurrence quantification analysis E.Pitsik, Nikita S. Frolov, Innopolis University, Russia
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The recurrence plot analysis in the processing of experimental biomedical data

The recurrence plot analysis in the processing of experimental biomedical data Anton O. Selskii1, M.O. Zhuravlev1, A.E. Runnova2, E.P. Emelyanova, E.I. Selskaya1, 1Saratov State University; 2Saratov State Medical University, Russia
The recurrence plot analysis for processing MEG data Anton O. Selskii1, M.O. Zhuravlev1, A.E. Runnova2, E.P. Emelyanova1, E.I. Selskaya1, 1Saratov State University; 2Saratov State Medical University, Russia
The recurrence plot analysis for processing EEG data Anton O. Selskii1, E.P. Emelyanova1, M.O. Zhuravlev1, A.E. Runnova2, E.I. Selskaya1, 1Saratov State University; 2Saratov State Medical University, Russia
The study of the EEG response of the brain to the repeated effects of odors of different nature Anastasiya E. Runnova1, A.S. Varezhnikov2, M.O. Zhuravlev3, R.R Parsamyan1, 1Saratov State Medical University; 2Yuri Gagarin State Technical University; 3Saratov State University, Russia
The experimental study of the integrative activity processes in the brain in states of artificial cognitive fatigue Anastasiya E. Runnova1, A.S. Fedonnikov1, A.R. Kiselev1, M.O. Zhuravlev2, 1Saratov State Medical University; 2Saratov State University, Russia
The study of the brain activity EEG characteristics in a post-stroke patients in the acute phase with standard physiological samples of open/closed eyes Anastasiya E. Runnova1, A.S. Fedonnikov1, V.I. Gridnev1, M.O. Zhuravlev2, 1Saratov State Medical University; 2Saratov State University, Russia
Study of the EEG activity of the brain with arbitrary compression of the hand into a fist Anastasiya E. Runnova1, A.R. Kiselev1, V.Yu. Romanenko1, M.O. Zhuravlev2, 1Saratov State Medical University; 2Saratov State University, Russia
Characteristics of post-stroke patients brain activity with real and imagined movements in the BCI - rehabilitation process
Maksim O. Zhuravlev1, A.E. Runnova2, A.R. Kiselev2, N.V. Schukovsky2, A.O. Selskii1, 1Saratov State University; 2Saratov State Medical University, Russia
New methods for processing spatial human electroencephalography based on modified wavelet analysis Maksim O. Zhuravlev1, O.M. Posnenkova2, A.O. Selskii1, 1Saratov State University; 2Saratov State Medical University, Russia
The typical dynamic of various frequency patterns in recordings of post-stroke patients in acute period Maksim O. Zhuravlev1, V.I. Gridnev2, N.V. Schukovsky2, A.O. Selskii1, 1Saratov State University; 2Saratov State Medical University, Russia
|
fIgURe 6.21 - Tyner indb

Bog'liq Judith A. Tyner. Principles of map design. New York. „The Guilford Press”, 2010
fIgURe 6.21. The Gall–Peters projection was proposed as a replacement for the Mercator,
but has the same disadvantages of any cylindrical projection.
The earth’s graticule and Projections 111
American Cartographic Association passed a resolution strongly urging publishers,
governmental agencies, and the media to cease using rectangular world maps for
general purposes and artistic displays, which was signed by other cartographic and
geographic organizations (American Cartographic Committee on Map Projections,
1989, p. 223). Despite this effort, rectangular maps are still found in children’s geog-
raphy workbooks.
Other aspects of Cylindrical Projections
If it is possible to wrap a cylinder around the equator, it is equally possible to create
a cylindrical projection by wrapping the cylinder around some other great circle. If
the great circle is formed by a pair of opposing meridians, the resulting projection
is a transverse aspect. For any other great circle, the projection is an oblique aspect.
The parallels and meridians look very different in these aspects from the normal or
equatorial aspect, and some properties are lost. For example, rhumb lines are straight
lines only on the equatorial aspect of the Mercator, not on the transverse or oblique
aspects. The zone of best representation is along the tangent great circle in any of
these cases (Figure 6.22).
It is also possible to create a cylindrical projection that has two zones of good
representation, called a secant case. This is accomplished with a secant cylinder, that
EQUATORIAL
TRANSVERSE
OBLIQUE
NORMAL
EQUATORIAL
OBLIQUE
N P
POLAR
EQUATORIAL
OBLIQUE
fIgURe 6.22. Projection aspects.
112 THe geOgRaPHiC anD CaRTOgRaPHiC FRaMeWORK
is, a cylinder that cuts the globe instead of encircling it. The small circles where the
cylinder enters and exits the generating globe has true representations.
fIgURe 6.17 - Tyner indb

110 THe geOgRaPHiC anD CaRTOgRaPHiC FRaMeWORK
1970s, Arno Peters proposed a “new” world map, the so-called Peters projection
(Figure 6.21), saying that it was a far superior projection than Mercator, which he
believed was used because cartographers were biased toward developed countries.
His projection, which is actually the Gall projection developed a century earlier, is an
equal-area cylindrical projection, and, according to Peters, shows shapes better than
Mercator. In fact, his projection has many deficiencies of its own, some of which are
inherent in any cylindrical projection. A number of agencies adopted this projection
based on Peters’s persuasive rhetoric and it is now found in atlases and wall maps.
Because of the distortions inherent in rectangular projections, in 1989 the
GRE
AT
CIRCLE
RHUMB
LIN
E
fIgURe 6.20.
On the Mercator projection a great circle that is the shortest distance between
two points on a sphere looks farther than the rhumb line. These distances can be compared
on a globe.
fIgURe 6.9 - Tyner indb

The earth’s graticule and Projections 101
constant compass routes useful for navigators. A projection can also permit the car-
tographer to zero in on an area and present it in large scale.
There is no single best projection, although sometimes claims are made for new
projections that state they are better than any previously constructed projection. This
simply is not true. All projections have distortions, and a new projection merely has
distortions that are different from those of previously used projections. One can-
not even say there is a best projection for a particular use. From the infinite projec-
tions possible, there are usually several that could be used for any mapping project,
although if enough conditions are specified, the choice can be limited.
While there are an unlimited number of projections and variations on projec-
tions possible, many of those already devised are not in common use but remain
cartographic curiosities (Figure 6.10). Only about 25 or 30 projections and their
variations are widely used (see Appendix A).
The discussion that follows is a simplified and nonmathematical description of
projection concepts. Several excellent sources are listed in the Bibliography for those
who want a more rigorous treatment.
classification of Projections
Many attempts have been made to classify projections. Unfortunately, it is not pos-
sible to devise mutually exclusive categories since there is always some overlap. The
most common classifications are based on
projection properties and
projection sur-
faces.
Projection Properties
It is desirable to preserve some of the geometric properties of the earth’s grid when
creating or using map projections. These basic properties and the projection types
that preserve them are as follows:
fIgURe 6.11 - Tyner indb

The earth’s graticule and Projections 103
point. That is, if there is stretching in the longitudinal dimension, it must be matched
with an equal amount of stretching in the latitudinal dimension (Figure 6.12). As
a result, angles are preserved at the expense of a severely distorted
areal scale, and
squares of 100 square miles in different parts of the globe, while remaining square,
will have different apparent sizes on a conformal projection. Figure 6.13 shows a
conformal world map compared to an equal-area map. Note the size of Greenland on
these two maps. Compare the shape and size to that found on a globe.
Because of the conflicting requirements of equal-area and conformal projections,
it is not possible to preserve both properties on a flat map;
it is impossible to design
an equal-area conformal projection. These properties can be achieved simultane-
ously only on a globe.
eQUiDisTanT PROJeCTiOns
A map is called equidistant if distances are shown correctly. Equidistance is not
attainable over the entire map; the distance scale of a map is correct only along cer-
tain lines or from specific points.
aziMUTHaL PROJeCTiOns
Projections that show azimuths correctly are called
azimuthal or
zenithal projections.
Unlike conformality and equivalence, this property cannot exist everywhere on the
map.
Azimuth is correct only from a single point, the center; it is not possible to mea-
sure the azimuth between any other points on the map. A map that shows constant
compass direction is
not an azimuthal map.
COMPROMise PROJeCTiOns
These are also called
minimum error projections, a somewhat misleading term. These
projections have no particular property except appearance. These are not conformal,
but shapes may not be terribly distorted; they are not equal area, but areas may not be
fIgURe 6.12 - Tyner indb

The earth’s graticule and Projections 105
globe. The scale of the map projection is called the
defined scale or the
nominal scale
and is the same as that of the generating globe. The second stage is to project the
globe onto a plane.
If we imagine one of the developable forms placed on a transparent reference
globe with a light source inside, we can then visualize the earth’s graticule being pro-
jected onto the developable surface. The name of each group of projections is taken
from the surface upon which the map is projected. Consequently, we have cylindri-
cal, conic, and plane projections. A final group of projections is made up of those
that cannot in any way be imagined as projected onto one of these surfaces. Various
names are given to these last, the most common being
mathematically devised or
conventional projections.
Of course, projections are not normally created by a light source and a globe;
this would be done only for demonstration or teaching purposes. They are created
mathematically and drawn by a computer or, in the past, manually constructed geo-
metrically or from tables (Figure 6.16). Only a limited number of projections can
actually be projected by light or by geometric projection (these are called
perspective
projections); but if a projection has the general appearance characteristics of a cylin-
drical projection, for example, it is placed in this class.