nyuuzyou/kompy huggingface dataset:
Ochiq schyot orqali - Issn (E): 2992-9148 sjif 2024 =

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Issn (E): 2992-9148 sjif 2024 =
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bet | 5/10 | Sana | 15.05.2024 | Hajmi | 395,71 Kb. | | #234773 |
Bog'liq 85-94 Gulnoza Xolmurod qizi TSRUOchiq schyot orqali hisoblashilganda haridor tovarga buyurtma berilishi bilan yuklab jo’natiladi, to’lov esa o’rnatilgan muddatlarda kelishilgan summa chegarasida vaqti-vaqti bilan amalga oshirilib boriladi. Bunda haridor har gal tovar olishda kreditni rasmiylashtirib o’tirmaydi, ya’ni kreditga murojaat qilmaydi.
Chegirma berish usulida haridor to’lov hujjatlari yozilgandan so’ng, shartnomada kelishilgan ma’lum davr ichida to’lovni amalga oshirsa to’lov yig’indisidan chegirma beriladi. Agar ushbu davrda to’lay olmasa, unda belgilangan muddatda to’lovni to’liq amalga oshiradi.
Mavsumiy kredit odatda o’yinchoqlar, suvenirlar va boshqa xalq iste’mol mollarini sotishda qo’llaniladi. Masalan, o’yinchoqlarni vaqtidan oldin olib yangi yil o’tgach yanvar-fevral oyida to’laydi. Buni ishlab chiqaruvchilar uchun qulayligi ular o’yinchoqlarni omborlarda saqlash harajatlaridan xolos bo’ladilar.
Konsignasiya usulida tovarni sotib oluvchilar hech qanday majburiyatsiz sotib oladilar, ya’ni tovarlar sotilganidan keyin puli to’lanadi, agar u sotilmay qolsa egasiga qaytarib beriladi.
Xorijiy mamlakatlarda tijorat kreditidan keng foydalaniladi. MDH mamlakatlari amaliyotida tijorat kreditidan kam foydalaniladi. Umuman jaxon amaliyotida ham tijorat kreditining ochiq schyot, konsignasiya, chegirma berish usullari kengroq foydalaniladi.
Tijorat kreditining salbiy tomoni bo’lib tovarlarni kreditga bergan tashkilot unga pul tushgunga qadar mablag’ga muxtoj bo’lishi, uni o’zi kreditga murojaat qilishga majbur bo’lishi mumkin. Shuning uchun ham korxonalarni tijorat kreditidan foydalanishi bank kreditidan foydalanishni inkor qilmaydi.
Yuqorida ko’rsatilgan kamchiliklarni hisobga olmagan holda tijorat krediti tovarlar sotish jarayonini tezlashtirishda va korxonalarning aylanma mablag’larini xo’jalik faoliyatidan tezroq bo’shashini ta’minlashda katta ahamiyatga ega.
Kredit faoliyati kredit resurslariga ehtiyojni qondirishga yo‘naltirilgan qayta taqsimlashni amalga oshirish hamda kredit faoliyatining sub’ektlari uchun daromad olish imkonini beradi. Kredit faoliyati yaratuvchilik tabiatining mohiyati
89
ISSN (E): 2992-9148 SJIF 2024 = 5.333
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www.pedagoglar.uz - Boshlang‘ich ta’limda xorijiy ilg‘or tajribalar va zamonaviy texnologiyalarning o‘rni

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Boshlang‘ich ta’limda xorijiy ilg‘or tajribalar va zamonaviy texnologiyalarning o‘rniBog'liq 120-122www.pedagoglar.uz
45-son 9–to’plam Iyun 2023
Sahifa: 121
vujudga kelib , o’g’il-qizlarning o’qish va o’rganish faoliyati jadallashadi. Biz
innovatsion metodikalarni ona tili darslarida korib otsak,ona tili fanini o’qitishning
asosiy vazifasi –o’quvchi shaxsini fikrlashga, o’zgalar fikrini anglashga , o’z fikrini
og’zaki hamda yozma shaklda savodli bayon qila olishga qaratilgan nutqiy
kompetensiyani rivojlantirish; o’quvchilarda grammatikada oid o’zlashtiriladigan
bilimlar (fonetika,leksikologiya,so’zning tarkibi, so’z yasalishi, morfologiya,
sintaksis,yozuv, imlo, tinish belgilari,nutq uslublariga oid tushunchalar) ni
rivojlantirish hamda ona tilining keng imkoniyatlaridan unumli foydalangan holda
to’g’ri va ravon bayon eta olish ko’nikmalarini rivojlantirishga qaratilgan lingvistik
kompetensiyalarni shakllantirishdan iborat. Boshlang’ich ta’limning ona tili o’quv
dasturi o’quvchilarda kompetensiyalarni shakllantirishga yo’naltirilgan bo’lib ,
O’zbekiston Respublikasi Vazirlar Mahkamasining 2017 – yil 6-apreldagi “Umumiy
o’rta va o’rta maxsus ,kasb-hunar ta’limining davlat ta’lim standartlarini tasdiqlash
to’g’risida” gi qarori bilan tasdiqlangan Umumiy o’rta ta’limning davlat ta’lim
standarti hamda ona tili fani bo’yicha malaka talablari asosida tuzilgan. Mazkur
o’quv dasturida bugungi kunning eng dolzarb masalalaridan biri bo’lgan 1-4 sinf
o’quvchilarida tayanch hamda fanga oid (nutqiy va lingvistik) kompetensiyalarning
elementlarini shakllantirish ko’zda tutilgan. Quyida ona tili darslarining turli
bosqichlarida innovatsion metodlarni qo’llash tajribasidan lavhalar keltiramiz:
O’tilgan mavzu yuzasidan uyga vazifalarni nazorat qilayotgan vaqtda,
o’qituvchi o’quvchilarni ish daftarini tekshiradi. Bu vaqtda 2 nafar faol o’quvchi
multimedia orqali taqdim etilgan topshiriqni sinf doskasida bajaradi. O’qituvchi
sinf doskasida topshiriqni bajargan o’quvchilardan izoh so’raydi, to’liq javob
berganlarni rag’batlantiradi. Bunda “Bo’lishi mumkin emas” ta’limiy o’yinini
bersak bo’ladi.Bu o’yinni shartiga ko’ra , o’qituvchi kichik hikoya o’qib beradi,
o’quvchilar diqqat bilan tinglaydi. Ular hikoyada bo’lishi mumkin bo’lmagan
sifatlar aniqlanadi. Aslida qanday bo’lishi kerakligi so’raladi.Bu ta’limiy o’yin
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ResearchBib Impact Factor: 9.576 / 2024

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ResearchBib Impact Factor: 9.576 / 2024
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bet | 2/10 | Sana | 15.05.2024 | Hajmi | 395,71 Kb. | | #234773 |
Bog'liq 85-94 Gulnoza Xolmurod qizi TSRUResearchBib Impact Factor: 9.576 / 2024 VOLUME-2, ISSUE-3
Bank krediti
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Bu moliya muassasalari (banklar, maxsus kredit muassasalari) tomonidan qarz oluvchilar (tadbirkorlar, davlat, uy xo‘jligi
sektori)gap ul ssudalari shaklida beriluvchi kredit
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Xo‘jaliklararo
kreditlar
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Bir korxona (muassasa) tomonidan ikkinchisiga beriluvchi kredit
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Tijorat krediti
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Korxonalar, birlashmalar va boshqa xo‘jalik yurituvchi
sub’ektlarning bir-biriga beradigan krediti
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Iste`mol krediti
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Xususiy shaxslarga uzoq muddat foydalanadigan iste‘mol
tovarlari (mebel, avtomobil va boshqalar) sotib olish uchun ma’lum muddatga beriladigan kreditlar
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Ipoteka kreditlari
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Ko‘chmas mulklar (yer, bino) hisobiga uzoq muddatli ssudalar shaklida beriluvchi kredit. Bunday ssudalar berish vositasi banklar va korxonalar tomonidan chiqariladigan obligatsiyalari
hisoblanadi.
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Davlat krediti
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Bunda davlat pul mablag‘lari qarzdori aholi va xususiy biznes esa
kreditorlari bo‘lib chiqadigan kredit munosabatlarining o‘ziga xos shaklidir.
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Bank kreditlari quyidagi belgilari bo’yicha guruhlanadi:
1. Kreditlash obyektlarining iqtisodiy mohiyatiga ko’ra
tovar-moddiy boyliklar uchun beriladigan kredit.
ishlab chiqarish harajatlari (xom-ashyo va boshqalar) uchun beriladigan kredit.
2. To’lash muddatiga ko’ra (qisqa, o’rta va uzoq muddatli)
Muddatli
Muddati kechiktirilgan
Muddati o’tgan.
Bu mezon turli mamlakatlarda turli muddatni o`z ichiga oladi:
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86
ISSN (E): 2992-9148 SJIF 2024 = 5.333
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Suyuqliklarni xaydash - Modda almashinish asoslari

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Modda almashinish asoslari
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bet | 17/26 | Sana | 12.06.2024 | Hajmi | 57,05 Kb. | | #262898 |
Bog'liq ATJ YAKUNIYSuyuqliklarni xaydash. Xaydash, distillyat, qoldiq, oddiy, murakkab, fraksiyali, deflegmatsiya, suv bug‘i, davriy, uzluksiz, tenglama, flagma soni, ko‘p component
Ikki va undan ortiq uchuvchan komponentlardan tarkib topgan bir jinsli sujoiqlik aralashmalai*ini ajratish uchun qo'llaniladigan usullardan eng keng tarqalganlari haydash va rektifikatsiyadir. Haydash va rektifikatsiya jarayonlari kimyo, oziq - ovqat va boshqa sanoatlarda juda keng ko'lamda ishlatiladi. Masalan, texnik va oziq - ovqat etil spirtlarini, aromatik inoddalar ishlab chiqarishda hainda aralashmalami dag'al ajratish uchun qo'Ilaniladi. Juda to'la ajratish uchun rektifikatsiya jarayonidan foydalaniladi. Haydash va rektifikatsiya jarayonlari bir xil temperaturada aralashma komponentlarining turli uchuvchanligiga asoslangandir. Yuqori uchuvchanlikka ega komponent yengil uchiivdum, past uchuvchanlikka ega komponent qiyin uchuvchan deb nomlanadi. Demak, yengil uchuvchan komponent qiyin uchuvchanga qaiaganda pastroq temperaturada qaynaydi. Shuning uchun ham, ular past va yuqori temperaturada qaynaydigan komponcntlar deb ataladi. Haydash yoki rektifikatsiya jarayonida boshlangMch aralashma yengil uchuvchan komponenti bilan boyitilgan distillyat va qiyin uchuvchan komponent bilan boyitilgan kub qoIdig*iga ajraladi. Haydash jarayonida hosil bo'Igan bug' kondensator deflegmatorga kondensatsiyalash natijasida distillyat olinadi. Qurilma kubida esa — kub qoldig'i qoladi
Suyuqlik aralashmalarini bir mai'otaba qisman bug'latish yo'li bilan ajratish jarayoni oddiy haydash deb nomlanadi. Oddiy haydash Jarayonini eritma komponentlaii uchuvchanligi orasidagi farq katta bo'lgan hollardagina qo'llash maqsadga muvofiq va yuqori samara beradi.
Deflegmatsiya bilan haydash Bu usul eritmalami ajratish darajasini ko'tarish uchun qo'llaniladi (5.51-rasm). Bu usulda, kub 1 da hosil bo'lgan bug'lar deflegmator 2 ga uzatiladi va u yerda 5 5.51-rasm. Deflegmatsiyali oddiy haydash qurilmasi. 1 - kub; 2 - deflegmator; 3 - kondensator; 4 - yig'gichlar. qisman kondensatsiyalanadi. Qis man kondensatsiyalanish davrida qiyin uchuvchan komponent miqdori ko'p bo'lgan flegma hosil bo'ladi va qaytadan kubga tushiriladi. Kub 1 ga tushish vaqtida ko'tarilayotgan bug'lar bilan o'zaro ta'sirda bo'ladi.
Suv bug'i bilan haydash. Eritmalar qaynash temperatinasini 468 pasaytirish uchun jarayonni vakuum ostida tashkii etish usuli oldindan ma'lum edi. Lekin eritmalanii suv bug'i bilan haydash usulida ham qaynash tempcraturasini pasaytirish mumkin. Ayniqsa, bu usul qaynash temperaturasi 100°C dan ortiq bo'lgan va komponentlari suvda eriniaydigan eritmalar uchun juda qo4 keladi. Shuning uchun, eritma komponentlari suvda erimasa, unda haydash kubiga qo'shimcha komponent sifatida suv bug'i yuboriladi.
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II. TRANSPARENSIYANI MUHOFAZA QILISH

4
investorlar, boshqa manfaatdor tomonlar, shuningdek ommaviy axborot vositalari vakillari
bilan ma'lumot
almashish tartibi;
aktsiyadorlik jamiyatining axborot siyosatiga rioya etilishini ta'minlash choralari.
14. Axborot siyosati to'g'risidagi nizom aktsiyadorlik jamiyatining rahbariyati, nazorat
organlari va uning xodimlari tomonidan bajarilishi shart
.
Amalga 
oshirish - I umumiy qoidalar

15
3-bosqich
Monitoring
AJ kuzatuv kengashi
1. AJda korporativ boshqaruv tizimini
baholash uchun mustaqil
tashkilotning
tanlov tanlovini
o'tkazish.
Korporativ boshqaruv
tizimini baholashdan bir
oy oldin
Mustaqil
tashkilot
2. AJda korporativ boshqaruv tizimini
mustaqil baholash va uning
natijalarini kuzatuv Kengashiga
taqdim etish.
Yiliga kamida bir marta
AJ kuzatuv kengashi
3. AJ kuzatuv kengashi yig'ilishida
korporativ boshqaruv tizimini
baholash natijalarini ko'rib chiqish.
Yil yakunlari bo'yicha
kuzatuv
Kengashining
majlisida
AJ ijroiya organi
4. AJda korporativ boshqaruv tizimini
o'tkazilgan baholash natijalari
bo'yicha aniqlangan kamchiliklarni
bartaraf etish bo'yicha
choralar
ko'rish.
Kuzatuv kengashi qarori
bilan belgilangan
muddatlarda
AJ kuzatuv kengashi
5. AJ aksiyadorlarining yillik
umumiy yig'ilishida korporativ
boshqaruv tizimini baholash
natijalarini ko'rib chiqish.
Qonun hujjatlarida
belgilangan muddatlarda
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V. 
UZOQ MUDDATLI RIVOJLANISH STRATEGIYASI

8
bo'yicha tasdiqlangan davlat dasturlarini amalga oshirishdan kelib chiqqan holda, 5 yildan
ortiq muddatga AJni rivojlantirishning uzoq muddatli strategiyasini
ishlab chiqadi va
tasdiqlaydi;
keng muvaffaqiyatli SWOT, GAP tahlil qilish va boshqa yondashuvlar, maxsus
dasturiy mahsulotlar va boshqalar,
shu jumladan, xorijiy amaliyot boshqarish usullari, sinov
qilingan ishlatiladi;
aksiyadorlar umumiy yig'ilishi tomonidan tasdiqlangan
uzoq muddatli strategiya
asosida aksiyadorlar umumiy yig'ilishi yoki kuzatuv Kengashining qisqa muddatli (yillik) va
o'rta muddatli (5 yilgacha bo'lgan muddatga) biznes-rejalarini ishlab chiqadi va tasdiqlash
(tasdiqlash) uchun kiritadi;
zarur miqdoriy va sifat mezonlarini joriy etish,
belgilangan maqsadlarga erishish monitoringini amalga oshirish imkonini beradi
AJda qabul qilingan rivojlanish rejalarining har birida.
23. Kuzatuv
kengashi AO ijroiya organi, ichki nazorat organlari, AJda tashkil etilgan
kollegial organlar faoliyatini muvofiqlashtiradi va zarur hollarda AO rivojlanish rejalarini
ishlab chiqishni tashkil etish va ularda belgilangan maqsadlarga
erishish monitoringini olib
borish uchun ekspertlarni jalb qiladi.
24. AJ majburiy tartibda aksiyadorlarga (qonun hujjatlarida belgilangan hollar bundan
mustasno) AJni boshqarish, raqobatbardosh mahsulotlar chiqarish va tashqi bozorlarga
eksport qilishni ta'minlashda ishtirok etadigan strategik xorijiy investorlarni jalb qiladi.
III. SAMARALI ICHKI NAZORAT MEXANIZMLARINI AMALGA OSHIRISH

5
ko'rsatkichlariga erishishni talab qiladi;
AK ichki nazorat organlari (taftish komissiyasi va ichki audit xizmati) kuzatuv
kengashi, aksiyadorlarning umumiy yig'ilishi, minoritar aksiyadorlar qo'mitasi (agar mavjud
bo'lsa) va aksiyadorlar bilan o'zaro hamkorlik tartibini ishlab chiqadi va tasdiqlaydi.
16. AJda samarali ichki nazorat mexanizmlarini joriy etish
uchun aksiyadorlarning
umumiy yig'ilishi o'z ichiga olgan "ichki nazorat to'g'risidagi Nizom" ni tasdiqlaydi:
AJ ichki nazorat organlari a'zolarining tarkibi va malakasiga qo'yiladigan talablar;
ichki nazorat tizimi to'g'risidagi hisobotlarni shakllantirish tarkibi va reglamenti;
AJda ichki nazorat tizimi samaradorligini baholash uchun mustaqil professional
maslahat tashkilotlarini jalb etish tartibi;
ichki nazorat organlari faoliyatini monitoring qilish mexanizmlarining tavsifi,
ularning
a'zolariga to'lanadigan kompensatsiya va mukofotlarni hisoblash tartibi.
17. "Ichki nazorat to'g'risidagi Nizom" AJ xodimlari, uning boshqaruv va nazorat
organlari a'zolari tomonidan bajarilishi majburiy hisoblanadi.
18. AO kuzatuv kengashi to'g'risidagi Nizom talablariga muvofiq kuzatuv kengashi
tarkibiga kamida bitta mustaqil a'zo (lekin uning ustavida nazarda tutilgan kuzatuv kengashi
a'zolarining kamida 15%) kiradi.
19. AO kuzatuv Kengashining mustaqil a'zolari bo'lgan shaxslar bo'lishi mumkin:
(i) oxirgi 5 yil davomida AJ, uning sho " ba korxonalarida yoki filiallarida ishlamagan;
(ii)
AJ aksiyadorlari, uning sho "ba korxonalari yoki sho" ba korxonalari
hisoblanmaydi;
(iii) qonun hujjatlarida belgilangan eng kam ish haqining 5 ming baravaridan ortiq
miqdorda tegishli shartnomaga ega bo'lgan yirik mijoz yoki yetkazib beruvchi bilan AJ,
uning sho " ba korxonalari yoki affillangan korxonalari bilan bog'liq emas;
(iv) AO, uning sho " ba korxonalari yoki filiallari bilan xizmat ko'rsatish shartnomalari
mavjud emas;
(v) oxirgi 5 yil
ichida AO, uning sho " ba korxonalari yoki filiallarining boshqaruvchi
xodimi bo'lgan yoki bo'lgan shaxsning oila a'zosi emas;
(vi) AO (yoki AO ustidan birgalikda nazoratni amalga oshiruvchi shaxslar va/yoki
tashkilotlar guruhi a'zosi) nazorat qiluvchi shaxs emas);
(vii) AJ fuqarolik-huquqiy shartnomalari bilan bog'liq emas va AJning yirik
aktsiyadori yoki yuqori tarmoq bo'limi (kompaniya) xodimi emas)
.
XI. YAKUNIY QOIDALAR - I umumiy qoidalar

Korporativ boshqaruv kodeksiga
1-ilova
14
Korporativ boshqaruv kodeksini tayyorlash va joriy etish bo'yicha aksiyadorlik
jamiyatlariga tavsiya etilgan tadbirlar
AJ ijroiya organi
1. Korporativ
boshqaruv kodeksini
joriy etishga tayyorgarlik ko'rish
bo'yicha ishchi guruh tuzish.
Korporativ boshqaruv
kodeksi tasdiqlanganidan
keyin bir oy ichida
1-bosqich
Tayyorgarlik
AJ ijroiya organi
2. Kuzatuv Kengashiga ichki
hujjatlarni qabul qilish bo'yicha
takliflar ishlab chiqish va ko'rib
chiqish uchun kiritish.
Ishchi guruh
tuzilgandan
keyin ikki oy ichida
AJ kuzatuv kengashi
3. Kuzatuv
kengashi tomonidan
ishlab chiqilgan ichki hujjatlarni
tasdiqlash.
Kuzatuv
Kengashiga
materiallar taqdim
etilgan kundan boshlab
bir oy mobaynida
AJ kuzatuv kengashi
1. Aksiyadorlarning umumiy
yig'ilishiga korporativ boshqaruv
kodeksi tavsiyalariga rioya qilish va
xabar shaklini
tasdiqlash masalasini
kiritish.
Kuzatuv kengashi
tomonidan
ma'qullanganidan
keyin
bir oy ichida
2-bosqich
IX. 
XALQARO AUDIT VA MOLIYAVIY HISOBOT STANDARTLARI

12
X. KODEKS TAVSIYALARINI JORIY ETISHNI MONITORING QILISH
32. Kodeksning tavsiyalarini joriy etish monitoringini amalga oshirish maqsadida
AJda korporativ boshqaruv tizimini
baholashni amalga oshiradi, buning
uchun mustaqil
tashkilotni jalb qilish tavsiya etiladi.
33. AJda korporativ boshqaruv tizimini mustaqil baholash yiliga kamida bir marta
amalga oshiriladi.
34. AJda korporativ boshqaruv tizimini mustaqil baholash AJ bilan mulkiy
munosabatlar bilan bog'liq bo'lmagan tashkilot bilan tegishli shartnoma asosida amalga
oshiriladi.
35. AJda korporativ boshqaruv tizimini baholashni amalga oshirish uchun mustaqil
tashkilot sifatida harakat qilish mumkin:
fond birjasi;
qimmatli qog'ozlar bozorining professional ishtirokchilari;
qimmatli qog'ozlar bozorining korporativ menejeri yoki mutaxassisi tegishli
sertifikatiga ega bo'lgan davlatda mutaxassis bo'lgan auditorlik tashkilotlari;
akkreditatsiya qilingan reyting
agentliklari;
Korporativ boshqaruv ilmiy-ta'lim markazi;
Xususiylashtirish, raqobatni rivojlantirish va korporativ boshqaruv muammolarini
tadqiq qilish markazi.
36. Korporativ boshqaruv tizimini baholash uchun mustaqil tashkilotni tanlash AJ
kuzatuv kengashi qarori bilan tanlov asosida amalga oshiriladi.
37. AJda korporativ boshqaruv tizimini mustaqil baholash O'zbekiston Respublikasi
Davlat raqobat qo'mitasi va korporativ boshqaruv ilmiy-ta'lim markazi
tomonidan
tasdiqlanadigan anketa asosida amalga oshiriladi.
38. Korporativ boshqaruv tizimini mustaqil baholash natijalari AO veb-saytida,
bunday baholashni amalga oshirgan tashkilot xulosasi bilan birgalikda e'lon qilinadi.
39. Davlat va xo'jalik boshqaruvi organlari, mahalliy davlat hokimiyati organlari va
davlat nomidan aksiyador sifatida faoliyat yuritayotgan boshqa davlat tashkilotlari:
AJda korporativ boshqaruv tizimini mustaqil baholash uchun mustaqil tashkilotni o'z
hisobidan
jalb etishga haqli;
korporativ boshqaruv tizimini mustaqil baholash natijalarini AJ boshqaruv organlarida
13
o'z nomidan so'zga chiqqan shaxslarga mukofot miqdorini aniqlash uchun qo'llash.
www.pedagoglar.uz - Boshlang‘ich ta’limda xorijiy ilg‘or tajribalar va zamonaviy texnologiyalarning o‘rni

www.pedagoglar.uz
45-son 9–to’plam Iyun 2023
Sahifa: 122
orqali o’quvchilarning diqqati, kuzatuvchanligi va tanqidiy
fikrlash malakalari
rivojlantiriladi. O’quvchilarning intellectual salohiyatini e’tiborga olib tasniflangan
topshiriqlar multimedia
yoki proyektor yordamida, onlayn tarzda taqdim etish
individual ishlash uchun qulaylik yaratadi. Innovatsion
metodika topshiriqlari
bajarilayotganda o’qituvchi sinf xonasida yurib, barcha o’quvchilarning , fanlardan
o’zlashtirishi past bo’lgan o’quvchilarning faoliyatini kuzatish, zarur hollarda ularga
amaliy yordam berish imkoniyatiga ega bo’ladi. Eng muhimi , har bir o’quvchini
o’zlashtirish darajasini ichki monitoring qilib borish va to’g’ri yo’naltirish
shakllarini qo’llash mumkin. Innovatsion
metodikalar ona tili fanida
o’quvchilarning yangi mavzularda qiziqishini kuchaytirib,
dars davomidagi
faolligini yanada oshirishni talab etadi.Shu bois har bir darsga tayyorgarlik asnosida
bolalarning fikrlash jarayonini faollashtiradigan , nazariy ma’lumotlarni
mustaqil
o’zlashtirishga yo’naltirilgan samarali metodlarni tanlashga alohida e’tibor berish
zarur. Innovatsion metodikalarni kichik guruhlarda qo’llasa
yanayam samarali
bo’ladi. Maqsadga birgalikda intilish shaxsiy yakka harakatlardan samaraliroqdir.
Qadimgi Rim mutafakkiri Kvintilian: “Agar o’quvchilar bir-biriga o’rgatsa ,
mustahkamroq va chuqurroq bilimga ega bo’ladi “ deb ta’kidlagan.
Foydalanilgan adabiyotlar
1.Golish L.V., Fayzullayeva D.M. Pedagogik texnologiyalarni loyihalashtirish
va rejalashtirish. T., “Iqtisodiyot”, 2012-y.
2. Piraxunova F.N., Nazirov A.X. O‘qitishning yangi pedagogik
texnologiyalari. Uslubiy qo‘llanma.
3.Internet saytlari:-ziyoNet .uz, kitob.uz, multimediya .uz
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Avtomatlashtirishning elektrik texnik vositalarini tadqiq qilish

Avtomatlashtirishning elektrik texnik vositalarini tadqiq qilish
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Kompyuterlarning periferiya qurilmalarini o’rnatish Periferiya qurilmalari va ularga texnik xizmat ko‘rsatish. Reja

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Kompyuterlarning periferiya qurilmalarini o’rnatish Periferiya qurilmalari va ularga texnik xizmat ko‘rsatish. Reja
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Kompyuterlarning periferiya qurilmalarini o’rnatish Periferiya qurilmalari va ularga texnik xizmat ko‘rsatish.
Reja:
1. Kompyuter periferik qurilmalari haqida
2. Periferiya qurilmalariga texnik qizmat ko`rsatish
3. Tashqi uskunalarning asosiy turlar
Hozirgi kunda kompyuter olami juda katta tezlik bilan rivojlanib bormoqda. Bunga juda ko'p sabablar bor. Eng asosiy sabablardan biri bu — kompyuter orqali inson tomonidan bajariladigan ishlarning deyarli barchasi bajarilmoqda. Nafaqat bajarilmoqda, balki osonlik va tez bajarilmoqda. Undan tashqari maromiga yetkazilib, ishlar bitkazilmoqda. Bu ishlarni bajarishda, kompyuter bir o'zi emas, balki kompyuterga ulanadigan periferik qurilmalar yordamida amalga oshirmoqda.
Periferik qurilma bu – kompyuterga tashqi tomondan ulanib, uning imkoniyatlarini kengaytiradigan qurilmalarga aytiladi. Bu qurilmalar qo'shimcha qurilmalar ham deyiladi, ularsiz ham kompyuter o'zining asosiy ishlarini amalga oshiraveradi. Periferik qurilmalar faqatgina qo'shimcha ishlarni amalga oshiradi.
Periferik qurilmalar kompyuterga ma'lum bir portlar yoki simsiz ulanishi mumkin. Misol uchun, USB, LPT, COM portlar orqali yoki simsiz aloqa orqali, ya'ni wi-fi, Bluetoothvahakazolar orqali.
Demak, bu qurilmalarga nimalar kiradi? Bu qurilmalar juda ko'p, shuning uchun nimalar kirmasligini bilib olsak, qolgan hamma narsalar kirishi oydinlashadi.
Kompyuter nimalardan tashkil topgan va nimalar bo'lmasa umuman ishlamaydi? Shu savolga javob beramiz. Kompyuter tizim blok(системный блок), monitor va klaviaturadan tashkil topgan. Bu qurilmalarning birortasi bo'lmasa kompyuterni ishlatib bo'lmaydi(ya'ni temir sifatida topshirib yuborish ham mumkin). Ko'pchilik bu ro'yxatga sichqonchani(mыshka) ham kiritishadi, lekin u siz ham kompyuterni ishlatish mumkin-ku. Tizim bloki ichidagi narsalar(ОЗУ, vinchester, protsessor,..) umumiy holda uning ichiga kirib ketadi. Qolgan barcha qurilmalar periferik qurilmalardir.
Periferik qurilmalarning soni ko'pligi uchun, ularni bir necha guruhlarga bo'lib o'rganiladi. Bu maqolamda ularning ba'zilarini qaysi guruhlarga kirishini yozib o'taman, qolgan qurilmalarni o'zingiz biroz o'ylagan holda, kerakli guruhga kiritib olishingiz mumkin, demak bu guruhlar quyidagilar:
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Scenario 3: Installing using the integrated Windows Vista SP1 DVD

Scenario 3: Installing using the integrated Windows Vista SP1 DVD
For RC1 version of SP1, the integrated version is available as an .iso file. Once you download the file, you can burn it to a DVD or apply it to a virtual machine.
When SP1 is released, SP1 will be added to the Windows Vista DVD. At that time, you can use this DVD to deploy the integrated operating system to your computers.
Large-scale scenarios
The following scenarios are applicable to businesses that want to deploy SP1 to multiple computers and/or want to deploy custom images. If you have custom Windows Vista images that you want to update, you can use the Windows Vista SP1 integrated DVD to recreate the custom images to include SP1 (Scenario 6). Optionally, you can boot the Windows image, apply the service pack, and then recapture the image (Scenario 7). You will need to obtain the latest version of the Windows OPK, or Windows AIK.
Business Desktop Deployment (BDD) 2007 (http://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/?LinkID=95464) is the recommended methodology and solution to help you deploy Windows Vista. BDD 2007 can help you build custom images and deploy Windows Vista remotely. You can also use BDD for zero touch deployments using SMS and SCCM. A prerelease version of BDD will be available to support the RC1 version of SP1. Until then, you can use the latest version of Windows OPK or Windows AIK to initiate your deployments.
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WAIK and OPK - Deployment Guide for the rc1 Version of Windows Vista Service Pack 1

WAIK and OPK
The Windows® OEM Preinstallation Kit (OPK) and the Windows Automated Installation Kit (Windows AIK) have been updated for SP1. These kits include two new tools that you can use when creating images:
Boot critical driver tool (PostReflect.exe). PostRevlect is a command-lin tool used to reflect all boot critical device drivers out of the driver store in an offline image. Driver reflection is the process of installing a driver on a computer that might or might not have a device for that driver. Typically, this involves copying the driver files to the destination location so that the driver can be loaded by the operating system during the boot process. If all of the boot critical drivers are reflected in the image, it can be deployed to various hardware configurations. After SP1 is applied online and an image is created for the computer, this tool must be run on the offline Windows image because SP1 contains boot critical drivers for the hardware abstraction layer (HAL) and matching changes to the kernel. If the changed versions of boot-critical drivers for the HAL and the kernel are not correctly installed on the computer that you are deploying to, the operating system will not boot, nor will the image boot on any computer that has a different CPU or hardware configuration.
Windows Vista SP1 File Removal tool (Vsp1cln.exe). An optional tool that you can run after you install SP1 to remove older versions of components that have been upgraded to new versions in SP1. You may want to run this file because installing SP1 increases the amount of disk space that is used by the operating system (since the older versions of components are stored in case you need to uninstall SP1). Typically, you should run Vsp1cln.exe if you want to reclaim this disk space after applying SP1 and if you will not need to uninstall SP1. You can use this file both online and offline, but you must have SP1 installed. You cannot uninstall SP1 after you run this tool on an image.
To obtain these kits:
WAIK. The WAIK is located on the Connect website, in the Downloads section of Windows Beta Programs . The download file is named: "Windows (6001-16659-070916-1443) Windows AIK - EN-DE-ES-FR-JA".
OPK. The OPK is available as a download to a limited number of OEMs and system builders. To obtain the OPK, contact Technical Account Manager.
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Informatika va axborot texnologiyalari fanini o’qitishda ilg’or xorijiy tajribalar Reja

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Informatika va axborot texnologiyalari fanini o’qitishda ilg’or xorijiy tajribalar Reja
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Informatika va axborot texnologiyalari fanini o’qitishda ilg’or xorijiy tajribalar
Reja:
Rivojlangan davlatlarda informatika va axborot texnologiyalari fanining mazmuni va uni o’qitishda ilg’or tajribalar.
Xorij ta’lim tizimida axborot-kommunikasiya texnologiyalari.
Tayanch iboralar: kommunikasiya, texnologiya, vebinar, Evristik tyutor, edvayzer, fasilitator, moderator, integrasiya, an’anaviy ta’lim, zamonaviy ta’lim, interfaol ta’limning omillari.
1. Rivojlangan davlatlarda informatika va axborot texnologiyalari fanining mazmuni va uni o’qitishda ilg’or tajribalar
Zamonaviy ta’limda ilg’or xorijiy tajribalar sifatida qo’llanilayotgan o’qitish shakllariga quyidagtlarni keltirish mumkin:
Modulli o’qitish - o’qitishning istiqbolli tizimlaridan biri hisoblanadi, chunki u ta’lim oluvchilarning bilim imkoniyatlarini va ijodiy qobiliyatlarini rivojlantirish tizimiga moslashgandir.
An’anaviy ta’limda o’quv maksadlari pedagog faoliyati orqali ifodalangan ya’ni bilim berishga yo’naltirilgan bo’lsa, modulli o’qitishda ta’lim oluvchilar faoliyati orqali ifodalanib, kasbiy faoliyatga yo’naltirilgan bo’ladi.
Blended learning (aralash o’qitish). Axborot texnologiyalari ta’limning turli yangi ko’rinishlarini taklif etmoqda, xususan keyingi vaqtlarda modulli ta’lim tizimida majmuaviy yondashuv tamoyili kuchayib bormoqda. Unda turli shakl, usullar moslashtirilgan holda joylashtirilishi aralash ta’limning innovasiya sifatida kirib kelishiga sabab bo’ldi.
Deklan Bern "blended learning" (aralash ta’lim) haqida shunday deydi – “ushbu ta’lim boy pedagogik tajribadan samarali foydalanishga qaratilgan”. Bunday yondashuv axborotni taqdim etishda turli uslubiyotlardan foydalanishni, ta’limni tashkil etishda va ta’lim jarayonida axborot texnologiyalari, yakka tarzda va guruhlarda an’anaviy faoliyatni tashkil etishga asoslanishi mumkin. Bunday turlicha yondashuv o’quvchini charchatmaydi va o’qishga bo’lgan motivlarini kuchaytiradi. Asosiy masala - tanlangan uslubiyotlarning o’zaro mutanosibligini ta’minlash va kam harajat asosida yuqori samaradorlikka erishish hisoblanadi.
Bugungi kunda blended learning kunduzgi an’anaviy ta’lim va masofaviy ta’limning unsurlari kombinasiyasi hisoblanib, bunda an’anaviy metodika va yangi texnologiyalarni uyg’unlashtirishga imkon yaratiladi. Bu tizimda o’qituvchi ta’lim markazida qoladi va internet imkoniyatlaridan keng va samarali foydalanadi. Blended learning masofaviy ta’lim (Distancye learning), sinf xonada ta’lim (Fake-to-Fake learning) va internet orqali ta’lim (Online learning)dan iborat.
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Neyronni asosiy tushunchalari va modellari

4
Neyrotarmoqli hisoblashlar quydagi holatlarda afzallikni ko‘rsatadi: Masalalarni
matematik usullar yoradamida formallashtirish mumkin bo‘lm aganda; • Mavjud
formallashtiriladigan masalani yechish uchun
matematik apparati mavjud
bo‘lmaganda; Formallashtiriladigan masalani yechish mate matik apparati juda katta
resurs (vaqt, texnika, energiya va b.)larni talab qiladiganda. Sun’iy neyron modeli
ilk bor 1943y. Mak-Klokk va Pitts tomonidan tavsiflangan. U
ko‘paytma-
sinaps ( ), jamlagich (∑) va nochiziqli o‘zgartirish (F) operatorlardan iborat b o‘lgan
sun’iy neyron modelini tasvirlaydi. Neyronni kirish (xi)
signallar boshqa neyron
larning chiqish signallari bo‘ladi. Har bir kirish signalga bog‘lanish (aloqa)
vazni (wi) biriktiriladi. Uning qiymati musbat yoki manfiy bo‘lishi mumkin. Kirish
signal va bog‘lanish vaznlar ko‘paytmalari sinaps orqali jamlagich elementga keladi.
U ning chiqishida mazkur ko‘paytmalar algebraik yig‘indisi shakllanadi
Sun'iy neyron tarmoqlari - Dasturiy inginiring

3
tarmoqning qayta ishlangan chiqishi (ko'pincha bashorat qilish) va maqsadli chiqish
o'rtasidagi farqni aniqlash orqali amalga oshiriladi. Bu xato. Keyin tarmoq o'z
qoidalariga binoan va ushbu xatolik qiymatidan foydalangan holda o'z
vaznli
assotsiatsiyalarini sozlaydi. Ketma-ket tuzatishlar neyron tarmoqni maqsadli
chiqishga tobora ko'proq o'xshash ishlab chiqarishni keltirib chiqaradi. Ushbu
tuzatishlarning etarli sonidan so'ng ma'lum
mezonlarga asoslanib, mashg'ulot
tugatilishi mumkin. Bu sifatida tanilgan
nazorat ostida o'rganish
.
Group Policy management tools - Deployment Guide for the rc1 Version of Windows Vista Service Pack 1

Group Policy management tools
After you install SP1, you will be temporarily unable to manage domain-based Group Policy from that computer because of the following changes:
The Group Policy Management Console (GPMC) will be uninstalled.
Gpedit.msc will default to the Local Group Policy Editor.
Because of these changes, you should use Remote Desktop to connect to another computer to manage Group Policy. At a later date, an updated GPMC that contains greater functionality will be released as part of the Remote Server Administration Tools (RSAT). The updated GPMC will include additional functionality, including the ability to use Starter Group Policy objects (GPOs) which will allow you to more easily configure common scenarios. It will also include more powerful search and filter capabilities to make it easier for you to find and edit settings and add comments on at the setting (or the GPO itself).
Note
Deploying SP1 using Group Policy is not supported for the RC1 version of SP1.
For more information about these changes, see the release notes (http://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/?LinkID=52066) and the Overview of Windows Vista Service Pack 1 (http://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/?LinkID=100279).
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Application compatibility - Deployment Guide for the rc1 Version of Windows Vista Service Pack 1

Application compatibility
A goal for SP1 is that applications that run on Windows Vista will continue to work after SP1 is installed. If you encounter compatibility issues during testing, you should report any bugs that you find.
Application Compatibility Toolkit (ACT) 5.0 was developed specifically to help you with this process. This toolkit helps you identify and manage your overall application portfolio, which reduces the cost and time involved in resolving issues. ACT 5.0 has several features including a new integrated interface that enables you to manage the entire toolkit from a single location. More importantly, you can run ACT 5.0 in your current environment (which can include Windows operating systems beginning with Windows 2000) so that you can test all operating system configurations before you begin deployment.
ACT 5.0 includes a variety of tools that can help you with testing and the next release of ACT will include a separate node for SP1 test results. For more information and to download ACT 5.0, see Application Compatibility (http://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/?LinkID=53539).
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Planning Your Deployment - Deployment Guide for the rc1 Version of Windows Vista Service Pack 1

Planning Your Deployment
You have various options in terms of how to deploy SP1. To determine which deployment scenario or combination of scenarios is best for your organization, consider the following questions. Business Desktop Deployment 2007 (http://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/?LinkId=100330) contains best practices and tools to help you answer the following questions.
Are you updating existing computers that are running Windows Vista, performing new installations, or upgrading a previous version of Windows to Windows Vista?
Where will the service pack files be stored?
What network capacity will you need to ensure that the service pack deployment does not adversely affect the network or cause significant performance issues for other business applications?
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Scenario 4: Deploying using WSUS - Deployment Guide for the rc1 Version of Windows Vista Service Pack 1

This scenario is not supported for the RC1 version of SP1.
Windows Server Update Services (WSUS) enables you to deploy the latest Microsoft product updates to computers running the Windows operating system. By using WSUS, you can fully manage the distribution of updates that are released through Microsoft Update to computers in their network. For more information, see http://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/?LinkID=94244.
When SP1 is released, you will be able to download SP1 by synchronizing your WSUS servers.
Note
The package that is installed contains the prerequisite packages and SP1 together. This entire package will be downloaded to each destination computer—unlike with Windows Update, where only the components that are needed for a specific computer are installed.
Note
The destination computer will restart multiple times during the installation.
To deploy SP1 using WSUS
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1. Ensure that your WSUS server is configured to synchronize Windows Vista service packs.
2. Synchronize your WSUS server.
3. Locate the SP1 package and approve it for the appropriate target groups.
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Scenario 7: Updating a custom image

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Scenario 7: Updating a custom image
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This scenario applies to you if you have an existing Windows image that you want to update. To update an existing custom Windows image, boot into the image, and install SP1. Then run Sysprep along with the new SP1 deployment tools (Postreflect.exe and Vsp1cln.exe) before you recapture the image. This "online" update method is the only supported method of updating images with SP1—you cannot install or uninstall SP1 to an existing image offline without booting into it.
For instructions on how to do this, see the "Install Windows Vista Service Pack 1" topic of the Windows AIK documentation (Waik.chm) or the OPK (opk.chm).
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Scenario 8: Deploying using SMS or SCCM

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Scenario 8: Deploying using SMS or SCCM
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For the RC1 version of SP1, you can deploy SP1 as a standard software distribution package using System Center Configuration Manager (ConfigMgr) 2007 or Microsoft Systems Management Server (SMS) 2003. See the Command-line options section for a description of the options you can use to install SP1.
Uninstalling SP1
You cannot upgrade from previous versions of SP1. Therefore, if you have installed a previous version on your computer, you have to uninstall the old version before installing the newer version. It is not possible to uninstall the permanent prerequisite updates (KB937287, KB935509 and KB938371). This is true for prerelease and final versions of SP1. However, you can uninstall KB936330 and KB937954. In addition, you cannot uninstall the service pack and other updates that were installed using an integrated installation.
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Scenario 5: Creating an integrated custom image using the DVD

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Scenario 5: Creating an integrated custom image using the DVD
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This scenario applies to you if you have an automated process for reproducing images. Once SP1 is released, you can use the DVD with the integrated version of Windows Vista and SP1 to recreate your images (using the same procedures that you used previously). To do this, you will need to install the updated Windows OPK and Windows AIK. Then use your answer file, configuration sets, and other resources to create the image. You will need to prepare the operating system using Sysprep and then recapture the updated image.
For instructions about how to do this, see the "Install Windows Vista Service Pack 1" topic of the Windows AIK documentation (Waik.chm) or the OPK (opk.chm).
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windows6.0-kb936330-XXX.exe [/quiet] [/nodialog] [/norestart]

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windows6.0-kb936330-XXX.exe [/quiet] [/nodialog] [/norestart]
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windows6.0-kb936330-XXX.exe [/quiet] [/nodialog] [/norestart]
windows6.0-kb936330-XXX.exe [/quiet] [/nodialog] [/forcerestart | /warnrestart[:]] [/promptrestart]
For example, to run the installation file in quiet mode without restarting the computer, type the following: windows6.0-kb936330-x86.exe /quiet /norestart
Options
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Description
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/quiet
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Runs the command in quiet mode. This mode shows no user interface during the installation of the updates. This is the same as unattended mode, except that the user interface is hidden. No prompts will appear during the installation process except the success or failure dialog box at the end of the installation. To suppress this dialog box, you must additionally specify /nodialog.
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/norestart
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Does not restart the computer after the installation is complete, even if a restart is required to complete the installation. This option is intended for use with the /quiet option.
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/forcerestart
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If a restart is required, this option forces any open applications or documents to close.
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/unattend
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Installs the service pack in unattended mode. Only critical error prompts and a progress bar will appear during the installation. For example, the EULA is not shown and the computer will be automatically restarted.
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/warnrestart[:]
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If a restart is required, a dialog box notifies the user that the computer will restart in the specified seconds. The user can click to cancel or restart immediately. The default is 30 seconds.
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/promptrestart
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If a restart is required, a dialog box notifies the user that a restart is required to complete Setup. Intended for use with /quiet.
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/nodialog
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Suppresses the success or failure dialog at the end of installation.
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/wsus
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Returns a failure code if the previous installation attempt failed. This option is only needed when deploying in a WSUS, SMS or SCCM environment or any non-Microsoft product that uses the Windows Update Agent (WUA) to report installation success.
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/? or /help
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Displays command usage.
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Deploying SP1 - Deployment Guide for the rc1 Version of Windows Vista Service Pack 1

1. Ensure that you are connected to the Internet.
2. Run the script given to you by Microsoft.
3. If your computer is set to automatically install updates, then when prompted, follow the instructions to install SP1. Or, to initiate the installation, follow steps 4-7.
Note
Because of the prerequisite updates, if you do not initiate the installation, it may take more than 5 days before you are prompted to install SP1 (1 day for each prerequisites, and 1 or more days to begin the download of SP1).
4. Click Start, click Control Panel, click Windows Update, and then click Check for Updates. The following updates may be offered one at a time if they are not already installed:
KB937287 (may require a restart before installing)
KB935509 (only for Windows Vista Enterprise and Windows Vista Ultimate computers that are running BitLocker, and it requires a restart.)
KB938371 (requires a restart)
Repeat this step until you have installed each of these prerequisite updates.
5. Click Start, click Control Panel, click Windows Update, and then click Check for Updates. A list of updates is displayed (one of which is KB936330).
6. Select the KB936330 update, which is SP1. Do not select any other updates, and then click Install.
7. Setup will proceed after the computer is restarted. During this second phase of installation, you will be prevented from logging on while the service pack is installed. The installer will automatically restart the computer a few times during this phase.
Caution
Do not restart the computer or turn the power off, even if the computer stays in an unknown state for a long time. If you do, the computer may be in an unbootable state.
8. Setup is complete when you are presented with the Windows logon prompt. At this time, you can log on to the computer and you will receive a final dialog box which will indicate whether the upgrade was successful.
Note
To confirm SP1 is installed, right click on My Computer and click Properties. If the installation was successful, you will find a reference to the service pack in the Windows Edition section.
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Scenario 2: Installing the stand-alone package using the installer executable

1. Copy the installation file (Windows6.0-KB936330-X86.exe or Windows6.0-KB936330-X64.exe) to a computer.
2. Run the package either using the command-line options listed below, or by double-clicking the file within Windows Explorer. It may take several minutes to extract the installation files (and longer if you are installing using a shared network resource).
3. Follow the instructions in the Setup wizard.
4. After the first phase of installation is complete, the computer will restart.
5. Setup will proceed after the computer is restarted. During this second phase of installation, you will be prevented from logging on while the service pack is installed. The installer will automatically restart the computer a few times during this phase.
6. Setup is complete when you are presented with the Windows logon prompt. At this time, you can log on to the computer and you will receive a final dialog box which will indicate whether the upgrade was successful.
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-bilet:


1 ) - bilet: Birinchi qonuni

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bilet: Birinchi qonuni
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bet | 11/15 | Sana | 25.05.2024 | Hajmi | 0,82 Mb. | | #253939 |
Bog'liq imtihon(Anvar)12-bilet:
1 ) Suyuqlik va eritmalarda elektr toki, suyuqlik va eritmalarning xossalariga bog'liq ravishda o'zgaradi. Suyuqlik: Elektrolitlar: Suyuqliklar ichida elektrolitlar borligi holatida elektr toki olib borish mumkin. Bu, elektrolitlar o'rtasidagi ionlar vaqtida elektr toki yaratish uchun ko'p turli hodisalarga olib keladi, masalan, elektroliz va galvanik qattiqlik. Eritmalarda: Eritmalarda yonma olish sababli elektr toki yaratish mumkin. Eritma to'g'ri chiziqli suyuqlikning shaklida,esa yonma olish o'zgarishlariga bog'liq bo'lishi mumkin. Elektroliz texnikada metallarni, kimyo vositalarni tayyorlash va boshqa ko'plab jarayonlarda ishlatiladi. Metallar va kimyo vositalarining ishlab chiqarilishi: Elektroliz, metallarni (masalan, alyuminiy, so'nggi zamin, xrom) qo'llab quvvatlash uchun o'rnatilgan. Metallar ko'p tizimlarida elektr toki bilan ishlatiladi, bu esa metal ko'plab miqdorlarda ajratilishi uchun muhimdir. Elektrolitlardan elektr toki o‘tganda modda ajralib chiqishi elektroliz deyiladi.
Faradeyning 1 – qonuni: Elektrodda ajralib chiqadigan moddaning massasi elektrolitdan o‘tgan zaryad miqdoriga to‘g‘ri proporsional.
F aradeyning 2 – qonuni: Moddaning elektrokimyoviy ekvivalenti deb, molyar massani valentlik nisbatiga aytiladi. Faradey doimiysi skalyar kattalik bo‘lib, F harfi bilan belgilanadi. [F]=1 C/mol
F=eNA=96485 C/mol
2) Atom yadrosining tashqi ta’sirlarsiz o‘z – o‘zidan nurlanib, boshqa yadrolarning hosil bo‘lish jarayoni radioaktivlik (spontonyemirilish) deyiladi. Bu hodisani 1896 – yilda Anri Bekkerel kashf etgan. Radioaktiv moddalar o‘zidan α, β, γ nurlar chiqaradi. Bu nurlarni o‘rganish uchun nurlarning magnit maydondagi og‘ishi aniqlangan. Zarralarning og‘ishi Lorens kuchi hisobiga sodir bo‘ladi. α va β nurlar qandaydir burchakka og‘sa, γ nurlar umuman og‘maydi. Chunki uning zaryadi yo‘q. Kiruvchanlik qobiliyati: α<β<γ α – He atomi yadrosi β – elektronlar oqimi γ – elektromagnit to‘lqin
Sun'iy radioaktivlik, laboratoriyalarda yaratilgan, yani tabiatda oziq-ovqatlar va qattiq jism orqali emas, odam tomonidan yaratilgan radioaktiv elementlarning emissiyasi yoki radioaktiv bo'lishi jarayonidir. Bu, genetik modifikatsiyalar, tibbiyot va kimyo sohalarda qo'llaniladi
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