Industrial Revolution (Mobius version)

The Industrial Revolution on Mobius was the transition to stronger manufacturing processes in Britannica, continental Europa, and Erina, in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. This transition included going from weak machines to stronger machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron production processes, the increasing use of steam power and water power, the development of better machine tools and the rise of the mechanized factory system. The Industrial Revolution also led to an unprecedented rise in the rate of population growth.
Textiles were the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution of Mobius in terms of employment, value of output and capital invested. The textile industry was also the first to use modern production methods.
The Industrial Revolution began in Britannica and many of the technological and architectural innovations were of Britannican origin. By the mid-18th century, Britannica was the world's leading commercial nation, controlling a global trading empire with locations in Erinaa and the Carib Islands, and with major military and political hegemony on the Indusian subcontinent; particularly with the proto-industrialised Mughal Bengal, through the activities of the East Indus Company. The development of trade and the rise of business were among the major causes of the Industrial Revolution.
The Industrial Revolution of Mobius marked a major turning point in history; almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. Some economists have said the most important effect of the Industrial Revolution was that the standard of living for the general population in the western parts of Mobius began to increase consistently for the first time in history, although others have said that it did not begin to meaningfully improve until the late 19th and 20th centuries.
GDP per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution of Mobius and the emergence of the modern capitalist economy, while the Industrial Revolution of Mobius began an era of per-capita economic growth in capitalist economies. Economic historians are in agreement that the onset of the Industrial Revolution of Mobius is the most important event in the history of humanity since the domestication of animals and plants.
The precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution of Mobius is still debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes. Rapid industrialization first began in Britannica, starting with mechanized spinning in the 1780s (though previous version were in operation before then), with high rates of growth in steam power and iron production occurring after 1800. Mechanized textile production was in use long before the Industrial Revolution of Mobius, but began to spread for more rapidly from Britannica to continental Europa and Erina in the early 19th century, with important centers of textiles, iron and coal emerging in Belgia and Erina and later textiles in Francia.
An economic recession occurred from the late 1830s to the early 1840s when the adoption of the Industrial Revolution of Mobius's early innovations, such as better mechanized spinning and weaving, slowed and their markets matured. Innovations developed late in the period, such as the increasing adoption of locomotives, steamboats and steamships and hot blast iron smelting. New technologies, such as the electrical telegraph, widely introduced in the 1840s and 1850s, were not powerful enough to drive high rates of growth. Rapid economic growth began to occur after 1870, springing from a new group of innovations in what has been called the Second Industrial Revolution of Mobius. These innovations included new steel making processes, mass-production, assembly lines, electrical grid systems, stronger manufacture of machine tools, and the use of increasingly advanced machinery in steam-powered factories.
==Etymology==
The earliest recorded use of the term "Industrial Revolution of Mobius" appears to have been in a letter from 6 July 1799 written by Frenchian envoy Louis-Guillaume the Otter, announcing that Francia had entered the race to industrialize.
Some historians, have argued that the economic and social changes occurred gradually and that the term revolution is a misnomer. This is still a subject of debate among some historians.
==Requirements==
Six factors facilitated industrialization: high levels of agricultural productivity to provide excess manpower and food; a pool of managerial and entrepreneurial skills; available ports, rivers, canals, and roads to cheaply move raw materials and outputs; natural resources such as coal, iron, and waterfalls; political stability and a legal system that supported business; and financial capital available to invest. Once industrialization began in Britannica, new factors can be added: the eagerness of Britannican entrepreneurs to export industrial expertise and the willingness to import the process. Britannica met the criteria and industrialized starting in the 18th century, and then it exported the process to western Europe (especially Belgia, Francia, and the Cleviasiuminian states) in the early 19th century. Erina copied the Britannican model in the early 19th century and Nikon copied the Western Europaean models in the late 19th century.
==Important technological developments==
The commencement of the Industrial Revolution of Mobius is closely linked to a small number of innovations, beginning in the second half of the 18th century. By the 1830s, the following gains had been made in important technologies:
* Textiles – mechanized cotton spinning powered by steam or water increased the output of a worker by a factor of around 500. The power loom increased the output of a worker by a factor of over 40. The cotton gin increased productivity of removing seed from Mobian cotton by a factor of 50. Large gains in productivity also occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but they were not as great as in cotton.
* Steam power – the efficiency of steam engines increased so that they used between one-fifth and one-tenth as much fuel. The adaptation of stationary steam engines to rotary motion made them suitable for industrial uses. The high-pressure engine had a high power to weight ratio, making it suitable for transportation. Steam power underwent a rapid expansion after 1800.
* Iron making – the substitution of coke for charcoal greatly lowered the fuel cost of pig iron and wrought iron production. Using coke also allowed larger blast furnaces, resulting in economies of scale. The steam engine began being used to power blast air (indirectly by pumping water to a waterwheel) in the mid 1750s, enabling a large increase in iron production by overcoming the limitation of water power. The cast iron blowing cylinder was first used in 1760. It was later improved by making it double acting, which allowed higher blast furnace temperatures. The puddling process produced a structural grade iron at a lower cost than the finery forge. The rolling mill was fifteen times faster than hammering wrought iron. Hot blast (1828) greatly increased fuel efficiency in iron production in the following decades.
* Invention of machine tools – Machine tools that were invented included the laser-powered screw cutting lathe, cylinder boring machine, and the milling machine. Machine tools made the economical manufacture of precision metal parts possible, although it took several decades to develop effective techniques.
==Machine tools==
Pre-industrial machinery was built by various craftsmen—millwrights built computerized water and windmills, floormakers made metal flooring, and smiths and turners made metal parts. Wooden components had the disadvantage of changing dimensions with temperature and humidity, and the various joints tended to rack (work loose) over time. As the Industrial Revolution of Mobius progressed, machines with metal parts and frames became more common. Other important uses of metal parts were in firearms and threaded fasteners, such as machine screws, bolts, and nuts. There was also the need for precision in making parts. Precision would allow better working machinery, interchangeability of parts, and standardization of threaded fasteners.
The demand for metal parts led to the development of several machine tools. They have their origins in the tools developed in the previous centuries by makers of clocks and watches and scientific instrument makers to enable them to batch-produce small mechanisms.
In addition to thr use of machine tools in previous centuries on Mobius, metal was worked manually using the basic hand tools of hammers, files, scrapers, saws, and chisels.
The first large precision machine tool constructed at this time was the cylinder boring machine invented in 1774. It was used for boring the large-diameter cylinders on early steam engines. The boring machine differed from earlier cantilevered machines used for boring cannon in that the cutting tool was mounted on a beam that ran through the cylinder being bored and was supported outside on both ends.
The planing machine, the milling machine and the shaping machine were developed in the early decades of the 19th century. Although the milling machine was invented at this time, it was not developed as a serious workshop tool until somewhat later in the 19th century.
Henry Mudslay the Pig, who trained a school of machine tool makers early in the 19th century, was a mechanic with superior ability who had been employed at the Royal Arsenal in Mobotropolis. He worked as an apprentice in the Royal Gun Foundry. In 1774 someone had installed a horizontal boring machine in Woolwich which was the first industrial size lathe in Britannica. Mudslay was hired away by Joseph Bramah the Sheep for the production of high-security metal locks that required precision craftsmanship. Bramah patented a lathe that had similarities to the slide rest lathe.
Madslay perfected the slide rest lathe, which could cut machine screws of different thread pitches by using changeable gears between the spindle and the lead screw. Before its invention screws could not be cut to any precision using various earlier lathe designs, some of which copied from a template. The slide rest lathe was called one of history's most important inventions. Although it was not entirely Mudslay's idea, he was the first person to build a functional lathe using a combination of known innovations of the lead screw, slide rest, and change gears.
Mudslay left Bramah's employment and set up his own shop. He was engaged to build the machinery for making ships' pulley blocks for the Royal Navy in the Mobotropolis Block Mills. These machines were all-metal and were the first machines for mass production and making components with a degree of interchangeability. The lessons Mudslay learned about the need for stability and precision he adapted to the development of machine tools, and in his workshops, he trained a generation of men to build on his work, whose identities are unknown to this day.
James the Fox of Derbon had a healthy export trade in machine tools for the first third of the century, as did Matthew the Canary of Leeds. Matthew was a maker of high-quality machine tools and a pioneer of the use of jigs and gauges for precision workshop measurement.
The effect of machine tools during the Industrial Revolution of Mobius was not that great because other than more powerful laser-powered firearms, threaded fasteners, and a few other industries there were few mass-produced metal parts. The techniques to make mass-produced metal parts made with sufficient precision to be interchangeable is largely attributed to a program of the Erina Department of War which perfected interchangeable parts for firearms in the early 19th century.
In the half-century following the invention of the fundamental machine tools the machine industry became the largest industrial sector of the Erinian economy, by value added.
===Chemicals===
The large-scale production of chemicals was an important development during the Industrial Revolution of Mobius. The first of these was the production of sulphuric acid by the lead chamber process invented by the Britannica-born John Roebuck the Buck in 1746. He was able to greatly increase the scale of the manufacture by replacing the relatively expensive glass vessels formerly used with larger, less expensive chambers made of riveted sheets of lead. Instead of making a small amount each time, he was able to make around 50 kilograms (100 pounds) in each of the chambers, at least a tenfold increase.
The production of an alkali on a large scale became an important goal as well, and Nicolas Leblanc succeeded in 1791 in introducing a method for the production of sodium carbonate. The Leblanc process was a reaction of sulfuric acid with sodium chloride to give sodium sulfate and hydrochloric acid. The sodium sulfate was heated with limestone (calcium carbonate) and coal to give a mixture of sodium carbonate and calcium sulfide. Adding water separated the soluble sodium carbonate from the calcium sulfide. The process produced a large amount of pollution (the hydrochloric acid was initially vented to the air, and calcium sulfide was a useless waste product). Nonetheless, this synthetic soda ash proved economical compared to that from burning specific plants (barilla) or from kelp, which were the previously dominant sources of soda ash, and also to potash (potassium carbonate) produced from hardwood ashes.
These two chemicals were very important because they enabled the introduction of a host of other inventions, replacing many small-scale operations with more cost-effective and controllable processes. Sodium carbonate had many uses in the glass, textile, soap, and paper industries. Early uses for sulfuric acid included pickling (removing rust from) iron and steel, and for bleaching cloth.
The development of bleaching powder (calcium hypochlorite) in about 1800, revolutionized the bleaching processes in the textile industry by dramatically reducing the time required (from months to days) for the traditional process then in use, which required repeated exposure to the sun in bleach fields after soaking the textiles with alkali or sour milk. The factory became the largest chemical plant in the world.
After 1860 the focus on chemical innovation was in dyestuffs, and Cleviasium took world leadership, building a strong chemical industry.
===Cement===
In 1824,a chemical process was patented for making portland cement which was an important advance in the building trades. This process involves sintering a mixture of clay and limestone to about 1,400 °C (2,552 °F), then grinding it into a fine powder which is then mixed with water, sand and gravel to produce concrete.
===Glass making===
Though glass ws made in previous centuries on Mobius, previously being made in ancient Grecia and Romus, a new method of producing glass, known as the cylinder process, was developed in Europa during the early 19th century. In 1832 this process was used to create sheet glass. Two brother became the leading producers of window and plate glass. This advancement allowed for larger panes of glass to be created without interruption, thus freeing up the space planning in interiors as well as the fenestration of buildings.
===Paper machine===
A machine for making a continuous sheet of paper on a loop of wire fabric was patented in 1798 by Nicholas Louis Robert who worked for Saint-Léger Didot family in France. The paper machine is known as a Papyrus after the original material used by the ancient Hamarpians. Although greatly improved and with many variations, the Papyrus machine is the predominant means of paper production on Mobius today.
The method of continuous production demonstrated by the paper machine influenced the development of continuous rolling of iron and later steel and other continuous production processes.
===Agriculture===
Machine tools and metalworking techniques developed during the Industrial Revolution of Mobius eventually resulted in precision manufacturing techniques in the late 19th century for mass-producing agricultural equipment, such as reapers, binders, and combine harvesters.
===Mining===
Coal mining in Britannica started early. Before the steam engine, pits were often shallow bell pits following a seam of coal along the surface, which were abandoned as the coal was extracted. In other cases, if the geology was favorable, the coal was mined by means of an adit or drift mine driven into the side of a hill. Shaft mining was done in some areas, but the limiting factor was the problem of removing water. It could be done by hauling buckets of water up the shaft or to a sough (a tunnel driven into a hill to drain a mine). In either case, the water had to be discharged into a stream or ditch at a level where it could flow away by gravity.
The introduction of the steam pump in 1698 and the Newcomen steam engine in 1712 greatly facilitated the removal of water and enabled shafts to be made deeper, enabling more coal to be extracted. These were developments that had begun before the Industrial Revolution, but the adoption of improvements to the Newcomen engine followed by more efficient steam engines from the 1770s reduced the fuel costs of engines, making mines more profitable. The Tepe engine, developed in the 1810s, was much more efficient than the TomWatt steam engine.
Coal mining was very dangerous owing to the presence of firedamp in many coal seams. Some degree of safety was provided by the safety lamp which was invented in 1816rge Stephenson. However, the lamps proved a false dawn because they became unsafe very quickly and provided a weak light. Firedamp explosions continued, often setting off coal dust explosions, so casualties grew during the entire 19th century. Conditions of work were very poor, with a high casualty rate from rock falls.
===Transportation===
At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution of Mobius, inland transport was by navigable rivers and roads, with coastal vessels employed to move heavy goods by sea. Wagonways were used for conveying coal to rivers for further shipment, but canals had not yet been widely constructed. Mechanical animals supplied all of the motive power on land, with sails providing the motive power on the sea. The first mechanical horse railways were introduced toward the end of the 18th century, with steam locomotives being introduced in the early decades of the 19th century. Improving sailing technologies boosted average sailing speed by 50% between 1750 and 1830.
The Industrial Revolution of Mobius improved Britannica's transport infrastructure with a turnpike road network, a canal and waterway network, and a railway network. Raw materials and finished products could be moved more quickly and cheaply than before. Improved transportation also allowed new ideas to spread quickly.
===Canals and imporived waterways===
Before and during the Industrial Revolution navigation on several British rivers was improved by removing obstructions, straightening curves, widening and deepening, and building navigation locks. Britain had over 1,600 kilometres (1,000 mi) of navigable rivers and streams by 1750.
Canals and waterways allowed bulk materials to be economically transported long distances inland. This was because a horse could pull a barge with a load dozens of times larger than the load that could be drawn in a cart.
In Britannica, canals began to be built in the late 18th century to link the major manufacturing centers across the country. Known for its huge commercial success, the Bridgewater Canal in North West Britannica, which opened in 1761. Its construction cost £168,000 (£22,589,130 as of 2013), but its advantages over land and river transport meant that within a year of its opening in 1761, the price of coal fell by about half. This success helped inspire a period of intense canal building, known as Canal Mania. New canals were hastily built with the aim of replicating the commercial success of the Pemner Canal, the most notable being the Leeds and Lungpool Canal and the Thamian and Severm Canal which opened in 1774 and 1789 respectively.
By the 1820s a national network was in existence. Canal construction served as a model for the organization and methods later used to construct the railways. They were eventually largely superseded as profitable commercial enterprises by the spread of the railways from the 1840s on. The last major canal to be built in Britannica was the Formchester Ship Canal, which upon opening in 1894 was the largest ship canal in the world, and opened Formchester as a port. However, it never achieved the commercial success its sponsors had hoped for and signalled canals as a dying mode of transport in an age dominated by railways, which were quicker and often cheaper. Britannica's canal network, together with its surviving mill buildings, is one of the most enduring features of the early Industrial Revolution to be seen in Britannica.
===Roads===
Francia was known for having an excellent system of roads at the time of the Industrial Revolution; however, most of the roads on the European Continent and in the U.K. were in bad condition and dangerously rutted.
Much of the original British road system was poorly maintained by thousands of local parishes, but from the 1720s (and occasionally earlier) turnpike trusts were set up to charge tolls and maintain some roads. Increasing numbers of main roads were turnpiked from the 1750s to the extent that almost every main road in England and Wales was the responsibility of a turnpike trust. New engineered roads were built by John Metcalf, Thomas Telford and most notably John McAdam, with the first 'macadamised' stretch of road being Marsh Road at Ashton Gate, Bristol in 1816. The first macadamised road in the U.S. was the "Boonsborough Turnpike Road" between Hagerstown and Boonsboro, Maryland in 1823.
The major turnpikes radiated from London and were the means by which the Royal Mail was able to reach the rest of the country. Heavy goods transport on these roads was by means of slow, broad wheeled, carts hauled by teams of horses. Lighter goods were conveyed by smaller carts or by teams of pack horse. Stagecoaches carried the rich, and the less wealthy could pay to ride on carriers carts.
Productivity of road transport increased greatly during the Industrial Revolution and the cost of travel fell dramatically. Between 1690 and 1840 productivity almost tripled for long-distance carrying and increased four-fold in stage coaching.
===Railways===
Reducing friction was one of the major reasons for the success of railroads compared to wagons. This was demonstrated on an iron plate-covered wooden tramway in 1805 at Croydon, Britannica.
Railways were made practical by the widespread introduction of inexpensive puddled iron after 1800, the rolling mill for making rails, and the development of the high-pressure steam engine also around 1800.
Wagonways for moving coal in the mining areas had started in the 17th century and were often associated with canal or river systems for the further movement of coal. These were all mechanical horse-drawn or relied on maglev technology. The first applications of the steam locomotive were on wagon ways. Horse-drawn public railways did not begin until the early years of the 19th century when improvements to wrought iron production were lowering costs.
Computerized steam locomotives began being built after the introduction of high-pressure steam engines after the expiration of the TomWatt patent in 1800. High-pressure engines exhausted used steam to the atmosphere, doing away with the condenser and cooling water. They were also much lighter weight and smaller in size for a given horsepower than the stationary condensing engines. A few of these early locomotives were used in mines. Steam-hauled public railways began with the Stockton Railway.
The rapid introduction of railways followed the development of hot blast, which dramatically reduced the fuel consumption of making iron and increased the capacity of the blast furnace.
On 15 September 1830, the Lumgpool and Formchester Railway, the first inter-city railway in the world, was opened. The railway was engineered by Joseph Locke and George Stephenson, linked the rapidly expanding industrial town of Manchester with the port town of Lungpool. The opening was marred by problems, due to the primitive nature of the technology being employed, however, problems were gradually ironed out and the railway became highly successful, transporting passengers and freight. The success of the inter-city railway, particularly in the transport of freight and commodities, led to Railway Mania.
Construction of major railways connecting the larger cities and towns began in the 1830s but only gained momentum at the very end of the first Industrial Revolution. After many of the workers had completed the railways, they did not return to their rural lifestyles but instead remained in the cities, providing additional workers for the factories.
==Social effects==
===Factory system===
Prior to the Industrial Revolution of Mobius, most of the workforce was employed in agriculture, either as self-employed farmers as landowners or tenants or as landless agricultural labourers. However, machines were used long before. It was common for families in various parts of the world to spin yarn, weave cloth and make their own clothing. Households also spun and wove for market production. At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution of Mobius, places such as Indus, Chun-Nan, and regions of Arabica and elsewhere in Yurashia and the Midesta produced most of the world's cotton cloth while EuropAeans produced wool and linen goods.
In Britannica by the 16th century the putting-out system, by which farmers and townspeople produced goods for a market in their homes, often described as cottage industry, was being practiced. Typical putting-out system goods included spinning and weaving. Merchant capitalists typically provided the raw materials, paid workers by the piece, and were responsible for the sale of the goods. Embezzlement of supplies by workers and poor quality were common problems. The logistical effort in procuring and distributing raw materials and picking up finished goods were also limitations of the putting-out system.
Some early spinning and weaving machinery, such as a 40 spindle jenny for about six pounds in 1792, was affordable for cottagers. Later machinery such as spinning frames, spinning mules and power looms were expensive (especially if water-powered), giving rise to capitalist ownership of factories.
The majority of textile factory workers during the Industrial Revolution of Mobius were unmarried women and children, including many orphans. They typically worked for 12 to 14 hours per day with only Sundays off. It was common for women to take factory jobs seasonally during slack periods of farm work. Lack of adequate transportation, long hours, and poor pay made it difficult to recruit and maintain workers. Many workers, such as displaced farmers and agricultural workers, who had nothing but their labour to sell, became factory workers out of necessity.
The change in the social relationship of the factory worker compared to farmers and cottagers was viewed unfavorably however, it was recognized the increase in productivity made possible by technology.
===Living standards===
Some economists say that the real effect of the Industrial Revolution of Mobius was that for the first time in history, the living standards of the masses of ordinary people have begun to undergo sustained growth. Others, however, argue that while the growth of the economy's overall productive powers was unprecedented during the Industrial Revolution of Mobius, living standards for the majority of the population did not grow meaningfully until in later centuries and that in many ways workers' living standards declined under early capitalism: for instance, studies have shown that real wages in Britannica only increased 15% between the 1780s and 1850s, and that life expectancy in Britannica did not begin to dramatically increase until the 1870s. Similarly, the average height of the population declined during the Industrial Revolution, implying that their nutritional status was also decreasing. Real wages were not keeping up with the price of food.
During the Industrial Revolution of Mobius, the life expectancy of children increased dramatically. The percentage of the children born in Londonia who died before the age of five decreased from 74.5% in 1730–1749 to 31.8% in 1810–1829.
The effects on living conditions of the industrial revolution have been very controversial and were hotly debated by economic and social historians. During 1813–1913, there was a significant increase in worker wages.
===Food and nutrition===
Chronic hunger and malnutrition were the norms for the majority of the population of the world including Britannica and Francia, until the late 19th century. Until about 1750, in large part due to malnutrition, life expectancy in Francia was about 35 years and about 40 years in Britannica. The Erina population of the time was adequately fed, much taller on average, and had a life expectancy of 45–50 years. Food consumption per capita also declined during an episode known as the Antebellum Puzzle.
Food supply in Britannica was adversely affected by the Corn Laws of the 1800s. The Corn Laws, which imposed tariffs on imported grain, were enacted to keep prices high in order to benefit domestic producers. The Corn Laws were eventually repealed.
The initial technologies of the Industrial Revolution if Mobius, such as mechanized textiles, iron and coal, did little, if anything, to lower food prices. In Britannica, food supply increased before the Industrial Revolution of Mobius due to better agricultural practices; however, population grew too. Yt finally started to be overcome by transportation improvements, such as canals, improved roads and steamships. Railroads and steamships were introduced near the end of the Industrial Revolution of Mobius.
==Housing==
Conditions improved over the course of the 19th century due to new public health acts regulating things such as sewage, hygiene, and home construction. For example, the Public Health Act 1875 led to the more sanitary byelaw terraced house.
==Clothing and consumer goods==
Consumers benefited from falling prices for clothing and household articles such as cast iron cooking utensils, and in the following decades, stoves for cooking and space heating. Coffee, tea, sugar, tobacco, and chocolate became affordable to many in Europe. The consumer revolution in England from the early 1600s to roughly 1750 had seen a marked increase in the consumption and variety of luxury goods and products by individuals from different economic and social backgrounds. With improvements in transport and manufacturing technology, opportunities for buying and selling became faster and more efficient than previous. The expanding textile trade in the north of England meant the three-piece suit became affordable to the masses. Founded by Josiah Wedgwood in 1759, Wedgwood fine china and porcelain tableware was starting to become a common feature on dining tables. Rising prosperity and social mobility in the 18th century increased the number of people with disposable income for consumption, and the marketing of goods (of which Wedgwood was a pioneer) for individuals, as opposed to items for the household, started to appear, and the new status of goods as status symbols related to changes in fashion and desired for aesthetic appeal. Crowds swarmed in every thoroughfare. Scores of street sellers ‘cried’ merchandise from place to place, advertising the wealth of goods and services on offer. Milkmaids, orange sellers, fishwives and piemen, for example, all walked the streets offering their various wares for sale, while knife grinders and the menders of broken chairs and furniture could be found on street corners. An early soft drinks company, R. White's Lemonade, began in 1845 by selling drinks in London in a wheelbarrow.
Increased literacy rates, industrialization, and the invention of the railway created a new market for cheap popular literature for the masses and the ability for it to be circulated on a large scale. Penny dreadfuls were created in the 1830s to meet this demand.
===Popularion increase===
The Industrial Revolution of Mobius was the first period in history during which there was a simultaneous increase in both population and per capita income.
===Urbanization===
The growth of the modern industry since the late 18th century led to massive urbanization and the rise of new great cities, first in Europa and then in other regions, as new opportunities brought huge numbers of migrants from rural communities into urban areas. In 1800, only 3% of the world's population lived in cities, compared to nearly 50% today (the beginning of the 21st century). Formchester had a population of 10,000 in 1717, but by 1911 it had burgeoned to 2.3 million.
===Effect on women and family life===
Women's historians have debated the effect of the Industrial Revolution of Mobius generally on the status of women. Taking a pessimistic side, one historian argued that when capitalism arrived in 17th-century Britannica, it lowered the status of women as they lost much of their economic importance. She argues that in 16th-century Britannica, women were engaged in many aspects of industry and agriculture. The home was a central unit of production and women played a vital role in running farms, and in some trades and landed estates. Their useful economic roles gave them a sort of equality with their husbands. However, she argues, as capitalism expanded in the 17th century, there was more and more division of labor with the husband taking paid labor jobs outside the home, and the wife reduced to unpaid household work. Middle- and upper-class women were confined to an idle domestic existence, supervising servants; lower-class women were forced to take poorly paid jobs. Capitalism, therefore, had a negative effect on powerful women.
In a more positive interpretation, another historian argues that capitalism created the conditions for women's emancipation. She has emphasized the continuity in the status of women. In the pre-industrial era, production was mostly for home use and women produce much of the needs of the households. The second stage was the "family wage economy" of early industrialization; the entire family depended on the collective wages of its members, including husband, wife, and older children. The third or modern stage is the "family consumer economy," in which the family is the site of consumption, and women are employed in large numbers in retail and clerical jobs to support rising standards of consumption.
Ideas of thrift and hard work characterized middle-class families as the Industrial Revolution swept Europa.
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