Economic ghyahsa

Tiel in-kap ia 1980tias, uno mier part im antslehnkeneconomisten smyohr un pessimisme de exports, ed de commercial ghyahsa daydey. Ab ia 1980tias, Ia Bretton Woods institutions, witerom, hant impost un reiken do orthodoxia, dehnd-ye perodh ia barakats om conomic ghyahsa ed specialisation, ed critiquend ia multa distorsions qua ia gouvernements hieb introducen med tolls ed alya protectionsystemes. 
Ia barakats ios ghyahsa iom economias hant semper esen discutten ed cintesten in antslehnkenseconomia, quo biht reflect in ia duct siyassas. Idghi standardo proschgumt HOS (Heckscher - Ohlin - Samuelson) est un proschgumt os comparative statique, samt mult simplificator hypotheses destull piern ud realitat (technologia, preferences), inkapend-ye med id immobilitat iom productionsfactors. Itak ia polemiques hant naduret ep un anter empiric base. 
Sachs ed Warner sbei orbat (1995) de id 1970-1989 prist hat prect id reflexion, deikend-ye od ghyahsa hieb un akster positive impact ep crosct (smad prikaue od tod resultat ne biht retrohft sei id XIXt secule biht dyit): id binar variable skeipend ghyahsa ghehdend habe un impact ex 1 do 2 points os yarcrosct. Rodriguez ed Rodrik (2000) hant critiquet besonters id meido ios ghyahsa protiedarn ab Sachs ed Warner (un binar variable sult ep penkwe criteria : alta tolls, alt extertariff barriers, socialiste economia, Statsmonopol upper un important part iom exports, important premium ep id parallel valutacurs). Sekwent iens, uno mulayim ghyahsa ghehdt anter ses id symptom om profunder problemes quem un problem in se. 
Wacziag ed Welch (2003), med uno minter discussible methodologia, hant dict od crosct auct unte 1,5 point pos id tarikhe os commercial liberalisation (0,56 pointo tik-ye kun fixe effects bihnt bespohcen), essential-ye ob investion auct. Ta general resultats dehlge bihe ghapt tadbir-ye, exist ghi un akster heterogeneitat bayna lands (quasi id dwidel ne hat gnoht crosct, we hat gnoht un sehnken irios crosct pos id commercialo liberalisation). Id impact, positive au ne, kwehct depende factors kam id qualitat iom institutions, id amplor iom politic disaurdhend, etc...
Alya orbats leitskwnt perodher do id differencyen analyse iom impacts, besonters ye id geographic ed social nivell. Mathalan, Castilho et al. (2012) deike od id ghyahsa ios brasileir economia hat effecto different-ye sekwent ia Stats. In ta exposter ad tariffen reduction,id seinken om paupertat ed inegalitats buit lyter. Urbsu, paupertat ed inegalitat hant trens auge sekwos id ghyahsa, menxu inegalitat (bet ne paupertat) minc ruri. 
Nespekent ta differences, id impact ios ghyahsa ghehdiet aundwoi ses maung positive sei iaschi industrielands enoverient un druv ghyahsa dia ia products iom antslehnkend lands. 
==Ghyahsa ed protectionisme iom industrielands==
Nespekent un izharn liberalisme, ia industrielands emplace protections kun ia interesses em sems iren productors sont endanger. Ia exports iom antslehnkend lands tuned protiev id protectionisme iom industrielands, med au aun tariffs (med "swolimitation playcts" de sanitar, social au ambiental norms, mathalan), protiev attaques om lobbys (besonters sub forme os accusation os dumping), ed protiev ir subventionen systemes. 
Prist-ye, schikays ex OCAE productors riske rencause id hassilen ghyahsa, hassa kun ia nov industrielands pehrnent minter dorgv-yer quem id pris iom raumaterias in industrielands (stal, schous). 
Yando, retorsionsmeids sont organiset dayir technique access : refuse os pehrne meg performant productionswassilas we os offshore tod type os production. Samt id crosct irs inner mercat, id situation iom emergent lands kayjint-se ye id nivell tom tolks, iaghi ghehdent dadwe contraparts. It, Sud Korea sib hat udtolct id ghyahsa ios franceois automobile mercat po id constructioncontract uns TGV. 
Ta sababs piw in ia 1960tias ed -70tias pessimisme binisbat ia antslehnkenspossibilitats tragen ab exports. Hetrodox autors dehr perodh ta protectioniste siyassas kay sigwre od tod type os antslehnken ne permissit slures kafi valuta kay investe ed remburses id exterior dulg. 
Lakin, ye tod zaman, eet admiss ye id multilateral nivell (eni id quader ios GATT) od ia antslehnkend lands dohlg brunges un assymetric traitement (ia poiss protégé ir economia, menxu antslohnken lands dohlgeer ghyane id). Kay vergihes pior-ye brutal schocks ep ia economias iom industrielands, programmes buir negocyen ye international nivell. Also, ielg industrieland hat definihn, ep un voluntar base, un "schema om generaliset preferences", un daftar producten importet ex ia antslehnkend lands pro qua id acceptit un entren exter tolls pro ia antslehnkend lands, eni un limite om predefinihn quotes. Ia multifiber playcts hant antplohct un analog proschgumt in id fall os textil, quod eet besonters-ye sensible bi-sabab ia nifalls ep employ. Sem antslehnkend lands hant sizto ta waurmens (mathalan Tunisia au Mauritius pro textil), bet ia ormst lands hant remanen apank ud ta. 
Ia neagrent exports iom antslehnkend lands habent antslohnct jaldi, in major part sub id impulse iom multinational firmas qua se hant implantet do ia lands quer ia costs eent minter alt ed ia xiseys minter dwinghend. To hat modifien aunsam-ye ia proschgumts de concurrence inter Sudtos ed Nordtos products : ia "Sudtos" products sont in wassime part id resultat om innerfirma strategias, ed ops id product om offshorings. 
Ab 1994, id prever proschgumt buit abfirschen ed id Muntorganisation hat sult sien action ep un symetriaprabhil : concessions dehlgent ses reciproc. Itak id Europay Union hat tayn id STABEX med un equilibert proschgumt, negocyend playcts os economic partnerspecto (PEP) con unions om antslehnkend lands. 
Antslehnkend lands decept ab id prest negociation round eni id Muntorganisation, quod betrohvit vetatrects. Hant intervenen samt meis success eni id quader ios Doha Conference (2001) kay sib udtolke concessions ud ia industrielands, besonters in id xeimen iom patents de pharmacs (in fall os menace contra sanitat). Lakin, ta evolutions concerne hassa ia lands qua hant productionsimkans. Ta lands (Hind, Brasilu, Sud Africa) poittsient produce aun respecte ia patents (bet ne exporte). Lands aun productionsimkans nient poitte importe, remansient dependend id khalalia iom pharmalabs. 
Kay vergihes ta problemes in id fall iom lands samt muzlim revenue, id Europay Union ed ia Uniet Stats os America hant emt initiatives limitet tei landen categoria ("Quant ploisko armes" 2001 ed id African Growth and Opportunity Act wa AGOA, 2000, nisbatan). Id initiative "quant ploisko armes" permit ibs lands samt muzlim revenue exporte leur-ye quanto producent do ia EU economias - quo eet ja id fall in id Lomé Convention - aun probant resultat. Multghi products remane submiss ad specific obstacles, besonters agrent products qua concurrence ia europay productions. 
==Protectionisme ed gnahnd industries : id abadic reiken==
Id literature de ia barakats os ghyahsa hat semper esen lyt suspect in ia antslehnkend lands, idghi buit dehn perodh ab occidental stieures qua hant trens ghyane ia mercats med canonstrehls (in id nam ios leudher commerce os opium, mathalan, buit China invaden ab ia occidental stieures ye id XIXt secule). Id dayi sekwent quod ia Antslehnkend Lands dehlgient protege ir gnahnd industrie est prev ed ne stopt resurrege. 
Mult autors kyunggiawe od ia occidental lands hant recurso protectioniste meids unte ir industrialisationsperiode ed odghi recommandent ibs antslehnkend lands ne kwehre quo buit oino iom cleichen os ir success - quo yed ne preuft od ia industrielands hant act prabh it ni od to hat acceleret iro crosct. 
Ia vantages os ghyahsa sont traditional-ye anacen med static weidos. De antslehnken, id dynamic aspect dehlct upergihes. Sem economists kam Friedrich List hant theorisen id protection iom gnahnd industrien (infant industries) in tod perspective : id argument est od id teulgen uns concurrential industrie naudht un certain wakt, esdi id behandt potential-ye un cooperative vantage (ids costs maghe, mathalan, ses alter in-kap quem id actual pris resultend ex important scaliktissads). Id argument ghehdt bihe formulen med id giokien os talimat à la Arrow (learning by doing). Esiet in quant fall ghawo mehne od tod genos os conclusion ghehdt bihe hassilen tik in heterodox proschgumts. P.Krugman (1996) hat diken od eni un orthodoxo quader ghohd bihe perfect-ye construct un dwo landen model quer oiter (specialisen in un industrial production samt scaliktissads) stambht ad alter antplehce tod genos os production. 
Id antslehnken iom wehrgs de international commerce in imperfect economia hat permiss formalise ta dayis. 
Mathalan, sem firma in land A (un prever industrieland) ed alter in land B (un emergent mercat) produce med important fixe costs (un exempel esiet id fall os siderurgia). Suppose id emergent mercat acceddt uno moderner technique, inkapus productum serter : ids fixe costs sont meis alt bet decrehsce meis-ye jaldi. Est viden tun od id emergent mercat maght habe interesse de stehmskwe id production siens firma kay id nact id productionsnivell ab quod ids mutawassit cost biht inferior tei ios prever productor in land A.