Spanking children

Spanking a child means hitting them on the bottom as a form of punishment.
An abundance of research shows that the spanking of children is both ineffective and harmful.Zolotor, AJ (October 2014). "Corporal punishment". Pediatric Clinics of North America (Review). 61 (5): 971–8. doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2014.06.003. PMID 25242709.Gershoff ET, Grogan-Kaylor A. Spanking and child outcomes: old controversies and new meta-analyses. J Fam Psychol. 2016;30(4):453–469 [PubMed]Gershoff ET. Spanking and Child Development: We Know Enough Now To Stop Hitting Our Children. Child Dev Perspect. 2013 Sep 1;7(3):133-137. doi: 10.1111/cdep.12038. PMID: 24039629; PMCID: PMC3768154. It increases aggressionGershoff ET. Corporal punishment by parents and associated child behaviors and experiences: a meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychol Bull. 2002 Jul;128(4):539-79. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.539. PMID: 12081081.Taylor, Catherine et al. Mothers' Spanking of 3-Year-Old Children and Subsequent Risk of Children's Aggressive Behavior. Pediatrics. (perhaps because the child learns that hitting other people is an appropriate way to deal with stress), anxiety, depression, and antisocial behavior.Straus, MA., DB. Sugarman and J. Giles-Sims, Spanking by Parents and Subsequent Antisocial Behaviour by Children. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine 1997; 151:761-767Gershoff ET. Corporal punishment by parents and associated child behaviors and experiences: a meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychol Bull. 2002 Jul;128(4):539-79. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.539. PMID: 12081081. It also makes children less obedient and reduces gray matter in the brainTomoda A, Suzuki H, Rabi K, Sheu YS, Polcari A, Teicher MH. Reduced prefrontal cortical gray matter volume in young adults exposed to harsh corporal punishment. Neuroimage. 2009 Aug;47 Suppl 2(Suppl 2):T66-71. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.03.005. Epub 2009 Mar 12. PMID: 19285558; PMCID: PMC2896871. (jeopardizing cognitive abilitiesKovac, Sarah. Spanking the gray matter out of our kids. CNN).Sege, RD; Siegel, BS (December 2018). "Effective Discipline to Raise Healthy Children". Pediatrics (Review). 142 (6): e20183112. doi:10.1542/peds.2018-3112. PMID 30397164. S2CID 53239513.
Spanking may be rewarding to parents and caregivers because it temporarily stops misbehavior and may release pent-up anger.Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health (April 1998). "Guidance for effective discipline". Pediatrics. 101 (4 Pt 1). American Academy of Pediatrics: 723–8. doi:10.1542/peds.101.4.723. PMID 9521967. S2CID 79545678. However, children often repeat the behavior they were punished for within 10 minutes.Holden GW, Williamson PA, Holland GW. Eavesdropping on the family: a pilot investigation of corporal punishment in the home. J Fam Psychol. 2014;28(3):401–406 Spanking becomes less effective over time, which may lead some parents to escalate to more violent discipline.
Numerous medical societies, including the American Academy of Pediatrics, firmly recommend against spanking."Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health Position Statement on corporal punishment" (PDF). rcpch.adlibhosting.com. The Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health."Position Statement: Physical Punishment of Children" (PDF). www.racp.edu.au. The Royal Australasian College of Physicians.P Nieman, S Shea, Canadian Paediatric Society, Community Paediatrics Committee, Effective discipline for children, Paediatrics & Child Health, Volume 9, Issue 1, January 2004, Pages 37–41, https://doi.org/10.1093/pch/9.1.37 Spanking children is illegal in dozens of countries.
Many studies on spanking were done in the 2000s and 2010s. Experts have now reached a consensus that it is harmful.
==Methods==
Spanking involves striking the bottom, usually as a physical punishment. An open hand or a tool (spoon, belt, sandal, etc.) may be used. The goal is to stop the person (usually a child) from repeating a behavior that the adult dislikes.
An adult might lay a child stomach-down across their lap so they can hit them. The hard swats in quick succession cause pain. Hitting a standing child could result in accidental injury to the back or kidneys.
An adult could spank someone over a diaper, clothing, underwear, or bare bottom. This depends on how much pain or humiliation the adult wishes to inflict and on who is watching. The removal of clothing may make the spanked person feel humiliated or helpless.
===Guidance===
Many health organizations recommend against spanking.
Some specialists say that if a parent insists on spanking, it should not be done in anger and it should be only used as a last resort. It should be treated as logical and fair, rather than being a spontaneous or frustration-fueled decision. The child should understand why they are being spanked. Some recommend explaining why the spanking is happening before it happens.
Some experts recommend against comforting a child after a spanking, since this may confuse them. They may even think that tolerating being hit caused them to earn affection.
However, many parents who spank do not follow basic guidelines.Holden GW, Williamson PA, Holland GW. Eavesdropping on the family: a pilot investigation of corporal punishment in the home. J Fam Psychol. 2014;28(3):401–406
==Spanking in child discipline==
Boys typically get spanked more than girls do.Straus, Murray A.; Douglas, Emily M.; Madeiros, Rose Ann (2013). The Primordial Violence: Spanking Children, Psychological Development, Violence, and Crime. New York: Routledge. pp. 31–32. ISBN 978-1848729537. In the United States, toddlers get spanked the most.Straus, Murray A. (Spring 2010). "Prevalence, Societal Causes, and Trends in Corporal Punishment by Parents in World Perspective" (PDF). Law and Contemporary Problems. 73 (2). Duke University School of Law. Figure 1. Corporal Punishment Begins With Infants, Is Highest For Toddlers, And Continues Into The Teen Years For Many Children Abusive parents,Whipple EE, Richey CA. Crossing the line from physical discipline to child abuse: how much is too much? Child Abuse Negl. 1997 May;21(5):431-44. doi: 10.1016/s0145-2134(97)00004-5. PMID: 9158904.Zolotor AJ, Theodore AD, Chang JJ, Berkoff MC, Runyan DK. Speak softly--and forget the stick. Corporal punishment and child physical abuse. Am J Prev Med. 2008 Oct;35(4):364-9. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2008.06.031. PMID: 18779030. parents who had adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) (e.g. experiencing child abuse),Afifi TO, Salmon S, Stewart-Tufescu A, Taillieu T. An Examination of Parents' Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) History and Reported Spanking of Their Child: Informing Child Maltreatment Prevention Efforts. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022 Aug 25;19(17):10580. doi: 10.3390/ijerph191710580. PMID: 36078294; PMCID: PMC9518050.Afifi TO, Fortier J, MacMillan HL, Gonzalez A, Kimber M, Georgiades K, Duncan L, Taillieu T, Davila IG, Struck S. Examining the relationships between parent experiences and youth self-reports of slapping/spanking: a population-based cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health. 2019 Oct 22;19(1):1345. doi: 10.1186/s12889-019-7729-6. PMID: 31640664; PMCID: PMC6805493. and stressed parentsGonzález MR, Trujillo A. Examining the Moderating Role of Parental Stress in the Relationship between Parental Beliefs on Corporal Punishment and Its Utilization as a Behavior Correction Strategy among Colombian Parents. Children (Basel). 2024 Mar 23;11(4):384. doi: 10.3390/children11040384. PMID: 38671601; PMCID: PMC11049352.Chiocca, Ellen M. (1 May 2017). "American Parents' Attitudes and Beliefs About Corporal Punishment: An Integrative Literature Review". Journal of Pediatric Health Care. 31 (3): 372–383. doi:10.1016/j.pedhc.2017.01.002. ISSN 0891-5245. PMID 28202205. are more likely to spank their children. Corporal punishment is also associated with intimate partner violence.Sege RD, Purdue EL, Burstein D, Holditch Niolon P, Price LL, Chen Y, Swedo EA, Piazza Hurley T, Prasad K, Klika B. Predictors of Corporal Punishment during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Pediatr Rep. 2024 Apr 19;16(2):300-312. doi: 10.3390/pediatric16020026. PMID: 38651465; PMCID: PMC11036273.
A 2019 meta-analysis found that parent education programs have only small improvements in reducing spanking behavior.Gubbels J, van der Put CE, Assink M. The Effectiveness of Parent Training Programs for Child Maltreatment and Their Components: A Meta-Analysis. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019 Jul 6;16(13):2404. doi: 10.3390/ijerph16132404. PMID: 31284575; PMCID: PMC6651871. Teaching caregivers not to spank remains an ongoing challenge for experts.
===Efficacy===
Spanking causes an immediate, but only short, stop of a child's misbehavior. A preliminary study of corporal punishment at home found that in 73% of incidents, a child who was hit for misbehaving went back to doing it again within 10 minutes.Holden GW, Williamson PA, Holland GW. Eavesdropping on the family: a pilot investigation of corporal punishment in the home. J Fam Psychol. 2014;28(3):401–406
Children who are spanked tend to learn to avoid getting caught, rather than to avoid misbehaving. They are less likely to internalize values like empathy, altruism, and resistance to temptation.Durrant, Joan (March 2008). "Physical Punishment, Culture, and Rights: Current Issues for Professionals". Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics. 29 (1): 55–66. doi:10.1097/DBP.0b013e318135448a. PMID 18300726. S2CID 20693162. Spanking also erodes the parent-child bond.
===Effects===
Evidence on the effects of spanking is abundant. Spanking and other forms of corporal punishment create strong negative feelings in children. Research has found long-term effects across cultures and with adjustment for confounding factors (e.g. whether the children are abused):Gershoff, Elizabeth T. (Spring 2010). "More Harm Than Good: A Summary of Scientific Research on the Intended and Unintended Effects of Corporal Punishment on Children". Law & Contemporary Problems. 73 (2). Duke University School of Law: 31–56.Gershoff ET, Lansford JE, Sexton HR, Davis-Kean P, Sameroff AJ. Longitudinal links between spanking and children's externalizing behaviors in a national sample of White, Black, Hispanic, and Asian American families. Child Dev. 2012 May-Jun;83(3):838-43. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01732.x. Epub 2012 Feb 3. PMID: 22304526; PMCID: PMC7988802.
*AggressionGershoff ET. Corporal punishment by parents and associated child behaviors and experiences: a meta-analytic and theoretical review. Psychol Bull. 2002 Jul;128(4):539-79. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.539. PMID: 12081081.Spanking Leads To Child Aggression And Anxiety, Regardless Of Cultural Norm, Science DailyAteah, C. A.; Secco, M. L.; Woodgate, R. L. (2003). "The risks and alternatives to physical punishment use with children". J Pediatr Health Care. 17 (3): 126–32. doi:10.1067/mph.2003.18. PMID 12734459. (Children who are hit are more likely to say that hitting is a way to solve interpersonal conflicts.Simons DA, Wurtele SK. Relationships between parents' use of corporal punishment and their children's endorsement of spanking and hitting other children. Child Abuse Negl. 2010 Sep;34(9):639-46. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2010.01.012. Epub 2010 Jul 17. PMID: 20638720.)
*DefiantFortier J, Stewart-Tufescu A, Salmon S, et al. Associations between Lifetime Spanking/Slapping and Adolescent Physical and Mental Health and Behavioral Outcomes. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. 2022;67(4):281-289. doi:10.1177/07067437211000632 and antisocial behaviorStraus, MA., DB. Sugarman and J. Giles-Sims, Spanking by Parents and Subsequent Antisocial Behaviour by Children. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine 1997; 151:761-767Kirchner, J. Childhood Spanking and Increased Antisocial Behavior, American Family Physician.
*Impulsivity and disruptive behaviorSpanking Linked to Increase in Children’s Behavior Problems, Association for Psychological Science
*Feelings of hopelessness
*Anxiety disorders, major depression and other mood disorders,Afifi TO, Brownridge DA, Cox BJ, Sareen J. Physical punishment, childhood abuse and psychiatric disorders. Child Abuse Negl. 2006 Oct;30(10):1093-103. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2006.04.006. Epub 2006 Sep 28. PMID: 17010436. personality disorders (especially cluster BTracie O. Afifi, Natalie P. Mota, Patricia Dasiewicz, Harriet L. MacMillan, Jitender Sareen; Physical Punishment and Mental Disorders: Results From a Nationally Representative US Sample. Pediatrics August 2012; 130 (2): 184–192. 10.1542/peds.2011-2947), and other psychiatric conditionsCorporal punishment affects brain activity, anxiety, and depression, Science DailyShu, Jennifer. Can spanking cause mental illness? CNN.MacMillan H.L.; Boyle M.H.; Wong M.Y.; Duku E.K.; Fleming J.E.; Walsh C.A. (October 1999). "Slapping and spanking in childhood and its association with lifetime prevalence of psychiatric disorders in a general population sample". Canadian Medical Association Journal. 161 (7): 805–9. PMC 1230651. PMID 10530296.
*Belief that others will be cruel to them
*Brain differences: hyperactive threat response in the brainAnderson, Jill. The Effect of Spanking on the Brain. Harvard Graduate School of Education and an increased response to errors while having a blunted response to rewards
*Reduced gray matter in the brain, including in areas related to IQDurrant J, Ensom R. Physical punishment of children: lessons from 20 years of research. CMAJ. 2012 Sep 4;184(12):1373-7. doi: 10.1503/cmaj.101314. Epub 2012 Feb 6. PMID: 22311946; PMCID: PMC3447048.Tomoda A, Suzuki H, Rabi K, Sheu YS, Polcari A, Teicher MH. Reduced prefrontal cortical gray matter volume in young adults exposed to harsh corporal punishment. Neuroimage. 2009 Aug;47 Suppl 2(Suppl 2):T66-71. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.03.005. Epub 2009 Mar 12. PMID: 19285558; PMCID: PMC2896871.
*Falling behind their peers in cognitive development over timeChildren Who Are Spanked Have Lower IQs, New Research Finds, Science DailyStraus, M. A., & Paschall, M. J. (2009). Corporal Punishment by Mothers and Development of Children’s Cognitive Ability: A Longitudinal Study of Two Nationally Representative Age Cohorts. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 18(5), 459–483. https://doi.org/10.1080/10926770903035168
*Poorer social and emotional developmentPace, Garrett, Lee, Shawna, and Grogan-Kaylor, Andrew. Spanking and young children’s socioemotional development in low- and middle-income countries, Child Abuse and NeglectCuartas, J. (2022). The effect of spanking on early social-emotional skills. Child Development, 93, 180–193. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13646
*Physical health ailments
*Delinquency"College students more likely to be lawbreakers if spanked as children". Science Daily. 22 November 2013. Retrieved 12 March 2015.
The child's behavior and attitude tends to deteriorate over time relative to children who are not spanked.
In adulthood, people who were spanked are more likely to experience:
*Alcoholism and drug abuse,Afifi TO, Ford D, Gershoff ET, Merrick M, Grogan-Kaylor A, Ports KA, MacMillan HL, Holden GW, Taylor CA, Lee SJ, Peters Bennett R. Spanking and adult mental health impairment: The case for the designation of spanking as an adverse childhood experience. Child Abuse Negl. 2017 Sep;71:24-31. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.01.014. Epub 2017 Jan 23. PMID: 28126359; PMCID: PMC7983058. perhaps due to issues with dopamine in the brainSheu YS, Polcari A, Anderson CM, Teicher MH. Harsh corporal punishment is associated with increased T2 relaxation time in dopamine-rich regions. Neuroimage. 2010 Nov 1;53(2):412-9. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.06.043. Epub 2010 Jun 25. PMID: 20600981; PMCID: PMC3854930.
*Suicide attempts
*Domestic abuse perpetrationZolotor, AJ (October 2014). "Corporal punishment". Pediatric Clinics of North America (Review). 61 (5): 971–8. doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2014.06.003. PMID 25242709. and violence towards their familiesGershoff, E.T. (2008). Report on Physical Punishment in the United States: What Research Tells Us About Its Effects on Children (PDF). Columbus, OH: Center for Effective Discipline. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 January 2016. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
A meta-analysis of around 160,000 children across 50 years found only negative effects. Researcher Elizabeth Gershoff added, "People often ask: Why didn't you look for positive aspects? My answer is: We did, and there were none. We see consistently that the more children are spanked, the more behavioral problems they have in the years ahead."Cole, Diane. What Happens When A Country Bans Spanking? NPR.
Brains and emotional difficulties of children who were spanked show similarities to those of children who were abused.Aggarwal-Schifellite, Manisha. How spanking may affect brain development in children. Harvard Gazette.Rodriguez, Christina. Parental Discipline and Abuse Potential Affects on Child Depression, Anxiety, and Attributions, Journal of Marriage and Family Some researchers suggest that spanking be considered an adverse childhood experience (ACE).
A study of boys at risk for antisocial behavior found that when parents reduced harsh discipline, the children became less aggressive.Forgatch, Marion. The clinical science vortex: A developing theory of antisocial behavior. A trial to reduce difficult behavior in children trained parents in over 500 families to reduce physical punishment; there was a parallel reduction of difficult behavior.Beauchaine TP, Webster-Stratton C, Reid MJ. Mediators, moderators, and predictors of 1-year outcomes among children treated for early-onset conduct problems: a latent growth curve analysis. J Consult Clin Psychol. 2005 Jun;73(3):371-388. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.73.3.371. PMID: 15982136.
===Spanking at home===
Studies show that parents who spank tend to do so inconsistently, hitting their children more often when feeling stressed.Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health (April 1998). "Guidance for effective discipline". Pediatrics. 101 (4 Pt 1). American Academy of Pediatrics: 723–8. doi:10.1542/peds.101.4.723. PMID 9521967. S2CID 79545678.
Many cases of documented physical abuse against children began with disciplinary spankings.
===Spanking at school===
Over 100 countries have banned corporal punishment in schools.School spankings are banned just about everywhere around the world except in US, The Conversation Spanking at school is illegal in the majority of US states. In states where it's legal, black and disabled children are hit more than other students.Spencer, Christian. Spanking schoolchildren is legal in many parts of US — and some kids get hit more often
==Controversy over spanking children==
Spanking — like corporal punishment in general — is a hotly debated social issue. Questions involved include:
*Which is more important: the privacy of parents who want to spank their children, or the right of children not to be hit?
*Where is the line between physical discipline and abuse?Durrant, Joan (March 2008). "Physical Punishment, Culture, and Rights: Current Issues for Professionals". Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics. 29 (1): 55–66. doi:10.1097/DBP.0b013e318135448a. PMID 18300726. S2CID 20693162.
*Can parents modify spanking to make it less harmful?
*Are parents willing to value the large body of evidence over their personal preferences and opinions?
Experts question why this debate still carries on now that there are numerous robust studies proving a broad range of harms.Shpancer, Noam. The Spanking Debate Is Over, Psychology Today. They recommend moving forward to focus on reducing spanking and promoting child wellbeing.MacMillan HL, Mikton CR. Moving research beyond the spanking debate. Child Abuse Negl. 2017 Sep;71:5-8. doi: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.02.012. Epub 2017 Mar 1. PMID: 28249733.Miller-Perrin C, Perrin R. Physical punishment of children by US parents: moving beyond debate to promote children's health and well-being. Psicol Reflex Crit. 2018 Jul 3;31(1):16. doi: 10.1186/s41155-018-0096-x. PMID: 32026051; PMCID: PMC6967056.
===Arguments for spanking===
Proponents of spanking may question the research showing harms of spanking. They may also cite religious beliefs, beliefs about personal freedom, and anecdotal evidence.
Proponents of spanking suggest that the connection between spanking and aggression might be that the "naughty" aggressive kids get spanked more. This is known as the "child effects" hypothesis. However, research suggests otherwise.
*A study of over 2,500 toddlers found that child aggression did not predict spanking.Berlin LJ, Ispa JM, Fine MA, Malone PS, Brooks-Gunn J, Brady-Smith C, Ayoub C, Bai Y. Correlates and consequences of spanking and verbal punishment for low-income white, african american, and mexican american toddlers. Child Dev. 2009 Sep-Oct;80(5):1403-20. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01341.x. PMID: 19765008; PMCID: PMC2987237.
*A study of over 3,000 preschoolers found that increased spanking from ages 1-3 led to increased aggression at ages 3-5, above initial levels of aggression; maternal warmth did not help reduce the effects.Lee SJ, Altschul I, Gershoff ET. Does warmth moderate longitudinal associations between maternal spanking and child aggression in early childhood? Dev Psychol. 2013 Nov;49(11):2017-28. doi: 10.1037/a0031630. Epub 2013 Jan 21. PMID: 23339588; PMCID: PMC7988800.
*A study of over 11,000 children associated spanking with increased externalizing "problem behavior," which is then associated with increased spanking.Gershoff ET, Lansford JE, Sexton HR, Davis-Kean P, Sameroff AJ. Longitudinal links between spanking and children's externalizing behaviors in a national sample of White, Black, Hispanic, and Asian American families. Child Dev. 2012 May-Jun;83(3):838-43. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01732.x. Epub 2012 Feb 3. PMID: 22304526; PMCID: PMC7988802. A later study found the same results.MacKenzie, M.J., Nicklas, E., Brooks-Gunn, J. et al. Spanking and Children’s Externalizing Behavior Across the First Decade of Life: Evidence for Transactional Processes. J Youth Adolescence 44, 658–669 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-014-0114-y This suggests a vicious cycle of increased spanking and increased child misbehavior.
Proponents of spanking may use anecdotal evidence, such as "I was spanked and I turned out fine."Kirby, Gena. "Confessions of an AP Mom Who Spanked - Progressive Parenting". Archived from the original on 28 November 2012. Retrieved 12 February 2013. It is common for parents, including those who were abused in childhood, to believe the way they were disciplined as children was acceptable.
Some parents may claim that spanking bans restrict their personal freedoms. They believe their rights as adults to discipline their children supersede the right of a child to not be hit.
Some advocates for spanking claim that it can be done well under certain circumstances, such as if a warning is given first and if the spanking is done in private.Pingleton, Jared. Spanking Can Be an Appropriate Form of Child Discipline Evidence for these claims is typically anecdotal.
===Arguments against spanking===
Anti-spanking advocates typically make several claims:
*There is a wealth of research showing that spanking negatively affects health and behavior.
*Spanking harms the parent-child bond, breaking trust.
*Children deserve to be safe from violence.
*Parents and caregivers can learn nonviolent forms of discipline that do not harm children.
=== Alternatives to spanking ===
Experts in child development suggest methods of non-violent child discipline which are at least as effective as spanking, and without the negative side-effects.P Nieman, S Shea, Canadian Paediatric Society, Community Paediatrics Committee, Effective discipline for children, Paediatrics & Child Health, Volume 9, Issue 1, January 2004, Pages 37–41, https://doi.org/10.1093/pch/9.1.37Effective discipline: A healthy approach, Paediatrics & Child Health, Volume 9, Issue 1, January 2004, Pages 43–44, https://doi.org/10.1093/pch/9.1.43
These may include:
*Praise and positive reinforcement for good behavior
*Intervening before the child misbehaves (e.g. to distract them, issue a reminder, or recommend a different behavior)
*Natural consequences
*Having a conversation with the child
*Loss of privileges
*Time out
Research suggests that time outs are at least as effective as spanking in the short term,Gershoff ET, Grogan-Kaylor A. Spanking and its consequences for children: New meta-analyses and old controversies. 2013. Manuscript under review. and they do not appear to cause long-term behavior deterioration.
==Legality of spanking children==
Spanking or otherwise hitting children is illegal in much of the developed world.
Corporal punishment of children in school is illegal in over 100 countries.Durrant, Joan (March 2008). "Physical Punishment, Culture, and Rights: Current Issues for Professionals". Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics. 29 (1): 55–66. doi:10.1097/DBP.0b013e318135448a. PMID 18300726. S2CID 20693162. In the US, over half of the states have outlawed it.
Countries that ban spanking have lower rates of teen violence.Elgar FJ, Donnelly PD, Michaelson V, et al Corporal punishment bans and physical fighting in adolescents: an ecological study of 88 countries BMJ Open 2018;8:e021616. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2018-021616
== See also ==
* Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs Scale)
* Attachment Theory
* Judge Rotenberg Center
* Applied behavior analysis and autism controversy
== References ==
Category:Developmental Psychology
Category:Ethics
Category:2000s
Category:2010s
Category:Controversies