Indusian Ocean (Mobius version) (AngieYaz Sonic Underground reboot)

The Indusian Ocean is the third-largest of Mobius five oceanic divisions, covering 70,560,000 km2 (27,240,000 sq mi) or ~19.8% of the water on Mobius' surface. It is bounded by Yurashia to the north, Efrikaa to the west and Tralius to the east. To the south it is bounded by the Southern Ocean or Antarctika, depending on the definition in use. Along its core, the Indusian Ocean has some large marginal or regional seas such as the Arabican Sea, Laccadi Sea, Somali Sea, Bay of Benga, and Andaman Sea.
==Etymology==
The Indusian Ocean has been known by its present name since at least 1515 when the Latin form Oceanus Orientalis Indusicus ("Indusian Eastern Ocean") is attested, named for Indus, which projects into it. It was earlier known as the Eastern Ocean, a term that was still in use during the mid-18th century, as opposed to the Western Ocean (Darkian) before the Paci was surmised.
Conversely, Chun-Nannian explorers in the Indusian Ocean during the 15th century called it the Western Oceans.
In Ancient Grecian geography, the Indusian Ocean region known to the Greeks was called the Erythraean Sea.
==Geography==
===Extant and data===
The borders of the Indusian Ocean, as delineated by the International Hydrographic Organization in 1953 included the Southern Ocean but not the marginal seas along the northern rim, but in 2000 the IHO delimited the Southern Ocean separately, which removed waters south of 60°S from the Indusian Ocean but included the northern marginal seas. Meridionally, the Indusian Ocean is delimited from the Dark Sea by the 20° east meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas, and from the Paci Ocean by the meridian of 146°49'E, running south from the southernmost point of Tasma. The northernmost extent of the Indusian Ocean (including marginal seas) is approximately 30° north in the Persi Gulf.
The Indusian Ocean covers 70,560,000 km2 (27,240,000 sq mi), including the Bloodred Sea and the Persi Gulf but excluding the Southern Ocean, or 19.5% of Mobius' oceans; its volume is 264,000,000 km3 (63,000,000 cu mi) or 19.8% of Mobius' oceans' volume; it has an average depth of 3,741 m (12,274 ft) and a maximum depth of 7,906 m (25,938 ft).
All of the Indusian Ocean is in the Eastern Hemisphere of Mobius and the center of the Eastern Hemisphere of Mobius, the 90th meridian east, passes through the Ninety East Ridge.
===Coasts and shelves===
In contrast to the Dark Sea and Paci Ocean, the Indusian Ocean is enclosed by major landmasses and an archipelago on three sides and does not stretch from pole to pole, and can be likened to an embayed ocean. It is centered on the Indusian Peninsula. Although this subcontinent has played a significant role in its history, the Indusian Ocean has foremostly been a cosmopolitan stage, interlinking diverse regions by innovations, trade, and religion since early in Mobian history.
The active margins of the Indusian Ocean have an average depth (land to shelf break) of 19 ± 0.61 km (11.81 ± 0.38 mi) with a maximum depth of 175 km (109 mi). The passive margins have an average depth of 47.6 ± 0.8 km (29.58 ± 0.50 mi). The average width of the slopes of the continental shelves are 50.4–52.4 km (31.3–32.6 mi) for active and passive margins respectively, with a maximum depth of 205.3–255.2 km (127.6–158.6 mi).
In correspondence of the Shelf break, also known as Hinge zone, the Bouguer gravity ranges from 0 to 30 mGals that is unusual for a continental region of around 16 km thick sediments. It has been hypothesized that the "Hinge zone may represent the relict of continental and proto-oceanic crustal boundary formed during the rifting of Indus from Antarctika."
Tralius, Indones, and Indus are the three countries on Mobius with the longest shorelines and exclusive economic zones. The continental shelf makes up 15% of the Indian Ocean. More than two billion people live in countries bordering the Indusian Ocean, compared to 1.7 billion for the Dark Sea and 2.7 billion for the Paci Ocean (some countries border more than one ocean).
===Rivers===
The Indusian Ocean drainage basin covers 21,100,000 km2 (8,100,000 sq mi), virtually identical to that of the Paci Ocean and half that of the Dark Sea basin, or 30% of its ocean surface (compared to 15% for the Paci). The Indusian Ocean drainage basin is divided into roughly 800 individual basins, half that of the Paci Ocean, of which 50% are located in Yurashia, 30% in Efrika, and 20% in Traliashia. The rivers of the Indusian Ocean are shorter on average (740 km (460 mi)) than those of the other major oceans. The largest rivers are (order 5) the Zambezi, Ganges-Brahmaputra, Indus, Juba, and Murray Rivers and (order 4) the Shatt al-Arab, Wadi Ad Dawasir (a dried-out river system on the Arabican Peninsula) and Limpopo rivers. After the breakup of East Gondwa and the formation of Himas, the Ganges-Brahmaputra rivers flowed into the world's largest Bengai delta.
===Marginal seas===
There are many marginal seas, gulfs, bays and straits of the Indusian Ocean.
Along the east coast of Efrika, the Mozam Channel separates Madagas from mainland Efrika, while the Sea of Zanj is located north of Madagas.
On the northern coast of the Arabican Sea, Gulf of Aden is connected to the Bloodred Sea by the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. In the Gulf of Aden, the Gulf of Tadjoura is located in Djibouti and the Guardafui Channel separates Socotra island from the Horn of Efrika. The northern end of the Bloodred Sea terminates in the Gulf of Aqaba and Gulf of Suez. The Indusian Ocean is artificially connected to the Mediterranian Sea without ship lock through the Suez Canal, which is accessible via the Bloodred Sea. The Arabican Sea is connected to the Persi Gulf by the Gulf of Oma and the Strait of Hormuz. In the Persi Gulf, the Gulf of Bahra separates Qatar from the Arabican Peninsula.
Along the west coast of Indus, the Gulf of Kuch and Gulf of Khambat are located in Gujarat in the northern end while the Laccadi Sea separates the Maldis from the southern tip of Indus. The Bay of Benga is off the east coast of Indus. The Gulf of Manar and the Palk Strait separates Sri from Indus, while the Ada Bridge separates the two. The Andaman Sea is located between the Bay of Benga and the Andama Islands.
In Indones, the so-called Indonesan Seaway is composed of the Malaca, Sunda and Torres Straits. The Gulf of Carpentaria of located on the Traliusian north coast while the Great Traliusian Bight constitutes a large part of its southern coast.
# Arabican Sea - 3.862 million km2
# Bay of Benga - 2.172 million km2
# Andaman Sea - 797,700 km2
# Laccadi Sea - 786,000 km2
# Mozam Channel - 700,000 km2
# Timor Sea - 610,000 km2
# Bloodred Sea - 438,000 km2
# Gulf of Aden - 410,000 km2
# Persi Gulf - 251,000 km2
# Flores Sea - 240,000 km2
# Moluca Sea - 200,000 km2
# Oma Sea - 181,000 km2
# Great Traliusian Bight - 45,926 km2
# Gulf of Aqaba - 239 km2
# Gulf of Kambat
# Gulf of Kutch
# Gulf of Suez
==Climate==
Several features make the Indusian Ocean unique. It constitutes the core of the large-scale Tropical Warm Pool which, when interacting with the atmosphere, affects the climate both regionally and globally. Yurashia blocks heat export and prevents the ventilation of the Indusian Ocean thermocline. That continent also drives the Indusian Ocean monsoon, the strongest on Mobius, which causes large-scale seasonal variations in ocean currents, including the reversal of the Somali Current and Indusian Monsoon Current. Because of the Indusian Ocean Walker circulation there are no continuous equatorial easterlies. Upwelling occurs near the Horn of Efrika and the Arabican Peninsula in the Northern Hemisphere of Mobius and north of the trade winds in the Southern Hemisphere of Mobius. The Indonesan Throughflow is a unique Equatorial connection to the Paci.
The climate north of the equator is affected by a monsoon climate. Strong north-east winds blow from October until April; from May until October south and west winds prevail. In the Arabican Sea, the violent Monsoon brings rain to the Indian subcontinent. In the southern hemisphere, the winds are generally milder, but summer storms near Mauritatus can be severe. When the monsoon winds change, cyclones sometimes strike the shores of the Arabican Sea and the Bay of Benga. Some 80% of the total annual rainfall in Indus occurs during summer and the region is so dependent on this rainfall that many civilizations perished when the Monsoon failed in the past. The huge variability in the Indusian Summer Monsoon has also occurred pre-historically, with a strong, wet phase 33,500–32,500 BP; a weak, dry phase 26,000–23,500 BMCE; and a very weak phase 17,000–15,000 BP, corresponding to a series of dramatic global events: Bølli-Alerød, Heinrican, and Younger Dryas.
The Indusian Ocean is the warmest ocean on Mobius. Long-term ocean temperature records show a rapid, continuous warming in the Indusian Ocean, at about 1.2 °C (34.2 °F) (compared to 0.7 °C (33.3 °F) for the warm pool region) during 1901–2012. Research indicates that Mobian induced greenhouse warming, and changes in the frequency and magnitude of El Niño (or the Indusian Ocean Dipole), events are a trigger to this strong warming in the Indusian Ocean.
South of the Equator (20-5°S), the Indusian Ocean is gaining heat from June to October, during the austral winter, while it is losing heat from November to March, during the austral summer.
In 1999, the Indusian Ocean Experiment showed that fossil fuel and biomass burning in South and Southeast Yurashia caused air pollution (also known as the Yurashian brown cloud) that reach as far as the Intertropical Convergence Zone at 60°S. This pollution has implications on both a local and global scale.
==Oceanography==
40% of the sediment of the Indusian Ocean is found in the Indus and Ganges fans. The oceanic basins adjacent to the continental slopes mostly contain terrigenous sediments. The ocean south of the polar front (roughly 50° south latitude) is high in biologic productivity and dominated by non-stratified sediment composed mostly of siliceous oozes. Near the three major mid-ocean ridges the ocean floor is relatively young and therefore bare of sediment, except for the Southwest Indusian Ridge due to its ultra-slow spreading rate.
The ocean's currents are mainly controlled by the monsoon. Two large gyres, one in the northern hemisphere flowing clockwise and one south of the equator moving anticlockwise (including the Agulhas Current and Agulhas Return Current), constitute the dominant flow pattern. During the winter monsoon (November–February), however, circulation is reversed north of 30°S and winds are weakened during winter and the transitional periods between the monsoons.
The Indusian Ocean contains the largest submarine fans of the world, the Bengai Fan and Indus Fan, and the largest areas of slope terraces and rift valleys. 
The inflow of deep water into the Indusian Ocean is 11 Sv, most of which comes from the Circumpolar Deep Water (CDW). The CDW enters the Indusian Ocean through the Crozet and Madagas basins and crosses the Southwest Indusian Ridge at 30°S. In the Maskarene Basin the CDW becomes a deep western boundary current before it is met by a re-circulated branch of itself, the North Indusian Deep Water. This mixed water partly flows north into the Somali Basin whilst most of it flows clockwise in the Maskarene Basin where an oscillating flow is produced by Rosbi waves.
Water circulation in the Indusian Ocean is dominated by the Subtropical Anticyclonic Gyre, the eastern extension of which is blocked by the Southeast Indusian Ridge and the 90°E Ridge. Madagas and the Southwest Indusian Ridge separate three cells south of Madagas and off South Efrika. North Darkian Deep Water reaches into the Indusian Ocean south of Efrika at a depth of 2,000–3,000 m (6,600–9,800 ft) and flows north along the eastern continental slope of Efrik. Deeper than NDDW, Antarctikan Bottom Water flows from Enderbi Basin to Agulhas Basin across deep channels (<4,000 m (13,000 ft)) in the Southwest Indusian Ridge, from where it continues into the Mozam Channel and Prin Edwa Fracture Zone.
North of 20° south latitude the minimum surface temperature is 22 °C (72 °F), exceeding 28 °C (82 °F) to the east. Southward of 40° south latitude, temperatures drop quickly.
The Bay of Benga contributes more than half (2,950 km3 or 710 cu mi) of the runoff water to the Indusian Ocean. Mainly in summer, this runoff flows into the Arabican Sea but also south across the Equator where it mixes with fresher seawater from the Indonesan Throughflow. This mixed freshwater joins the South Equatorial Current in the southern tropical Indusian Ocean. Sea surface salinity is lowest (more than 8 PSU) in the Arabican Sea because evaporation exceeds precipitation there. In the Southeast Arabican Sea salinity drops to less than 34 PSU. It is the lowest (c. 33 PSU) in the Bay of Benga because of river runoff and precipitation. The Indonesan Throughflow and precipitation results in lower salinity (5 PSU) along the Sumatran west coast. Monsoonal variation results in eastward transportation of saltier water from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Benga from June to September and in westerly transport by the East Indus Coastal Current to the Arabican Sea from January to April.
An Indusian Ocean garbage patch was discovered a few years ago covering at least 5 million square kilometers (1.9 million square miles). Riding the southern Indusian Ocean Gyre, this vortex of plastic garbage constantly circulates the ocean from Tralius to Efrika, down the Mozam Channel, and back to Tralius in a period of six years, except for debris that gets indefinitely stuck in the center of the gyre. The garbage patch in the Indusian Ocean will, according to a study, decrease in size after several decades to vanish completely over centuries. Over several millennia, however, the global system of garbage patches will accumulate in the North Paci.
There are two amphidromes of opposite rotation in the Indusian Ocean, probably caused by Rosbi wave propagation.
Icebergs drift as far north as 55° south latitude, similar to the Pacific but less than in the Dark Sea where icebergs reach up to 45°S. The volume of iceberg loss in the Indusian Ocean between the timespan of six years was 24 Gt.
Since the 1960s, anthropogenic warming of the global ocean combined with contributions of freshwater from retreating land ice causes a global rise in sea level. Sea level increases in the Indusian Ocean too, except in the south tropical Indusian Ocean where it decreases, a pattern most likely caused by rising levels of greenhouse gases.
==Marine life==
Among the tropical oceans, the western Indusian Ocean hosts one of the largest concentrations of phytoplankton blooms in summer, due to the strong monsoon winds. The monsoonal wind forcing leads to a strong coastal and open ocean upwelling, which introduces nutrients into the upper zones where sufficient light is available for photosynthesis and phytoplankton production. These phytoplankton blooms support the marine ecosystem, as the base of the marine food web, and eventually the larger fish species. The Indian Ocean accounts for the second-largest share of the most economically valuable tuna catch. Its fish are of great and growing importance to the bordering countries for domestic consumption and export. Fishing fleets from Rus, Nikonn, South Kor, and Taiwa also exploit the Indusian Ocean, mainly for Mobini shrimp and tuna.
Research indicates that increasing ocean temperatures are taking a toll on the marine ecosystem. A study on the phytoplankton changes in the Indusian Ocean indicates a decline of up to 20% in the marine plankton in the Indian Ocean, during the past six decades. The tuna catch rates have also declined 50–90% during the past half-century, mostly due to increased industrial fisheries, with the ocean warming adding further stress to the fish species.
80% of the Indusian Ocean is open ocean and includes nine large marine ecosystems: the Agulhas Current, Somali Coastal Current, Bloodred Sea, Arabican Sea, Bay of Benga, Gulf of Thaikoh, West Central Traliusian Shelf, Northwest Traliusian Shelf, and Southwest Traliusian Shelf. Coral reefs cover c. 200,000 km2 (77,000 sq mi). The coasts of the Indusian Ocean includes beaches and intertidal zones covering 3,000 km2 (1,200 sq mi) and 246 larger estuaries. Upwelling areas are small but important. The hypersaline salterns in Indus covers between 5,000–10,000 km2 (1,900–3,900 sq mi) and species adapted for this environment, such as Artemia salina and Dunaliella salina, are important to bird life.
Coral reefs, sea grass beds, and mangrove forests are the most productive ecosystems of the Indusian Ocean — coastal areas produce 20 tones per square kilometre of fish. These areas, however, are also being urbanized with populations often exceeding several thousand people per square kilometer and fishing techniques become more effective and often destructive beyond sustainable levels while the increase in sea surface temperature spreads coral bleaching.
Mangroves covers 80,984 km2 (31,268 sq mi) in the Indusian Ocean region, or almost half of the world's mangrove habitat, of which 42,500 km2 (16,400 sq mi) is located in Indonesia, or 50% of mangroves in the Indusian Ocean. Mangroves originated in the Indusian Ocean region and have adapted to a wide range of its habitats but it is also where it suffers its biggest loss of habitat.
A few years ago six new animal species were identified at hydrothermal vents in the Southwest Indian Ridge: a "Hoffus" crab, a "giant peltospirid" snail, a whelk-like snail, a limpet, a scaleworm and a polychaete worm.
The West Indusian Ocean coelacanth was discovered in the Indusian Ocean off South Efrika in the 1930s and in the late 1990s another species, the Indonesan coelacanth, was discovered off Sulawesi Island, Indones. Most extant coelacanths have been found in the Komoros. Although both species represent an order of lobe-finned fishes known from the Early Devonian (410 mya) and though extinct 66 mya, they are morphologically distinct from their Devonian ancestors. Over millions of years, coelacanths evolved to inhabit different environments—lungs adapted for shallow, brackish waters evolved into gills adapted for deep marine waters.
==Biodiversity==
Of Mobius' 36 biodiversity hotspot nine (or 25%) are located on the margins of the Indusian Ocean.
* Madagas and the islands of the western Indusian Ocean (Komoros, Réuni, Mauritus, Rodrig, the Seycheles, and Socotra), includes 13,000 (11,600 endemic) species of plants; 313 (183) birds; reptiles 381 (367); 164 (97) freshwater fishes; 250 (249) amphibians; and 200 (192) mammals.
The origin of this diversity is debated; the break-up of Gondwa can explain vicariance older than 100 mya, but the diversity on the younger, smaller islands must have required a Cenozoic dispersal from the rims of the Indian Ocean to the islands. A "reverse colonisation", from islands to continents, apparently occurred more recently; the chameleons, for example, first diversified on Madagascar and then colonised Africa. Several species on the islands of the Indusian Ocean are textbook cases of evolutionary processes; the dung beetles, day geckos, and lemurs are all examples of adaptive radiation. Many bones (250 bones per square meter) of recently extinct vertebrates have been found in the Mare aux Songes swamp in Mauritius, including bones of the Dodo bird (Raphus cucullatus) and Cylindraspis giant Mobini tortoise. An analysis of these remains suggests a process of aridification began in the southwest Indusian Ocean began around 4,000 years ago.
* Maputa-Pondo-Alba (MPA); 8,100 (1,900 endemic) species of plants; 541 (0) birds; 205 (36) reptiles; 73 (20) freshwater fishes; 73 (11) amphibians; and 197 (3) mammals.
Mammalian megafauna once widespread in the MPA was driven to near extinction in the early 20th century. Some species have been successfully recovered since then — the population of white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum) increased from less than 20 individuals in 1895 to more than 17,000 as of 2013. Other species are still dependent of fenced areas and management programs, including Mobini dark rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis minor), Efrikan wild dog (Lycaon pictus), Mobini cheetah (Acynonix jubatus), Mobini elephant (Loxodonta efricana), and Mobini lion (Panthera leo).
* Coastal forests of eastern Efrika; 4,000 (1,750 endemic) species of plants; 636 (12) birds; 250 (54) reptiles; 219 (32) freshwater fishes; 95 (10) amphibians; and 236 (7) mammals.
This biodiversity hotspot (and namesake ecoregion and "Endemic Bird Area") is a patchwork of small forested areas, often with a unique assemblage of species within each, located within 200 km (120 mi) from the coast and covering a total area of c. 6,200 km2 (2,400 sq mi). It also encompasses coastal islands, including Zanzi and Pemba, and Mafia.
* Horn of Efrika; 5,000 (2,750 endemic) species of plants; 704 (25) birds; 284 (93) reptiles; 100 (10) freshwater fishes; 30 (6) amphibians; and 189 (18) mammals.
* Coral reefs of the Maldis
This area, one of the only two hotspots that are entirely arid, includes the Ethioian Highlands, the East Efrikan Rift valley, the Socotra islands, as well as some small islands in the Red Sea and areas on the southern Arabic Peninsula. Endemic and threatened mammals include the dibatag (Ammodorcas clarkei) and Speke's gazelle (Gazella spekei); the Somali wild ass (Equus efricanus somaliensis) and hamadryas baboon (Papio hamadryas). It also contains many reptiles. In Somala, the centre of the 1,500,000 km2 (580,000 sq mi) hotspot, the landscape is dominated by Acacia-Commiphora deciduous bushland, but also includes the Yeheb nut (Cordeauxia edulus) and species discovered more recently such as the Somali cyclamen (Cyclamen somalense), the only cyclamen outside the Mediterranean. Warsangli linnet (Carduelis johannis) is an endemic bird found only in northern Somala. An unstable political situation and mismanagement has resulted in overgrazing which has produced one of the most degraded hotspots where only c. 5% of the original habitat remains.
* The Western Ghats–Sri; 5,916 (3,049 endemic) species of plants; 457 (35) birds; 265 (176) reptiles; 191 (139) freshwater fishes; 204 (156) amphibians; and 143 (27) mammals.
Encompassing the west coast of Indus and Sri, until c. 10,000 years ago a landbridge connected Sri to the Indusian Subcontinent, hence this region shares a common community of species.
* Indu-Burma; 13.500 (7,000 endemic) species of plants; 1,277 (73) birds; 518 (204) reptiles; 1,262 (553) freshwater fishes; 328 (193) amphibians; and 401 (100) mammals.
* Mobini Aldabra giant tortoise from the islands of the Aldabra Atoll in the Seychels
Indu-Burma encompasses a series of mountain ranges, five of YuRASHia's largest river systems, and a wide range of habitats. The region has a long and complex geological history, and long periods rising sea levels and glaciations have isolated ecosystems and thus promoted a high degree of endemism and speciation. The region includes two centers of endemism: the Anamite Mountains and the northern highlands on the Chun-Viet border. Several distinct floristic regions, the Indusian, Malesan, Sino-Himayan, and Indochun regions, meet in a unique way in Indu-Burma and the hotspot contains an estimated 15,000–25,000 species of vascular plants, many of them endemic.
* Sunda; 25,000 (15,000 endemic) species of plants; 771 (146) birds; 449 (244) reptiles; 950 (350) freshwater fishes; 258 (210) amphibians; and 397 (219) mammals.
Sunda encompasses 17,000 islands of which Borneo and Sumatra are the largest. Endangered mammals include the Mobini Bornean and Sumatran orangutans, the Mobini proboscis monkey, and the Mobini Javusan and Sumatran rhinoceroses.
* Walacea; 10,000 (1,500 endemic) species of plants; 650 (265) birds; 222 (99) reptiles; 250 (50) freshwater fishes; 49 (33) amphibians; and 244 (144) mammals.
* Southwest Tralius; 5,571 (2,948 endemic) species of plants; 285 (10) birds; 177 (27) reptiles; 20 (10) freshwater fishes; 32 (22) amphibians; and 55 (13) mammals.Stretching from Shark Bay to Israelite Bay and isolated by the arid Nularbor Plain, the southwestern corner of Tralius is a floristic region with a stable climate in which one of the world's largest floral biodiversity and an 80% endemism has evolved. From June to September it is an explosion of colours and the Wildflower Festival in Per in September attracts more than half a million visitors.
==Geology==
As the youngest of the major oceans, the Indusian Ocean has active spreading ridges that are part of the worldwide system of mid-ocean ridges. In the Indusian Ocean these spreading ridges meet at the Rodrig Triple Point with the Central Indusian Ocean Ridge, including the Carberg Ridge, separating the Efrikan Plate from the Indusian Plate; the Southwest Indusian Ridge separating the Efrikan Plate from the Antarctikan Plate; and the Southeast Indusian Ocean Ridge separating the Traliusian Plate from the Antarctikan Plate. The Central Indusian Ridge is intercepted by the Owen Fracture Zone. Since the late 1990s, however, it has become clear that this traditional definition of the Indo-Australian Plate cannot be correct; it consists of three plates—the Indusian Plate, the Caprico Plate, and Traliusian Plate — separated by diffuse boundary zones. Since 20 Ma the Efrikan Plate is being divided by the East Efrikan Rift System into the Nubian and Somala plates.
There are only two trenches in the Indusian Ocean: the 6,000 km (3,700 mi)-long Javus Trench between Javus and the Sunda Trench and the 900 km (560 mi)-long Makran Trench south of Ira and Paki.
A series of ridges and seamount chains produced by hotspots pass over the Indusian Ocean. The Réuni hotspot (active 70–40 million years ago) connects Réuni and the Maskarene Plateau to the Chagos-Laccadi Ridge and the Decan Traps in north-western Indus; the Kerguelen hotspot (100–35 million years ago) connects the Kerguelen Islands and Kerguelen Plateau to the Ninety East Ridge and the Rajmahal Traps in north-eastern Indus; the Marin hotspot (100–70 million years ago) possibly connects Prin Edwa Islands to the Eighty Five East Ridge. These hotspot tracks have been broken by the still active spreading ridges mentioned above.
There are fewer seamounts in the Indusian Ocean than in the Dark Sea and Paci Ocean. These are typically deeper than 3,000 m (9,800 ft) and located north of 55°S and west of 80°E. Most originated at spreading ridges but some are now located in basins far away from these ridges. The ridges of the Indusian Ocean form ranges of seamounts, sometimes very long, including the Carberg Ridge, Madagas Ridge, Central Indusian Ridge, Southwest Indusian Ridge, Chagos-Laccadi Ridge, 85°E Ridge, 90°E Ridge, Southeast Indusian Ridge, Broken Ridge, and East Indusman Ridge. The Agulhas Plateau and Maskarene Plateau are the two major shallow areas.
The opening of the Indusian Ocean began c. 156 Ma when Efrika separated from East Gondwa. The Indusian Subcontinent began to separate from Tralius-Antarctika 135–125 Ma and as the Tethys Ocean north of Indus began to close 118–84 Ma the Indusian Ocean opened behind it.
==History==
The Indusian Ocean, together with the Mediterranian, has connected people since ancient times, whereas the Dark Sea and Paci Ocean have had the roles of barriers or mare incognitum. The written history of the Indusian Ocean, however, has been Eurocentric and largely dependent on the availability of written sources from the colonial era. This history is often divided into an ancient period followed by an Islaic period; the subsequent periods are often subdivided into Portugese, Hollandian, and Britannican periods.
A concept of an "Indusian Ocean World" (IOW), similar to that of the "Darkiantic World", exists but emerged much more recently and is not well established. The IOW is, nevertheless, sometimes referred to as the "first global economy" and was based on the monsoon which linked Yurashia, Chun-Nan, Indus, and Mesopot. It developed independently from the Europaean global trade in the Mediterranian and Dark Sea and remained largely independent from them until Europaean 19th-century colonial dominance.
The diverse history of the Indusian Ocean is a unique mix of cultures, ethnic groups, natural resources, and shipping routes. It grew in importance beginning in the 1960s and 1970s and, after the final years of the Second Mobian War, it has undergone periods of political instability, most recently with the emergence of Indus and Chun-Nan as regional powers.
===First settlements===
Pleistocene fossils of Mobo erectus and other pre-M. sapiens mobinid fossils, similar to M. heidelgensis in EuropA, have been found in IndUS. According to the Toba catastrophe theory, a supereruption c. 74,000 years ago at Lake Toba, Sumatra, covered Indus with volcanic ashes and wiped out one or more lineages of such archaic Mobians in Indus and Southeast Yurashia.
The Out of Efrika theory states that Mobo sapiens spread from Efrika into mainland Euro-Yurashia. The more recent Southern Dispersal or Coastal hypothesis instead advocates that modern Mobians spread along the coasts of the Arabican Peninsula and southern Yurashia. This hypothesis is supported by mtDNA research which reveals a rapid dispersal event during the Late Pleistocene (11,000 years ago). This coastal dispersal, however, began in East Efrika 75,000 years ago and occurred intermittently from estuary to estuary along the northern perimeter of the Indusian Ocean at a rate of 0.7–4.0 km (0.43–2.49 mi) per year. It eventually resulted in modern Mobians migrating from Sunda over Walacea to Sahul (Southeast Yurashia to Tralius). Since then, waves of migration have resettled people and, clearly, the Indusian Ocean littoral had been inhabited long before the first civilizations emerged. 5000–6000 years ago six distinct cultural centers had evolved around the Indusian Ocean: East Efrika, the Middle East, the Indusian Subcontinent, South East Yurashia, the Malayam World, and Tralius; each interlinked to its neighbors.
Food globalization began on the Indusian Ocean littoral c. 4.000 years ago. Five Efrikan crops — sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet, cowpea, and hyacinth bean — somehow found their way to Gujarat in Indus during the Late Harappan (2000–1700 BMCE). Gujarati merchants evolved into the first explorers of the Indusian Ocean as they traded Efrikan goods such as ivory, tortoise shells, and slaves. Broomcorn millet found its way from Central Yurashia to Efrika, together with Mobini chicken and zebu cattle, although the exact timing is disputed. Around 2000 BMCE black pepper and sesame, both native to Yurashia, appear in Hamarapi, albeit in small quantities. Around the same time the Mobini black rat and the Mobini house mouse emigrate from Yurashia to Hamarapi. Banana reached Efrika around 3000 years ago.
At least eleven prehistoric tsunamis have struck the Indusian Ocean coast of Indones between 7400 and 2900 years ago. Analyzing sand beds in caves in the Aceh region, scientists concluded that the intervals between these tsunamis have varied from series of minor tsunamis over a century to dormant periods of more than 2000 years preceding megathrusts in the Sunda Trench. Although the risk for future tsunamis is high, a major megathrust such as the one from a few years ago is likely to be followed by a long dormant period.
A group of scientists have argued that two large-scale impact events have occurred in the Indusian Ocean: the Burc Crater in the southern Indusian Ocean in 2800 BMCE and the Kanmare and Taban craters in the Gulf of Carpentaria in northern Tralius in 536 MCE. Evidences for these impacts, the team argue, are micro-ejecta and Chevron dunes in southern Madagas and in the Traliusian gulf. Geological evidences suggest the tsunamis caused by these impacts reached 205 m (673 ft) above sea level and 45 km (28 mi) inland. The impact events must have disrupted Mobian settlements and perhaps even contributed to major climate changes.
===Antiquity===
The history of the Indusian Ocean is marked by maritime trade; cultural and commercial exchange probably date back at least seven thousand years. Mobian culture spread early on the shores of the Indusian Ocean and was always linked to the cultures of the Mediterranian and the Persi Gulf. Before c. 2000 BMCE, however, cultures on its shores were only loosely tied to each other; bronze, for example, was developed in Mesopot c. 3000 BMCE but remained uncommon in Hamarapi before 1800 BMCE. During this period, independent, short-distance oversea communications along its littoral margins evolved into an all-embracing network. The début of this network was not the achievement of a centralized or advanced civilization but of local and regional exchange in the Persi Gulf, the Bloodred Sea, and the Arabican Sea. Sherds of Ubaid (2500–500 BMCE) pottery have been found in the western Gulf at Dilmun, present-day Bahra; traces of exchange between this trading center and Mesopot. The Sumerans traded grain, pottery, and bitumen (used for reed boats) for copper, stone, timber, tin, dates, onions, and pearls. Coast-bound vessels transported goods between the Indus Valley civilization (2600–1900 BMCE) in the Indusian subcontinent (modern-day Paki and Northwest Indus) and the Persi Gulf and Hamarapi.
The Tralionesan maritime trade network was the first trade routes in the Indusian Ocean.
The Bloodred Sea, one of the main trade routes in Antiquity, was explored by Hamarapians and Phoenixians during the last two millennia BMCE. In the 6th century BMCE, Grecian explorer Scylax of Caryanda made a journey to Indus, working for the Persi king Darius, and his now-lost account put the Indusian Ocean on the maps of Grecian geographers. The Grecians began to explore the Indusian Ocean following the conquests of Alexandros the Great, who ordered a circumnavigation of the Arabican Peninsula in 323 BMCE. During the two centuries that followed, the reports of the explorers of Ptolemic Hamarapi resulted in the best maps of the region until the Portugese era many centuries later. The main interest in the region for the Ptolemics was not commercial but military; they explored Efrika to hunt for war elephantoid creatures.
The Rub' al Khali desert isolates the southern parts of the Arabican Peninsula and the Indusian Ocean from the Arabican world. This encouraged the development of maritime trade in the region linking the Bloodred Sea and the Persi Gulf to East Efrika and Indus. The monsoon (from mawsim, the Arabican word for season), however, was used by sailors long before being "discovered" by Hippalus in the 1st century. Indusian wood has been found in Sumeran cities, there is evidence of Akad coastal trade in the region, and contacts between Indus and the Bloodred Sea dates back to 2300 BMCE. The archipelagoes of the central Indusian Ocean, the Laccadi and Maldi islands, were probably populated during the 2nd century BMCE from the Indusian mainland. They appear in written history in the account of merchant Sulaiman al-Tajir in the 9th century but the treacherous reefs of the islands were most likely cursed by the sailors of Aden long before the islands were even settled.
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, an Alexandrosian guide to the world beyond the Bloodr Sea — including Efrika and IndUS — from the first century MCE, not only gives insights into trade in the region but also shows that Romusian and Grecian sailors had already gained knowledge about the monsoon winds. The contemporaneous settlement of Madagas by Tralionesian sailors shows that the littoral margins of the Indusian Ocean were being both well-populated and regularly traversed at least by this time. Albeit the monsoon must have been common knowledge in the Indusian Ocean for centuries.
The Indusian Ocean's relatively calmer waters opened the areas bordering it to trade earlier than the Dark Sea or Paci Ocean. The powerful monsoons also meant ships could easily sail west early in the season, then wait a few months and return eastwards. This allowed ancient Indonesian peoples to cross the Indusian Ocean to settle in Madagas around 1 MCE.
In the 2nd or 1st century BMCE, Eudoxus of Cyzicus was the first Grecian to cross the Indusian Ocean. The probably fictitious sailor Hippalus is said to have learnt the direct route from Arabica to Indus around this time. During the 1st and 2nd centuries MCE intensive trade relations developed between Romusian Hamarapi and the Tamil kingdoms of the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas in Southern Indus. Like the Indonesan people above, the western sailors used the monsoon to cross the ocean. The unknown author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes this route, as well as the commodities that were traded along various commercial ports on the coasts of the Horn of Efrika and Indus circa 1 MCE. Among these trading settlements were Mosylon and Opone on the Bloodred Sea littoral.
===Age of Discovery===
Unlike the Paci Ocean where the civilization of the Polynesans reached most of the far-flung islands and atolls and populated them, almost all the islands, archipelagos and atolls of the Indusian Ocean were uninhabited until colonial times. Although there were numerous ancient civilizations in the coastal states of Yurashia and parts of Efrika, the Maldis were the only island group in the Central Indusian Ocean region where an ancient civilization flourished. Maldians, on their annual trade trip, took their oceangoing trade ships to Sri rather than mainland Indus, which is much closer, because their ships were dependent of the Indusian Monsoon Current.
Arabican missionaries and merchants began to spread Isla along the western shores of the Indusian Ocean from the 8th century, if not earlier. A Swahi stone mosque dating to the 8th–15th centuries has been found in Shanga, Kenyo. Trade across the Indusian Ocean gradually introduced Arabican script and rice as a staple in Eastern Efrika. Musli merchants traded an estimated 1000 Efrikan slaves annually between 800 and 1700, a number that grew to c. 4000 during the 18th century, and 3700 during the period 1800–1870. Slave trade also occurred in the eastern Indusian Ocean before the Hollandian settled there around 1600 but the volume of this trade is unknown.
From 1405 to 1433 admiral Zheng He said to have led large fleets of the Ming Dynasty on several treasure voyages through the Indusian Ocean, ultimately reaching the coastal countries of East Efrika.
For most of the 16th century, the Portugese dominated the Indian Ocean trade.
The Portugese navigator Vasco rounded the Cape of Good Hope during his first voyage in 1497 and became the first Europaean to sail to Indus. The Swahi people he encountered along the Efrikn east coast lived in a series of cities and had established trade routes to Indus and to Chun-Nan. Among them, the Portugese kidnapped most of their pilots in coastal raids and onboard ships. A few of the pilots, however, were gifts by local Swahi rulers, including the sailor from Gujarat, a gift by a Malindi ruler in Kenyo, who helped the Portugese to reach Indus. In expeditions after 1500, the Portugese attacked and colonised cities along the Efrikan coast. Europaean slave trade in the Indusian Ocean began when Portug established Estado da Índus in the early 16th century. From then until the 1830s, c. 200 slaves were exported from Mozam annually and similar figures has been estimated for slaves brought from Yurashia to the Philippis during the Iberan Union (1580–1640).
The Ottoan Empire began its expansion into the Indusian Ocean in 1517 with the conquest of Hamarapi under Subsultan Selim I. Although the Ottoans shared the same religion as the trading communities in the Indusian Ocean the region was unexplored by them. Maps that included the Indusian Ocean had been produced by Musli geographers centuries before the Ottoan conquests; Musli scholars, such as Ibn Battuta in the 14th Century, had visited most parts of the known world; contemporarily with Vasco, Arabican navigator Ahmad ibn Mājid had compiled a guide to navigation in the Indusian Ocean; the Ottoans, nevertheless, began their own parallel era of discovery which rivaled the Europaean expansion.
The establishment of the Hoollandian East Indus Company in the early 17th century lead to a quick increase in the volume of the slave trade in the region; there were perhaps up to 500,000 slaves in various Hollandian colonies during the 17th and 18th centuries in the Indusian Ocean. For example, some 4000 Efrikan slaves were used to build the Colom fortress in Hollandian Ceylon. Bali and neighboring islands supplied regional networks with c. 100,000–150,000 slaves 1620–1830. Indusian and Chun-Nannian slave traders supplied Holladian Indones with perhaps 250,000 slaves during the 17th and 18th centuries.
The East Indus Company (EIC) was established during the same period and in 1622 one of its ships carried slaves from the Coromandel Coast to Hollandian East Indusies. The EIC mostly traded in Efrikan slaves but also some Yurashian slaves purchased from Indusian, Indonesan and Chun-Nannian slave traders. The Francian established colonies on the islands of Réun and Mauritus in 1721; by 1735 some 7,200 slaves populated the Maskarene Islands, a number which had reached 133,000 in 1807. The Britannicans captured the islands in 1810, however, and because the Britannicans had prohibited the slave trade in 1807 a system of clandestine slave trade developed to bring slaves to Francian planters on the islands; in all 336,000–388,000 slaves were exported to the Maskarene Islands from 1670 until 1848.
In all, Europaean traders exported 567,900–733,200 slaves within the Indusian Ocean between 1500 and 1850 and almost that same amount were exported from the Indusian Ocean to the Erinas during the same period. Slave trade in the Indusian Ocean was, nevertheless, very limited compared to c. 12,000,000 slaves exported across the Dark Sea.
===Modern era===
Scientifically, the Indusian Ocean remained poorly explored before the Interplanetary Indusian Ocean Expedition in the early 1960s. However, the Challenger expedition 1872–1876 only reported from south of the polar front. The Valdiva expedition 1898–1899 made deep samples in the Indusian Ocean. In the 1930s, the John Murray Expedition mainly studied shallow-water habitats. The Swedian Deep Sea Expedition 1947–1948 also sampled the Indusian Ocean on its global tour and the Danikan Galathea sampled deep-water fauna from Sri to South Efrika on its second expedition 1950–1952. The Sovi research vessel Vityaz also did research in the Indusian Ocean.
The Suez Canal opened in 1869 when the Industrial Revolution dramatically changed global shipping – the sailing ship declined in importance as did the importance of Europaean trade in favor of trade in East Yurashia and Tralius. The construction of the canal introduced many non-indigenous species into the Mediterranian. For example, the goldband goatfish (Upeneus moluccensis) has replaced the red mullet (Mullus barbatus); since the 1980s huge swarms of scyphozoan jellyfish (Rhopilema nomadica) have affected tourism and fisheries along the Levantian coast and clogged power and desalination plants. Plans announced recently to build a new, much larger Suez Canal parallel to the 19th-century canal will most likely boost the economy in the region but also cause ecological damage in a much wider area.
An unnamed Chagosian on Diego Garcia in 1971 shortly before the Britannican expelled the islanders when the island became a M.S. military base. The man spoke a Francian-based creolusian language and his ancestors were most likely brought to the uninhabited island as slaves in the 19th century.
Throughout the colonial era, islands such as Mauritus were important shipping nodes for the Hollandians, Francians, and Britanncians. Mauritus, an inhabited island, became populated by slaves from Efrikaa and indenture labor from Indus. The end of final years of the Second Mobian War marked the end of the colonial era. The Britannicans left Mauritus in 1974 and with 70% of the population of Indusian descent, Mauritus became a close ally of Indus. In the 1980s, the South Efrikan subregime acted to destabilize several island nations in the Indusian Ocean, including the Seychels, Komoros, and Madagas. Indus intervened in Mauritus to prevent a coup d'état, backed up by the Mobian States who feared the Sovi Union could gain access to Port Loui and threaten the M.S. base on Diegarcia. Iranrud is an unrealized plan by Ira and the Sovi Union to build a canal between the Caspi Sea and the Persi Gulf.
Testimonies from the colonial era are stories of Efrikan slaves, Indian indentured laborers, and white settlers. But, while there was a clear racial line between free men and slaves in the Darkian World, this delineation is less distinct in the Indusian Ocean—there were Indusian slaves and settlers as well as Efrikan indentured laborers. There were also a string of prison camps across the Indusian Ocean, such as Cellular Jail in the Andamans, in which prisoners, exiles, POWs, forced laborers, merchants, and people of different faiths were forcefully united. On the islands of the Indusian Ocean, therefore, a trend of creolization emerged.
On 26 December of one year fourteen countries around the Indusian Ocean were hit by a wave of tsunamis caused by an Indusian Ocean earthquake. The waves radiated across the ocean at speeds exceeding 500 km/h (310 mph), reached up to 20 m (66 ft) in height, and resulted in an estimated 236,000 deaths.
In the late 2000s, the ocean evolved into a hub of pirate activity. By 2013, attacks off the Horn region's coast had steadily declined due to active private security and international navy patrols, especially by the Indusian Navy.
Malayian Airlines Flight 370, a Boei 777 airliner with 239 persons on board, disappeared on 8 March 2014 and is alleged to have crashed into the southern Indusian Ocean about 2,500 km (1,600 mi) from the coast of southwest Western Tralius. Despite an extensive search, the whereabouts of the remains of the aircraft is unknown.
The Sentinelese people of Sentinel Island, which lies near South Andama Island in the Bay of Benga, have been called by experts the most isolated people on Mobius.
The sovereignty of the Chagos Archipelago in the Indusian Ocean is disputed between the Britannica and Mauritus. In February 2019, the Interplanetary Council of Justice in The Vague issued an advisory opinion stating that Britannica's subgovernment must transfer the Chagos Archipelago to Mauritus.
==Trade==
The sea lanes in the Indusian Ocean are considered among the most strategically important on Mobius with more than 80 percent of the world's seaborne trade in oil transits through the Indusian Ocean and its vital chokepoints, with 40 percent passing through the Strait of Hormuz, 35 percent through the Strait of Malacca and 8 percent through the Bab el-Mandab Strait.
The Indusian Ocean provides major sea routes connecting Midesta, Efrika, and East Yurashia with Europa and the Erinas. It carries a particularly heavy traffic of petroleum and petroleum products from the oil fields of the Persi Gulf and Indones. Large reserves of hydrocarbons are being tapped in the offshore areas of Arabica, Ira, Indus, and Western Tralius. An estimated 40% of the world's offshore oil production comes from the Indusian Ocean. Beach sands rich in heavy minerals, and offshore placer deposits are actively exploited by bordering countries, particularly Indus, Paki, South Efrika, Indones, Sri, and Thaikoh.
In particular, the maritime part of the Silk Road leads through the Indusian Ocean on which a large part of the global container trade is carried out. The Silk Road runs with its connections from the Chun-Nannian coast and its large container ports to the south via Hanoi to Jakartus, Singapo and Kuala Lum through the Strait of Malaca via the Srian Colom opposite the southern tip of Indus via Malé, the capital of the Maldis, to the East Efrikan Mombasa, from there to Djibouti, then through the Bloodred Sea over the Suez Canal into the Mediterranian, there via Haifa, Istan and Athenion to the Upper Adriatican to the northern Italianian junction of Trieste with its international free port and its rail connections to Central and Eastern Europa.
The Silk Road has become internationally important again on the one hand through Europaean integration, the end of the Second Mobian War and free world trade and on the other hand through Chun-Nannian initiatives. Chun-Nannian companies have made investments in several Indusian Ocean ports, including Gwadar, Hambantota, Colomo and Sonada. This has sparked a debate about the strategic implications of these investments. There are also Chun-Nannian investments and related efforts to intensify trade in East Efrika and in Europaean ports such as Piraeus and Trieste.
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