Egyptian Mythology (LL)

__TOC__
No other pantheon in Legends & Lore inspires as much awe and wonder as that of the ancient Egyptians. As the masters of a nation that stood for some three thousand years, from the Thinite period in 3200 B.C. to the Ptolemaic period in 30 B.C., the gods of this ancient realm have had a major influence in the development of the western world.
==The History of Egypt==
Although it is difficult to pinpoint the dawn of Egyptian culture, modern archeological evidence suggests that the first known inhabitants of the Nile Valley are believed to have built a culture based largely on that of Mesopotamia (or, more specifically, Sumer).
Although acquiring information about the history of a people whose roots run so deep is difficult, modern archaeologists have been aided in their studies of ancient Egypt by a number of things. Much of what is known about later developments in the region draws upon the Aegyptiaca of Manetho (a priest who lived in the 3rd century B.C. and set up the dynastic categories that are still used as the foundation of all Egyptian studies). In addition to the works of Manetho, the most important source of information on this culture comes in the form of the buildings and structures, such as the Great Pyramid at Giza and the Sphinx, that have stood up to the ravages of time and now pay mute testimony to the wonders of this ancient culture. Study of such places has allowed scientists to classify the history of ancient Egypt into three categories: the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms. In addition to these three major groupings, some scholars include an Early Dynastic period (that pre-dates the Old Kingdom) and several Intermediate Periods (that fill gaps between the three major periods). For ease of reference, Legends & Lore deals only with the three main ages.
===The Old Kingdom===
This first period of Egyptian society began some 4,000 years ago. It held power for roughly five centuries (c. 2755 to 2255 B.C.) and had its capital in Memphis. Those who ruled the Old Kingdom had a strong and unified government, with firm support from the religious sector. In fact, it wasn't long before this monarchy evolved into a theocracy, with the kings (pharaohs) being recognized as gods on earth.
The Old Kingdom began with the founding of the third dynasty (the first of the Memphite houses) and was something of a golden age. The second pharaoh, Zoser (or Djoser), worked hard for the principles of national unity. As a symbol of this, he employed elements of architecture from all portions of Egypt in the construction of his mortuary buildings at Saqqara. It was during this phase of history that Imhotep (Zoser's architect) demonstrated the skills that would soon make him a legend in ancient Egypt by overseeing the construction of the famous Step Pyramid that was to be Zoser's tomb. Although this structure was quickly overshadowed by the later constructions of the period (like the Great Pyramid itself) it was the foundation on which all later Egyptian architecture would be based.
Later rulers of The Old Kingdom expanded upon the grandeur that Zoser had spawned. Snefru, who was the first of Egypt's warrior kings, oversaw campaigns in Nubia, Libya, and the Sinai. His active pursuit of commerce and mining brought great prosperity to the thriving society on the Nile.
Snefru's son, Khufu (or Cheops), succeeded him and oversaw the building of the Great Pyramid at Giza. Although little is known of his reign, it seems clear that only a government that was firmly in place, very efficient, and utterly loyal could have managed the construction of such a structure in that time.
Two of Khufu's sons came to sit upon the throne of Egypt. The eldest, Redjedef, introduced the concept of Ra, a solar element, into the religion and the pharaoh's titulary. His younger son, Khafre (or Chephren), built the mortuary complex at Giza and also oversaw the construction of the mighty Sphinx.
Later rulers of this period maintained the high level of cultural and scientific advancement established by Imhotep. The ancient Egyptians carried their love of greatness into every field of study and culture. For example, Memphite astronomers designed the first solar calendar based on a year of 365 days. Their knowledge of medicine was equally impressive, including a highly developed understanding of the circulatory system and the use of antiseptics.
The Old Kingdom gradually fell apart, however, as the power of its central government was bled off and the various nomes (districts) began to challenge the authority of the pharaohs. By the time of the seventh dynasty, circa 2255, the throne at Memphis had lost almost all of its power over the people of Egypt. Many modern scholars classify the period of time between 2255 B.C. and the rule of Mentuhotep II in 2061 B.C. as the First Intermediate Period.
===The Middle Kingdom===
Following the virtual collapse of the bureaucracy of the Old Kingdom, the once unified society of Egypt was shattered. This is perhaps best reflected in the artwork of the period, which became more provincial and varied throughout Egypt. In addition, the lower classes began to claim some rights that had previously been reserved only for the ruling elite. For example, the wards and spells formerly woven only around the tombs of kings now began to appear on the coffins of the common folk.
While the rulers who preceded Mentuhotep in the Middle Kingdom attempted to reunite the sands of Egypt from their power base in Thebes, it was not until his reign that the empire was truly reforged.
Still, however, Mentuhotep drew heavily upon his regional heritage and the culture of Thebes. It was not until Amenemhet replaced him on the throne that the capital returned to Memphis. Under the hand of this peaceful pharaoh, national unity was stressed and the fabric of society was restored. Amenemhet demanded loyalty from the nobility and Egypt's scattered provinces and used a series of propaganda campaigns to put across the image of the pharaoh as a "good shepherd" who would watch over the people of Egypt and guide them into an era of peace and prosperity. Evidence acquired from a study of The Story of Sinhu indicates that Mentuhotep was assassinated.
Mentuhotep's sons and grandsons picked up the programs and policies established by him and used them to rule over Egypt until the close of this period in 1668 B.C.. During this time, they built fortresses throughout Nubia, ruled Palestine and Syria, and fought a series of brutal campaigns against the Libyans to the west.
Sesostris III, who ruled from 1878 to 1843 B.C., oversaw the building of a great canal at the first cataract (south of Syene) and divided the kingdom into three geographic regions. Each of these regions was ruled by a powerful leader loyal to the pharaoh. Once this structure was in place, the power of the lesser nobles (which had brought down the Old Kingdom) was broken. The rulers of the Middle Kingdom saw to it that this period was a golden age for Egyptian art and literature.
The rulers of the 13th dynasty, although they managed to maintain control over Egypt's Nubian conquests and the central government, were weaker than their predecessors. This, coupled with the fact that they came and went with great rapidity (there were roughly 60 of them between 1784 and 1668 B.C.) meant that they never had a chance to solidify their individual power bases. When they were confronted with internal pressure (from the soon to be recognized 14th dynasty) and external attack (from the Palestinian Hyksos), their rule was broken and the Middle Kingdom came to an end.
The period between 1720 and 1570 B.C. is generally recognized by scholars as the Second Intermediate Period. During this time, four dynasties (two of which were Hyksos) held power in Egypt.
===The New Kingdom=== The time between the fall of the Middle Kingdom and the rise of the New Kingdom was a turbulent one. As many as three dynasties claimed to rule during the interim, and only the Thebian ruler Kamose (who ruled from about 1576 to 1570 B.C.) was able to fend off the Hyksos invaders. When his brother, Ahmose I, took the reins of power in hand, he was able to defeat the Palestinians and restore unity to Egypt. Under his guidance, the New Kingdom was born.
Ahmose restored the balance of power between the pharaoh and his regional governors and restored the bureaucracy which had existed in the Middle Kingdom. He was supported in his efforts by most of the Egyptian military, which earned them many rewards when his power was at its peak and insured that none could challenge his rule.
When Amenhotep I came to power, he began to strengthen Egypt's borders in Palestine and Nubia. Evidence of his great authority can be found in the al-Karnak region, where Amonhotep I built many monuments. Unlike his predecessors, he separated his well-hidden tomb from his mortuary complex, a custom that was adopted by those who followed him. Later kings, starting with Thutmose I, began building their temples and tombs in the Valley of the Kings.
When Amonhotep IV came to power, he fought to reform the religion of Egypt and confronted the powerful priests of his time. He relocated the seat of government to Akhetaton and tried to create a quasi-monotheistic belief system based on the god Aton. His attempts failed, however, and his son Tutankhamen returned the throne to Thebes. It is interesting to note that, although he is perhaps the best known of the Egyptian pharaohs, Tutankhamen this is only remembered because his tomb was discovered (largely intact) in 1922, not because of any great contributions he made to Egyptian culture.
The 19th Dynasty was founded'by Ramses I in 1293 B.C. He was formerly the commander of the military and ruled for only two years before he was succeeded by his son, Seti I. Seti (and later his son, Ramses II) was responsible for many successful military campaigns and for much construction at Abu Simbel, Luxor, al-Karnak, Abydos, and Memphis. Ramses II was also responsible for the defeat and subjugation of the Hittites (which he secured by taking a Hittite princess as his wife). His own son, Merneptah, defeated the Sea Peoples (a race of invaders from the Aegean) in the 13th century B.C. and went on to defeat Israel. Later rulers found it almost impossible to rule over the many races conquered by members of the 19th dynasty and uprisings were a constant threat.
The 20th dynasty saw the close of the New Kingdom. Following the rule of Ramses III, who was a brilliant military strategist, the throne became weak. Unable to contend with the rising power of the priesthood and the army, Egypt fell into a period of decline (the Third Intermediate Period) which was, by all reasonable standards, the end of the Egyptian state as a self-ruled power.
==The Egyptian Creation Myth==
In the dawn of time, according to the priests of ancient Egypt, there was only the ocean (known as Nun). One day, an egg (or flower in some versions) floated to the surface of the sea. It opened and Ra, the father of the Egyptian gods, stepped forth. Ra begot two children, Shu and Tefnut. These two newborn gods were lifted up to become the atmosphere and clouds. Like Ra, they quickly brought forth two of their own children—Geb, who formed the solid earth, and Nut, who became the stars and the night sky. Ra was pleased with his work, and was master of them all.
Geb and Nut later had children of their own. They had three sons (Set, Osiris, and Horus) and two daughters (Isis and Nephythys). In an effort to stop them from producing so many children without his permission, Ra ordered Shu to move between Geb and his sister, breaking their embrace and preventing the creation of any additional gods. Although there were later to be numerous other gods created, none of them could claim Geb and Nut as their parents.
It is important to note that the creation of the world and the birth of the gods of the Great Ennead was different in every telling. Egypt was a land in which every small town had a patron deity of its own and, as one might expect, the benefactor of each village played an important role in the history of the universe. As might also be expected, such gods were seldom acknowledged as important outside of their own regions.
==The Great Ennead==
Egypt was a land of many gods, for every animal and place seemed to have its own power and, thus, its own god. In addition, many of these gods had several different forms. For example, the sun god Ra was known by different names at dawn, dusk, and noon. The Great Ennead, however, were the nine most powerful gods in Egyptian Mythology. They were the close family of Ra, and formed a sort of dynasty about him.
The members of the Great Ennead were Ra, Geb, Nut, Shu, Tefnut, Osiris, Isis, Set, and Nephythys.
==The Concept of Maat==
Maat is a word that does not translate well into modern English. It combines features that we might describe as honor, truth, duty, and integrity, but is much more than a standard of behavior like the codes of chivalry or bushido found elsewhere in history. Maat was the natural state of the universe and all things were expected to conform to it. Only by so doing, in fact, could they be at peace with the gods and live a happy life.
In game terms, player characters can treat maat as a natural desire on the part of all persons to lead what might be described as a lawful good life. Rulers are expected to be fair in their administration of laws while the common folk are expected to give their employers an honest day's work for their wages. Those who do not fulfill their obligations can expect only turmoil and misery.
==Death and the Dead==
Ancient Egypt was a society that many might say was obsessed with death. The concept of an afterlife, although not one of eternal bliss or torment, was a part of everyday life. It was impossible to separate the concepts of daily life, maat, and death.
Every Egyptian was expected to spend his life making preparations for his death. For the nobility, the rich and powerful rulers of Egypt, this meant the construction of great tombs (like the pyramids). For those not so well off, it meant fashioning some sort of burial chamber or private grave, and for the poor it meant doing what could be done (which was usually not much).
Death was seen as a time of transition by the Egyptians. When the pharaoh ruled on earth, he was serving Ra. When he died, he traveled to the underworld to become one with Osiris and rule over the lands of the dead. Because the concept of maat required that the universe always be in a constant state, the afterlife was believed to be not unlike life on earth. Kings would rule in the afterlife, laborers would work on, and scribes would continue to compose their works.
Respect for the dead was a primary part of maat and the life of an Egyptian. To undertake any action which might be seen as disrespectful to the dead was to risk the anger of the gods. In game terms, this means that any action of this type—from breaking into a sacred tomb to removing a copper coin from the body of a fallen warrior—incurs a 5% chance that the avatar of Osiris will be dispatched to deal with the offenders. If this does not take place, there is a 25% chance that the violators will be affected by the curse of Osiris. Such a curse causes the victims to suffer a - 5 penalty on all attack rolls, saving throws, damage rolls, morale checks, attribute checks, and proficiency checks. The only way to remove such a curse is with a wish spell.
==The Great Pyramid==
1. Mastabas The pyramid is surrounded by a large number of low, flat buildings known as mastabas. These secondary tombs serve as the final resting places for the workers (usually slaves or prisoners of war) who built the pyramid.
2. Lesser Pyramids In addition to the mastabas, the sands around the great pyramid also play host to a number of smaller pyramids. These structures act as tombs for the officials and engineers who oversaw the slaves in their work.
3. Funeral Temple This chamber was dedicated to the gods of Egypt. Here, the final rites were performed and the body of the pharaoh made ready for his voyage to the afterlife. The only entrance to the pyramid is located in this room.
4. Narrow Corridor All of the corridors inside the pyramid are very narrow and confining. As a rule, they stand no taller than four feet and are about a yard wide.
5. First Burial Chamber In the event that the king should die before any of the other burial chambers were completed, he would be laid to rest here.
6. Second Burial Chamber If the pharaoh were to die before construction of the pyramid were finished, his body would be placed in this room.
7. Crypts Once the funeral rites had been completed and the pharaoh placed in the hands of the gods, the priests who oversaw his burial would take their own lives. Their bodies would remain here while their spirits travelled with the pharaoh to his new kingdom.
8. Funeral Barge In order for the pharaoh's spirit to make the journey to the afterlife, it was believed that he needed a craft to travel in. Thus, this chamber was built around the hull of an ornate funeral barge.
9. Grand Hallway Unlike the other halls in the pyramid, this is a high arched affair. It's walls are covered with ornate carvings depicting the life of the pharaoh.
10. Main Burial Chamber This lavishly decorated chamber was the heart of the pyramid. Here, in an ornate sarcophagus, the body of the pharaoh rests for all time.
==Magical Items==
* Ankh of Power
==Sage Advice (Dragon Issue #201)==
These are unofficial suggestions for using the optional spheres of priest spells from the Tome of Magic with the deities of the Egyptian pantheon in Legends & Lore:
* Ra: Major: Law, Thought; Minor: Time, Wards.
* Geb: Major: Time; Minor: Wards.
* Nut: Major: Time; Minor: Wards.
* Shu: Major: Time; Minor: Wards.
* Tefnut: Major: Time; Minor: Wards.
* Osiris: Major: Wards; Minor: Thought.
* Isis: Major: Numbers; Minor: Time.
* Set: Major: Chaos; Minor: Time.
* Nephythys: Major: Numbers; Minor: Wards.
* Thoth: Major: Numbers; Minor: Thought.
* Ptah: Major: Travelers; Minor: Time.
* Horus: Major: War; Minor: Wards.
* Anhur: Major: War; Minor: Time.
* Bast: Major: Time; Minor: Travelers.