Plug-in electric vehicle

A plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) is any motor vehicle that can be recharged from an external source of electricity, such as wall sockets, and the electricity stored in the rechargeable battery packs drives or contributes to drive the wheels. PEV is a superset of electric vehicles that includes all-electric or battery electric vehicles (BEVs), plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs), and electric vehicle conversions of hybrid electric vehicles and conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. See definition on pp. 2.
Plug-in cars have several benefits compared to conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. They have lower operating and maintenance costs, and produce little or no local air pollution. They reduce dependence on petroleum and may reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the onboard source of power, depending on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation to charge the batteries. Plug-in hybrids capture most of these benefits when they are operating in all-electric mode. Despite their potential benefits, market penetration of plug-in electric vehicles has been slower than expected as adoption faces several hurdles and limitations. , plug-in electric vehicles are significantly more expensive than conventional vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles due to the additional cost of their lithium-ion battery packs. Other factors discouraging the adoption of electric cars are the lack of public and private recharging infrastructure and, in the case of all-electric vehicles, drivers' fear of the batteries running out of energy before reaching their destination due to the limited range of existing electric cars. Plug-in hybrids eliminate the problem of range anxiety associated to all-electric vehicles, because the combustion engine works as a backup when the batteries are depleted, giving PHEVs driving range comparable to other vehicles with gasoline tanks.
Several national and local governments have established tax credits, subsidies, and other incentives to promote the introduction and adoption in the mass market of plug-in electric vehicles depending on their battery size and all-electric range. The term "plug-in electric drive vehicle" is formally used in U.S. federal legislation to grant this type of consumer incentive. In China, plug-in electric vehicles are called new energy vehicles (NEVs), and only pure electric vehicles and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles are subject to purchase incentives.
, there are about 50 models of highway legal plug-in electric passenger cars available for retail sales. The Nissan Leaf is the world's top selling highway-capable all-electric car ever, with global sales of over 158,000 units, followed by the Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid, which together with its sibling the Opel/Vauxhall Ampera has combined sales of more than 88,000 units .
, more than 712,000 highway-capable plug-in electric passenger cars and light utility vehicles have been sold worldwide, led by the United States with a stock of over 291,000 plug-in electric cars delivered since 2008, representing 41% of global sales. Japan ranks second with about 108,000 units sold since 2009 (15%), followed by China with more than 83,000 plug-in passenger cars sold since 2008 (12%). , over 228,000 light-duty plug-in electric vehicles have been registered in the European market since 2010, representing 32% of global sales. European sales are led by the Netherlands with over 45,000 light-duty plug-in vehicles registered, followed by France with 43,600 all-electric cars and light utility vans sold since 2010, and Norway with over 43,400 plug-in electric vehicles registered. In the heavy-duty segment, China is the world's leader, with about 36,500 all-electric buses sold through December 2014.
===Air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions===
Electric cars, as well as plug-in hybrids operating in all-electric mode, emit no harmful tailpipe pollutants from the onboard source of power, such as particulates (soot), volatile organic compounds, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, ozone, lead, and various oxides of nitrogen. The clean air benefit is usually local because, depending on the source of the electricity used to recharge the batteries, air pollutant emissions are shifted to the location of the generation plants. In a similar manner, plug-in electric vehicles operating in all-electric mode do not emit greenhouse gases from the onboard source of power, but from the point of view of a well-to-wheel assessment, the extent of the benefit also depends on the fuel and technology used for electricity generation. This fact has been referred to as the long tailpipe of plug-in electric vehicles. From the perspective of a full life cycle analysis, the electricity used to recharge the batteries must be generated from renewable or clean sources such as wind, solar, hydroelectric, or nuclear power for PEVs to have almost none or zero well-to-wheel emissions. On the other hand, when PEVs are recharged from coal-fired plants, they usually produce slightly more greenhouse gas emissions than internal combustion engine vehicles and higher than hybrid electric vehicles. Click on the map to see the results for each region. In the case of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles operating in hybrid mode with assistance of the internal combustion engine, tailpipe and greenhouse emissions are lower in comparison to conventional cars because of their higher fuel economy.
The magnitude of the potential advantage depends on the mix of generation sources and therefore varies by country and by region. For example, France can obtain significant emission benefits from electric and plug-in hybrids because most of its electricity is generated by nuclear power plants; California, where most energy comes from natural gas, hydroelectric and nuclear plants can also secure substantial emission benefits. The U.K. also has a significant potential to benefit from PEVs as natural gas plants dominate the generation mix. On the other hand, emission benefits in Germany, China, India, and the central regions of the United States are limited or non-existent because most electricity is generated from coal. However these countries and regions might still obtain some air quality benefits by reducing local air pollution in urban areas. Cities with chronic air pollution problems, such as Los Angeles, México City, Santiago, Chile, São Paulo, Beijing, Bangkok and Katmandu may also gain local clean air benefits by shifting the harmful emission to electric generation plants located outside the cities. Nevertheless, the location of the plants is not relevant when considering greenhouse gas emission because their effect is global.
====Carbon footprint during production====
;Ricardo
A report published in June 2011, prepared by Ricardo in collaboration with experts from the UK's Low Carbon Vehicle Partnership, found that hybrid electric cars, plug-in hybrids and all-electric cars generate more carbon emissions during their production than current conventional vehicles, but still have a lower overall carbon footprint over the full life cycle. The higher carbon footprint during production of electric drive vehicles is due mainly to the production of batteries. As an example, 43 percent of production emissions for a mid-size electric car are generated from the battery production, while for standard mid-sized gasolineinternal combustion engine vehicle, around 75% of the embedded carbon emissions during production comes from the steel used in the vehicle glider. The following table summarizes key results of this study for four powertrain technologies:
Comparison of full life cycle assessment(well-to-wheels) of carbon emissions and carbon footprint during production for four different powertrain technologies	Comparison of full life cycle assessment(well-to-wheels) of carbon emissions and carbon footprint during production for four different powertrain technologies	Comparison of full life cycle assessment(well-to-wheels) of carbon emissions and carbon footprint during production for four different powertrain technologies	Comparison of full life cycle assessment(well-to-wheels) of carbon emissions and carbon footprint during production for four different powertrain technologies
Type of vehicle(powertrain) 	Estimatedemissions in production(tonnes e) 	Estimated lifecycle emissions(tonnes e) 	Percentage of
emissions during production
Standard gasoline vehicle 	5.6 	24 	23%
Hybrid electric vehicle 	6.5 	21 	31%
Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle 	6.7 	19 	35%
Battery electric vehicle 	8.8 	19 	46%
Notes: Estimates based upon a 2015 model vehicle assuming full life travel using 10% ethanol blend and 500g/kWh grid electricity. 	Notes: Estimates based upon a 2015 model vehicle assuming full life travel using 10% ethanol blend and 500g/kWh grid electricity. 	Notes: Estimates based upon a 2015 model vehicle assuming full life travel using 10% ethanol blend and 500g/kWh grid electricity. 	Notes: Estimates based upon a 2015 model vehicle assuming full life travel using 10% ethanol blend and 500g/kWh grid electricity.
The Ricardo study also found that the lifecycle carbon emissions for mid-sized gasoline and diesel vehicles are almost identical, and that the greater fuel efficiency of the diesel engine is offset by higher production emissions.
;Volkswagen
In 2014 Volkswagen published the results of life-cycle assessment of its electric vehicles certified by TÜV NORD, and independent inspection agency. The study found that emissions during the use phase of its all-electric VW e-Golf are 99% lower than those of the Golf 1.2 TSI when powers comes from exclusively hydroelectricity generated in Germany, Austria and Switzerland. Accounting for the full lifecycle, the e-Golf reduces emissions by 61%, offsetting higher production emissions. When the actual EU-27 electricity mix is considered, the e-Golf emissions are still 26% lower than those of the conventional Golf 1.2 TSI. Similar results were found when comparing the e-Golf with the Golf 1.6 TDI. The analysis considered recycling of the three vehicles at the end of their lifetime. See the infograph CO2 emissions over the full life-cycle (t CO2e).
====Well-to-wheel GHG emissions in the U.S.====
;Environmental Protection Agency
The following table compares tailpipe and upstream emissions estimated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for all series production model year 2014 plug-in electric vehicles available in the U.S. market. Total emissions include the emissions associated with the production and distribution of electricity used to charge the vehicle, and for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, it also includes emissions associated with tailpipe emissions produced from the internal combustion engine. These figures were published by the EPA in October 2014 in its annual report "Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends: 1975 Through 2014." All emissions are estimated considering average real world city and highway operation based on the EPA 5-cycle label methodology, using a weighted 55% city and 45% highway driving. For the first time, the 2014 Trends report presents an analysis of the impact of alternative fuel vehicles, with emphasis in plug-in electric vehicles because as their market share is approaching 1%, the EPA concluded that PEVs began to have a measurable impact on the U.S. overall new vehicle fuel economy and emissions.
For purposes of an accurate estimation of emissions, the analysis took into consideration the differences in operation between plug-in hybrids. Some, like the Chevrolet Volt, can operate in all-electric mode without using gasoline, and others operate in a blended mode like the Toyota Prius PHV, which uses both energy stored in the battery and energy from the gasoline tank to propel the vehicle, but that can deliver substantial all-electric driving in blended mode. In addition, since the all-electric range of plug-in hybrids depends on the size of the battery pack, the analysis introduced a utility factor as a projection of the share of miles that will be driven using electricity by an average driver, for both, electric only and blended EV modes. Since all-electric cars do not produce tailpipe emissions, the utility factor applies only to plug-in hybrids. The following table shows the overall fuel economy expressed in terms of miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (mpg-e) and the utility factor for the ten MY2014 plug-in hybrids available in the U.S. market, and EPA's best estimate of the tailpipe emissions produced by these PHEVs.
In order to account for the upstream emissions associated with the production and distribution of electricity, and since electricity production in the United States varies significantly from region to region, the EPA considered three scenarios/ranges with the low end scenario corresponding to the California powerplant emissions factor, the middle of the range represented by the national average powerplant emissions factor, and the upper end of the range corresponding to the powerplant emissions factor for the Rocky Mountains. The EPA estimates that the electricity GHG emission factors for various regions of the country vary from 346 g /kWh in California to 986 g /kWh in the Rockies, with a national average of 648 g /kWh.
Comparison of tailpipe and upstream emissions(1) estimated by EPA for the MY 2014 plug-in electric vehicles available in the U.S. market See Table 7.2 - MY 2014 Alternative Fuel Vehicle Powertrain and Range; pp. 98; Table 7.3 for overall fuel economy (mpg-e), pp. 100; Table 7.4 for tailpipe CO2 emissions, pp. 102; and Table 7.5 for upstream CO2 Emission, pp. 105.	Comparison of tailpipe and upstream emissions(1) estimated by EPA for the MY 2014 plug-in electric vehicles available in the U.S. market See Table 7.2 - MY 2014 Alternative Fuel Vehicle Powertrain and Range; pp. 98; Table 7.3 for overall fuel economy (mpg-e), pp. 100; Table 7.4 for tailpipe CO2 emissions, pp. 102; and Table 7.5 for upstream CO2 Emission, pp. 105.	Comparison of tailpipe and upstream emissions(1) estimated by EPA for the MY 2014 plug-in electric vehicles available in the U.S. market See Table 7.2 - MY 2014 Alternative Fuel Vehicle Powertrain and Range; pp. 98; Table 7.3 for overall fuel economy (mpg-e), pp. 100; Table 7.4 for tailpipe CO2 emissions, pp. 102; and Table 7.5 for upstream CO2 Emission, pp. 105.	Comparison of tailpipe and upstream emissions(1) estimated by EPA for the MY 2014 plug-in electric vehicles available in the U.S. market See Table 7.2 - MY 2014 Alternative Fuel Vehicle Powertrain and Range; pp. 98; Table 7.3 for overall fuel economy (mpg-e), pp. 100; Table 7.4 for tailpipe CO2 emissions, pp. 102; and Table 7.5 for upstream CO2 Emission, pp. 105.	Comparison of tailpipe and upstream emissions(1) estimated by EPA for the MY 2014 plug-in electric vehicles available in the U.S. market See Table 7.2 - MY 2014 Alternative Fuel Vehicle Powertrain and Range; pp. 98; Table 7.3 for overall fuel economy (mpg-e), pp. 100; Table 7.4 for tailpipe CO2 emissions, pp. 102; and Table 7.5 for upstream CO2 Emission, pp. 105.	Comparison of tailpipe and upstream emissions(1) estimated by EPA for the MY 2014 plug-in electric vehicles available in the U.S. market See Table 7.2 - MY 2014 Alternative Fuel Vehicle Powertrain and Range; pp. 98; Table 7.3 for overall fuel economy (mpg-e), pp. 100; Table 7.4 for tailpipe CO2 emissions, pp. 102; and Table 7.5 for upstream CO2 Emission, pp. 105.	Comparison of tailpipe and upstream emissions(1) estimated by EPA for the MY 2014 plug-in electric vehicles available in the U.S. market See Table 7.2 - MY 2014 Alternative Fuel Vehicle Powertrain and Range; pp. 98; Table 7.3 for overall fuel economy (mpg-e), pp. 100; Table 7.4 for tailpipe CO2 emissions, pp. 102; and Table 7.5 for upstream CO2 Emission, pp. 105.
Vehicle 	Overallfuel economy(mpg-e) 	Utilityfactor(2)(share EVmiles) 	Tailpipe (g/mi) 	Tailpipe + Total Upstream CO2 	Tailpipe + Total Upstream CO2 	Tailpipe + Total Upstream CO2
Vehicle 	Overallfuel economy(mpg-e) 	Utilityfactor(2)(share EVmiles) 	Tailpipe (g/mi) 	Low(g/mi) 	Avg(g/mi) 	High(g/mi)
BMW i3 	124 	1 	0 	93 	175 	266
Chevrolet Spark EV 	119 	1 	0 	97 	181 	276
Honda Fit EV 	118 	1 	0 	99 	185 	281
Fiat 500e 	116 	1 	0 	101 	189 	288
Nissan Leaf 	114 	1 	0 	104 	194 	296
Mitsubishi i 	112 	1 	0 	104 	195 	296
Smart electric drive 	107 	1 	0 	109 	204 	311
Ford Focus Electric 	105 	1 	0 	111 	208 	316
Tesla Model S (60 kWh) 	95 	1 	0 	122 	229 	348
Tesla Model S (85 kWh) 	89 	1 	0 	131 	246 	374
BMW i3 REx(3) 	88 	0.83 	40 	134 	207 	288
Mercedes-Benz B-Class ED 	84 	1 	0 	138 	259 	394
Toyota RAV4 EV 	76 	1 	0 	153 	287 	436
BYD e6 	63 	1 	0 	187 	350 	532
Chevrolet Volt 	62 	0.66 	81 	180 	249 	326
Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid 	58 	0.29 	133 	195 	221 	249
Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid 	57 	0.33 	130 	196 	225 	257
Cadillac ELR 	54 	0.65 	91 	206 	286 	377
Ford C-Max Energi 	51 	0.45 	129 	219 	269 	326
Ford Fusion Energi 	51 	0.45 	129 	219 	269 	326
BMW i8 	37 	0.37 	198 	303 	351 	404
Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid 	31 	0.39 	206 	328 	389 	457
McLaren P1 	17 	0.43 	463 	617 	650 	687
Average MY 2014 gasoline car 	24.2 	0 	367 	400 	400 	400
Notes: (1) Based on 45% highway and 55% city driving. (2) The utility factor represents, on average, the percentage of miles that will be driven using electricity (in electric only and blended modes) by an average driver. (3) The EPA classifies the i3 REx as a series plug-in hybrid 	Notes: (1) Based on 45% highway and 55% city driving. (2) The utility factor represents, on average, the percentage of miles that will be driven using electricity (in electric only and blended modes) by an average driver. (3) The EPA classifies the i3 REx as a series plug-in hybrid 	Notes: (1) Based on 45% highway and 55% city driving. (2) The utility factor represents, on average, the percentage of miles that will be driven using electricity (in electric only and blended modes) by an average driver. (3) The EPA classifies the i3 REx as a series plug-in hybrid 	Notes: (1) Based on 45% highway and 55% city driving. (2) The utility factor represents, on average, the percentage of miles that will be driven using electricity (in electric only and blended modes) by an average driver. (3) The EPA classifies the i3 REx as a series plug-in hybrid 	Notes: (1) Based on 45% highway and 55% city driving. (2) The utility factor represents, on average, the percentage of miles that will be driven using electricity (in electric only and blended modes) by an average driver. (3) The EPA classifies the i3 REx as a series plug-in hybrid 	Notes: (1) Based on 45% highway and 55% city driving. (2) The utility factor represents, on average, the percentage of miles that will be driven using electricity (in electric only and blended modes) by an average driver. (3) The EPA classifies the i3 REx as a series plug-in hybrid 	Notes: (1) Based on 45% highway and 55% city driving. (2) The utility factor represents, on average, the percentage of miles that will be driven using electricity (in electric only and blended modes) by an average driver. (3) The EPA classifies the i3 REx as a series plug-in hybrid
;Union of Concerned Scientists
The Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS) published a study in 2012 that assessed average greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S. resulting from charging plug-in car batteries from the perspective of the full life-cycle (well-to-wheel analysis) and according to fuel and technology used to generate electric power by region. The study used the model year 2011 Nissan Leaf all-electric car to establish the analysis baseline, and electric-utility emissions are based on EPA's 2009 estimates. The UCS study expressed the results in terms of miles per gallon instead of the conventional unit of grams of greenhouse gases or carbon dioxide equivalent emissions per year in order to make the results more friendly for consumers. The study found that in areas where electricity is generated from natural gas, nuclear, hydroelectric or renewable sources, the potential of plug-in electric cars to reduce greenhouse emissions is significant. On the other hand, in regions where a high proportion of power is generated from coal, hybrid electric cars produce less equivalent emissions than plug-in electric cars, and the best fuel efficient gasoline-powered subcompact car produces slightly less emissions than a PEV. In the worst-case scenario, the study estimated that for a region where all energy is generated from coal, a plug-in electric car would emit greenhouse gas emissions equivalent to a gasoline car rated at a combined city/highway driving fuel economy of . In contrast, in a region that is completely reliant on natural gas, the PEV would be equivalent to a gasoline-powered car rated at .
The study concluded that for 45% of the U.S. population, a plug-in electric car will generate lower equivalent emissions than a gasoline-powered car capable of combined , such as the Toyota Prius and the Prius c. The UCS also found that for 37% of the population, the electric car emissions will fall in the range of a gasoline-powered car rated at a combined fuel economy of , such as the Honda Civic Hybrid and the Lexus CT200h. Only 18% of the population lives in areas where the power-supply is more dependent on burning carbon, and the greenhouse gas emissions will be equivalent to a car rated at a combined fuel economy of , such as the Chevrolet Cruze and Ford Focus. See map for regional results The study found that there are no regions in the U.S. where plug-in electric cars will have higher greenhouse gas emissions than the average new compact gasoline engine automobile, and the area with the dirtiest power supply produces emissions equivalent to a gasoline-powered car rated at . pp. 16-20.
In September 2014 the UCS published an updated analysis of its 2012 report. The 2014 analysis found that 60% of Americans, up from 45% in 2012, live in regions where an all-electric car produce fewer equivalent emissions per mile than the most efficient hybrid. The UCS study found several reasons for the improvement. First, electric utilities have adopted cleaner sources of electricity to their mix between the two analysis. The 2014 study used electric-utility emissions based on EPA's 2010 estimates, but since coal use nationwide is down by about 5% from 2010 to 2014, actual efficiency in 2014 is better than estimated in the UCS study. Second, electric vehicles have become more efficient, as the average 2013 all-electric vehicle used 0.33 kWh per mile, representing a 5% improvement over 2011 models. Also, some new models are cleaner than the average, such as the BMW i3, which is rated at 0.27 kWh by the EPA. An i3 charged with power from the Midwest grid would be as clean as a gasoline-powered car with about , up from for the average electric car in the 2012 study. In states with a cleaner mix generation, the gains were larger. The average all-electric car in California went up to equivalent from in the 2012 study. States with dirtier generation that rely heavily on coal still lag, such as Colorado, where the average BEV only achieves the same emissions as a gasoline-powered car. The author of the 2014 analysis noted that the benefits are not distributed evenly across the U.S. because electric car adoptions is concentrated in the states with cleaner power.
;National Bureau of Economic Research
One criticism to the UCS study is that the analysis was made using average emissions rates across regions instead of marginal generation at different times of the day. The former approach does not take into account the generation mix within interconnected electricity markets and shifting load profiles throughout the day. Published on line 2014-03-24. See pp. 251 An analysis by three economist affiliated with the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER), published in November 2014, developed a methodology to estimate marginal emissions of electricity demand that vary by location and time of day across the United States. The marginal analysis, applied to plug-in electric vehicles, found that the emissions of charging PEVs vary by region and hours of the day. In some regions, such as the Western U.S. and Texas, emissions per mile from driving PEVs are less than those from driving a hybrid car. However, in other regions, such as the Upper Midwest, charging during the recommended hours of midnight to 4 a.m. implies that PEVs generate more emissions per mile than the average car currently on the road. The results show a fundamental tension between electricity load management and environmental goals as the hours when electricity is the least expensive to produce tend to be the hours with the greatest emissions. This occurs because coal-fired units, which have higher emission rates, are most commonly used to meet base-level and off-peak electricity demand; while natural gas units, which have relatively low emissions rates, are often brought online to meet peak demand.
====Well-to-wheel GHG emissions in several countries====
A study published in the UK in April 2013 assessed the carbon footprint of plug-in electric vehicles in 20 countries. As a baseline the analysis established that manufacturing emissions account for 70 g CO2/km for an electric car and 40 g CO2/km for a petrol car. The study found that in countries with coal-intensive generation, PEVs are no different from conventional petrol-powered vehicles. Among these countries are China, Indonesia, Australia, South Africa and India. A pure electric car in India generates emissions comparable to a petrol car.
The country ranking was led by Paraguay, where all electricity is produced from hydropower, and Iceland, where electricity production relies on renewable power, mainly hydro and geothermal power. Resulting carbon emissions from an electric car in both countries are 70 g CO2/km, which is equivalent to a petrol car, and correspond to manufacturing emissions. Next in the ranking are other countries with low carbon electricity generation, including Sweden (mostly hydro and nuclear power ), Brazil (mainly hydropower) and France (predominantly nuclear power). Countries ranking in the middle include Japan, Germany, the UK and the United States.
The following table shows the emissions intensity estimated in the study for those countries where electric vehicle are available, and the corresponding emissions equivalent in miles per US gallon of a petrol-powered car:
Country comparison of full life cycle assessmentof greenhouse gas emissions resulting from charging plug-in electric cars andemissions equivalent in terms of miles per US gallon of a petrol-powered car	Country comparison of full life cycle assessmentof greenhouse gas emissions resulting from charging plug-in electric cars andemissions equivalent in terms of miles per US gallon of a petrol-powered car	Country comparison of full life cycle assessmentof greenhouse gas emissions resulting from charging plug-in electric cars andemissions equivalent in terms of miles per US gallon of a petrol-powered car	Country comparison of full life cycle assessmentof greenhouse gas emissions resulting from charging plug-in electric cars andemissions equivalent in terms of miles per US gallon of a petrol-powered car	Country comparison of full life cycle assessmentof greenhouse gas emissions resulting from charging plug-in electric cars andemissions equivalent in terms of miles per US gallon of a petrol-powered car
Country 	PEV well-to-wheels carbon dioxide equivalent emissions per electric carexpressed in (CO2e/km) 	Powersource 	PEV well-to-wheels emissions equivalent in terms of mpg USof petrol-powered car 	Equivalentpetrol car
 	81 	Low carbon 	 	Hybrid multiples
align=left 	93 	Low carbon 	 	Hybrid multiples
 	115 	Fossil light 	 	Beyondhybrid
 	146 	Fossil light 	 	Beyondhybrid
 	175 	Broad mix 	 	Newhybrid
 	179 	Broad mix 	 	Newhybrid
 	189 	Broad mix 	 	Newhybrid
align=left 	202 	Fossil heavy 	 	Efficientpetrol
 	203 	Fossil heavy 	 	Efficientpetrol
 	258 	Coal-based 	 	Averagepetrol
 	292 	Coal-based 	 	Averagepetrol
 	370 	Coal-based 	 	Averagepetrol
Note: Electric car manufacturing emissions account for 70 g CO2/kmSource: Shades of Green: Electric Cars’ Carbon Emissions Around the Globe, Shrink That Footprint, February 2013. 	Note: Electric car manufacturing emissions account for 70 g CO2/kmSource: Shades of Green: Electric Cars’ Carbon Emissions Around the Globe, Shrink That Footprint, February 2013. 	Note: Electric car manufacturing emissions account for 70 g CO2/kmSource: Shades of Green: Electric Cars’ Carbon Emissions Around the Globe, Shrink That Footprint, February 2013. 	Note: Electric car manufacturing emissions account for 70 g CO2/kmSource: Shades of Green: Electric Cars’ Carbon Emissions Around the Globe, Shrink That Footprint, February 2013. 	Note: Electric car manufacturing emissions account for 70 g CO2/kmSource: Shades of Green: Electric Cars’ Carbon Emissions Around the Globe, Shrink That Footprint, February 2013.
==See also==
*All-electric vehicle (EV) or battery electric vehicle (BEV)
*Electric car
*Electric car use by country
*Electric motorcycle
*Electric vehicle battery
*Electric vehicle warning sounds
*Hybrid tax credit (U.S.)
*List of electric cars currently available
*List of modern production plug-in electric vehicles
*Neighborhood electric car
*Plug In America
*Plug-in electric vehicles in the United States
*Plug-in hybrid vehicle, (PHEV)
*RechargeIT (Google.org PHEV program)
==References==
==External links==
* Application of Life-Cycle Assessment to Nanoscale Technology: Lithium-ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, April 2013.
* Clean Vehicle Rebate Project website
*Driving Electrification - A Global Comparison of Fiscal Incentive Policy for Electric Vehicles, International Council on Clean Transportation, May 2014.
* Effects of Regional Temperature on Electric Vehicle Efficiency, Range, and Emissions in the United States, Tugce Yuksel and Jeremy Michalek, Carnegie Mellon University. 2015
* eGallon Calculator: Compare the costs of driving with electricity, U.S. Department of Energy
*Electric Vehicle Timeline: Electric Cars, Plug-In Hybrids, and Fuel Cell Vehicles (1900-2014), Union of Concerned Scientists
* EV Everywhere Grand Challenge Blueprint, U.S. Department of Energy, January 2013.
* Global EV Outlook 2013- Understanding the Electric Vehicle Landscape to 2020, International Energy Agency (IEA), April 2013
* Hybrid and Electric Vehicles - The Electric Drive Gains Traction, IA-HEV, International Energy Agency (IEA), May 2013
* Inﬂuence of driving patterns on life cycle cost and emissions of hybrid and plug-in electric vehicle powertrains, Carnegie MellonVehicle Electrification Group
* NHTSA Interim Guidance Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles Equipped with High Voltage Batteries - Vehicle Owner/General Public
* NHTSA Interim Guidance Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles Equipped with High Voltage Batteries - Law Enforcement/Emergency Medical Services/Fire Department
* New Energy Tax Credits for Electric Vehicles purchased in 2009
* Overview of Tax Incentives for Electrically Chargeable Vehicles in the E.U.
* PEVs Frequently Asked Questions
* Plug-in Electric Vehicles: Challenges and Opportunities, American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy, June 2013
* Powering Ahead - The future of low-carbon cars and fuels, the RAC Foundation and UK Petroleum Industry Association, April 2013.
* Plugging In: A Consumer's Guide to the Electric Vehicle Electric Power Research Institute
* Plug-in America website
* Plug-in Cars website
* Plug-in Electric Vehicle Deployment in the Northeast Georgetown Climate Center
* Plug-In Electric Vehicles: A Case Study of Seven Markets (Norway, Netherlands, California, United States, France, Japan, and Germany), UC Davis, October 2014.
* Plug-in Tracker: A comprehensive list of highway-capable PEVs (cars and trucks, 2- and 3-wheeled and commercial vehicles)
* Plug-in List of Registered Charging Stations in the USA
* RechargeIT plug-in driving experiment (Google.org)
* Shade's of Green - Electric Car's Carbon Emissions Around the Globe, Shrink that Footprint, February 2013.
* State of the Plug-in Electric Vehicle Market, Electrification Coalition, July 2013.
* The Great Debate -- All-Electric Cars vs. Plug-In Hybrids, April 2014
* UK Plug-in Car Grant website
* Transport Action Plan: Urban Electric Mobility Initiative, United Nations, Climate Summit 2014, September 2014
* U.S. Federal & State Incentives & Laws
* U.S. State and Federal Incentives for EVs, PHEVs and Charge Stations
* US Tax Incentives for Plug-in Hybrids and Electric Cars
* Will Electric Cars Transform the U.S. Vehicle Market? Belfer Center, Harvard University
==Books==
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Category:Air Pollution