Dinosaurs

Dispareihneut pon 65 millions yaren, i dinosaurs sont gnohn dank nugwrnts, prints ed fossil oivs. Id gigantesk buliende oiken ex i, ia mahibe kweits iom carnivor specen, ia doraks em sem herbivors auti id mysteir irs disparition i beuwnt i mythicst Animals qui hant druv-ye existen. Pon medsu id XIXt secule, id systematic studye im dinosaurs hat ubfallt id ment im muallims ed ios umum, ed piwt ir imagination, swod antique legends ed epsa. 
I dinosaurs hant dominen id terran fauna unte id secundar era, wa mesozoique, periode os Terras Historia quod oistars 245 millions yaren prever, ed ensit 65 millions yaren pre nun. Ti reptils vasyen megen (quayque ir nam evoquet bilhassa ia gigant speces) prohp unte id trias, circa 225 millions yaren. Dayim se diversifier unte meis quem 100 millions yaren, unte id jurassique ed id cretacee, sem speces dispareihnda menxu alya apparihr, pre se extinge destull brusk-ye, tem quem uno megil numer om gwiv speces, ye id end ios secundar era. 
 
Bayna i dinosaurs eent carnivor smels (coelophysis, compsognathus), predators medyios mege (velociraptor) au gigants (allosaurus, tyrannosaurus), mier herbivors (stegosaurus, iguanodon, triceratops), ed sem gigantesk herbivors (brontosaurus, brachiosaurus, diplodocus).
Speit tod diversitat, i dinosaurs ne eent i saul reptils ios secundar. Menxu domineer aun concurrence id landfauna, alyi reptils occupeer id marmilieu (plesiosaurus, ichtyosaurus) ed i pleukend reptils (pterosaurus) regneer in id air, baygh pre avs apparihr. Eti, alyi reptils hant appariht ed hant-se diversifiet unte id secundar era. Leit besonters de crocodiles, ghelons ed sinsars (iguanas, geckos, angvers, etc...) qui hant survivet id en masse extinction ye id fin ios secundar. 
 Artistic kip em Plesiosaurus ab Dmitry Bogdanov.
 
==Prest renskeipens em dinosaurs==
Is Britisch Richard Owen (1804-1892) creit in 1841 id nam "dinosaur" (ex awo hellen δεινός = "terrible", ed σαυρος = "sinsar") kay kyuses ti terranens animals, quim fossil nugwrnts inkiepeer bihe active-ye paursken. Prever, hieb esto ja aunstohct fragments skeleten dinosauren (besonters osta'l buland carnivor Megalosaurus, describen in 1676), bet ia scientific gnohsa ne permiss anadehe ia ad animals tem different ud muassir fauna. 
Is Franceois Georges Cuvier (1769-1832) hieb, yant id end ios XVIIIt secule, tyicen ia presta studyes permittend renskipes disparihn animals ab ir fossil etiloikwa. Lakin, esdi Cuviers wehrgs, betrehvend kaliban-ye mammifers, obkwohk baygh vafayi, ia prest renskeipens em disparihn reptils dahr images em kwetwerpod, lent ed kyopev animals, menxu est woiden nundiens od maungs trohc agil-ye staund ep ir cloinpodia. 
Id prever image im dinosaurs est meg piern ud quod profunda studyes os biomecanique nos dedahr pon ia 1980tias, ed quod permitt meis ghabe id athime adaptive kamyab tim animals (el mensc inkiep sphere ep Terra bad-ye dwo millions yaren prever, menxu i dinosaurs hant occupen vasya terrana milieus unte un incomparable-ye longer periode). Tod image em akster, oku ed agil animals buit plaut-ye populariset in Cinema ab ia films os Steven Spielberg (Jurassic Park, 1993; The Lost World, 1997).
 Moderne statues em Iguanodon ab Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins in un park os London.
==Sonterkweits ed classification==
Morphologic-ye, bihnt enderkwitta dwo major types dinosauren. Ti quim cloinpodia eet suaantplohcta trohc staund ep tod, neudend ir swayp ka pendel (sems ghohd lakin folossie iro propodia kay trehce). Tod dwipodo type, quod correspond tod im presten dinosaurs, gnohsit un akster antslehnken unte id jurassique ed, bilhassa, id cretacee, samt buland formes, herbivors (iguanodon) ed carnivors (tyrannosaurus). Dwoter major morphologic type est tod im kwetwerpods, khaliban herbivors, bayna-yi wehse ia massivest forms (brachiosaurus) tem quem i dinosaurs armet med ostwent placks (stegosaurus)
Id classification im dinosaurs keiht ep anatomic criteria qua ne samskeipe con ia morphologic criteria (dwipodia ed kwetxerpodia). Dinosaurs sont classifiet yeji id forme irs gowlsban. Bi pleistens, id skeleto ios gowlsban est typic-ye kamtod im reptils (triozd gwolsban), sont i "saurisciatics". Alters hant un gowlsban quod samkwehct tod im avs (dwiozd gowlsban), sont "ornithisciatics". Est lakin kautu od esdi i avs sont i descendants im dinosaurs, ir direct atavs ne sont avgowlsban dinosaurs sontern saurisciatics.
 Artistic kip es un stegosaurus.
==Anatomic ed physiologic kweits==
===Placks ed armurs===
Id corpos im herbivor dinosaurs ios grupp im stegosaurus (tiel 9 m longe ed 2t vyige) qui gwiveer unte id jurassique subkih weur vertical ostwent placks ed id bors os ir swayp ghohrs med aks. Menxu id defensive rol iom swaypaks ne est dwoitu, est de meis difficil interprete tod iom ostwent placks ios regv. Lakin, sentern chehxen revelet ia eent besrun ab mult xekwans, quo suggest un bungos os "kheulden" : id sehrg quod kwohl ye ir nivello lus wierme, quo permiss rules id temperature ios corpos. 
Alya armurs solleer daughe im herbivors qui bohr ia kay face i staur carnivors. I ankylosaurus(10 m longe, 5 m wure ed 5 t vyige pro Amylosaurus) eent kam pancertanks, samt iro regvo covohrno med placks ed aks. Ye id bors os ir swayp, un ostwent behlghos sollit skipes uno mahibe wagher. 
Quayque oys smulk teuneg dwipods, imen ceratops, kwetwerpods ios cretacee, kam Triceratops (9 m longe, 6 t), kwohkeer kam enormi rhinoceros, samt un immense ghav prolonget med un weur ostwent colnier ed samt tri horns bil Triceratops (bet els gendel Protoceratops eet schut). I de pachycephalosarus, dwipods ios cretacee, hieb un ghalv kardwnen med un athime ostwent thol quod ghohd ses 25 cm teug (kad ies ersens drohd mutu med chuoks kay kriges ians wedus)
 Bronzen replic skeletios es Brachiosaurus exter id museium os natural historia os Chicago, USA.
===Vyigen records===
Id anatomia im buland herbivor kwetwerpoden dinosaurs im hat permiss nake corporal masses prokwem id theoric limite, vohrten do 140 t pro un kwetwerpod landanimal, limite trans-yod id volume iom pods (quod crehsct sekwent id volume ios corpos) interdehiet cada mov. 
Id architecture os ir skeleto maght bihe comparen tei uns gothic cathedrale (quar memsa kam colunns, stehmend un ostwento dehmber legver ye id nivell iom spindels med cavitats), auti tei uns hangbrigv (meg longo coll ed long swayp, yuct med staur ligaments ei weragmen, im permittend equiliber id vyige ios corpos per pendel effect). 
I brachiosaurus niek 80 t, bet fragmentar etiloikwa aunstohgen in 1972 (supersaurus) ed in 1979 (ultrasaurus, yed els existence ka spece est contesten), suggeste od sems hant ghohden udvyiges 100 t.
 
Artistic kip, ab Nobu Tamura, es un Supersaurus.
===Corporal temperature===
Actual reptils hant neid constant inner temperature; tod dependt in major part id extos temperature. Id posdehrjen uns constant inner temperature, quod kweit avs ed mammifers, permit tim animals asadhasce ud ia thermic nyutis ios milieu. Api, quayque samzaman quem i dinosaurs, i mammifers, speit ie homeothermia, hant druve-ye ghohden antslehnke bad pos id disparition im dinosaurs. Maynt to od tischi senters brug un constant inner temperature, meg competitiveihnd i binisbat i mammifers ? 
In 1985, is US-American Robert Bakker, ios universitat os Colorado, descript ia vantages qua un constant corporal temperature habiet bright im dinosaurs : un efficienter sehrgkwehlen, uno meger agilitat, id mantien irs optimal activitatios hatta nocts (face id sehnken os noctstemperature) ed un gohder Kersfunctionment. Bakker defend ia dayi sekwent-yod i dinosaurs, nekam alter reptils, habient mantint ir inner temperature constant. Ia different arguments proposen in favor tos dayi (besonters tod uns tienxia daysa im dinosaurs, pati ambh ia poles) sont interessant, yed ne accepten ab quantens. Est ayt od id homeothermia im smulk dinosaurs habiet consummet maung energia. Lakin, i buland dinosaurs, quim exceptional-ye hog vyige/surface proportion limitit wierme leusa, ghohd baygh shayad behande un reulensysteme irs temperature.
 Artistic kip, ab Debivort, os un churd em Maiasura.
===Reproduction===
Kam bim muassir reptils, id spohrnsto reproductionsmodus bim dinosaurs eet baygh sigwra id oiven gehnen. Mult fossilihn oivs buir retrohven, yando sammeln in nesta. Sem speces, kam el aendsnap dinosaur Maiasaura, ex id cretacee, shayad kieur de ir nassel, kam actual crocodiles au avs. 
Os spheric, ovoid au dlegh forme, dinosaur oivs ghehde ses 30 m weur samt un tik 2 mm tegu kiaut. Lakin, kwecto bi sem speces, ia oivs antslohnk eni id corpos ias wedu, qua gohn elns.
 Artistic kip, ab Nobu Tamura, uns Archaepteryx. Is hat rissen tel "av-dinosaur" samt sworda ptors, menxu el eet prever-ye kipen samt un pelupoik petwrnt.
==Id evolution im dinosaurs==
Id secundar era, yaschi kalt mesozoique, est id trit chronologic division os Terras historia, succeddend id Primar ed id Precambrian. Circa 180 millions yaren long, tod era est divis do tri periodes (wa systemes), trias, jurassique ed cretacee. 
Id secundar kweit med id antslehnken iom gymnosperms (plantes gendel con actual brads), pohltos em certainens marmolluskens (belemnoidea & ammonoidea), med id preponderance ed id varietat im reptils (besonters dinosaurs), betschi med id apparition im avs (ab i dinosaurs) ed im mammifers. 
Avs ghi sont i directi descendants im dinosaurs. Eti est facil imagine id gwayt uns dwipods dinosaur observend-ye tod es un straus au kierk. 
Archaeopteryx, quel gwivit unte id jurassique, est el awst gnoht av. Tel animal anac uno mix om kweits es dinosaur (dents ep id ghyanu ed noghs ep ia perodhpods, transformet do ptergs) ed es av (besonters ptors). El sollit plukes se lehncend-ye kata drus, siena noghs al permittend antgripes ia ozda. 
Bim atavs es archaeopteryx, qui eent smulki carnivor dwipod dinosaurs, ia ptors solleer habe id rol os rules id corporal temperature (instar ia drighs bim mammifers). Est gnohn unschi smulk ptorcovohrtis dinosaur (Avimimus), bet quel anac neid adaptation ad pleuk, nekam sien gendel archaeopteryx. 
Id extreme diversification im reptils, quod oistart yant id end ios trias, ananct un gohd exempel ios process os adaptive radiation, quod deict id imkan, pro oin spece au oin grupp om gendel speces, os diversifie-se do uno mier numer distincten formes, adaptet ibs different gwitsmodus in ir ambient. 
Tod phenomen os adaptive radiation hat tyohct yant id zaman im presten dinosaurs tighi wohs in un warm ed siuk milieu ryowkhowo pro reptils, ed-yos maung sectors (wa "ecologic niche") ne eent occupen ab concurrent speces.
 Map ab Geraki iom moderne continents eni Pangaea.
==Terra unte id secundar era==
In-kap id secundar era, 245 millions yaren prever, ia continents eent samghaten eni oin "supercontinent", "Pangaea". Tod geographic menghia permiss im landanimals diaspehre leudher-ye tienxia. Unte id trias, un angh yed deub mar, id Tethys (quos oino iom actual survivencen est id Mediomar) separet Pangaea do dwo blocks. 
Tiel medsu id cretacee, circa 100 millions yaren prever, iaghi floras ed faunas evolve sonter mutu ep dwo supercontinents, Laurasia nordi ed Gondwana sudi. Ye id end ios secundar era, id sudtro ghyahsa ios Atlantic som-schteukelt ia continents. 
 Skeletum es un Staurikosaurus. Tod spece em carnivor dwipodens dinosaurs qui gwiveer unte id Trias in quo eet nundiens Brasilu buit oino iom presten specen dinosauren.
===Trias===
Startend 245 millions yaren prever, id trias, presto geologic periode ios secundar era, ens 200 millions yaren pre nun. Tod periode kweit med id diversification im reptils, marmollusken (besonters ammonoidea) ed id apparition im prest mammifers. 
Id climat ios trias est warm ed madh. I reptil atavs im mammifers oiskeipe un gruppo present yant id end ios carbonifer (primar era). Gehnent i prestens druv mammifers, qui remansient os smulk mege tiel id end ios secundar. Unte dwoter dwidel ios trias, i presti dinosaurs appareihnt eni id grupp im reptils. Ige sont dwipod carnivors (kam el 2m long Staurikosaurus) qui se diversifient yant id end ios trias. Ia major types dinosauren, carnivor ed herbivore, sont ja baygh present. 
Ye id end ios trias, id teursen os climat (tem quem alya factors ne bad elucidet) est fatal multims animal gentims, yed obkwehct ryowkhowo dia i dinosaurs, ye id detriment im prest mammifers. Con alyens reptils (pterosaurus, plesiosaurus, crocodiles), i dinosaurs vahnt kriges vasya milieus, bevidend un extreme diversitat adaptationen ed specialisationen.
 Artistic kip - ab Fred Wierum - uns Barosaurus alegend protie dwo Allosaurus.
===Jurassique===
In id druna ios jurassique (200 millions yaren - 136 millions yaren pre nun), id separation iom dwo supercontinents (Laurasia ed Gondwana) continuet. Ia magna grupps em reptils ios secundar (dinosaurs, crocodiles, pterosaurus, ichtyosaurus) plen-ye exspande, menxu appareihnt i prest avs (archaeopteryx), oys id grupp im dinosaurs, ed se diversifient, marsu, i cephalopod molluski (ammonoidea, nautilus, belemnoidea & calamars). 
Ep dayluk, tem quem in vast panya, dinosaurs regnent. I buland carnivors, kam Allosaurus, ed i smulki carnivors (Compsognathus) sayde active-ye, shayad in grupps, alter reptils. In id druna ios jurassique, i bulandi herbivor dinosaurs diversifient-se ed ia gigant speces appareihnt. El brontosaurus (wa apatosaurus) est 24 m long ed 30 t gwaur, menxu i brachiosaurus sont shayad 80t gwaur, yani id equivalent em 12 elephants.
 Statue uns Tyrannosaurus in un park in Polska (photo ab Alia Zienowicz).
===Cretacee===
Trit ed senst periode ios secundar era, id cretacee, quod oistiert 136 millions yaren prever, correspond sammel id apogee ios golden aiwios im dinosaurs, quod inkiep ye id jurassique, ed id fin irs long regne. 
Unte tod periode, plur gentis em carnivor dinosaurs enderkweitent-se ud mutu. Oin dar kyunggiawt ia trends kye gigantisme aurght unte id jurassique ab el allosaurus (10 m long) ed culminet ye id end ios cretacee med Tyrannosaurus ed Tarbsaurus, athime 14 m long predators, tem quem un dar bulander spece, aunstohct in 1995, Gigantosaurus. Carnivors medyios hoge, kam velociraptor (2 m long) ed Deinonychus (3 m), solleer sayde in meute ed vurnes irens praedds med ia srakut noghs iren caudpods. Un trito genti carnivoren dadwt dinosaurs samt straussmorphologia, kam Ornithomimus (4 m)
Bayna i herbivors, i doracti dinosaurs ios grupp im ornithosciatics abunde : kwetwerpod ceratops (mathalan : triceratops, stegosaurus ed ankylosaurus, tem quem i dwipod pachycephalosaurus. Alyi dwipod dinosaurs, i iguanodontia, kam iguanodon (9 m long), hant un platu geographic daysa. I hieb un staur dentition quod uno snapo precess. Ir finghers enseer med druv kaphs ed, ep ia frontpods, eti ia quaren finghern, un tanghu nogh dieughit ka "pallex". Unte dwoter part ios cretacee, i iguanodontia bihnt supplantet ab ir descendants, i hadrosaurus, samt un weur platt naster forstehlbend med un krent "aendsnap". 
Id cretacee ensit 65 millions yaren prever med id brutal disparition os meis quem dwidel iom gwiv specen, bayna qua id hol grupp im dinosaurs. Kay explie tod crise, quod buit sohkwt ab id expansion ios grupp im mammifers, biht proposen id hypothese uns climatic taraghen bohndt ei impact uns taungh asteroid au comete au ei gheussen unios mier volcan, auti un conjunction pluren major wakyas.