Antigua and Barbuda

Antigua and Barbuda is a sovereign archipelagic country composed of Antigua, Barbuda, and numerous other small islands. Antigua and Barbuda has a total area of 440 km2 (170 sq mi), making it one of the smallest countries in the Caribbean. The country is mostly flat, with the highest points on Antigua being in the Shekerley Mountains and on Barbuda the Highlands. The country has a tropical savanna climate, with pockets of tropical monsoon in Antigua's southwest. Its largest city is St. John's.
 
Hunter-gatherers settled the islands starting around 3,000 BC, likely arriving on canoes from Central and South America. They were followed by the Arawaks of Venezuela during the Ceramic Period. In 1493, Christopher Columbus surveyed the island of Antigua, which resulted in an attempt at Spanish settlement in 1520. Antigua remained uncolonised until 1632 when Edward Warner and his small party created the first successful British colony. Barbuda was under the control of the Codrington family until the 1860s. Antiguan independence was first proposed by Prince Klaas in 1728, who attempted to make the island an independent kingdom. After emancipation in 1834, Antigua's autonomy slowly increased, while Barbuda was slowly integrated into Antigua. The first democratic elections were held in 1951, and by 1981, Antigua and Barbuda was independent. From 1960 until 2004, the Bird family dominated the archipelago's politics with only one interruption, which ended with the election of Baldwin Spencer to the premiership.
 
Since 2014, the Labour Party has dominated national politics. Antigua and Barbuda is a member of the Commonwealth and a Commonwealth realm, being a constitutional monarchy with Charles III as its head of state. Barbuda has been governed by the Barbuda Council since 1976, the country being a unitary state. Antigua is also divided into six parishes. Antigua and Barbuda has a proportionally high foreign-born population, in addition to having the second highest Human Development Index in the Caribbean. Compared to neighboring countries, Antigua and Barbuda ranks highly in most economic indicators, although it ranks about average in political freedoms.
Antigua and Barbuda is a high-income country. It is a member of the United Nations, the OECS, the Regional Security System, CARICOM, and the World Trade Organisation. Antigua and Barbuda is one of the only countries in the Caribbean to maintain an air force, and has a significant aviation industry in conjunction with its tourism-based economy.
== Etymology ==
 is Spanish for 'ancient' and is Spanish for 'bearded'. The island of Antigua was originally called by the Arawaks and is locally known by that name today; the Caribs possibly called Barbuda . Christopher Columbus, while sailing by in 1493, may have named it , after an icon in the Spanish Seville Cathedral. The "bearded" of Barbuda is thought to refer either to the male inhabitants of the island, or the bearded fig trees present there.
==History==
===Pre-colonial period===
Antigua was first settled by archaic age Indigenous hunter-gatherers called the Ciboney. Carbon dating has established the earliest settlements started around 3100 BC. They were succeeded by the ceramic age pre-Columbian Arawak-speaking Saladoid people who migrated from the lower Orinoco River. They introduced agriculture, raising, among other crops, the famous Antigua Black Pineapple (Ananas comosus), corn, sweet potatoes, chiles, guava, tobacco, and cotton.Duval, D. T. (1996). Saladoid archaeology on St. Vincent, West Indies: results of the 1993/1994 University of Manitoba survey Later on the Caribs settled the island.
===European arrival and slavery===
Christopher Columbus was the first European to sight the islands in 1493. The Spanish did not colonise Antigua until after a combination of European and African diseases, malnutrition, and slavery eventually extirpated most of the native population; smallpox was probably the greatest killer.
The English settled on Antigua in 1632; Christopher Codrington settled on Barbuda in 1685. Tobacco and then sugar was grown, worked by a large population of slaves transported from West Africa, who soon came to vastly outnumber the European settlers.
===Colonial era===
The English maintained control of the islands, repulsing an attempted French attack in 1666. The brutal conditions endured by the slaves led to revolts in 1701 and 1729 and a planned revolt in 1736, the last led by Prince Klaas, though it was discovered before it began and the ringleaders were executed. Slavery was abolished in the British Empire in 1833, affecting the economy. This was exacerbated by natural disasters such as the 1843 earthquake and the 1847 hurricane. Mining occurred on the isle of Redonda, however, this ceased in 1929 and the island has since remained uninhabited.
Part of the Leeward Islands colony, Antigua and Barbuda became part of the short-lived West Indies Federation from 1958 to 1962. Antigua and Barbuda subsequently became an associated state of the United Kingdom with full internal autonomy on 27 February 1967. The 1970s were dominated by discussions as to the islands' future and the rivalry between Vere Bird of the Antigua and Barbuda Labour Party (ABLP) (Premier from 1967 to 1971 and 1976 to 1981) and the Progressive Labour Movement (PLM) of George Walter (Premier 1971–1976). Eventually, Antigua and Barbuda gained full independence on 1 November 1981; Vere Bird became prime minister of the new country. The country opted to remain within the Commonwealth, retaining Elizabeth II () as head of state, with the first governor, Sir Wilfred Jacobs, as governor-general. Succeeding Wilfred Jacobs were James Carlisle (1993–2007), Louise Lake-Tack (2007–2014), and the present since 2014 being Rodney Williams.
===Independence era===
The first two decades of Antigua's independence were dominated politically by the Bird family and the ABLP, with Vere Bird ruling from 1981 to 1994, followed by his son Lester Bird from 1994 to 2004. Though providing a degree of political stability, and boosting tourism to the country, the Bird governments were frequently accused of corruption, cronyism and financial malfeasance. Vere Bird Jr., the elder son, was forced to leave the cabinet in 1990 following a scandal in which he was accused of smuggling Israeli weapons to Colombian drug-traffickers. Another son, Ivor Bird, was convicted of selling cocaine in 1995.
In 1995, Hurricane Luis caused severe damage on Barbuda.
The ABLP's dominance of Antiguan politics ended with the 2004 Antiguan general election, which was won by Winston Baldwin Spencer's United Progressive Party (UPP). Winston Baldwin Spencer was Prime Minister of Antigua and Barbuda from 2004 to 2014. However the UPP lost the 2014 Antiguan general election, with the ABLP returning to power under Gaston Browne. ABLP won 15 of the 17 seats in the 2018 snap election under the leadership of incumbent Prime Minister Gaston Browne.
In 2016, Nelson's Dockyard was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Most of Barbuda was devastated in early September 2017 by Hurricane Irma, which brought winds with speeds reaching 295 km/h (185 mph). The storm damaged or destroyed 95% of the island's buildings and infrastructure, leaving Barbuda "barely habitable" according to Prime Minister Gaston Browne. Nearly everyone on the island was evacuated to Antigua.
Amidst the following rebuilding efforts on Barbuda that were estimated to cost at least $100 million, the government announced plans to revoke a century-old law of communal land ownership by allowing residents to buy land; a move that has been criticised as promoting "disaster capitalism".
==Geography==
Limestone formations, rather than volcanic activity, have had the most impact on the topography of both Antigua and Barbuda, which are both relatively low-lying islands. Boggy Peak, also known as Mt. Obama from 2008 to 2016, is the highest point on both Antigua and Barbuda. It is the remnant of a volcanic crater and rises a total of 402 meters. Boggy Peak is located in the southwest of Antigua (1,319 feet).
Both of these islands have very irregularly shaped coastlines that are dotted with beaches, lagoons, and natural harbours. There are reefs and shoals that surround the islands on all sides. Because of the low amount of rainfall, there are not many streams. On neither of these islands can sufficient quantities of fresh groundwater be found.
Redonda is a small, uninhabited island located about 40 kilometres (25 miles) to the south-west of Antigua. Redonda is a rocky island.
In Antigua and Barbuda forest cover is about 18% of the total land area, equivalent to 8,120 ha of forests in 2020, down from 10,110 ha in 1990.
=== Cities and villages ===
The most populous cities in Antigua and Barbuda are mostly on Antigua, being Saint John's, All Saints, Piggotts, and Liberta. The most populous city on Barbuda is Codrington. It is estimated that 25% of the population lives in an urban area, which is much lower than the international average of 55%.
===Islands===
Antigua and Barbuda consists mostly of its two namesake islands, Antigua, and Barbuda. Other than that, Antigua and Barbuda's biggest islands are Guiana Island and Long Island off the coast of Antigua, and Redonda island, which is far from both of the main islands.
=== Climate ===
Rainfall averages per year, with the amount varying widely from season to season. In general the wettest period is between September and November. The islands generally experience low humidity and recurrent droughts. Temperatures average , with a range from to in the winter to from to in the summer and autumn. The coolest period is between December and February.
Hurricanes strike on an average of once a year, including the powerful Category 5 Hurricane Irma, on 6 September 2017, which damaged 95% of the structures on Barbuda. Some 1,800 people were evacuated to Antigua.
Officials quoted by Time indicated that over $100 million would be required to rebuild homes and infrastructure. Philmore Mullin, Director of Barbuda's National Office of Disaster Services, said that "all critical infrastructure and utilities are non-existent – food supply, medicine, shelter, electricity, water, communications, waste management". He summarised the situation as follows: "Public utilities need to be rebuilt in their entirety... It is optimistic to think anything can be rebuilt in six months ... In my 25 years in disaster management, I have never seen something like this."
=== Environmental issues ===
==Demographics==
===Ethnic groups===
Antigua has a population of , mostly made up of people of West African, British, and Portuguese descent. The ethnic distribution consists of 91% Black, 4.4% mixed race, 1.7% White, and 2.9% other (primarily East Indian). Most Whites are of British descent. Christian Levantine Arabs and a small number of East Asians and Sephardic Jews make up the remainder of the population.
An increasingly large percentage of the population lives abroad, most notably in the United Kingdom (Antiguan Britons), the United States and Canada. A minority of Antiguan residents are immigrants from other countries, particularly from Dominica, Guyana and Jamaica, and, increasingly, from the Dominican Republic, St. Vincent and the Grenadines and Nigeria. An estimated 4,500 American citizens also make their home in Antigua and Barbuda, making their numbers one of the largest American populations in the English-speaking Eastern Caribbean. 68.47% of the population was born in Antigua and Barbuda.
===Languages===
The language most commonly used in business is English. There is a noticeable distinction between the Antiguan accent and the Barbudan one.
When compared to Antiguan Creole, Standard English was the language of choice in the years leading up to Antigua and Barbuda's attainment of their independence. The Antiguan Creole language is looked down upon by the upper and middle classes in general. The Antiguan Creole language is discouraged from use in the educational system, and instruction is carried out in Standard (British) English instead.
A significant number of the words that are used in the Antiguan dialect are derived from both the British and African languages. This is readily apparent in phrases such as "Innit?" which literally translates to "Isn't it?" Many common island proverbs can be traced back to Africa, such as the pidgin language.
Approximately 10,000 people are able to speak in Spanish.Farquhar, Bernadette, "The Spanish Language in Antigua and Barbuda: Implications for Language Planning and Language Research" 
=== Education ===
===Religion===
A majority (77%) of Antiguans are Christians, with the Anglicans (17.6%) being the largest single denomination. Other Christian denominations present are Seventh-day Adventist Church (12.4%), Pentecostalism (12.2%), Moravian Church (8.3%), Roman Catholics
(8.2%), Methodist Church (5.6%), Wesleyan Holiness Church (4.5%), Church of God (4.1%), Baptists (3.6%), Mormonism (<1.0%), as well as Jehovah's Witnesses.
== Government and politics ==
=== Government ===
thumb|The meeting place of the Parliament of Antigua and Barbuda
Antigua and Barbuda is a unitary parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy. The current Constitution of Antigua and Barbuda was adopted upon independence on 1 November 1981. This replaced the pre-independence constitution of the Associated State of Antigua, which did not thoroughly define the relationship between the two islands. The island of Barbuda maintains much autonomy, while the island of Antigua is directly governed by the national government.
The executive branch has two primary leaders. The Governor-General, currently Rodney Williams, exercises the functions of the Monarch of Antigua and Barbuda, in whom executive power is vested in. The Governor-General serves at the pleasure of the Monarch, and usually serves a similar term to that of the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister, currently , is the head of government, and is appointed by the Governor-General. The Prime Minister must be a member of the House of Representatives, and must be the member of the House of Representatives who is most likely to command the support of the majority of members. The Governor-General has the ability to dissolve Parliament on the advice of the Prime Minister, or when the majority of the members of the House of Representatives pass a motion of no confidence, and the Prime Minister does not within seven days resign or advise the Governor-General to dissolve Parliament.
The legislative power of Antigua and Barbuda is vested in Parliament, which is composed of the Monarch, the Senate, and the House of Representatives. The Senate is composed of seventeen members, who are appointed by the Governor-General. Ten of the members are appointed on the advice of the Prime Minister, these members being known as government senators. An eleventh government senator is also appointed on the advice of the Prime Minister, who must be an inhabitant of Barbuda. Four of the members are appointed on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition, these senators being known as opposition senators. One of the members is appointed on the advice of the Barbuda Council, and an independent senator is appointed under the discretion of the Governor-General himself. The House of Representatives is currently composed of seventeen elected members, as well as the Speaker of the House, who is elected by the members of the House itself. The Attorney General, while currently an elected member of Parliament, Steadroy Benjamin, may also be appointed to the House of Representatives as an ex officio member. The Attorney-General also attends sittings of the Senate. Any bill except money bills may be introduced in either chamber: money bills may only be introduced in the House. Parliament may not amend the Barbuda Local Government Act without the consent of the Barbuda Council.
The judiciary of Antigua and Barbuda is composed of the magistrates' courts, the Supreme Court including the High Court and the Court of Appeal, and finally the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, the country's final court. Antiguan and Barbudan voters rejected a proposal to make the Caribbean Court of Justice the final court in 2018.2018 Referendum Results ABEC Antigua and Barbuda is composed of three magistrates' courts districts, and is part of the Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court system. The acting chief justice of the Supreme Court is Mario Michel, serving since 5 May 2024.
Since the 1990s, the two major parties in Antigua have been the centre-right (formerly left-wing) Antigua and Barbuda Labour Party, and the left-wing social democratic United Progressive Party. The Labour Party and its predecessors have traditionally been the dominant party on the national level since the 1946 general elections, with brief pauses during the Progressive Labour Movement government (predecessor of the UPP) from 1971 to 1976, and the United Progressive Party government from 2004 until 2014. On Barbuda, dominant party is traditionally the Barbuda People's Movement, being the only political grouping in the Barbuda Council since 2023.
=== Administrative divisions ===
Antigua and Barbuda is composed of six parishes and two dependencies. Saint John is the most populous parish, home to well over half of Antigua and Barbuda's population. During colonial times, the parishes were governed by parish vestries, however, the parishes now lack any sort of government. Since the 2023 general elections, various proposals have been made to establish parish councils, however, as of June 2024, none have been established. The dependency of Redonda is part of the parish of Saint John under the Redonda Annexation Act, in Magistrates' District "A".
* Parishes
*# Saint George
*# Saint John
*# Saint Mary
*# Saint Paul
*# Saint Peter
*# Saint Philip
* Dependencies
*# Barbuda
*# Redonda	
Local government in Antigua and Barbuda is completely inactive, except for the Barbuda Council which is enshrined in the Constitution. Antigua historically had a system of village councils in the 1940s (although the legislation was never repealed), however, the Gaston Browne administration has expressed opposition to all forms of local governance. St. John's also historically had a city council during the late 1800s and early 1900s, however the St. John's Development Corporation has since consumed most of its functions.
=== Foreign relations ===
The Minister of Foreign Affairs, Trade & Barbuda Affairs is responsible for overseeing the foreign relations of Antigua and Barbuda. The current minister is Paul Chet Greene. Antigua and Barbuda is a founding member of the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States, as well as a member of the United Nations, the Caribbean Community, the Alliance of Small Island States, and the World Trade Organisation.
Antigua and Barbuda's foreign policy has been described by Gaston Browne as "we are friends of all; enemies of none". Antigua and Barbuda has rejected the notion that it is in any country's "backyard". Antigua and Barbuda usually maintains close relations with other Small Island Developing States, and has hosted various summits on that subject. The United Nations has also praised Antigua and Barbuda for its "United Nations-based multilateralism" efforts. Antigua and Barbuda also has close relations with many Caribbean countries and territories, especially Montserrat, which Antigua and Barbuda accepted 3,000 refugees from in 1997 after the Soufrière Hills eruption. Many policies adopted by the Antiguan and Barbudan government have also often had an impact on Montserrat, due to Antigua and Barbuda hosting the only air and transportation links into the territory.
=== Defence and national security ===
The Minister of Finance, Corporate Governance & Public Private Partnerships is responsible for the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force, the country's military. The Minister of Legal Affairs, Public Safety, Immigration and Labour is responsible for the national security of Antigua and Barbuda. The Defence Force consists of the Regiment (army), the Air Wing, the Coast Guard, and the Service and Support Battalion. The Defence Force is led by the Chief of Defence Staff, who is subject to the orders of the Governor-General. The Defence Force is headquartered at Camp Blizzard.
The National Security Council is responsible for the coordination of Antigua and Barbuda's national security. The National Security Adviser is a member of the council and is responsible for the gathering of intelligence and information on national security matters.
The Royal Police Force of Antigua and Barbuda is the national police department. The Special Service Unit is Antigua and Barbuda's police tactical unit. The Police Force is composed of four lettered regional divisions, and subordinated service districts.
===Human rights===
Same-sex sexual activity has been legal in Antigua and Barbuda since July 2022.
==Economy==
Tourism dominates the economy, accounting for more than half of the gross domestic product (GDP). As a destination for the most affluent travelers, Antigua is well known for its extensive collection of five-star resorts. However, weaker tourist activity in lower and middle market segments since the beginning of the year 2000 has slowed the economy and put the government into a tight fiscal corner. Antigua and Barbuda has enacted policies to attract high-net-worth citizens and residents, such as enacting a 0% personal income tax rate in 2019.
The provision of investment banking and financial services also constitutes a significant portion of the economy. Major international financial institutions such as the Royal Bank of Canada (RBC) and Scotiabank both maintain offices in Antigua. PriceWaterhouseCoopers, Pannell Kerr Forster, and KPMG are some of the other companies in the financial services industry that have offices in Antigua. In February 2009 the United States Securities and Exchange Commission leveled allegations against the Antigua-based Stanford International Bank, part of the Stanford Financial Group, which was owned by Texas billionaire Allen Stanford, of orchestrating a massive fraud that resulted in the theft of approximately $8 billion from investors. He was charged and arrested later that year. In March 2012 he was convicted and sentenced to life in prison.
The nation, which consists of two islands, directs the majority of its agricultural production toward the markets that are found within the nation. This is done despite the fact that the nation has a limited water supply and a shortage of laborers as a result of the higher wages offered in the tourism and construction industries.
Manufacturing comprises 2% of GDP and is made up of enclave-type assembly for export, the major products being bedding, handicrafts, and electronic components. Prospects for economic growth in the medium term will continue to depend on income growth in the industrialised world, especially in the United States, from which about one-third to one-half of all tourists come.
Access to biocapacity is lower than world average. In 2016, Antigua and Barbuda had 0.8 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016, Antigua and Barbuda used 4.3 global hectares of biocapacity per person – their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use more biocapacity than Antigua and Barbuda contains. As a result, Antigua and Barbuda are running a biocapacity deficit.
The Citizenship by Investment Unit (CIU) is the government authority responsible for processing all applications for Agent's Licenses as well as all applications for Citizenship by Investment made by applicants and their family members. This unit was established by the Prime Minister and is known as the Citizenship by Investment Unit.
== Culture ==
thumb|Antigua Carnival
The music of Antigua and Barbuda has some African characteristics, with minimal influence from European music, but the music is distinct. McDaniel, pp. 798-800 The first known records of music in Antigua and Barbuda dates back to Christopher Columbus' discovery of the island nation in 1493, when it was still home to Arawak and Carib people. Still, very little research has been done on early music from the islands. African labourers are documented in history to have danced outside in the 1780s to the toombah (later tum tum), a drum adorned with tin and shell jingles, and the banjar (later bangoe, maybe related to the European banjo). cited in McDaniel, pp 798-800 Antigua's indigenous music, known as Benna, came into being after slavery was abolished. Benna uses a call-and-response format, and its audience is typically interested in obscene gossip and rumours. Benna was widely utilised as a popular communication tool by the beginning of the 20th century, disseminating information around the island. Antigua and Barbuda's Cultural Heritage and McDaniel, pp 798-800
Benna has long been eclipsed by Calypso and increasingly Soca, which includes South Asian rhythms.
The art of Antigua and Barbuda began with the Arawak people. Their artwork included pictographs and petroglyphs. These geometric shapes, animals, and plant artworks are said to have been used for ceremonial or religious purposes. Painting, sculpture, and ceramics were among the artistic traditions that European settlers brought to Antigua and Barbuda. Local painters used European art forms to produce Antiguan and Barbudan art in their own unique styles. Social issues, nature, and Caribbean identity were the subjects of this artwork. Traditional crafts from Antigua and Barbuda include scrimshaw, pottery, sculptures, ethnic dolls, and photography.
Every year, on the island of Antigua, people celebrate their freedom from slavery with the Antigua Carnival modelled after European pre-Lent Carnival. Over thirteen days, there are brightly coloured costumes, talent events, beauty pageants and music. The celebration runs from late July to Carnival Tuesday, the first Tuesday in August. On the island, Carnival Tuesday and Monday are both observed as public holidays. In an effort to boost travel to Antigua and Barbuda, the Old Time Christmas Festival was replaced in 1957 by the Antiguan Carnival. Another annual festival held in Antigua is Antigua Sailing Week. Sailing Week is a week-long yacht regatta held in the waters of English Harbour. Sailing Week was founded in 1967 and is known for being one of the top regattas in the world. The main festival held in Barbuda is Caribana. Caribana takes place every year during Whit Monday weekend and features various pageants, calypso competitions, and weekend beach parties.
Antigua and Barbuda has eleven public holidays. On the advice of the Cabinet, the Governor-General may also proclaim other holidays. Historically, about three weeks before Christmas Day, carol singers would roam the various villages, carrying carol trees and lanterns. "John Bulls" are replicas of "masked African witch doctors", that often dominated the country's Christmas festivities. Jazz bands were also common sights, dressed in red and green clown costumes.
=== Cuisine ===
 The islands cusine is mostly of European origin (UK and Portugal) with regional ingredients. Fungee (pronounced "foon-jee") and pepperpot are the national dishes. Fungee is a cornmeal-based dish that resembles polenta "Antigua & Barbuda National Dish & Recipe." Recipeisland.com. Pepperpot is a spinach and okra stew, with and without beef parts or chicken. Accessed July 2011. Other national foods include saltfish (cod), lobster (from Barbuda), ducana (a sweet dumpling made from sweet potatoes amd coconut), and seasoned rice, similar to palau or arroz con pollo. Additionally, there are confections such as peanut brittle, sugar cake (made from coconut and sugar), fudge, and raspberry (local) and tamarind stew (sauce). The Antigua black pineapple is prized for its juicy, sweet flesh. It is a well-liked fruit in the area and is included in many regional specialties and sweets. It is said to be the sweetest variety of pineapple.
An important part of the Antiguan and Barbudan breakfast is Antigua Sunday bread. It is sold in many bakeries on both islands, and instead of being made with butter, it is made with lard. There are often decorative twists on the crust of the bread. Antiguan raisin buns, often called "bun and cheese", is another traditional bread, which is sweet and most popular during Easter. It is sometimes made with spices such as nutmeg.
=== Sport ===
Cricket is the most popular sport within the islands. With Sir Isaac Vivian Alexander Richards who represented the West Indies cricket team between 1974 and 1991, Antigua had one of the world's most famous batsmen ever. The Antigua and Barbuda national cricket team represented the country at the 1998 Commonwealth Games, but Antiguan cricketers otherwise play for the Leeward Islands cricket team in domestic matches and the West Indies cricket team internationally. Teams from the various villages and parishes compete in the Parish League.
Association football is the second most popular sport in the country, with the Antigua and Barbuda national football team being founded in 1928.
==See also==
*
* Outline of Antigua and Barbuda
* Index of Antigua and Barbuda–related articles
==Notes==
==References==
==Further reading==
* Nicholson, Desmond V., Antigua, Barbuda, and Redonda: A Historical Sketch, St. Johns, Antigua: Antigua and Barbuda Museum, 1991.
* Dyde, Brian, A History of Antigua: The Unsuspected Isle, London: Macmillan Caribbean, 2000.
* Gaspar, David Barry – Bondmen & Rebels: A Study of Master-Slave Relations in Antigua, with Implications for Colonial America.
* Harris, David R. – Plants, Animals, and Man in the Outer Leeward Islands, West Indies. An Ecological Study of Antigua, Barbuda, and Anguilla.
* Henry, Paget – Peripheral Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Antigua.
* Lazarus-Black, Mindie – Legitimate Acts and Illegal Encounters: Law and Society in Antigua and Barbuda.
* Riley, J. H. – Catalogue of a Collection of Birds from Barbuda and Antigua, British West Indies.
* Rouse, Irving and Birgit Faber Morse – Excavations at the Indian Creek Site, Antigua, West Indies.
* Thomas Hearne. Southampton.
==External links==
* 
* 
* Antigua and Barbuda, United States Library of Congress
* Antigua and Barbuda. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
* Antigua and Barbuda from UCB Libraries GovPubs
* Antigua and Barbuda from the BBC News
* World Bank's country data profile for Antigua and Barbuda
* ArchaeologyAntigua.org – 2010March13 source of archaeological information for Antigua and Barbuda
* Antigua & Barbuda Official Business Hub
 
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