Space geopolitique

Space bifangh ab Stats accelereneut-se pon id lancen iom presten commercialen pleuks in 2017 ab id US grupp Virgin Galactic ed weitwoddt id vol os projection iom national stieures trans ia senst grances os menscgenos. SpaceX mehldt id lancen dien 29 Jun 2018 ios prest artificial intelligence robot quod ghehdt interage con menscens in space. Tod "pleukend kers" in aunvyigia, tem tanghu quem un basket ball, buit concepen dank 3D drucken ed ia paurskens ios deutsch space agence. Id Russian space agence Roskosmos mehldt in 2018 id siet yises sien prestem touriste do Mars, menxu i Chinese mualims hant just aunkohldert id model uns robot quod solliet lande ep Mars in 2020. Leitti ter de un druv space drahsa quos scientific, economic edschi geopolitic pands serve ad nov uder space prospects. Space hat biht sammel un territorium om stieure ed commercial antslehnken. Ia Stats bruncskwnt ia civil possibilitats anacen ab id space krig. Menxu tod buit preter id fact iom Uniet Stats os America ed ios USSR unte id Srig Weir, wehst nundiens in id kerd ios antslehnkenstrategia iom emergent mercats, skoip Brasilu, Hind au China. Ia economic actors intervene kathalika do tod space krigo kay ghehde ruydes ia space ressurces.
 
Sputnik-1 (Спутник-1) buit Terras prest artificial satellite. Id USSR orbitisihsit id ellipctic-ye ghem ambh uper id Ardho dien 4 October 1957, ed id swohbh unte tri hevds pre ids batteries aunsroviesc, dind silent-ye unte dwo idafi munts pre nifalle do id atmosphere. Eet un 58cm plaut polihno metall sphere, samt quar extro radio antennes kay irsale radio pulses. Tod radio signal eet facil-ye detectible hatta ab radio amateurs, ed id 65° inclination ed duren od ids orbit uperswehbhihsit id amalan hol Weicmen. Id neanticipen success tos satellite precipitit id US Sputnik crise ed slur id space ernu, un part ios Srig Weir. Ids lehncen buit id inkapem unios nov era om politic, militar, technologic ed scientific antslehnkens. 
== Id desployment iom space imkans, alat ios geostrategia iom nations ==
Space biht un geopolitic pand in id druna ios XXt secule unte id srig weir context quod oppont ia USA ed id USSR. Ia perspectives id porct iti dreibhe id wehngen ios stieure iom Stats kay bifanghe id. Ids exploration, idso scientific gnohsa dind ids reuyden sont id fact iom Stats sekwent ir space imkans, reflegend id hierarchia iom stieures. In uno mund quod biht multipolar, pos id pehden ios USSR in 1991 ed id fin ios srig weir, nov stieures participe id space krig ed besonters ia emergent mercats. 
In ia 1930tias, id gnohsa ios space remant un challenge. Id notion os "space krig" prehpt unte ia 1950tias in un bipolar mund dominen ab ia USA ed id USSR. In 1957-1958, id UNESCO lancet in id quader ios International Geophysic Yar id project os oistudye, pos ia polar iklimes, "hol Terra" per soks de ia continents, oceans, atmosphere ed solar activitat qua (1957 UNESCO reporto de id International Geophysic Yar), "prefigure logic-ye id megst aventure el mensc est appellen ad gwive, space exploration."
Space krig esti tunkye un wassila kay kardwne sien strategic position face el duschman. In un jidal quod oppont capitalisme ad communisme pro "progress", id militar ed ballistic imkan quod hamraht ia spacial programmes seuwt un baygh akster ideologic, mediatic, economic ed financial mobilisation. Space biht ye tod yar 1957 un geopolitic object med id lancen os Sputnik. Id mediatisation ios wakya kardwnt id geopolitic perodhia ios USSR menxu ia USA aynt id uperpleuk irs territorium ab id sovietsko satellite ka uno menace exacerben ab id srig weir context. Space est tun object uns politic instrumentalisation. Unte tod "spehrd po space", kowpe i Sovietski ia "premieres", yeisend iom prest wir dind iam prest gwen do space we deughend ia prest photographias os Lunas kohlt gon. Ia USA reike id ernu med id Apollo programme ed id stieup al prest mensc ep Luna in 1969. Tod forme os srig weir drehden est bilhassa id fact iom occidental fikers. Esdi el cosmonaut skipit perfect-ye pro i Sovietskens el communiste nov mensc, spacial investiono ne eet un prioritat. Id challenge buit bilhassa lancet ab ia USA vis-à-vis seswo, id USSR ne behandend ia sam financial wassilas. Id USSR remant presto de bemannt pleuks yant 1975. Tod technologic weir levern eni srig weir hat consequences pro id antplehcen iom moderne technologias kam Internet au mobil telephonia.
Id space krig est un wassila os projece id stieure iom Stats do space. Estschi id reflect ios hierarchia iom stieures. Iamen USA ed USSR sont ia presta ep id startligne ios spehrdios do Luna, sont de ia Asiat nations con China, Japan ed Hind. Oino iom ambiguitats ios space competence iom Stats dependt id fact od est assocyet ei nuclear competence. Tik Japan, vassal iom Uniet Stats, est un exception tei reul pon sieno marloubia in 1945. Quando China mehldt id lehncen siens pres satellite in 1970, Hind insaft id naudh os inmarche do id sector kay bihe un "augos". Id sam logique animet Israel in ids vol om independence ed contribution ad national securitat bohndt ibs Uniet Stats. Alya Stats taunaynt space stieure ed it un international recognition skoip Iran, Pakistan, Nord Korea, Sud Africa. Estschi un wassila pro ia kay tege programmes os nuclear bwuki. Ithan denounce in 1998 ia Uniet Stats id strehlen os missil Taepo Dong os Nord Korea quod vibuit interpretet ka un deuysus space lehncen. Sud Korea tyeict sien prest lehncer test in 2009. Space endut un hog-ye "strategic" kweit augen med sien symbolic ed mediatic force. Vasya satellite lehncens ne hant lakin id sam clangho quem id Sputnik. France bruncti dar un akster udclangho kun id lehnct satellite Astérix in 1975 idghi buit id trito stieure quod ghehdt kwehre id pos id USSR ed ia Uniet Stats. Unte id presto Chinese space pleuk in 2003, Yang Liweis epos interesset id hol mund. China prehpti tun ka id prest antslehnkend land quod ghehdt comspehrde in id ernu po space uperwaldh. Id hierarchia iom stieures present in space est id reflect os classic geopolitique. Ia Uniet Stats xeihnti meis quem id dwidel iom operational satellites dalg perodher quem Russia quod contet payn 10% ex ia, China 5%, Europe 4% au Japan 2% in 2010. Europe emt place in id spehrdsector iom independent navigationsystemes med id Galileo constellation comprindend trigim satellites quom operationalo lehncen ubgwehmti medsu December 2016. Id complete enservicen est previs pro 2020 quod ei permittsiet brunges ia recentsta technologias ed dadwe informations inter decs ed centens preciser quem id GPS (Global Positioning System). Id US Armee hieb lohnct id GPS in 1995, dind id Russian Glonass biht proposen in 1996 pre id Chinese Compass yaschi kalneut Beidou pon 2012 ed quos enservicen est plant ab 2020. Ia Uniet Stats hant un strategic perodhia : in fall os conflict con un Stat neuder ios GPS ghehdent ei blocke id access do id. Ye id top ios hierarchia iom special stieures wehse ia magn economic stieures. Eti, id mediatic beorbaten os space information reflect id hierarchia iom stieures qua sont a priori ia meis avancen de special competences. Esdi, in id regard om siena nov economic ed geopolitic ambitions, China prehpt in id mediatic logos ka id saul stieure quod ghehdt spehrde con ia Uniet Stats, ids real zariyas lyehge leloip meg cis ia US imkans. In 2014, id dwidel ios US militar budget est consecret ad space krig menxu leitti de tienxia prest militar budget. To permitti technologic perodhias ed muhim benefice marges pro ia US space industries.
Idmen Sud-Eust Asia iklime kwecto biht id geoeconomic ed geopolitic pivot ios mund, id de asiatisation ios space questionios ne est recent. Chinas prest ambitions manifestent-se yant ia 1960tias. China lancet sien presto satellite in 1970 ed ab ia 1990tias aurghti regular lancens om raketes ed bemannta missions. In 1998, id hat creet id "Shenzou waurnvecel". In 2003, id biht id trit nation quod yeist med sien wi zariyas un mensc do space. Dec yars serter, pos id gumto do magh os Xi Yiping, id lancet id dalgtosniht vehicule "jade cuincule" do id lunar orbit bet tod hat pior aus un avaria. Economic antslehnken est id principal motor ios space krig pro China ed Hind. China men eiskwt un "harmonieus antslehnken" ed Hindo de uno neud os space pro un application ibs telecommunications, meteorologia, agriculture, education au sanitat. Space est un zariya pro ta emergent mercats kay accedde id status os bihtur augos. In 2015 biht space krig pro China uno national cause, surce os myndert. Beuwnd innovation id stut siens antslehnken, id lancet in 2016 id presto satellite samt quantic communication. Id permitt ia beciffert communications ed resiste cada tentative spionage. Id hat publien id itnermap os sien space programme tiel 2040. Id daht sien vision de space transport ed id technologic ed scientific objectives. Kardwnskwt sien accessimkan do space. Hindo de yeist un satellite sonde ambh Mart in 2015 in un vol os affirme-se strategic-ye face i Chinesens, Japanesens, Koreans, edschi Pakistanis ed Iranis. Yant 2016 id lancet un scalmodel os space swoi kay se positione ep id mercat iom space vehicules. Rar sont ia lands qua ne se beghabe nundiens-ye med un space programme kay garantie ir independence. Japan ed Sud Korea ne skape tod prabhil, ni Nord Korea, esdi id est contesten. 
Id kardwnen ios presence iom asiat nations in space hamraht id mutateulgen ios mund kya Suds ed id affirmation om emergent ed antslehnkend mercats ep id tienxia geopolitic ed special scene.
 Id "Jade Cuincule" (Chinese : 玉兔, Pinyin : Yùtù) eet un robotic lunar rover part ios Chinese Chang'e 3 mission do Luna. Buit lohncto dien 1sto December 2013 ed niek id surface ios meun dien 14 December 2013. Tod mission skeipt id prest controlen landen ep Luna pon 1976 ed id prest rover quod operit ter pon id Sovietsk Lunokhod 2 zatyohc dien 11 Mai 1973.
Id rover incontrit operational difficultats circum id end ios second lunar dien pos kamyabus survive ed ganises ex id prest quardemyawm lunar noct. Id khiek move pos id end ios second lunar dien, quayque id nacollexit util information unte sema munts poskwo. In October 2015, Jade Cuincule niek id record ios longst operational periode uns rover ep Luna. Dien 31 Jul 2016, Jade Cuincule zawohrg pos un total om 31 munts, baygh trans sien tienjien-ye exspecten jumiung om tri munts.
==Space bifangh samt id risk uns weir in space ?==
Id relation inter menscens ed space esti tod os aunstehgen, os gnohsa dind os vol os reuyden eti os bifangh eni-yod i aurght actors maghient gwehme do conflict. Est un "star weir" dar possible menxu id strategia iom Stats kwecto evolvt kyun cooperation eni id quader ios space krig ?
Id menscenoccupation os space ed bemannt pleuks oiskaunt id influence iom stieures ed sont un zariya kay rekehgnihes ir liderspect. In 2010, ia Uniet Stats oistope ir swoien pleuks, quo linkwt place ei affirmation iom competencen altern stieures. I US civs sonti dalgtos i kathirest qui gwahr space, uper i Russians, Europays, Canadians, Japanesens, Chinesens, dind i Kazakhs ed Ukrainskens. I mensci do space reflege id traditional rol iom stieures in international relations. Africas absence est notor. Tik id pleuk os un Sud-African "touriste", parat ad payghe 30 millions dollaren po eyso safer, illustret ids presence in space menxu id numer Asiaten auct. Id relation inter menscens ed space est todschi iom nations po bifangh. 
Bi economic sababs sont ia Stats parat ad se assocye kay persehkwe id space krig. Oin im precursors tos vol os space cooperation est Ronald Reagan qui presentet in 1984 id ISS project. In 1985 id ESA assocyet-se ei programme, dind Russia in 1993 ed Brasilu in 1997. Ids construction tyehct inter 1998 ed 2011. Id skeipt id mierst orbitisiht artificial object. Tod vol os cooperationo ne esti semper successwent. In 2011, China ed Russia deuyse de coopere pro uno mission kye Mars. Bet in 2014, China, ia USA ed Russia ghehdent dehe bigon ira rivalitats pro mundial cooperation os exploration ios universe. Leit, trans tod cooperation, de swekwehre id monopol iom Stats dayir gnohsa ed technologia. Japan, gainskwnd un swobodia marge in sien space programme vis-à-vis ia Uniet Stats, decidt ses active eni id quader om commun studies con France ed Deutschland kay antplehce un lehncer pro 2020. Id Japanese agence bringht sien sagven de reneudet cryogenic motor, Europe sien lehncen base in Guyana. Hind pro un ieftin space krig cheust cooperation. Id African continent, tuntro gwupen apank ud id space krig, intervent in 2017 dank un continental cooperation. Also, Angola lehnct un satellite ed Nigeria biht id prest African space stieure. Id project uns African Space Agence dehlcti kwahe international stehmens ed biht un legitim ambition ye id XXIsto secule ob id emergence tos continent.
 Id International Space Station (ISS) est un weikim artificial satellite in ghem Terran orbit. Id ISS programme est un joint project inter penk participant space agences : NASA (USA), Roskosmos (Russia), ESA (Europe), ed CSA/ASC (Canada). Id vetat ed neud ios space station est pact ab international traiteits ed playcts.
Id ISS daughti ka microgravitat ed space-ambient paurskenslaboratorium in-yod nieute members tyeice experiments in biologia, physique, astronomia, meteorologia ed alya xeimens. Id station est adapten kay teste spacefanzow systemes ed schowbeys naudht pro missions do Luna ed Mars. Id ISS teinti sien orbit ye mutawassit 400 km altitude med rexeud maneuvres neudend ia motors ios Zviesda module au visitanten spacenauks. Id begeirt uper Terra unte takriban 92 minutes ed tyeict 15,5 orbits pro yawm.
Id station esti divis in dwo sections, id Russian Orbital Segment (ROS), operen ab Russia, ed id Uniet Stats Orbital Segment (USOS), smyohrn ab maunga nations. Id station est planen kay opere tiel 2030.
==Un territorialisation os space in ia ghesors iom economic actors ?==
Med space krigo ghyanht un nov rewos ibs commercial opsims. Ghehdiet duce uni territorialisation ios ciautaung sanschan ab ia public ed privat actors. It biht iskwt id werd ios privatisation os space krig, betschi ios necessar anticipation ios definition ios diksambhriss ad ei dahe, kam iom legitim economic, scientific ed ambiental ambhrissen.
Space reuyden est id reflection ios projection iom terran tulas. Id "space club" prehpt ka un cluso club om six lands. Ia Uniet Stats hieb lancet id Constitution programme kay concepe novator technologias ed definihes id nov US "vision" os space exploration tiel 2020. Buit tyohgven in 2010. Menxu id mercat om space est tuntro reservet ibs Uniet Stats, ei Europay Union ed ad Russia, ia US firmas kam Space X introduce un akster concurrence inter public au privat actors penetrend-ye tod sector. Id entreprise hat tyicen id exploit in Aprile 2016 os landihes ep un platforme ep id Atlantic Ocean id prest etage siens plurtonne lehncer propulgen ye meis quem 28 000 km/h altitude. To permit reduce id cost os orbitisation, quo biht ayt uno menace pro Europe. Takriban 10% ios europay BIP dependiet ia satellite positionen systemes. Tod part ghehdiet nake 30% ios BIP future-ye. Bi tod sabab hat id EU Commission chust investe do Galileo. Id miniaturisation om satellites ed id augen irs numer bayeihnti nov neuds. Alya economic actors kam One Web, Google au Facebook ghehdient tun satisfice ia Internet access wans om meis quem 2 milliards leuden qui sont exclus ex id. "Spacial tourisme" biht unschi "niche" quod enspehrdt public ed privat actors. China, yeji id itnermap os sien special programme pro ia 2017-2045 yars, plant beghabe-se med un space economia dank id madenn reuyden iom asteroids. Id hat kaschi project installe un solaro srovgehn do space. Id model os space industrie formet un ecosysteme samt akster addiht wirt. Ia Stats ed ir agencies kam id ESA neti sont ia sauls qua intervene. Senters age ka client aun wi imkan os lehncen we financend-ye ed managend-ye ia lehncpads. Ia privat actors qua age in space sont consortia em lehncoperators, operators om lehncpads, au makhers om raketes, sondes ed satellites. Also, id astronautic entreprise os Elon Musk tyeict raketen lehncens qua bihnt plaut-ye irsalt ep ia social netwehrgs. Id "Google Lunar X Prize" dehlct permitte ei prest entreprise quod ghehdsiet yises un vecel do id meun algve 20 millions dollaren. Ids mission esiet eme hog-definition photographias ed videos dank un robot ed transmitte ia do Terra. Esdi Google hat sgwohmen ex id project in 2018, id X Prize foundation paursct nov entreprises kay sponsore id operation ed parduce id. 
Face id juxtaposition om traditional public actors qua sont ia Stats ed om privat actors, id werdo de privatisation ios space krig maght bihe iskwn. Id strategia iom privat operators bezielt hamrahe tod iom Stats ed ne rencause id. Id satellite mercat pro communications est kongcio ghyanen ibs commercial neuds. Lakin, ia Uniet Stats, Russia ed id Europay Union remane xihtors iom dwo dwidels iom orbitisihn satellites. Id sector maght bihe dynamiset tik ab public expense. Also, public ed privat actors akster-ye dependent mutu. Id dual aspect iom space imkans, tant civil quem militar, esti due tod synergia iom public ed privat actors. Dwo textes evolveihnt id legislation de space ressurces. In 2015, id Space Act in ia USA permit un ubnuwen os US space ieus, de privat ed commercial pleuks, ed de madenn industrie. Id lego concernt wed ed minerals, bet ne gwit. Ia USA ne keupe souverainitat via tod leg. In 2017, Luxembourg weidt kathalika un leg. 
Id space aventure esti sammel kwohrn ex spehrd ed cooperation ed tod challenge keiht in id definition uns diksquader kay organise ia scientific ed economic activitats, edschi kwenchaue ia ambiental nifalls. Skoip quo tyehct abord id International Space Station bihnt iskwn plur dikswerds : quod est bayght ? Qualgo loy esti ter dostrinctu ? Quod jinkdouiet sei un crime bihiet commiss in orbit ? Id diksquader ios station gwehmt ender id international traiteit signet in 1998. Ia Uniet Stats sont instituet roigions ios international cooperation. Id ESA quod comprindti dwogimdwo europay Stats est un structure independent ud id Europay Union. Schweiz ed Norge, non-members ios EU, hant signet id traiteito de id ESA. Ielg participant dehlcti dadwe schowbeys ei station. Cada ISS module est registern ab sien Stat os origin. In id regard ios traiteit sem difficultats maghient ubgwehme. In fall om scientific aunstehgens qua naudhient bihe patentiret, bihiet iskwn id werdo de ir vetat. Uno massouliaregime inter Stats buit concepen kay tyehgve cada sudye in fall os dawa. Sei uno gnahsa esiet possible in uno module ios station, id nationalitat al purt esiet tod ios land in-yod id module est registert. Exter tod playcto de id ISS, existneunt international traiteits pon 1967. Neid Stat poitt bifanghe sanschan. To rencauset ia colonisationsplans os Elon Musk qua dehlcsient tyehce in id respect os international ieus. Trans ia gwehmtur diksevolutions, id space krigo ghyanti nov prospective dimensions. Ghehdiet permitte id perodhia os international cooperation kyun novo forme os tienxia au space gouvernance. Ye id economic nivell, space ghehdiet bihe id projectionsloc iom terran ambitions de reuyden iom madenn ressurcen, om "kshitowa" present ep Mars, betschi om platin, helium-3 ed wed in id lunar swol. Lunar expedition est un pand pro id yeisen om space sondes. Face id multiplication om intervenant actors multiplient-se kathalika ia menaces ye ia nivells tant os securitat quem os ambient ob id question os zibelbewaldhen. Technologic innovation in space permitt semschi important brineghs ye id ambiental nivell kam un gohder gnohsa iom enderghomwedernts mathalan. Satellites ghehdent hehlpe ad organise un gohder management om terran ressurces dank weterprognohsas. 
Ia Stats neti sont ia sauls qui intervene do space krig. Tyeicent synergies con ia economic actors. Un privatisation os space krigo kwehct inkapen ed id question om grances in space est un debat quod remant ghyant ed naudhsiet negociations.
 US Astronaut Anne McClain ed is son as ays (prever) conjug Summer Worden. McClain buit in mission in id ISS ex December 2018 do Jun 2019, pos oistartus un divorce proceddure adversus Worden, ia hieb ghamen in 2014. In August 2019, Worden anac un sudye bei NASA ob ia suspect McClain spionit ays bankconto pon un ISS computer. To maghiet ses id prest delicto commiss in uder space : in tod fall, id US justice est competent kemti id ISS diksquader chunke bo parties sont US civs.
Ia spacial ambitions iom Stats remanent multiple : leadership pro ia USA, economia ios gnohsa pro Europe bila politic magh, economic ed nationaliste udnoven in Russia, securitar ed technologic wehnd pro Japan, international recognition pro China auti signe os modernitat pro Hind. Ta ambitions ambhreissent space geopolitique. Space est in id kerd ios projection om ghomen kaurs prect ab un geocentrisme. In id kerd unios nov gouvernance trans id tienxia maschtab, space maghti kwehke kam id camp os planetar solidaritat.