Safavid conversion of Iran from Sunnism to Shiism

The Safavid conversion of Iran from Sunnism to Shiism made Iran the spiritual bastion of Shia Islam against the onslaughts of orthodox Sunni Islam, and the repository of Persian cultural traditions and self-awareness of Iranianhood, acting as a bridge to modern Iran. Through their actions, the Safavids reunified Iran as an independent state in 1501 and established Twelver Shiism as the official religion of their empire, marking one of the most important turning points in the history of Islam.
==Pre-Safavid Iran==
Iran’s population was mostly Sunni of the Shafi`iThe golden age of Islam, By Maurice Lombard, pg.Xiv and Hanafi legal rites until the triumph of the Safavids (who had initially been Shafi`i Sunnis themselves)."Iran: Safavid Period", Encyclopedia Iranica by Hamid Algar. Excerpt: "The Safavids originated as a hereditary lineage of Sufi shaikhs centered on Ardabil, Shafe‘ite in school and probably Kurdish in origin." These Sunni Iranians had always held the family of Muhammad in high esteem.Timurids in transition: Turko-Persian politics and acculturation in Medieval ..., By Maria Subtelny, pg.62 In contrast, before the Safavid period, a minority of Iranians were Shia and there had been relatively few Shia Ulema in Iran.Islam, continuity and change in the modern world, By John Obert Voll, pg.80
==Ismail I==
From 1500-02 Ismail I conquered Tabriz, Azerbaijan and Armenia. He would take most of the next decade to consolidate his control over Iran, where most of the Persian population was still Sunni. His army spread out first to the central regions in 1504. He captured southwestern Iran between 1505 and 1508 before finally conquering the Khorasan region and the city of Herat in 1510.Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces, By Steven R. Ward, pg.43 From the very beginning the Safavid Dynasty was established on two foundations. One was Shia and the other was Persia, and Ismail concentrated more on the first than the second. His hatred of the Sunnis knew no bounds and he was the most intolerant Shia ruler since the fall of the Fatimids and his persecution of Sunnis was ruthless. He aimed at no less than the complete destruction of Sunnism.A new introduction to Islam, By Daniel W. Brown, pg.191 Thus, the alternative for the majority of the Persians (who were Sunnis at the time), was either convert to Shiism or accept death.Iran and America: re-kindling a love lost, By Badi Badiozamani, pg.174-175 Consequently, in the territory that came fully under his control he was astonishingly successful in enforcing the conversion of the populace from Sunnism to Shiism.
====Reasons for Ismail’s conversion policy====
More than most Muslim dynasties the Safavids worked for conversion to their branch of Islam and for ideological conformity. The reasons for this conversion included:
*One of the main reasons for such rigor by Ismail and his followers, was to give Iran ideological and political distinction and identity and to distinguish Iran vis-à-vis its two neighboring Sunni Turkish military-political enemies, the Ottoman Empire to the west and, for a time, the Central Asian Uzbeks to the north-east.Modern Iran: roots and results of revolution, By Nikki R. Keddie, Yann Richard, pg.11Iran: religion, politics, and society : collected essays, By Nikki R. Keddie, pg.91The Azerbaijani Turks: power and identity under Russian rule, By Audrey L. Altstadt, pg.5
*Several wars between the Iranians and Ottomans, which were a long struggle, provided continual encouragement for the Safavids to strengthen the Shia identity of Iran.Modern Iran: roots and results of revolution, By Nikki R. Keddie, Yann Richard, pg.11
*The Shiitization of Iran was part of the process of constructing a territorialized state apparatus.The failure of political Islam, By Olivier Roy, Carol Volk, pg.170
====Methods of converting Iran====
Ismail consolidated his rule over the country and launched a thorough and at times brutal campaign to convert the majority Sunni population to Twelver Shiism and thus transform the religious landscape of Iran.The modern Middle East: a political history since the First World War, By Mehran Kamrava, pg.29 His methods of converting Iran included:
*Imposing Shiism as the state and mandatory religion for the whole nation and much forcible conversions of Iranian Sunnis to Shiism.Modern Iran: roots and results of revolution, By Nikki R. Keddie, Yann Richard, pg.13, 20The Encyclopedia of world history: ancient, medieval, and modern ... By Peter N. Stearns, William Leonard Langer, pg.360Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces, By Steven R. Ward, pg.43
*He reintroduced the Sadr (Arabic, leader) – an office that was responsible for supervising religious institutions and endowments. With a view to transforming Iran into a Shiite state, the Sadr was also assigned the task of disseminating Twelver doctrine.Iran: a short history : from Islamization to the present, By Monika Gronke, pg.91
*He destroyed Sunni mosques. This was even noted by Tomé Pires, the Portuguese ambassador to China who visited Iran in 1511-12, who when referring to Ismail noted: “He (i.e. Ismail) reforms our churches, destroys the houses of all Moors who follow (the Sunnah of) Muhammad…”The Judeo-Persian poet ‘Emrānī and his "Book of treasure": ‘Emrānī's Ganǰ ..., By ‘Emrānī, David Yeroushalmi, pg.20
*He enforced the ritual and compulsory cursing of the first three Sunni Caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman) as usurpers, from all mosques, disbanded Sunni Tariqahs and seized their assets, used state patronage to develop Shia shrines, institutions and religious art and imported Shia scholars to replace Sunni scholars.A new introduction to Islam, By Daniel W. Brown, pg.191Encyclopaedic Historiography of the Muslim World, By NK Singh, A Samiuddin, pg.90The Cambridge illustrated history of the Islamic world, By Francis Robinson, pg.72
*He shed Sunni blood and destroyed and desecrated the graves and mosques of Sunnis. This caused the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid II (who initially congratulated Ismail on his victories) to advise and ask the young monarch (in a “fatherly” manner) to stop the anti-Sunni actions. However, Ismail was strongly anti-Sunni and ignored the Sultans warning and continued to spread the Shia faith by the sword.Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces, By Steven R. Ward, pg.44Iran and America: re-kindling a love lost, By Badi Badiozamani, pg.174-175
*He persecuted, imprisoned and executed stubbornly resistant Sunnis.The Cambridge illustrated history of the Islamic world, By Francis Robinson, pg.72Iraq: Old Land, New Nation in Conflict, By William Spencer, pg.51
*With the establishment of Safavid rule, there was a very raucous and colourful, almost carnival-like holiday on 26 Dhu al-Hijjah (or alternatively, 9 Rabi' al-awwal) celebrating the murder of Caliph Umar. The highlight of the day was making an effigy of Umar to be cursed, insulted, and finally burned. However, as relations between Iran and Sunni countries improved, the holiday was no longer observed (at least officially).Culture and customs of Iran, By Elton L. Daniel, ‘Alī Akbar Mahdī, pg.185
*In 1501 Ismail invited all the Shia living outside Iran to come to Iran and be assured of protection from the Sunni majority.Iraq: Old Land, New Nation in Conflict, By William Spencer, pg.51
==The fate of Sunni and Shia Ulema (scholars)==
====Sunni Ulema====
The early Safavid rulers took a number of steps against the Sunni Ulema of Iran. These steps included giving the Ulema the choice of conversion, death, or exileA new introduction to Islam, By Daniel W. Brown, pg.191The Middle East and Islamic world reader, By Marvin E. Gettleman, Stuart Schaar, pg.42Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces, By Steven R. Ward, pg.43 and massacring the Sunni clerics who resisted the Shia transformation of Iran, as witnessed in Herat.The failure of political Islam, By Olivier Roy, Carol Volk, pg.170 As a result, many Sunni scholars who refused to adopt the new religious direction lost their lives or fled to the neighboring Sunni states.Conceptualizing/re-conceptualizing Africa: the construction of African ..., By Maghan Keita, pg.90Iran: a short history : from Islamization to the present, By Monika Gronke, pg.90
====Arab Shia Ulema====
After the conquest, Ismail began transforming the religious landscape of Iran by imposing Twelver Shiism on the populace. Since most of the population embraced Sunni Islam and since an educated version of Shiism was scarce in Iran at the time, Ismail imported a new Shia Ulema corps from traditional Shiite centers of the Arabic speaking lands, such as Jabal Amil (of Southern Lebanon), Bahrain and Southern Iraq in order to create a state clergy. Ismail offered them land and money in return for loyalty. These scholars taught the doctrine of Twelver Shiism and made it accessible to the population and energetically encouraged conversion to Shiism.The failure of political Islam, By Olivier Roy, Carol Volk, pg.170The Cambridge illustrated history of the Islamic world, By Francis Robinson, pg.72The Middle East and Islamic world reader, By Marvin E. Gettleman, Stuart Schaar, pg.42The Encyclopedia of world history: ancient, medieval, and modern ... By Peter N. Stearns, William Leonard Langer, pg.360 To emphasize how scarce Twelver Shiism was then to be found in Iran, a chronicler tells us that only one Shia text could be found in Ismail’s capital Tabriz.Iran: religion, politics, and society : collected essays, By Nikki R. Keddie, pg.91 Thus it is questionable whether Ismail and his followers could have succeeded in forcing a whole people to adopt a new faith without the support of the Arab Shiite scholars.Iran: a short history : from Islamization to the present, By Monika Gronke, pg.90 The rulers of Safavid Persia also invited these foreign Shiite religious scholars to their court in order to provide legitimacy for their own rule over Persia. Shi‘ite Lebanon: transnational religion and the making of national identities, By Roschanack Shaery-Eisenlohr, pg.12-13
Abbas I of Persia, during his reign, also imported more Arab Shia Ulema to Iran, built religious institutions for them, including many Madrasahs (religious schools) and successfully persuaded them to participate in the government, which they had shunned in the past (following the Hidden imam doctrine).Science under Islam: rise, decline and revival, By S. M. Deen, pg.37
==Conversions beyond Iran==
====Azerbaijan====
After conquering Tabriz, Azerbaijan and Armenia from 1500-02,Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces, By Steven R. Ward, pg.43 one of the first acts of Ismail was to declare Twelver Shiism to be the state religion, despite the predominance of Sunni Muslims in the newly acquired territories. After the declaration, a conversion campaign was launchedThe evolution of middle eastern landscapes: an outline to A.D. 1840, Part 1840, By John Malcolm Wagstaff, pg.205 and Muslim peoples of the Caucasus, came under heavy pressure to accept Shiism.The Azerbaijani Turks: power and identity under Russian rule, By Audrey L. Altstadt, pg.5 The imposition of Shiism was especially harsh in Shirvan, where a large Sunni population was massacred.Safavids and the rise of Shi'a Islam Thus, the population of Azerbaijan was forcibly converted to Shiism in the early 16th century, when the Safavids held sway over it.The Caspian: politics, energy and security, By Shirin Akiner, pg.158
====Iraq====
Ismail peacefully seized Baghdad in 1508. However, his armies zealously murdered Sunnis and actively persecuted them through tribal allies of the Shah.Iraq: Old Land, New Nation in Conflict, By William Spencer, pg.51 His armies also destroyed several important Sunni sites, including the tombs of Abū Ḥanīfa and Abdul-Qadir Gilani. The Safavids even expelled the family of Gilani from Mesopotamia. After declaring Shiism the official form of Islam in Iraq, Ismail forced his new Iraqi subjects to convert to Shiism and outlawed Sunni practices. He then returned to Persia. These draconian actions by the conquering Safavids caused the Mesopotamian Sunnis to seethe with resentment.The history of Iraq, By Courtney Hunt, pg.48
Likewise, under Tahmasp I, central and southern Iraq, including Baghdad and Basra had remained in Safavid hands and efforts were being made to establish Shiism in place of Sunnism in these lands. Sunni scholars who refused to accept Shia doctrines were executed and Sunni tombs and shrines were destroyed once again, while the main mosques were converted for Shia use only. While not extensive, some conversions did take place, and those remaining faithful to Sunnism were subjected to persecution until Suleiman the Magnificent expelled the Safavids from most of Iraq.History of the Ottoman Empire and modern Turkey, Volume 1, By Ezel Kural Shaw, pg.95
When the Safavids returned In 1624 under Abbas I of Persia and reconquered Baghdad, they once again massacred the Sunni inhabitants.Gulf States, By Michael Gallagher, pg.17
==Significant figures during the conversion process==
====Ismail II====
Ismail II’s reign (1576-78) was marked by a pro-Sunni policy.The Encyclopedia of world history: ancient, medieval, and modern ... By Peter N. Stearns, William Leonard Langer, pg.360 With the assistance of Mirza Makhdum al-Sharifi, the new Sadr, Ismail II strove to reverse the anti-Sunni practices among the populace. More specifically he strove to halt the public defamation of Aisha and the ritual cursing of Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman, which rose during early Safavid rule. A few motives may account for his approach to the anti-Sunni propaganda. A primary one was that he was keen to comply with one of the Ottoman demands of the Peace of Amasya concluded in 1555, which called for an end to the vilification of the first three Sunni Caliphs, thus placating the Ottomans and solidifying his own personal position. Another was his attempt to weaken the clerics as he attempted to forcibly demand land grants from Sayyids and Shia Ulema. The shah also clashed with the Ustajlu tribe and a number of Qizilbash amirs who were allied to the clerics. Thus, the public denunciation of Sunni emblems became one stage on which this power struggle between the Shah and the cleric-Qizilbash group was played out. The Shah also hoped to weaken the public appeal of the Amili clerics who administered and encouraged ritual cursing of the first three Sunni Caliphs among Iranians. His Sunni flirtation was also intended to reach out to the still-strong Sunni sympathies among Persians. Despite their quick rejection of Ismail II’s policies, the majority of Ulema and the military-political centre avoided a confrontation with him, even though in place of zealous Shia scholars like the Astarabadis, the Shah appointed Ulema with Sunni leanings such as Mawlana Mirza Jan Shirazi and Mir Makhdum Lala.Distant relations: Iran and Lebanon in the last 500 years, By H. E. Chehabi, Rula Jurdi Abisaab, Centre for Lebanese Studies (Great Britain), pg.86-87Safavid Iran: rebirth of a Persian empire, By Andrew J. Newman, pg.118
Ismail II also wanted to do away with the inscribed names of the 12 imams on the Safavid coinage, but his attempt came to nothing.Distant relations: Iran and Lebanon in the last 500 years, By H. E. Chehabi, Rula Jurdi Abisaab, Centre for Lebanese Studies (Great Britain), pg.88
====Abbas I of Persia====
Shiism did not become fully established until the reign of Abbas I of Persia (1587-1629).The failure of political Islam, By Olivier Roy, Carol Volk, pg.170 Abbas hated the Sunnis, and forced the population to accept Twelver Shiism. Thus by 1602 most of the formerly Sunnis of Iran had accepted Shiism. A significant number however, did not accept Safavid rule, prompting Abbas to institute a number of administrative changes in order to further transform Iran into a Twelver Shia state.Science under Islam: rise, decline and revival, By S. M. Deen, pg.37Conceptualizing/re-conceptualizing Africa: the construction of African ..., By Maghan Keita, pg.79
====Muhammad Baqir Majlisi====
Under the guidance of Muhammad Baqir Majlisi (1616–1698) (one of the most important Shiite clerics of all time), who devoted himself to (among other things) the eradication of Sunnism in Iran,The Encyclopedia of world history: ancient, medieval, and modern ... By Peter N. Stearns, William Leonard Langer, pg.363 the Safavid state made major efforts, in the 17th century to Persianize Shiite practice and culture in order to facilitate its spread in Iran among its Sunni populace.The Arab Shi'a: The Forgotten Muslims, By Graham E. Fuller, Rend Rahim Francke, pg.76
====Soltan Hosein====
During the reign of Soltan Hosein (1694–1722) (the last effective Safavid shah), there was a lot of religious unrest and religiously motivated rebellions in the Safavid state. These were especially provoked by his ill-fated persecution of the Sunnis living under his control.Iran: a short history : from Islamization to the present, By Monika Gronke, pg.87Conceptualizing/re-conceptualizing Africa: the construction of African ..., By Maghan Keita, pg.87 These troubles contributed to the further destabilization of the Safavid empire (towards the final years of its existence) and were factors that contributed to bringing the Safavids into an existential crisis.Conceptualizing/re-conceptualizing Africa: the construction of African ..., By Maghan Keita, pg.80
 
When Soltan Hosein tried to forcibly convert his Afghan subjects in eastern Iran from Sunni to Shia, the Safavid conversion policies caused one Afghan chief, Mir Wais Hotak (of the Ghilzai Afghans) to start a rebellion claiming independence at Kandahar in 1709. He killed the Safavid governor George XI of Kartli and pushed the Safavid army out of Kandahar and most of Afghanistan. The declaration of independence at Kandahar in 1709 was a turning point that was followed by the conquest of Herat by the Abdali Afghans in 1715 and the invasion of Iran. In 1722, Mir Wais Hotak’s son, Mir Mahmud Hotaki, went to war with the Safavids, marching west to besiege and capture Isfahan, the Safavid capital, thus effectively ending the Safavid Dynasty.Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces, By Steven R. Ward, pg.50Iran's diverse peoples: a reference sourcebook, By Massoume Price, pg.74
====Nader Shah====
During the reign of Nader Shah, an anti-Shiite policy was implemented. Nader made an unsuccessful attempt to return Iran to the Sunni fold by propagating the integration of Shiism into Sunnism as the fifth of the already extant four Sunni Madh'habs (to be called the Jaafari Madh'hab). However, the scheme to establish this form of Sunnism as the state religion failed to win support among most of the population.The Encyclopedia of world history: ancient, medieval, and modern ... By Peter N. Stearns, William Leonard Langer, pg.363Man and society in Iran, By A. Reza Arasteh, pg.11Sword of Persia: Nader Shah, from tribal warrior to conquering tyrant, By Michael Axworthy, pg.171
The reasons for his anti-Shia policy included:
*Most of his troops were Sunni Afghan, Steppe Turkmen, Khorasan Kurds and Baluchis, since his own pro-Sunni beliefs had alienated his Shiite Iranian soldiers, who included the Shia Turkmen and ethnic Persian soldiers from central and western Iran, who made up the Safavid partisans.The Encyclopedia of world history: ancient, medieval, and modern ... By Peter N. Stearns, William Leonard Langer, pg.364Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces, By Steven R. Ward, pg.52Sword of Persia: Nader Shah, from tribal warrior to conquering tyrant, By Michael Axworthy, pg.165-166
*It was an original religious policy, aimed at weakening Shia power and at promoting his own rule in Sunni lands outside Iran and making of Shiism a 5th school of orthodox Sunni Islam- a proposal rejected by both Sunni rulers and Shiites.Iran: religion, politics, and society : collected essays, By Nikki R. Keddie, pg.92
*Nader made various attempts to reconcile his Persian subjects’ Shia beliefs with the Sunni creed and sought to get the Ottomans to recognize this new Persian Sunnism as its own sect with the possible motivation being to facilitate relations with the Sunni Ottomans, but possibly his real aim was to overthrow the Turks by uniting the Muslim world with him as its head.Immortal: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces, By Steven R. Ward, pg.51
*In 1736 after being chosen by an assembly of notables to be Shah, Nader agreed to accept on condition that they accept his new religious policy of restoring Sunnism in Iran. The abandonment of Shiism was necessary as the linchpin of a peace treaty he wanted to conclude with the Sunni Ottomans and was probably intended also as a way of diminishing the religious prestige of the Safavid house and of making himself a more attractive figure to the Sunni populations of areas he was planning to conquer. However, his religious policy fueled discontent in Iran itself.Iraq: Old Land, New Nation in Conflict, By William Spencer, pg.23
He implemented the following anti-Shia policies:
*Nader abandoned Shiism and instead founded a mixed Shia/Sunni school to add to the other four Sunni schools of law.Science under Islam: rise, decline and revival, By S. M. Deen, pg.38
*Nader had the leading cleric in Persia strangled.Sword of Persia: Nader Shah, from tribal warrior to conquering tyrant, By Michael Axworthy, pg.165-166
*He relied on his army, which was increasingly recruited from Sunni Afghans, Kurds, Turkmen, Baluchis and others (who naturally were gratified by the new religious policy).Sword of Persia: Nader Shah, from tribal warrior to conquering tyrant, By Michael Axworthy, pg.165-166
*The Persians were not simply ordered to adopt Sunnism as practiced elsewhere in the Muslim world; they were to retain their own discrete religious identity.Sword of Persia: Nader Shah, from tribal warrior to conquering tyrant, By Michael Axworthy, pg.165-166
*Internally, he banned certain Shia practices; the more extreme ones, typical of the early Safavid period. He issued instructions to the Ulema that Imam Ali should be venerated as before, but that the formula naming him as the deputy of God should no longer be spoken, because it had caused enmity between Shias and Sunnis. Externally he presented the policy as a wholesale conversion to Sunnism. In general, this religious policy did not provoke popular opposition within Persia because the people simply adapted.Sword of Persia: Nader Shah, from tribal warrior to conquering tyrant, By Michael Axworthy, pg.165-166
*In 1736 from Qazvin he issued an edict that was sent throughout the country, enforcing the cessation of the traditional Shia practices that were most offensive to Sunnis.Sword of Persia: Nader Shah, from tribal warrior to conquering tyrant, By Michael Axworthy, pg.173, 176
*Nader made a major effort to redefine the place of Shiism within the Islamic world by working to gain recognition from the major Sunni powers. He attempted to integrate a redefined Shiism into the Sunni tradition. He rejected the Shia condemnation of the first three Sunni Caliphs and enforced that position within his realm. In addition, he tried to secure Ottoman recognition of Twelver Shiism as a fifth Sunni school of law, to be called the Jaafari school after the 6th Imam, Jafar al-Sadiq. The whole pattern of Shiism as built on the idea of the Imamate was to be replaced. However, neither the Sunni Ottomans nor the major Shia scholars of the time accepted his redefinition.Islam, continuity and change in the modern world, By John Obert Voll, pg.80-81
*Nader alienated the Shiite clergy (partly in order to destroy the influential position they held) by trying to bridge the gap between Sunni and Shia by attempting to restore Sunnism in Iran. He also confiscated large sections of the religious endowment lands (Waqfs) belonging to Shia religious institutions. Fearful for their lives and feeling threatened in Iran, many Persian clergymen sought refuge and settlement in Iraq and formed the core of the Shia religious infrastructure that has persisted until the present around the Shia shrines in Iraq, such as Najaf and Karbala.Iran's diverse peoples: a reference sourcebook, By Massoume Price, pg.81The failure of political Islam, By Olivier Roy, Carol Volk, pg.170Iran: a short history : from Islamization to the present, By Monika Gronke, pg.95Iran: religion, politics, and society : collected essays, By Nikki R. Keddie, pg.92
After Nader’s death and the rapid disintegration of his empire, Shiism was quickly restored and religious properties were built up again in the following century.Iran: religion, politics, and society : collected essays, By Nikki R. Keddie, pg.92
==Historical outcome of Ismail’s conversion policy==
Ismail’s conversion policy had the following historical outcomes:
*Although conversion was not as rapid as Ismail’s forcible policies might suggest, the vast majority of those who lived on the Iranian plateau did identify with Shiism by the end of the Safavid era in 1722. Hence it is no accident that today Iran’s Sunni minorities are concentrated among the countries non-Persian ethnic groups that are scattered along the country’s borders, with their Sunni conational’s next door.Modern Iran: roots and results of revolution, By Nikki R. Keddie, Yann Richard, pg.11Iran and the surrounding world: interactions in culture and cultural politics, By Nikki R. Keddie, Rudolph P. Matthee, pg.16The modern Middle East: a political history since the First World War, By Mehran Kamrava, pg.29Encyclopaedic Historiography of the Muslim World, By NK Singh, A Samiuddin, pg.459Iran: religion, politics, and society : collected essays, By Nikki R. Keddie, pg.91A new introduction to Islam, By Daniel W. Brown, pg.191Rethinking a millennium: perspectives on Indian history from the eighth to ..., By Rajat Datta, Harbans Mukhia, pg.133
*The Safavid experience largely created the clear line of political demarcation and hostility between Twelver Shiism and Sunnism, even though doctrinal differences had long been recognized. Before the Safavids the Twelvers for many centuries had mostly accommodated themselves politically to the Sunnis, and numerous religious movements combined Twelver and Sunni ideas.Modern Iran: roots and results of revolution, By Nikki R. Keddie, Yann Richard, pg.13
*Ismail’s advent to power signaled the end of Sunni Islam in Iran and Shiite theologians came to dominate the religious establishment.The Encyclopedia of world history: ancient, medieval, and modern ... By Peter N. Stearns, William Leonard Langer, pg.360Modern Iran: roots and results of revolution, By Nikki R. Keddie, Yann Richard, pg.20
*The hierarchical organization of the Shiite clergy began under Ismail.Iran: a short history : from Islamization to the present, By Monika Gronke, pg.91
*The current borders between Iran, on the one hand, and Afghanistan and Turkey on the other, date from this time and are not ethnic but religious, opposing Shiites and Sunnis.The failure of political Islam, By Olivier Roy, Carol Volk, pg.170
*The Sunni majority was treated brutally and was most resistant to the Safavids’ conversion policies, which went on at least until the end of the Safavid period.Conceptualizing/re-conceptualizing Africa: the construction of African ..., By Maghan Keita, pg.77Iran's diverse peoples: a reference sourcebook, By Massoume Price, pg.74
*The use of the Shia religion to exert control was not completely successful. It resulted in the annexation of large areas of the country, but was followed by centuries of conflict between the Sunni and Shia populations, even after the fall of the Safavids.Iran's diverse peoples: a reference sourcebook, By Massoume Price, pg.75
*Iran was a Shia country and gradually became an isolated island surrounded by a sea of Sunnism. While regretting the cruelty of forced conversion, modern Persian historians are generally agreed that the establishment of Shia religious hegemony saved Iran from being incorporated into the Ottoman Empire.Iran and America: re-kindling a love lost, By Badi Badiozamani, pg.174-175
==See also==
*Safavid impact on Shiism
*Nader Shah’s religious policy
*Sunni persecution in Iran
*Current situation of Iranian Sunnis
==References==
Category:History of Iran
Category:Safavids
Category:Muslim history
Category:Islamic history
Category:Islam in Iran
Category:Religious conversion